Notes on SU(3) and the Quark Model

Contents
1. SU(3) and the Quark Model 1.1 Raising and Lowering Operators: The Weight Diagram 1.1.1 Triangular Weight Diagrams (I) 1.1.2 Triangular Weight Diagrams (II) 1.1.3 Hexagonal Weight Diagrams 1.1.4 Dimension of Irreducible Representations 1.1.5 The Complex Conjugate Representation 1.2 Some Low-Dimensional Irreducible Representations of L(SU (3)) 1.2.1 The Singlet 1.2.2 3-dimensional Representations 1.2.3 Eight-Dimensional Representations 1.3 Tensor Product Representations 1.3.1 3 3 decomposition. decomposition 1.3.2 3 3 1.3.3 3 3 3 decomposition. 1.4 The Quark Model 1.4.1 Meson Multiplets 1.4.2 Baryon Multiplets 1.4.3 Quarks: Flavour and Colour 2 4 6 8 10 13 14 15 15 15 18 18 19 21 23 26 26 27 28

1. SU(3) and the Quark Model

The Lie algebra of SU (3) consists of the traceless antihermitian 3 3 complex matrices and is eight-dimensional. A generalisation of the Pauli matrices are the Gell-Mann matrices 0 1 0 0 i 0 1 0 0 1 = 1 2 = i 3 = 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 i 4 = 0 5 = 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 i 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 = 0 7 = 0 0 1 0 i 0 1 0 0 i 0 1 0 0 1 (1.1) 8 = 0 1 0 3 0 0 2 These are traceless and hermitian and satisfy T r(a b ) = 2ab The antiehermitian traceless generators of SU (3) can be taken to be i Ta = a 2 with the structure constants dened by [Ta , Tb ] = fab c Tc The following sets of Gell-Mann matrices: i) 1 , 2 , 3 ( 3 8 + 3 ) ii) 4 , 5 , 1 2 1 iii) 6 , 7 , 2 ( 3 8 3 ) each have the same algebraic properties as the Pauli matrices and so determine three natural L(SU (2)) subalgebras. It will be convenient to use a dierent set of matrices. We dene the following matrices
1 2

(1.2)

(1.3)

(1.4)

h1 = 0 0

0 1 2 0

0 0 0

h2 =

1 2 3

0
1 2 3

0 0

0 1 3

e1 + = 0 0 0 0 2 e+ = e3 + 0 0

1 2

e1 =

0
1 2

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 2 0 1
2

0 0 0 0 0
1 2

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

= 0 0

0 0

0 0 0 2 e = 0 0 0 3 e =

1 2

0 0 0

(1.5)

m m m Then ih1 , ih2 and i(em + + e ), e+ e for m = 1, 2, 3 form a basis for the antihermitian traceless 3 3 matrices (over R), and hence are a basis for L(SU (3)). Suppose that d is the irreducible representation of L(SU (3)) acting on a complex vector space V which is induced from an irreducible representation of SU (3) acting on V . It is convenient to set

H1 = d(h1 ),

H2 = d(h2 ),

m E = d(em ) for m = 1, 2, 3

(1.6)

Then we nd the following commutators:

[H1 , H2 ] = 0
1 1 [H1 , E ] = E , 1 [H2 , E ] = 0,

1 2 2 , [H1 , E ] = E 2 3 2 2 [H2 , E ]= E , 2

1 3 3 [H1 , E ] = E 2 3 3 3 [H2 , E ] = E 2

(1.7)

and
1 1 [E+ , E ]=H 1 3 2 2 H2 [E+ , E ] = 2 3 3 3 [E+ , E ]= H2 + 2

1 H1 2 1 H1 2

(1.8)

The remaining commutation relations are 1 3 1 2 [E+ , E+ ] = E+ , 2 1 2 1 3 [E+ , E ] = E , 2 1 1 2 3 [E+ , E ] = E , 2 and

1 2 1 2 1 3 1 3 2 3 2 3 [E+ , E ] = [E , E+ ] = [E+ , E+ ] = [ E , E ] = [E+ , E+ ] = [E , E ]=0

1 3 1 2 [E , E ] = E 2 1 2 1 3 [E , E+ ] = E+ 2 1 1 2 3 [E , E+ ] = E+ 2

(1.9)

(1.10)

Note in particular that H1 , H2 commute. The subalgebra of L(SU (3)) spanned by ih1 and ih2 is called the Cartan subalgebra. It is the maximal commuting subalgebra of L(SU (3)). 1.1 Raising and Lowering Operators: The Weight Diagram The Lie algebra of L(SU (3)) can be used to obtain three sets of L(SU (2)) algebras. In particular, we nd that
1 1 [H1 , E ] = E , 1 1 [E+ , E ] = H1

(1.11)

3 3 1 1 2 2 2 2 [ H2 H1 , E ] = E , [E+ , E ] = H2 H1 (1.12) 2 2 2 2 and 3 1 3 1 3 3 3 3 H2 + H1 , E ] = E , [E+ , E ] = H2 + H1 (1.13) [ 2 2 2 2 m. In particular, there are three pairs of raising and lowering operators E For simplicity, consider a representation d of L(SU (3)) obtained from a unitary representation D of SU (3) such that d is an anti-hermitian representation- so that H1 and H2 are hermitian, and hence diagonalizable with real eigenvalues. Hence, H1 and 23 H2 1 2 H1 , can be simultaneously diagonalized, and the eigenvalues are real. (In fact the same can be shown without assuming unitarity!) Suppose then that | is an eigenstate of H1 with eigenvalue p and also an eigenstate of H2 with eigenvalue q . It is convenient to order the eigenvalues as points in R2 with position vectors (p, q ) where p is the eigenvalue of H1 and q of H2 . (p, q ) is then referred to as a weight. From the commutation relations we have the following properties
1 | = 0 or E 1 | is an eigenstate of H and H with eigenvalue (p, q ) (1, 0) i) Either E 1 2 2 | = 0 or E 2 | is an eigenstate with eigenvalue (p, q ) ( 1 , ii) Either E 2 3 | = 0 or E 3 | is an eigenstate with eigenvalue (p, q ) ( 1 , iii) Either E 2 3 2 )

and

3 2 )

Moreover, from the properties of L(SU (2)) representations we know that 3q p = m2 , 3q + p = m3 (1.14) for m1 , m2 , m3 Z. It follows that 2 3q Z. It is particularly useful to plot the sets of eigenvalues (p, q ) as points in the plane. The resulting plot is known as the weight diagram. As the representation is assumed to be irreducible, there can only be nitely many points on the weight diagram, though it is possible that a particular weight may correspond to more than one state. Moreover, as 2p Z, 2 3q Z, the weights are constrained to lie on the points of a lattice. From the eect of the raising and lowering operators on the eigenvalues, it is straightforward to see that this lattice is formed by the tessalation of the plane by equilateral triangles of side 1. This is illustrated in Figure 1, where the eect of the raising and lowering operators is given (in this diagram (0, 0) is a weight, though this need not be the case generically). 2p = m1 ,

2 E+ 1 E 3 E

E+

3 1 E+ 2

The weight diagram has three axes of symmetry. To see this, recall that if m is a weight of a state in an irreducible representation of L(SU (2)) then so is m. In the context of the three L(SU (2)) algebras contained in L(SU (3)) this means that from the properties of the algebra in (1.11), if (p, q ) is a weight then so is (p, q ), i.e. the diagram is reection symmetric about the line = 2 passing through the origin. Also, due to the symmetry of the L(SU (2)) algebra in (1.12), the weight diagram is reection symmetric about the line 1 1 = 6 passing through the origin: so if (p, q ) is a weight then so is ( 2 (p + 3q ), 2 ( 3p q )). And due to the symmetry of the L(SU (2)) algebra in ((1.13) the weight diagram is reection passing through the origin: so if (p, q ) is a weight then so symmetric about the line = 56 1 1 is ( 2 (p 3q ), 2 ( 3p q )). Using this symmetry, it suces to know the structure of the weight diagram in the sector of the plane 6 2 . The remainder is xed by the reection symmetry. Motivated by the treatment of SU (2) we make the denition: Denition 1. | is called a highest weight state if | is an eigenstate of both H1 and m | = 0 for m = 1, 2, 3. H2 , and E+ Note that there must be a highest weight state, for otherwise one could construct m . Given innitely many eigenstates by repeated application of the raising operators E+ a highest weight state, let V be the vector space spanned by | and states obtained by m on | . As there are only nitely acting with all possible products of lowering operators E many points on the weight diagram, there can only be nitely many such terms. Then, by making use of the commutation relations, it is clear that V is an invariant subspace of V . As the representation is irreducible on V , this implies that V = V , i.e. V is spanned by | and a nite set of states obtained by acting with lowering operators on | . Suppose that (p, q ) is the weight of | . Then V is spanned by a basis of eigenstates of H1 and H2 with weights conned to the sector given by 53 relative to (p, q )- all points on the weight diagram must therefore lie in this sector. Lemma 1. The highest weight state is unique.

Proof Suppose that | and | are two highest weight states with weights (p, q ), (p , q ) respectively. Then (p , q ) must make an angle 53 relative to (p, q ) and (p, q ) must 5 make an angle 3 relative to (p , q ). This implies that p = p , q = q . Next suppose that |1 and |2 are two linearly independent highest weight states (both with weight (p, q )). Let V1 and V2 be the vector spaces spanned by the states m on | obtained by acting with all possible products of lowering operators E 1 and |2 respectively; one therefore obtains bases for V1 and V2 consisting of eigenstates of H1 and H2 . By the reasoning given previously, as V1 and V2 are invariant subspaces of V and the representation is irreducible on V , it must be the case that V1 = V2 = V . In particular, we nd that |2 V1 . However, the only basis element of V1 which has weight (p, q ) is |1 , hence we must have |2 = c |1 for some constant c, in contradiction to the assumption that |1 and |2 are linearly independent. Having established the existence of a unique highest weight state | , we can proceed to obtain the generic form for the weight diagram. Suppose that | has weight (p, q ). We have shown that all other states must have weights making an angle 53 relative to (p, q ). This implies that (p, q ) must lie in the sector 6 2 relative to (0, 0), or at the origin. Denote this portion of the plane by S . To see this, note that if q < 0 then all weights must lie in the lower half plane, so there are no weights in S . But from the reection symmetry of the weight diagram, this then implies that there are no weights at all. Next, note that if p < 0, then from the properties 1 | is non-vanishing, in of the L(SU (2)) algebra corresponding to (1.11), the state E+ contradiction to the denition of the highest weight state. Hence, we must have p 0 and q 0. Next suppose that (p, q ) lies in the sector 0 < 6 . By the properties of 2 the L(SU (2)) algebra corresponding to (1.12), the state E+ | is non-vanishing, again in contradiction to the denition of the highest weight state. Hence the only remaining possibility if for (p, q ) to lie in the sector 6 2 relative to (0, 0), or at the origin. Lemma 2. If the highest weight is (0, 0), then there is only one state in the representation, which is called the singlet. m | = 0 Proof. Let | be the highest weight state with weight (0, 0). Suppose that E for some m. Then by the reection symmetry of the weight diagram, it follows that m | = 0, in contradiction to the fact that E i | = 0 for i = 1, 2, 3, as | is the highest E+ + m | = 0 for m = 1, 2, 3. Also H | = H | = 0. It follows that weight state. Hence E 1 2 the 1-dimensional subspace V spanned by | is an invariant subspace of V , and therefore V = V as the representation is irreducible. There are then three possible locations for the highest weight state | . 1.1.1 Triangular Weight Diagrams (I) Suppose that the highest weight lies on the line = 2 . In this case, by applying powers of 2 the states of the L(SU (2)) representation given in (1.12) are generated. These form a E line orthogonal to the axis of reection = 6 , about which they are symmetric, and there are no states outside this line, as these points cannot be reached by applying lowering

operators. Then, by using the reection symmetry, it follows that the outermost states from an equilateral triangle with horizontal base. Each lattice point inside the triangle corresponds to (at least) one state which has this weight, because each lattice point in the triangle lies at some possible weight within the L(SU (2)) representation given in (1.11), and from the properties of L(SU (2)) representations, we know that this has a state with this weight (i.e. as the L(SU (2)) weight diagram has no holes in it, neither does the L(SU (3)) weight diagram). This case is illustrated by

Proposition 1. Each weight in this triangle corresponds to a unique state. Proof. Note that all of the states on the right edge of the triangle correspond to unique states, because these weights correspond to states which can only be obtained by acting 2 . It therefore follows by the reection symmetry that all of the on | with powers of E states on the edges of the triangle have multiplicity one. Now note the commutation relation 1 3 1 2 [E , E ] = E 2 (1.15)

3 can be rewritten as linear This implies that products of lowering operators involving E 1 2 (in some order). In combinations of products of operators involving only E and E particular, we nd 1 2 n 1 2 2 n1 2 1 2 n1 (E )(E ) | = [E , E ](E ) | + E E (E ) | 1 3 2 n1 2 1 2 n1 = E (E ) | + E E (E ) | 2 ... n 3 2 n1 = E (E ) | 2

(1.16)

1 | = 0 and [E 2 , E 3 ] = 0. by simple induction, where we have used the fact that E

A generic state of some xed weight in the representation can be written as a linear 2 and E 1 lowering operators acting on | of the form combination of products of E

1 2 (E , E ) |

(1.17)

1 , E 2 ) contains m powers of E 2 and 1 where m, where (E powers of E are uniquely determined by the weight of the state- only the order of the operators is unxed. 1 states in this product to the right as far as they will Using (1.16), commute the E 1 acting directly on | ), or go. Then either one nds that the state vanishes (due to an E 1 terms and is left with a term proportional to one can eliminate all of the E

2 m 3 (E ) (E ) |

(1.18)

2 , E 3 ] = [E 1 , E 3 ] = 0. where we have used the commutation relations [E

Hence, it follows that all weights in the diagram can have at most multiplicity 1. However, from the property of the L(SU (2)) representations, as the weights in the outer layers have multiplicity 1, it follows that all weights in the interior have multiplicity at least 1. Hence, all the weights must be multiplicity 1.

1.1.2 Triangular Weight Diagrams (II) Suppose that the highest weight lies on the line = 6 . In this case, by applying powers of 1 E the states of the L(SU (2)) representation given in (1.11) are generated. These form a horizontal line orthogonal to the axis of reection = 2 , about which they are symmetric, and there are no states outside this line, as these points cannot be reached by applying lowering operators. Then, by using the reection symmetry, it follows that the outermost states from an inverted equilateral triangle with horizontal upper edge. Each lattice point inside the triangle corresponds to (at least) one state which has this weight, because each lattice point in the triangle lies at some possible weight within the L(SU (2)) representation given in (1.11), and from the properties of L(SU (2)) representations, we know that this has a state with this weight (i.e. as the L(SU (2)) weight diagram has no holes in it, neither does the L(SU (3)) weight diagram). This case is illustrated by

Proposition 2. Each weight in this triangle corresponds to a unique state. Proof. Note that all of the states on the horizontal top edge of the triangle correspond to unique states, because these weights correspond to states which can only be obtained by 1 . It therefore follows by the reection symmetry that all acting on | with powers of E of the states on the edges of the triangle have multiplicity one. Now, using (1.15) it is straightforward to show that n 3 1 n1 2 1 n E (E ) | = E (E ) | 2 (1.19)

2 | = 0. Next consider a state of some xed weight in for n 1, where we have used E the representation; this can be written as a linear combination of terms of the form 1 2 (E , E ) |

(1.20)

1 , E 2 ) contains m powers of E 1 and 2 in an appropriate order, where (E powers of E where m and are determined uniquely by the weight of the state in question. Using 2 states in this product to the right as far as they will go. Then (1.19), commute the E 2 acting directly on | ), or one can either one nds that the state vanishes (due to an E 1 terms and is left with a term proportional to eliminate all of the E 1 m 3 (E ) (E ) |

(1.21)

2 , E 3 ] = [E 1 , E 3 ] = 0. where we have used the commutation relations [E Hence, it follows that all weights in the diagram can have at most multiplicity 1. However, from the property of the L(SU (2)) representations, as the weights in the outer layers have multiplicity 1, it follows that all weights in the interior have multiplicity at least 1. Hence, all the weights must be multiplicity 1.

1.1.3 Hexagonal Weight Diagrams

Suppose that the highest weight lies in the sector 6 < < 2 . In this case, by applying 1 the states of the L(SU (2)) representation given in (1.11) are generated. These powers of E form a horizontal line extending to the left of the maximal weight which is orthogonal to the line = 2 , about which they are symmetric, There are no states above, as these points 2 the cannot be reached by applying lowering operators. Also, by applying powers of E states of the L(SU (2)) representation given in (1.12) are generated. These form a line extending to the right of the maximal weight which is orthogonal to the axis of reection = 6 , about which they are symmetric, and there are no states to the right of this line, as these points cannot be reached by applying lowering operators.

Then, by using the reection symmetry, it follows that the outermost states form a hexagon. Each lattice point inside the hexagon corresponds to (at least) one state which has this weight, because each lattice point in the hexagon lies at some possible weight within the L(SU (2)) representation given in (1.11), and from the properties of L(SU (2)) representations, we know that this has a state with this weight (i.e. as the L(SU (2)) weight diagram has no holes in it, neither does the L(SU (3)) weight diagram). This case is illustrated by

The multiplicities of the states for these weight diagrams are more complicated than for the triangular diagrams. In particular, the weights on the two edges of the hexagon leading o from the highest weight have multiplicity 1, because these states can only be constructed as 1 )n | or (E 2 )m | . So by symmetry, all of the states on the outer layer of the hexagon (E have multiplicity 1. However, if one proceeds to the next layer, then the multiplicity of all the states increases by 1. This happens until the rst triangular layer is reached, at which point all following layers have the same multiplicity as the rst triangular layer.

10

Suppose that the top horizontal edge leading o the maximal weight is of length m, and that the other outer edge is of length n, with m n. This situation is illustrated below

11111111 00000000 00000000 11111111 00000000 11111111 m 11111111111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000000000 00000000 11111111 00000000 11111111 00000000 11111111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 00000000 11111111 n 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 00000000 11111111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 00000000 11111111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 11111111 1111 0000 111 1111 0000 00000000 1111 000 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 0000 1111 0000 1111 00000000 11111111 0000 1111 0000 1111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 0000 1111 0000 00000000 11111111 0000 111 1111 0000 1111 000 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 0001111 111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 00000000 11111111 0000 1111 0000 1111 000 111 000 111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 00000000 11111111 0000 111 1111 0000 1111 0001111 0001111 111 0000 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 0000 1111 0000 1111 000 111 000 111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 000 0000 111 1111 000 111 0000 1111 0000 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 0000 1111 0000 1111 000 111 0000 1111 0001111 00001111 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 111 1111 0000 1111 0000 111 1111 0000 1111 000 000 111 0000 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 111 1111 0000 1111 000 000 111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 000 111 000 111 0000 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 111 1111 0000 1111 0001111 000 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 111 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 000 111 0000 1111 000 111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 000 111 0000 1111 000 111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0001111 111 0000 000 111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 000 000 111 0000 1111 0000 111 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 000 111 000 111 0000 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 111 1111 0000 1111 0001111 000 0000 111 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 111 1111 0000 1111 000 000 111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 000 111 000 111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 111 1111 0000 1111 000 000 111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111
1111 0000 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111

1 The highest weight is then at ( m 2 , 2 3 (m + 2n)). The outer n layers are hexagonal, whereas the n + 1-th layer is triangular, and all following layers are also triangular. As one goes inwards through the outer n + 1 layers the multiplicity of the states in the layers increases from 1 in the rst outer layer to n + 1 in the n + 1-th layer. Then all the states in the following triangular layers have multiplicity n + 1 as well. We will prove this in several steps.

Proposition 3. States with weights on the k -th hexagonal layer for k = 1, . . . , n or the k = n + 1-th layer (the rst triangular layer) have multiplicity not exceeding k . Proof. In order to prove this, consider rst a state on the upper horizontal edge of the k -th layer for k n + 1. The length of this edge is m k + 1. A general state on this edge is obtained via 2 1 (E , E ) | (1.22)
2 , E 1 ) contains (in some order) k 1 powers of E 2 and 1 for where (E powers of E = k 1, . . . , m . 2 to the right as Now use the commutation relation (1.15) to commute the powers of E far as they will go. Then the state can be written as a linear combination of the k vectors 3 i 1 1 |vi = (E ) (E ) i+1 2 ki (E ) |

(1.23)

for i = 1, . . . , k . It follows that this state has multiplicity k . Next consider a state again on the k -th level, but now on the edge leading o to the right of the horizontal edge which we considered above; this edge is parallel to the outer

11

edge of length n. Take k n + 1, so the edge has length n k + 1. A state on this edge is obtained via 1 2 E ( , E ) | (1.24) E 1 , E 2 ) contains (in some order) k 1 powers of E 1 and powers of E 2 where where ( 1 = k 1, . . . , n. Now use the commutation relation (1.15) to commute the powers of E to the right as far as they will go. Then the state can be written as a linear combination of the k vectors 3 i 1 2 i+1 1 ki |wi = (E ) (E ) (E ) | (1.25) for i = 1, . . . , k . So these states also have multiplicity k . By using the reection symmetry, it follows that the all the states on the k -th hexagonal layer have multiplicity k . We also have the Proposition 4. The states with weights in the triangular layers have multiplicity not exceeding n + 1. Proof. Consider a state on the k -th row of the weight diagram for m + 1 k n + 1 which lies inside the triangular layers. Such a state can also be written as
2 1 ) | (E , E

(1.26)

1 for 2 , E 1 ) contains (in some order) k 1 powers of E 2 and powers of E where (E = k 1, . . . , m. and hence by the reasoning above, it can be rewritten as a linear 2 )ki | = 0. combination of the k vectors |vi in (1.23), however for i < k n, |vi = 0 as (E The only possible non-vanishing vectors are the n + 1 vectors |vkn , |vkn+1 , . . . , |vk . Hence these states have multiplicity n + 1. Next note the lemma 3 )i1 (E 1 )ki (E 2 )ki | for i = 1, . . . , k , k = 1, . . . , n + 1. Lemma 3. Dene |wi,k = (E Then the sets Sk = {|w1,k , . . . , |wk,k } are linearly independent for k = 1, . . . , n + 1. Proof. By using the commutation relations, it is straightforward to prove the identities

3 E+ |wi,k

2 E+ |wi,k

3 1 i q + p + + 1 k |wi1,k1 2 2 2 1 3 1 i 1 k 2 (k i) q p + + |wi,k1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 (i 1) |wi1,k1 = E 2 3 1 1 + (k i) q p (k i 1) |wi,k1 2 2 2 = (i 1)

(1.27)

(with obvious simplications in the cases when i = 1 or i = k ) Note that S1 = {| } is linearly independent. Suppose that Sk1 is linearly independent (k 2). Consider Sk . Suppose

12

ci |wi,k = 0
i=1

(1.28)

3 to (1.28) and using the linear independence of S for some constants ci . Applying E+ k1 we nd the relation 3 1 i 3 1 3 1 i 1 1 2 + p + + k )ci+1 (k i) ( q p + + k )ci = 0 (1.29) i( 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 to (1.28) another recursion relation is obtained for i = 1, . . . , k 1. Applying E+

1 3 1 i 1 1 ici+1 + (k i)( q p + + k )ci = 0 2 2 2 2 2 2

(1.30)

i 1 1 Combining these relations we nd ci+1 = 0 for i = 1, . . . , k 1. If 23 q 1 2p+ 2 + 2 2k = 0 when i = 1 then one also has c1 = 0. This holds if k n + 1, however if k = n + 2 then c1 is not xed by these equations. The induction stops at this point. These results are sucient to x the multiplicity of all the states. This is because the 1 vectors in Sk for 1 k k + 1 correspond to states with weight (p, q ) (k 1)( 2 , 23 ) which are at the top right hand corner of the k -th hexagonal (or outermost triangular for k = n + 1) layer. We have shown therefore that these weights have multiplicity both less than or equal to, and greater than or equal to k . Hence these weights have multiplicity k . Next consider the states on the level k edges which are obtained by acting with the 1 and E 2 on the corner weight states. Observe the L(SU (2)) lowering operators E following lemma, whose proof is left as an exercise:

Lemma 4. Let d be a representation of L(SU (2)) on V be such that a particular L(SU (2)) weight m > 0 has multiplicity p. Then all weights m such that |m | m have multiplicity p By this lemma, all the states on the k -th layer obtained in this fashion have multiplicity k also. Then the reection symmetry implies that all states on the k -th layer have multiplicity k . In particular, the states on the outer triangular layer have multiplicity n +1. We have shown that the states on the triangular layers must have multiplicity not greater than n + 1, but by the lemma above together with the reection symmetry, they must also have multiplicity n + 1. Hence the triangular layer weights have multiplicity n + 1, and the proof is complete. This was rather long-winded. There exist general formulae constraining multiplicities of weights in more general Lie group representations, but we will not discuss these here. 1.1.4 Dimension of Irreducible Representations Using the multiplicity properties of the weight diagram, it is possible to compute the dimension of the representation. We consider rst the hexagonal weight diagram for m n. Then there are 1 + + (m n) + (m n + 1) = 1 2 (m n + 1)(m n + 2) weights in the interior triangle. Each of these weights has multiplicity (n + 1) which gives 1 2 (n + 1)(m

13

n + 1)(m n + 2) linearly independent states corresponding to weights in the triangle. Consider next the k -th hexagonal layer for k = 1, . . . , n. This has 3((m + 1 (k 1)) + (n + 1 (k 1)) 2) = 3(m + n + 2 2k ) weights in it, and each weight has multiplicity k , which gives 3k (m + n + 2 2k ) linearly independent states in the k -th hexagonal layer. The total number of linearly independent states is then given by 1 (n +1)(m n +1)(m n +2)+ 2
n k=1

1 3k (m + n +2 2k ) = (m +1)(n +1)(m + n +2) (1.31) 2

This formula also applies in the case for m n and also for the triangular weight diagrams by taking m = 0 or n = 0. The lowest dimensional representations are therefore 1,3,6,8,10... 1.1.5 The Complex Conjugate Representation Denition 2. Let d be a representation of a Lie algebra L(G) acting on V . If v L(G), is dened by then viewing d(v ) as a matrix acting on V , the complex representation d (v )u = (d(v )) u d (1.32)

for u V , where denotes matrix complex conjugation. Note that as d(v ) is linear in v over R, it follows that (d(v )) is also linear in v over R. Also, as d([v, w]) = d(v )d(w) d(w)d(v ) (1.33) for v, w L(G), so taking the complex conjugate of both sides we nd ([v, w]) = d (v )d (w) d (w)d (v ) d (1.34)

is indeed a Lie algebra representation. Suppose that Ta are the generators of L(G) i.e. d with structure constants cab c . Then as d is a representation, [d(Ta ), d(Tb )] = cab c d(Tc ) Taking the complex conjugate, and recalling that cab c are real, we nd (Ta ), d (Tb )] = cab c d (Tc ) [d (1.36) (1.35)

(Ta ) satisfy the same commutation relations. i.e. the d(Ta ) and d In the context of representations of L(SU (3)), the conjugate operators to iH1 , iH2 , m m ) and E m E m are denoted by iH m +E m ), and E m E m respectively 1 , iH 2 , i(E + + i(E+ + E + and are given by 1 iH 2 iH m + E m) i(E + m m + E E which implies = = = = (iH1 ) (iH2 ) m m (i(E+ + E )) m m (E+ E )

(1.37)

14

 1 = (H1 ) , H

2 = (H2 ) , H

m m E = (E )

(1.38)

m satisfy the same commutation relations as the unbarred operators, 1, H 2 and E Then H and also behave in the same way under the hermitian conjugate. One can therefore plot the , the weights being the (real) weight diagram associated with the conjugate representation d 1 and H 2 . But as H 1 = (H1 ) and H 2 = (H2 ) it follows that if (p, q ) is eigenvalues of H . So the a weight of the representation d, then (p, q ) is a weight of the representation d is obtained from that of d by inverting all the points (p, q ) (p, q ). weight diagram of d Note that this means that the equilateral triangular weight diagrams and of equal length sides are conjugate to each other.

1.2 Some Low-Dimensional Irreducible Representations of L(SU (3)) 1.2.1 The Singlet The simplest representation has only one state, which is the highest weight state with weight (0, 0). This representation is denoted 1.

1.2.2 3-dimensional Representations Take the fundamental representation. Then as h1 and h2 are already diagonalized, it is straightforward to compute the eigenstates and weights.

15

State 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

Weight
1 (1 2, 2 3)

1 ( 1 2, 2 3)

1 ) (0, 3

1 1 , 2 1 3 ). The weight diagram is The state of highest weight is 0 which has weight ( 2 0

This representation is denoted 3. It will be convenient to dene the following states in the 3 representation. 1 0 0 (1.39) u = 0 , d = 1 , s = 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 so that u has weight ( 1 2 , 2 3 ), d has weight ( 2 , 2 3 ) and s has weight (0, 3 ). The 1 3 lowering operators have the following eect: d = 2e u, s = 2e u and s = 2e2 d. The complex conjugate of this representation is called 3 and the weights are obtained by multiplying the weights of the 3 representation by 1.

16

State 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

Weight
1 1 ) ( 2 , 2 3

1 (1 2, 2 3)

1 ) (0, 3

0 1 The state of highest weight is 0 which has weight (0, ). The weight diagram is 3 1

representation. It will be convenient to dene the following states in the 3 1 u = 0 , 0 0 = d 1 , 0 0 s = 0 1

(1.40)

1 1 1 1 so that u has weight ( 1 has weight (0, ). The 2 , 2 3 ), d has weight ( 2 , 2 3 ) and s 3 2 1 3 = 2 ; lowering operators have the following eect: u = 2 e s , d e s and u = 2 e d m m where e = (e ) . Exercise: Verify that all other lowering operators e m (except those given above) annihilate u , d, s . Also compute the eect of the raising operators e m +.

17

1.2.3 Eight-Dimensional Representations Consider the adjoint representation dened on the complexied Lie algebra L(SU (3)), i.e. ad(v )w = [v, w]. Then the weights of the states can be computed by evaluating the commutators with h1 and h2 : State v h1 h2 e1 + e1 e2 + e2 e3 + e3 [h1 , v ] 0 0 e1 + e1
1 2 2 e+ 1 2 2 e 1 3 2 e+ 1 3 2 e

[h2 , v ] 0 0 0 0
3 2 e 2 + 3 2 2 e 3 3 e 2 + 3 3 2 e

Weight (0, 0) (0, 0) (1, 0) (1, 0)

3 2 ) 3 (1 ) 2, 2 3 1 (2, 2 ) 3 ( 1 , 2 2 ) 1 ( 2 ,

3 1 The highest weight state is e3 + with weight ( 2 , 2 ). All weights have multiplicity 1 except for (0, 0) which has multiplicity 2. The weight diagram is a regular hexagon:

1.3 Tensor Product Representations Suppose that d1 , d2 are irreducible representations of L(SU (3)) acting on V1 , V2 respectively. Then let V = V1 V2 and d = d1 1 + 1 d2 be the tensor product representation of L(SU (3)) on V . In general d is not irreducible on V , so we want to decompose V into a direct sum of invariant subspaces on which the restriction of d is irreducible. To do this, recall that one can choose a basis of V1 which consists entirely of eigenstates of both d1 (h1 ) and d1 (h2 ). Similarly, one can also choose a basis of V2 which consists entirely of eigenstates of both d2 (h1 ) and d2 (h2 ). Then the tensor product of the basis eigenstates produces a basis of V1 V2 which consists of eigenstates of d(h1 ) and d(h2 ). Explicitly, suppose that |i Vi is an eigenstate of di (h1 ) and di (h2 ) with weight (pi , qi ) (i.e. di (h1 ) |i = pi |i and di (h2 ) |i = qi |i ) for i = 1, 2. Dene | =

18

|1 |2 . Then d(h1 ) | = (d1 (h1 ) |1 ) |2 + |1 (d2 (h1 ) |2 ) = (p1 |1 ) |2 + |1 (p2 |2 ) = (p1 + p2 ) | and similarly d(h2 ) | = (q1 + q2 ) | (1.42)

(1.41)

So the weight of | is (p1 + p2 , q1 + q2 ); the weights add in the tensor product representation. Using this, one can plot a weight diagram consisting of the weights of all the eigenstates in the tensor product basis of V , the points in the weight diagram are obtained by adding the pairs of weights from the weight diagrams of d1 and d2 respectively, keeping careful track of the multiplicities (as the same point in the tensor product weight diagram may be obtained from adding weights from dierent states in V1 V2 .) Once the tensor product weight diagram is constructed, pick a highest weight, which m for m = corresponds to a state which is annihilated by the tensor product operators E+ 1, 2, 3. (Note that as the representation is nite-dimensional such a state is guaranteed to exist, though as the representation is no longer irreducible, it need not be unique). If there are multiple highest weight states corresponding to the same highest weight, one can without loss of generality take them to be mutually orthogonal. Picking one of these, generate further states by acting on a highest weight state with all possible combinations of lowering operators. The span of these (nite number) of states produces an invariant subspace W1 of V on which d is irreducible. Remove these weights from the tensor product weight diagram. If the multiplicity of one of the weights in the original tensor product diagram is k , and the multiplicity of the same weight in the W1 weight diagram is k then on removing the W1 weights, the multiplicity of that weight must be reduced from k to k k . Repeat this process until there are no more weights left. This produces a decomposition V = W1 ... Wk of V into invariant subspaces Wj on which d is irreducible. Note that one could also perform this process on triple (and higher order) tensor products e.g. V1 V2 V3 . In this case, one would construct the tensor product weight diagram by adding triplets of weights from the weight diagrams of d1 on V1 , d2 on V2 and d3 on V3 respectively. This process can be done entirely using the weight diagrams, because we have shown that for irreducible representations, the location of the highest weight xes uniquely the shape of the weight diagram and the multiplicities of its states. We will see how this works for some simple examples: 1.3.1 3 3 decomposition. Consider the 3 3 tensor product. Adding the weights together one obtains the following table of quark content and associated weights

19

Quark content and weights for 3 3 Quark Content uu dd ss u d, d u u s, s u d s, s d Weight

1 (1, ) 3 1 (1, ) 3 2 ) (0, 3 1 (0, ) 3 1 (1 2, 2 3) 1 ( 1 2, 2 3)

Plotting the corresponding weight diagram gives

m = em 1 + 1 em . The highest weight state The raising and lowering operators are E 1 is u u with weight (1, ). Applying lowering operators to u u it is clear that a 3 six-dimensional irreducible representation is obtained. The (unit-normalized) states and weights are given by

States and weights for the 6 in 3 3 State uu dd ss

1 (d u 2 1 (u s 2 1 (d s 2

Weight
1 (1, ) 3 1 (1, ) 3 2 (0, ) 3 1 (0, ) 3 1 (1 2, 2 3) 1 ( 1 2, 2 3)

+ u d) + s u) + s d)

20

which has the following weight diagram

This representation is called 6. Removing the (non-vanishing) span of these states from the tensor product space, one is left with a 3-dimensional vector space. The new 1 1 ) with corresponding state (d u u d) (this is the unique highest weight is at (0, 3 2 linear combination- up to overall scale- of d u and u d which is annihilated by all the . The states and their weights are raising operators). This generates a 3

States and weights for the 3 in 3 3

1 (d u 2 1 (d s 2 1 (s u 2

State u d) s d) u s)

Weight 1 (0, ) 3
1 ( 1 2, 2 3) 1 (1 2, 2 3)

. The states in the 6 are symmetric, whereas those in the 3 are Hence 3 3 = 6 3 antisymmetric.

decomposition 1.3.2 3 3 For this tensor product the quark content/weight table is as follows:

21

 Quark content and weights for 3 3 Quark Content us ud ds , s s uu , d d du su sd with weight diagram Weight (1 2,
3 2 ) 3 2 )

(1, 0) ( 1 2, (0, 0) (1, 0)

1 ( 2 , 3 ) 2 3 (1 2, 2 )

ds

us

du

dd,uu,ss

ud

su

sd

m = em 1 + 1 e The raising and lowering operators are E m All weights have multiplicity 1, except for (0, 0) which has multiplicity 3. The highest weight state is u s 3 1 with weight ( 2 , 2 ). Acting on this state with all possible lowering operators one obtains an 8 with the following states and weights

States and weights for the 8 in 3 3 State us ud ds

1 (d 2 1 u u + u u d ), (d d 2s s ) 6

Weight (1 2,
3 2 ) 3 2 )

(1, 0) ( 1 2, (0, 0) (1, 0)

1 ( 2 , 3 ) 2 3 1 (2, 2 )

du su sd

22

Removing these weights from the weight diagram, one is left with a singlet 1 with weight (0, 0), corresponding to the state 1 ) (u u +ss + d d 3 (1.43)

which which is the unique linear combination- up to an overall scale- of u u , s s and d d m = 8 1. is annihilated by the raising operators E+ . Hence we have the decomposition 3 3 1.3.3 3 3 3 decomposition. For this tensor product the quark content/weight table is as follows: Quark content and weights for 3 3 3 Quark Content uuu sss ddd u u s, u s u, s u u u u d, u d u, d u u s s u, s u s, u s s s s d, s d s, d s s d d s, d s d, s d d d d u, d u d, u d d u d s, u s d, d u s, d s u, s u d, s d u with weight diagram Weight
3 2 ) (0, 3)

(3 2,

3 , ( 2

3 2 )

(1, 0)
3 ) 2 3 1 (2, 2 ) 3 ( 1 , 2 2 )

(1 2,

(1, 0)
1 , ( 2 3 2 )

(0, 0)

ddd

ddu

duu

uuu

dds

dus

uus

dss

uss

sss

m = em 1 1 + 1 em 1 + 1 1 em . The raising and lowering operators are E There are six weights of multiplicity 3, and the weight (0, 0) has multiplicity 6. The highest

23

3 weight is u u u with weight ( 2 , 23 ). By applying lowering operators to this state, one obtains a triangular 10-dimensional irreducible representation denoted by 10, which has normalized states and weights:

States and weights for 10 in 3 3 3 State uuu sss ddd

1 (u u s + u s u + s u u) 3 1 (u u d + u d u + d u u) 3 1 (s s u + s u s + u s s) 3 1 (s s d + s d s + d s s ) 3 1 (d d s + d s d + s d d) 3 1 (d d u + d u d + u d d) 3 1 (u d s + u s d + d u s + 6

Weight
3 2 ) (0, 3)

(3 2,

( 3 2, (1 2,

3 2 )

(1, 0)
3 2 ) 3 (1 2, 2 ) 3 ( 1 2, 2 )

(1, 0) ( 1 2,
3 2 )

d s u + s u d + s d u)

(0, 0)

The 10 weight diagram is

ddd

ddu

duu

uuu

dds

dus

uus

dss

uss

sss

Removing the (non-vanishing) span of these states from the tensor product space, one is left with a 17-dimensional vector space. The new weight diagram is

24

ddu

duu

dds

dus

uus

dss

uss

3 Note that the highest weight is now ( 1 2 , 2 ). This weight has has multiplicity 2. It should be noted that the subspace consisting of linear combinations of d u u, u d u m is two-dimensional and and u u d which is annihilated by all raising operators E+ 1 is spanned by the two orthogonal states 6 (d u u + u d u 2u u d) and

u u u d u). By acting on these two states with all possible lowering operators, one obtains two 8 representations whose states are mutually orthogonal. The states and weights of these two 8 representations are summarized below:

1 (d 2

States and weights for an 8 in 3 3 3 State

1 (d u u + u d u 2u u d) 6 1 (s u u + u s u 2u u s) 6 1 (2d d u d u d u d d) 6 1 (s d u + s u d + d s u 2 3

Weight (1 2,
3 2 )

(1, 0) ( 1 2,
3 2 )

+u s d 2d u s 2u d s), 1 (2s d u + 2d s u s u d 2 3 d u s u s d u d s)
1 (s d d + d s d 2d d s) 6 1 (2s s u s u s u s s) 6 1 (2s s d s d s d s s) 6

(0, 0) (1, 0)
3 2 ) 3 ( 1 2, 2 )

(1 2,

25

States and weights for another 8 in 3 3 3 State

1 (d u u 2 1 (s u u 2 1 (d u d 2

Weight (1 2,
3 2 )

u d u) u s u) u d d)

(1, 0) ( 1 2,
3 2 )

1 2 (s d u + s u d d s u u s d), 1 2 (s u d + d u s u s d u d s) 1 (s d d d s d) 2 1 (s u s u s s) 2 1 (s d s d s s) 2

(0, 0) (1, 0)
3 2 ) 3 ( 1 2, 2 )

(1 2,

Removing these weights from the weight diagram, we are left with a singlet 1 with weight (0, 0). The state corresponding to this singlet is

1 (s d u s u d + d u s d s u + u s d u d s) 6

(1.44)

which is the only linear combination-up to overall scale- of u d s, u s d, d u s, d s u, s u d and s d u which is annihilated by all the raising operators. Hence we have the decomposition 3 3 3 = 10 8 8 1 where the states in 10 are symmetric, but the state in 1 is antisymmetric. The 8 states have mixed symmetry.

1.4 The Quark Model It is possible to arrange the baryons and the mesons into SU (3) multiplets; i.e. the states lie in Hilbert spaces which are tensor products of vector spaces equipped with irreducible representations of L(SU (3)). To see examples of this, it is convenient to group hadrons into multiplets with the same baryon number and spin. We plot the hypercharge Y = S + B where S is the strangeness and B is the baryon number against the isospin eigenvalue I3 for these particles.

1.4.1 Meson Multiplets The pseudoscalar meson octet has B = 0 and J = 0. The (I3 , Y ) diagram is

26

Mass(Mev) 0 K 495

Y
1

1/2

137 549

0
1/2

1/2 1

1/2

I3

495

There is also a J = 0 meson singlet . The vector meson octet has B = 0 and J = 1. The (I3 , Y ) diagram is

Mass(Mev) 0 K 892

Y
1

1/2

770 783

1 1/2

0
1/2 1/2 1

+ I3

892

There is also a J = 1 meson singlet, .

1.4.2 Baryon Multiplets The baryon decuplet has B = 1 and J =

3 2

with (I3 , Y ) diagram

27

Y Mass (Mev) 1235 1385

3/2

0 1

1/2

++ +

1530 1670

1/2 1/2 1 3/2 2

1/2

3/2

I3

There is also an antibaryon decuplet with (I3 , Y ) (I3 , Y ). The baryon octet has B = 1, J=1 2 with (I3 , Y ) diagram

Mass(Mev) 939

Y
n
1

1/2

1193 1116

1/2

1/2 1

1/2

I3

1318
and there is also a J =
1 2

baryon singlet 0 .

1.4.3 Quarks: Flavour and Colour

On making the identication (p, q ) = (I3 , 23 Y ) the points on the meson and baryon octets and the baryon decuplet can be matched to points on the weight diagrams of the 8 and 10 of L(SU (3)). Motivated by this, it is consistent to consider the (light) meson states as lying within ; as 3 3 = 8 1, the meson octets are taken to correspond to the 8 states, and a 33 the meson singlets correspond to the singlet 1 states. The light baryon states lie within a 3 3 3; the baryon decuplet corresponds to the 10 in 3 3 3 = 10 8 8 1; the baryon octet corresponds to appropriate linear combinations of elements in the 8 irreps, and the baryon singlet corresponds to the 1.

28

In this model, the fundamental states in the 3 are quarks, with basis states u (up), d (down) and s (strange). The basis labels u, d, s are referred to as the avours of the , s states are called antiquarks with basis u quarks. The 3 , d . Baryons are composed of bound states of three quarks qqq , mesons are composed of bound states of pairs of quarks 1 1 and antiquarks q q . The quarks have J = 1 2 and B = 3 whereas the antiquarks have J = 2 and B = 1 3 which is consistent with the values of B and J for the baryons and mesons. The quark and antiquark avours can be plotted on the (I3 , Y ) plane:
Y
2/3

Y s

1/3

1/2

1/2

I3

1/2

1/2

I3

u
2/3

1/3

We have shown that mesons and baryons can be constructed from q q and qqq states respectively. But why do qq particles not exist? This problem is resolved using the notion of colour. Consider the ++ particle in the baryon decuplet. This is a u u u state with 3 J=3 2 . The members of the decuplet are the spin 2 baryons of lowest mass, so we assume that the quarks have vanishing orbital angular momentum. Then the spin J = 3 2 is obtained by having all the quarks in the spin up state, i.e. u u u . However, this violates the Pauli exclusion principle. To get round this problem, it is conjectured that quarks possess additional labels other than avour. In particular, quarks have additional charges called colour charges- there are three colour basis states associated with quarks called r (red), g (green) and b (blue). The quark state wave-functions contain colour factors which lie in a 3 representation of SU (3) which describes their colour; the colour of antiquark states representation of SU (3) (colour). This colour SU (3) is independent of corresponds to a 3 the avour SU (3). These colour charges are also required to remove certain discrepancies (of powers of 3) between experimentally observed processes such as the decay 0 2 and the cross section ratio between the processes e+ e hadrons and e+ e + and theoretical predictions. However, although colour plays an important role in these processes, it seems that one cannot measure colour directly experimentally- all known mesons and baryons are SU (3) colour singlets (so colour is conned). This principle excludes the possibility of having qq particles, as there is no singlet state in the SU (3) (colour) tensor product . Other products of 3 and decomposition 3 3, though there is in 3 3 3 and 3 3 3 can also be ruled out in this fashion. Nevertheless, the decomposition of 3 3 is useful because it is known that in addition to the u, d and s quark states, there are also c (charmed), t (top) and b (bottom) quark avours. However, the c, t and b quarks are heavier than the u, d and s quarks, and are

29

unstable- they decay into the lighter quarks. The SU (3) symmetry cannot be meaningfully extended to a naive SU (6) symmetry because of the large mass dierences which break the symmetry. In this context, meson states formed from a heavy antiquark and a light quark can only be reliably put into 3 multiplets, whereas baryons made from one heavy and two multiplets. light quarks lie in 3 3 = 6 3

30