Introduction 1

Workspace User’s Guides

Structures Workspace Guide
Introduction
2
Overview of structures workspace

Overview of structures workspace

SimXpert structures workspace is a very powerful yet easy to use general purpose finite element analysis
(FEA) program to analyze structures. The term structure includes not just the traditional structures such
as buildings, bridges, ships, airplanes, and automobiles, but also mechanical components such as
machine parts and tools. Based on the widely used MD Nastran and Marc programs, the structures
workspace can efficiently solve problems ranging from relatively simple linear statics to extremely
complex and very large nonlinear and dynamic simulations.
 Introduction 3
Capabilities and supported solutions

Capabilities and supported solutions

SimXpert structures workspace includes ten analysis types (solution sequences or procedures). Each of
these analysis types are discussed in detail in this guide. A brief description is given in this introduction.

Linear Static (Sol 101)

The linear static module is used to calculate displacements, stresses, strains, etc. under static loading. It
assumes that the stiffness of the structure does not change with the loading. It is generally valid when the
displacements are small, stresses remain elastic, and with no change in contact status.

Modal Analysis (Sol 103)

Modal analysis is used to compute the natural frequencies and the associated mode shapes of a structure.

Linear Buckling (Sol 105)

The linear buckling module is used to calculate linear elastic buckling loads and mode shapes. It is
generally valid when the displacements are small, stresses remain elastic, and with no change in contact
status.

Direct Complex Eigenvalues (Sol 107)

Used for the analysis of aeroelastic flutter, acoustics, rotating bodies, and many other physical effects.
This solution will indicate the overall dynamic behavior dominated by the lowest frequency natural
modes and resonant frequencies.

Direct Frequency Response (Sol 108)

The direct frequency response analysis is used to calculate the steady state displacements, velocities,
accelerations, stresses, strains, etc. under harmonically (e.g. sinusoidal) time-varying loads. It solves the
dynamic equilibrium equation of motion by assuming that the steady state response to harmonic loads to
be also harmonic.

Direct Transient Analysis (Sol 109)

The direct transient dynamic analysis is used to calculate the displacements, velocities, accelerations,
stresses, strains, etc. under time-varying loads. It solves the dynamic equilibrium equation of motion by
direct numerical integration.

Modal Complex Eigenvalues (Sol 110)

Used for the analysis of aeroelastic flutter, acoustics, rotating bodies, and many other physical effects.
4
Capabilities and supported solutions

Modal Frequency Response (Sol 111)

The modal frequency response analysis is used to calculate the steady state displacements, velocities,
accelerations, stresses, strains, etc. under harmonically (sinusoidally) time-varying loads. It solves the
dynamic equilibrium equation of motion by assuming that the steady state response to harmonic loads to
be also harmonic. It solves the dynamic equilibrium equation of motion by first transforming it into the
modal coordinates. By taking advantage of the fact that a relatively few normal modes can often
adequately describe the motion of the structure, the modal frequency response method solves linear
frequency response problems in a fraction of the time taken for the Direct modal frequency response
method.

Modal Transient Analysis (Sol 112)

Modal transient dynamic analysis is used to calculate the displacements, velocities, accelerations,
stresses, strains, etc. under time-varying loads. It solves the dynamic equilibrium equation of motion by
first transforming it into the modal coordinates. By taking advantage of the fact that a relatively few
normal modes can often adequately describe the motion of the structure, the modal transient dynamics
method solves linear transient dynamic problems for large models in a fraction of the time taken for the
Direct transient method.

General Nonlinear (Sol 400)

Analyzes a wide variety of structural problems subjected to geometric and material nonlinearities, and
contact.

Implicit Nonlinear (Sol 600)

Analyzes a wide variety of structural problems subjected to geometric and material nonlinearities, and
contact.
 Introduction 5
Types of elements used in structures workspace

Types of elements used in structures workspace

Workspace structures supports a large number of elements ranging from simple rods, beams and springs
to continuum hexahedrons and tetrahedrons for modeling any structural analysis problems. The full
library of elements are listed below.

0D elements
• CONM1 - a concentrated mass element (general form)
• CONM2 - a concentrated mass element (rigid body form)
• CElas -a scalar spring element

1D elements
• CBAR - a simple beam element
• CBEAM - a beam (nonlinear) element
• CBEND- a curved beam or pipe element
• CBUSH -a a generalized spring and damper element
• CDAMP1 -a scalar damper element
• CDAMP1D -a scalar damper connection for use in the Crash workspace (Sol 700).
• CDAMP2 -a scalar damper element (alternative format of CDAMP1)
• CDAMP2D -a scalar damper connection for use in the Crash workspace (Sol 700).
• CELAS1 - a scalar spring connection element
• CELAS1D -a scalar spring connection for use in the Crash workspace (Sol 700).
• CELAS2 - a scalar spring element (alternative format of CELAS1)
• CELAS2D -a scalar spring connection for use in the Crash workspace (Sol 700).
• CGAP- a gap or friction element
• CMASS1 -a scalar mass element
• CMASS2 -a scalar mass element (alternative format of CMASS1)
• CONROD - a rod (tension-compression-torsion) element (alternative format of CROD)
• CROD - a rod (tension-compression-torsion) element
• CTUBE- a tube (tension-compression-torsion) element
• CVISC -a viscous damper element
• FEEDGE -Defines a finite element edge and associates it with a curve
• PLOTEL -A one-dimensional dummy element used for graphics purposes.
6
Types of elements used in structures workspace

Plates and shell elements

• CQUAD4 - a 4-noded quadrilateral shell element
• CQUADR -a 4-noded quadrilateral shell element with normal rotational degrees of freedom
• CSHEAR -a 4-noded quadrilateral shear panel element
• CTRIA3 - a 3-noded triangular shell element
• CTRIAR -a 3-noded triangular shell element with normal rotational degrees of freedom
• CTRIA6 - a 6-noded triangular shell element
• CQUAD8 -a 8-noded quadratic shell element
• RTRPLT -A rigid triangular plate
• CAABSF -A frequency dependent acoustic absorber element in coupled fluid-structural analysis
• CIFQUAD-a Sol (400) shell element used for simulating the progress of delamination with 4 or
8 nodes
All the above elements except CSHEAR are available for the analysis of plate and shell structures of
homogeneous, laminated composite, and sandwich constructions.

2D solid elements
• CTRIAX -a triangular axisymmetric solid element with up to 6 nodes
• CQUADX -a quadrilateral axisymmetric solid element with up to 9 nodes
• CIFQDX-a Sol (400) axisymmetric element used for simulating the progress of delamination
with 4 or 8 nodes

3D solid elements
• CHEXA - a a hexahedral solid element with 8 to 20 nodes
• CPENTA - a a pentahedral solid element with 6 to 15 nodes
• CTETRA - a a tetrahedral solid element with 4 to 10 nodes
 Introduction 7
Types of materials used

Types of materials used

Structures workspace supports isotropic, orthotropic, and anisotropic material properties. Nonlinear
elastic, elastic-plastic, and hyper-elastic material properties are supported for nonlinear analysis.
Temperature dependent material properties are also allowed, for both linear and nonlinear analysis. The
complete list of materials supported by structures workspace is given below.

Isotropic Materials (MAT1, MATT1)

Defines the isotropic material properties such as Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, Density, coefficient
of thermal expansion, element damping coefficient, and optionally, the stress limits.

Orthotropic materials for shells (MAT8, MATT8)

Defines the orthotropic material properties for shell elements.

Orthotropic materials for axisymmetric solid (MAT3, MATT3)

Defines the orthotropic material properties for 2D solid elements.

Orthotropic materials for 3D solid and plane strain (MAT3,

MATORT)
Defines the orthotropic material properties for axisymmetric solid elements.

Anisotropic materials for shells (MAT2, MATT2)

Defines the anisotropic material properties for shell elements.

Anisotropic materials for 3D solid (MAT9, MATT9)

Defines the anisotropic material properties for 3D solid elements.

Elasto-plastic material properties (MATEP, MATS1)

Defines the elasto-plastic material properties

Failure properties (MATF)

Defines the failure (strength) model properties for linear elastic materials.
8
Types of materials used

Visco-plastic or creep material properties (MATVP)

Specifies visco-plastic or creep material properties.

Gasket material properties (MATG, MATTG)

Defines the failure (strength) model properties for linear elastic materials.

Hyperelastic material properties (MATHE, MATHP)

Defines hyperelastic material properties

Damage model properties for hyperelastic materials

(MATHED)
Defines hyperelastic material properties
 Introduction 9
Overview of typical steps used

Overview of typical steps used

The procedure for performing any type of analysis with the structures workspace are essentially the same,
and consist of the following steps:
The following procedure shows the general recommended workflow for the Structures, Thermal , Crash,
and Explicit workspaces.
1. Designate a system of units

2. Import/create geometry

Or
10
Overview of typical steps used

3. Create the finite element mesh

4. Create material and element properties

5. Apply loads and boundary conditions

6. Set up analysis
 Introduction 11
Overview of typical steps used

7. Submit model to solver

12
Overview of typical steps used

8. Access results

9. Post-process
 Linear Statics 17

Linear Statics
18
Overview and Definition

Overview and Definition

Introduction
Linear static analysis represents the most basic type of structural analysis. A “static” analysis is valid, if
the structure is loaded gradually (i.e. at a rate much slower than the lowest fundamental period of the
structure). It ignores inertia and damping effects. Some examples of valid static analyses are: analysis of
structures subjected to slowly applied forces or prescribed displacements, spinning with a constant
angular velocity, moving with constant acceleration, and thermal loading due to a slow change in the
steady state temperature. A static analysis is invalid when the applied loading has one or more
frequencies approaching any of the fundamental (resonant) frequencies of the structure.

Theory
The static analysis solves the following equation:

F = Kd
where: F, K, and d are respectively the nodal forces, the model stiffness, and the nodal
displacements.

The nodal forces are known (input), and the model stiffness is computed from the elements’ geometries
and properties. In a linear static analysis, the stiffness [K] is assumed to remain constant, and
consequently, the response of the structure (displacements, stresses, strains etc.) varies linearly with the
applied forces. For example, a doubling of the applied forces would result in a doubling of the
displacements, stresses, and strains in the structure. The assumption of linearity is usually valid, unless
the structure experiences large deformations, or stresses beyond the elastic limit, or any change in contact
conditions between one or more regions of the structure.
The applied forces may be used separately, or combined with each other to form load cases representing
various scenarios or operating environments. Analyzing for multiple (loading) subcases in a single job
(run) is very efficient, since the solution time for the second and subsequent subcases is a small fraction
of the solution time for the first, especially if the boundary condition (constraint) does not change
between the subcases.

Method of solution
The equilibrium equation for linear statics, F = Kd, is solved either by a direct or an iterative solver, to
compute the displacements. The iterative solver available in the Structures Workspace allows the
efficient solution of very large models with hundreds of thousands of degrees of freedom. Strains,
stresses, strain energies, element forces, and reaction forces are then computed using the nodal
displacements.
 Linear Statics 19
Parts and Geometry

Parts and Geometry

The geometry of the parts can be either created in SimXpert, or more likely imported from CAD program
such as Catia, Pro/Engineer, or Unigraphics.

Units
SimXpert interprets all dimensions and input data with respect to a system of units. It is important to set
the appropriate units prior to importing any unitless analysis files (such as a Nastran Bulk Data file) or
creating materials, properties, or loads. You can control the system of units by selecting Options >
General > Units Manager from the Tools menu. If you import a file that contains units, SimXpert will
convert them into those specified in the Units Manager.

Creating geometry
It is possible to create some geometry types in SimXpert. Complex geometry is often accessed or
imported from an external source. All geometry can be edited in SimXpert

Importing geometry
If the geometry of the part or assembly is available in a CATIA v4, CATIA v5, Pro/Engineer, ACIS,
parasolid, IGES, STEP, UGS NX or STL file, it can be imported into the SimXpert Structures Workspace.
20
Parts and Geometry

Creating local coordinate systems

Sometimes it is convenient to use local coordinate systems for specifying loads, and or boundary
conditions. For example, a certain node may have a roller support placed in an inclined plane. A local
coordinate system with one of its axes normal to the inclined plane needs to be created and used to specify
the fixity (SPC) of the displacement component along the direction normal to the inclined plane.
CONSTRAINT

Local coordinate systems can be in cartesian, cylindrical or spherical systems. Coordinate system created
in SimXpert are represented by the following icons, corresponding to the method selected.

Spherical

Cylindrical

Cartesian

Coordinate Direction Direction Direction

System 1 2 3 1-3 plane
Cartesian x y z x-z (y=0)
Cylindrical r θ z r-z ( θ =0)
Spherical r θ φ r- φ ( θ =0)
 Linear Statics 21
Parts and Geometry

You can create local coordinate systems by selecting Cartesian, Cylindrical, or Spherical from the
Coordinate System group under the Geometry tab. There are numerous methods to create local
coordinate systems in SimXpert:
1. 3 Points: Three points are used to define the coordinate system. The first point corresponds to the
location of origin. The second point defines the point on a specified axis and the third point
defines a point in a specified plane.
2. Euler: Creates a coordinate system through three specified rotations about the axes of an existing
coordinate system.
3. Normal: Creates a coordinate system with its origin at a point location on a surface. A specified
axis is normal to the surface.
4. Two Vectors: Creates a coordinate system with its origin at a designated location and two of the
coordinate frame axes are defined using vectors
5. Advanced: Location and orientation can be independently defined. There are 4 different ways to
define the location of the origin of the coordinate system: Geometry, Point/Node, Coordinate
System, and Center of Part. Further, the orientation can also be defined 3 ways: Global, Two
Axes, and Coordinate System.

Example

To create a Cartesian coordinate system using 3 points method:

1. Select Coord > Cartesian from the Construction Geom group under the Geometry tab.
2. Pull down Method to 3 Points.
3. Select a Part to which the coordinate frame will belong. If no Part is selected, a default Part will
be created.
4. Optionally, click in the Ref Sys text box and select a local coordinate system that will be used to
define the three points. Leave this blank to use the basic coordinate system.
5. Location: Enter 10, 0, 0 to specify the point location for origin..
6. Point on Axis: Select X as the local axis that is being defined. Enter 10,1,0 to align the local X-
axis with the global Y.
22
Parts and Geometry

7. Point on Plane: Select XYas the local plane is being defined. Enter 9,1,0 to specify a point which
lies in this plane.... .

First Point, a point location

for origin
Y
Second Point, a point on a
specified axis (X) Third Point, a point in a specified
plane XY
X

8. Click OK to create the coordinate system.

 Linear Statics 23
Parts and Geometry

To create a Cylindrical coordinate system using Euler method:

1. Select Coord > Cylindrical from the Construction Geom group under the Geometry tab.
2. Pull down Method to Euler.
3. Select a Part to which the coordinate frame will belong.
4. Optionally, click in the Ref Sys text box and select a local coordinate system that will be used to
define the new coordinate system. Leave this blank to use the basic coordinate system.
5. For Location, enter 0, 0, 0 to specify the point location for origin.
6. For Orientation, Select 3-1-3 for rotational sequence. This will perform rotations about the basic
z-axis, then the new orientation of the x-axis, and finally the new orientation of the z-axis.
7. Enter (30, 30, 0) to specify the rotations about the axes.

8. Click OK to create the coordinate system.

To create a Spherical coordinate system using Normal method:

1. Select Coord > Spherical from the Construction Geom group under the Geometry tab.
2. Pull down Method to Normal..
3. Select a Part to which the coordinate frame will belong.
4. Optionally, click in the Ref Sys text box and select a local coordinate system that will be used to
define the new coordinate system. Leave this blank to use the basic coordinate system.
24
Parts and Geometry

5. For Location, select a node for the local origin.

6. Select a surface to which the z-axis of the coordinate system will be normal.
7. Select R Axis along Normal.
8. Select T along U direction.

9. Click OK to create the coordinate system.

p
r
t

Point/Node to define the

location of origin

To create a Cartesian coordinate system using Two Vectors method:

1. Select Coord > Cartesian from the Construction Geom group under the Geometry tab.
 Linear Statics 25
Parts and Geometry

2. Pull down Method to Two Vectors.

3. Select a Part to which the coordinate frame will belong.
4. Optionally, click in the Ref Sys text box and select a local coordinate system that will be used to
define the new coordinate system. Leave this blank to use the basic coordinate system.
5. For Location, enter 0,0,0 to define the origin.
6. In Vector for Axis-1, select X to define the local axis. Enter 0.5,0,0; 1,0,0 to define a vector along
the specified axis as shown in figure below.
26
Parts and Geometry

7. In Vector for Axis-2, select Y to define the local axis. Enter 0,1,0; 0,1,1 to define a vector along
the specified axis as shown in figure below.
Z

Third, two points to

define the Vector for
First, a point location Axis-2
for origin

(0, 0, 0) (0, 0.9, 0)

Y
(0.5, 0, 0) (0, 1, 0)
(1, 0, 0)
Second, two points to define
X the Vector for Axis-1

8. Click OK to create the coordinate system.

 Linear Statics 27
Parts and Geometry

You can assign a local coordinate system to a Nodal Location (reference LCS), Nodal Displacement
(output LCS), or to shell elements by selecting Assign LCS from the Modify group under the
Nodes/Elements tab.
Settings that affect the display of Local Coordinate Systems are
• Tools > Options, Workspaces > Structures > Entity Options: to control the LCS axis size, labels,
color, and so on.
• Local Coordinate System display options can be individually controlled using the Visualization
tab on the Coordinate System form. You can access this form for existing coordinate systems by
double clicking the coordinate system name in the Model Browser.
• Entity Display Filter toolbar Show/Hide Local Coordinate Systems icon to control whether local
coordinate systems are displayed in the window.
28
Materials

Materials
The material definitions discussed in this chapter include:
• Isotropic material (MAT1 entry) -- An isotropic material property is defined as a material having
the same properties in each direction. This material may be used with all linear elements.
• Two-dimensional anisotropic material (MAT2 entry) -- Material definition for plate and shell
elements. Anisotropic materials have properties that vary with direction and have no planes of
symmetry. The in-plane material properties are defined with respect to an element material
coordinate system. Transverse shear material properties may be included.
• Axisymmetric solid orthotropic material (MAT3 entry) -- A three-dimensional material property
for axisymmetric analysis only. An Orthotropic material has properties which vary with
direction. The elastic properties are specified in three orthogonal directions.For an Orthotropic
material three Young's moduli are required - E1, E2 and Ez - where the out-of-plane elastic
modulus Ez is no longer equal to E1. Three separate Poisson’s ratios are also required, n12, n1z
and n2z, as is the in-plane shear modulus G12.
• Two-dimensional orthotropic material (MAT8 entry) -- Defines an orthotropic material property
for plate and shell elements. Transverse shear material properties may also be included. Some
engineering materials, including certain piezoelectric materials and 2-ply fiber-reinforced
composites, are orthotropic. By definition, an orthotropic material has at least 2 orthogonal
planes of symmetry.
• Three-dimensional anisotropic material (MAT9 entry) -- Defines an anisotropic material
property of solid elements. The MAT9 entry may also be used to define a three-dimensional
orthotropic material.

Defining Mass in Your Model

Common ways to define mass are the concentrated masses (CMASSi and CONMi), mass density on the
material entries, and nonstructural mass defined on the property entries. The mass density defined on the
material entries is given in terms of mass/unit volume. You must be sure the mass unit is consistent with
the other units in the model. For example, in the English system (in, lb., sec.), the mass density of steel
–4 2 4
is approximately 7.32 ⋅ 10 lb-sec ⁄ in .
The nonstructural mass defined on the property entries is mass that is added to the structure in addition
to the structural mass from the elements. For one-dimensional elements, the units are mass/unit length.
For two-dimensional and three-dimensional elements, the units are mass/unit area and mass/unit volume,
respectively.
It is often convenient to express the mass in terms of weight units instead of mass units. This can be
accomplished with the use of the solution parameter Weight - Mass Conversion. The function of the
Weight - Mass Conversion factor is to multiply the assembled mass matrix by the scale factor entered.
3
For the steel example, the mass density can be entered as a weight density of 0.283 lb ⁄ in with a
Weight - Mass Conversion value of 0.00259 (which is 1/386.4). As a word of caution: if you enter any
 Linear Statics 29
Materials

of the mass in terms of weight, you must enter all the mass in terms of weight. The Weight - Mass
Conversion factor multiplies all of the mass in the model by the same scale factor. There are two ways
to enter this parameter in SimXpert. One method is to select PARAM from the ASSEMBLE tab. The
parameter name used here is WTMASS. In the Parameter value 1 field you enter the weight to mass
conversion factor.

The second method to enter this parameter is discussed in Weight - Mass Conversion.

Supported Materials
Isotropic Material
The isotropic material, defined by the MAT1 Nastran entry, is the most commonly used material property.
An isotropic material is defined as having the same properties in any direction. Furthermore, the isotropic
material is fully described by only two material constants. These two constants may be any combination
of E, G, and ν . You may specify all three of these constants if desired, but remember, it only takes two
of the constants to define the material. When you enter only two constants, the third is computed from
the following relationship:

E
G = -------------------- (2-1)
2(1 + ν )

where:

E = Young’s Modulus
G = Shear Modulus, and

ν = Poisson’s Ratio
The isotropic entry may also be used to define such things as
30
Materials

• Mass density (Density)

• The mass properties are only required in static analysis when a gravity loading or rotating
force is used; however, they are useful for model verification with any loading condition.
• Coefficient of thermal expansion (Thermal Exp. Coeff.)
• Structural element damping (Struct. Elem. Damp. Coeff.)
• Failure limits
• Tension Stress Limit
• Compression Stress Limit
• Shear Stress Limit
Stress limits are used to compute margins of safety for certain line elements only.

The input for Isotropic material (MAT1 entry) appears as follows:.

 Linear Statics 31
Materials

To access additional choices click Advanced:

Other choices are available under the Isotropic material form. They are
• Thermal
• Stress Dependent
• Elasto Plastic
• Visco Elastic
• Visco Plastic
• Creep
• Failure
32
Materials

These are accessed through tabs that can be displayed by clicking the Add Constitutive Model button.

By selecting the desired tabs; i.e. Stress Dependent, Failure; the material model can be modified. A
constitutive model can be eliminated by clicking the Delete Model button.

Anisotropic 2D
The anisotropic 2D references a MAT2 Nastran card. The anisotropic two-dimensional entry defines a
stress-strain relationship of the form shown in Equation (2-2) and Equation (2-3). This entry can only be
used with plate and shell elements. The reference temperature is given by T REF and the thermal
expansion coefficients are A1, A2, and A3. The component directions X and Y refer to the element
material coordinate system, which is explicitly defined for each element. The material coordinate system
for the CQUAD4 element is shown in Figure 2-1. The in-plane stress-strain relationship is described by
Equation (2-2). Equation (2-3) defines the transverse shear stress - transverse shear strain relationship.
 Linear Statics 33
Materials

       
 σ x   G 11 G 12 G13   ε x   A 1 
       
 σ y =  G 12 G 22 G23   ε y – ( T – T REF )  A 2  (2-2)
       
 τ xy   G 13 G 23 G33   γ xy   A 3 
       

   
 τ xz  G 11 G 12  γ xz 
  =   (2-3)
 τ yz  G 12 G 22  γ yz 
   
34
Materials

The input for Anisotropic 2D appears as follows:

Orthotropic 2D Axisymmetric
The orthotropic two-dimensional axisymmetry entry defines a relationship in a cross sectional coordinate
system (x, θ , z). You can only use the material property with the axisymmetric CTRIAX6 element. The
axisymmetric solid orthotropic material is defined by Equation (2-4).
 Linear Statics 35
Materials

1 – ν θx – ν zx
----- ----------
- ---------- 0
E x Eθ E z
 εx  – ν xθ 1 –ν zθ  σx   Ax 
  ----------- ------ ---------- 0    
 εθ  E x Eθ Ez  σθ   Aθ 
  =   + ( T – T REF )   (2-4)
 εz  – ν xz – ν θz 1  σz   Az 
  ---------- ---------- ----- 0    
 γ zx  E x Eθ Ez  τ zx   0 
1
0 0 0 --------
G zx

To preserve symmetry, the following relationships must hold:

ν xθ ν θx ν xz ν zx ν θz νzθ
------- = ------- ;------- = ------- ;------- = ------- (2-5)
Ex E θ Ex E z Eθ Ez
36
Materials

The input for Orthotropic 2D Axi appears as follows:

Orthotropic 2D
The two-dimensional orthotropic entry defines a stress-strain relationship as shown in Equation (2-6) and
Equation (2-7). This entry can only be used with the plate and shell elements. Equation (2-6) defines the
in-plane stress-strain relationship. The transverse shear stress-transverse shear strain relationship is
defined by Equation (2-7)
 Linear Statics 37
Materials

1 – ν 12
  ------ ----------
- 0  
E 1 E1
 ε1   σ1   A1 
  – ν 12 1    
. ε
2  = ----------
- ------ 0  σ 2  + ( T – T REF )  A 2  (2-6)
  E 1 E2    
 γ 12   τ 12   0 
  0 0 --------- 
1 
G 12

   
 τ 1z  G 1z 0  γ 1z 
  =   (2-7)
 τ 2z  0 G 2z  γ 2z 
   
38
Materials

The input for Orthotropic 2D appears as follows:

Anisotropic 3D
The anisotropic entry defines a material property for the CHEXA, CPENTA, and CTETRA solid
elements. The three-dimensional anisotropic material is defined by Equation (2-8)
 Linear Statics 39
Materials

 σx  G 11 G 12 G 13 G 14 G 15 G16   εx   A 1 
     
 σy  G 12 G 22 G 23 G 24 G 25 G26   εy   A 2 
     
 σz  G 13 G 23 G 33 G 34 G 35 G36   εz   A 3 
. =  – ( T – T REF )   (2-8)
 τ xy  G 14 G 24 G 34 G 44 G 45 G46   γ xy   A 4 
     
 τ yz  G 15 G 25 G 35 G 45 G 55 G56   γ yz   A 5 
     
 τ zx  G 16 G 26 G 36 G 46 G 56 G66   γ zx   A 6 
40
Materials

The input for Anisotropic 3D appears as follows:

Required Material Properties

You must define stiffness in some form (for example, Young's modulus (E), Shear Modulus (G), or
hyperelastic coefficients).
 Linear Statics 41
Materials

For Global Boundary Conditions (such as gravity or rotating force), you must define the data required
for mass calculations, such as density (RHO).
For thermal loads (temperatures), you must define the coefficient of thermal expansion (A).
42
Element Properties

Element Properties

Overview
Typical properties include cross-sectional properties of beam elements, thicknesses of plate and shell
elements, material IDs, etc. Properties are assigned to the elements of a specified part or element type,
either directly to the elements, or indirectly through the part to which the elements belong or the geometry
with which the elements are associated.
Properties associate materials with elements.

Element types and associated properties

Two-Dimensional Elements
Two-dimensional elements, commonly referred to as plate and shell elements, are used to represent areas
in your model where one of the dimensions is small in comparison to the other two.
• CQUAD4, CTRIA3 - General-purpose plate elements capable of carrying in plane force,
bending forces, and transverse shear force. This family of elements are the most commonly used
2-D elements in the SimXpert element library. These are the element types generated by the
Automesher.
• CSHEAR - A shear panel element, i.e., the element can transmit in plane shear forces only.
• CQUAD8, CTRIA6 - Higher order elements that are useful for modeling curved surfaces with
fewer elements than are required if you use the CQUAD4 and CTRIA3 elements. In general, the
CQUAD4 and CTRIA3 elements are preferred over the CQUAD8 and CTRIA6 elements.
• CQUADR and CTRIAR - This family of 2-D elements are complementary to the CQUAD4 and
CTRIA3 elements.
• The CTRIAX6 - An axisymmetric solid of revolution element. This element is used only in
axisymmetric analysis.

PSHELL
The CQUAD4, CTRIA3, CQUAD8, CTRIA6, CQUADR, and CTRIAR elements are commonly
referred to as the plate and shell elements within SimXpert. Their properties, which are defined using the
PSHELL entry, are identical. For all applications other than composites or shear panels, the PSHELL
entry should be used for plate and shell elements.
 Linear Statics 43
Element Properties

The format of the Shell Property entry is as follows:

As can be seen, the Shell entry is used to select the material for the membrane properties, the bending
properties, the transverse shear properties, the bending-membrane coupling properties, and the bending
and transverse shear parameters. By choosing the appropriate materials and parameters, virtually any
plate configuration may be obtained.
The most common use of the Shell entry is to model an isotropic thin plate. The preferred method to
define an isotropic plate is to select an isotropic material for the Material (membrane Material ) on the
basic form entry of the Shell properties form and Bending material ID on the advanced portion of the
form. For a thick plate, you may also wish to enter an isotropic material for the Transverse shear material .
Also located on the Shell entry are the stress recovery locations Z1 and Z2, located under Fiber distance
for stress computation on the advanced portion of the form. By default, Z1 and Z2 are equal to one-half
of the plate thickness (typical for a homogeneous plate). If you are modeling a composite plate, you may
wish to enter values other than the defaults to identify the outermost fiber locations of the plate for stress
analysis.
44
Element Properties

The element coordinate systems for the CQUAD4 is shown in Figure 2-1. The orientation of the element
coordinate system is determined by the order of the connectivity for the nodes. The element z-axis, often
referred to as the positive normal, is determined using the right-hand rule (the z-axis is “out of the screen”
as shown in Figure 2-1. Therefore, if you change the order of the nodal connectivity, the direction of this
positive normal also reverses. This rule is important to remember when applying pressure loads or
viewing the untransformed element forces or stresses. Untransformed directional element stress plots
may appear strange when they are displayed by the postprocessor in SimXpert because the normals of
the adjacent elements may be inconsistent. Remember that components of forces, moments, and element
stresses are always output in the element coordinate system.
yelement
N3

N4

β+γ xelement
α = ------------
2

α xmaterial
zelement

β
THETA γ

N1 N2

Figure 2-1 CQUAD4 Element Geometry and Coordinate Systems

PSHEAR
The CSHEAR element is a quadrilateral element with four nodes. The element models a thin buckled
plate. It supports shear stress in its interior and also extensional force between adjacent nodes. Typically
you use the CSHEAR element in situations where the bending stiffness and axial membrane stiffness of
the plate is negligible. The use of CQUAD4 element in such situations results in an overly stiff model.
The most important application of the CSHEAR element is in the analysis of thin reinforced plates and
shells, such as thin aircraft skin panels. In such applications, reinforcing rods (or beams) carry the
extensional load, and the CSHEAR element carries the in-plane shear. This is particularly true if the real
 Linear Statics 45
Element Properties

panel is buckled or if it is curved. The properties of the CSHEAR element are entered on the Shear entry.
The format of the Shear Property entry is as follows:

The optional stiffness factors are useful in representing an effective stiffness of the panel for extensional
loads by means of equivalent rods on the perimeter of the element. If the stiffness factor for extensional
stiffness G1-G2 and G3-G4 is less than or equal to 1.01, the areas of the rods on edges 1-2 and 3-4 are
set equal to 0.5 ⋅ F1 ⋅ T ⋅ w 1 where w 1 is the average width of the panel. If it is equal to 1.0, the panel
is fully effective in the 1-2 direction. If it is greater than 1.01, the areas for the rods on edge 1-2 and edge
2
3-4 are each set equal to 0.5 ⋅ F1 ⋅ T . The significance of the stiffness factor for G2-G3 and G1-G4
for edges 2-3 and 1-4 is similar.
G3
G4

Yelem

Xelem
G1 G2
46
Element Properties

Figure 2-2 CSHEAR Element Connection and Coordinate System

K4 F41
K3
F32
F43 q3

N4 N3
F34

q4
q2
K2
K1
F21
N2

q1
F12 N1
F23

F14

Figure 2-3 CSHEAR Element Corner Forces and Shear Flows

The Composite Element (PCOMP)

SimXpert provides a property definition specifically for performing composite analysis. You specify the
material properties and orientation for each of the layers and SimXpert produces the equivalent PSHELL
and MAT2 entries. Additional stress and strain output is generated for each layer and between the layers.
 Linear Statics 47
Element Properties

The format of the Laminate Composite entry is as follows:

The following are the choices for laminate options:

• “Blank”All plies must be specified and all stiffness terms are developed.
• “SYM”Only plies on one side of the element centerline are specified. Computes the complete
stiffness properties while specifying half the plies. The plies are numbered starting with 0 for the
bottom layer. If an odd number of plies are desired, the center ply thickness (T1) should be half
the actual thickness.
• “MEM”All plies must be specified, but only membrane terms are computed.
• “BEND”All plies must be specified, but only bending terms are computed.
• “SMEAR”All plies must be specified, ignores stacking sequence and is intended for cases where
this sequence is not yet known, stiffness properties are smeared.
• “SMCORE” Allows simplified modeling of a sandwich panel with equal face sheets and a
central core.All plies must be specified, with the last ply specifying core properties and the
previous plies specifying face sheet properties. The stiffness matrix is computed by placing half
the face sheet thicknesses above the core and the other half below with the result that the
laminate is symmetric about the mid-plane of the core. Stacking sequence is ignored in
calculating the face sheet stiffness.
48
Element Properties

A two-dimensional composite material is defined as a stacked group of laminae arranged to form a flat
or curved plate or shell. Each lamina may be considered as a group of unidirectional fibers. The principal
material axes for the lamina are parallel and perpendicular to the fiber directions. The principal directions
are referred to as “longitudinal” or the 1-direction of the fiber and as “transverse” or the 2-direction for
the perpendicular direction (matrix direction).
A laminate is a stack of these individual lamina arranged with the principal directions of each lamina
oriented in a particular direction as shown in Figure 2-4.

(1)
Y mat (2)
Y mat

(1) (2)
X mat X mat

( 3)
Y mat

(3)
X mat

Figure 2-4 Laminae Arranged to Form a Laminate

The laminae are bonded together with a thin layer of bonding material that is considered to be of zero
thickness. Each lamina can be modeled as an isotropic material (MAT1), two-dimensional anisotropic
material (MAT2), or orthotropic material (MAT8). The assumptions inherent in the lamination theory are
as follows:
• Each lamina is in a state of plane stress.
 Linear Statics 49
Element Properties

• The bonding is perfect.

• Two-dimensional plate theory can be used.

The output you may request for a composite analysis includes:

• Stresses and strains for the equivalent plate.
• Force resultants.
• Stresses and/or strains in the individual laminate including approximate interlaminar shear
stresses in the bonding material output.
• A failure index table.

If you want stress and/or the failure indices for the composite elements, you must create an Output
Request for Element Stresses. You will also want to specify the Composite Plate Option to request output
at each individual ply or for the equivalent plate. Also, if you want the failure index table, you must enter

the stress limits for each lamina on the appropriate material entry, the shear stress limit , and the failure
theory method on the Layered Composite form.
As an example of a layered composite, consider the cantilevered honeycomb plate shown in Figure 2-5.
Although the honeycomb structure is not considered a composite layup, it can be analyzed effectively
using a layered composite.
50
Element Properties

Fixed Edge

t=0.42 in
E=30 x 106 psi
1000 lb.

2000 lb.

Z
1000 lb. 10 in
Y 30 in

Top Aluminum Face Sheet - T = 0.02 in

Honeycomb Core - T = 0.35 in

Lower Aluminum Face Sheet - T = 0.05 in

Figure 2-5 Honeycomb Cantilever Plate

The material properties of the honeycomb section are given in Table 2-1.

Table 2-1 Honeycomb Material Properties

Modulus of Tensile Shear
Elasticity Limit Compression Limit
Material (106 psi) (103 psi) Limit (103 psi) (103 psi)
Aluminum Face 10.0 35 35 23
Sheets
Core 0.0001 0.05 0.3 0.2
Bonding Material -- -- -- 0.1
 Linear Statics 51
Element Properties

Following are the corresponding MAT1 entries for the face sheets and the core respectively:
52
Element Properties
 Linear Statics 53
Element Properties

To create the layup for the honeycomb plate we change the number of plies to 3 and input the data as
follows:

Three-dimensional Elements
Whenever you need to model a structure that does not behave as a bar or plate structure under the applied
loads, you need to use one or more of the three-dimensional elements. The three-dimensional elements
are commonly referred to as solid elements. Typical engineering applications of solid elements include
engine blocks, brackets, and gears.
Three-dimensional elements that are discussed in this chapter include
• CHEXA, CPENTA, and CTETRA - General-purpose solid elements. This family of elements is
recommended for most solid model applications.
54
Element Properties

PSOLID
The properties of Hexa, Penta, and Tetra type elements are entered on the SOLID form. The format of
the SOLID entry is as follows:

One-Dimensional Elements
A one-dimensional element is one in which the properties of the element are defined along a line or curve.
It has directional, end A is defined by the first node selected and end B by the second. Typical
applications for the one-dimensional element include truss structures, beams, and stiffeners. One-
dimensional elements discussed in this chapter include
• CROD - An element with axial stiffness and torsional stiffness about the axis for the element.
• CBAR - A straight prismatic element with axial, bending, and torsional stiffness.
• CBEAM - An element similar to the CBAR but with additional properties, such as variable
cross-section, shear center offset from the neutral axis.
• CBEND - A curved element capable of internal pressure.

The CBAR Element

The CBAR element is a straight one-dimensional element that connects two nodes. The capabilities and
limitations of the CBAR element are as summarized below:
 Linear Statics 55
Element Properties

• Extensional stiffness along the neutral axis and torsional stiffness about the neutral axis may be
defined.
• Bending and transverse shear stiffness can be defined in the two perpendicular directions to the
CBAR element’s axial direction.
• The properties must be constant along the length of the CBAR element. This limitation is not
present in the CBEAM element.
• The shear center and the neutral axis must coincide. This limitation is not present in the CBEAM
element.
• The ends of the CBAR element may be offset from the nodes.
• The effect of out-of-plane cross-sectional warping is neglected. This limitation is not present in
the CBEAM element.
• Transverse shear stiffness along the length of the CBAR can be included.

The stiffness of the CBAR element is derived from classical beam theory (plane cross sections remain
plane during deformation).
56
Element Properties

The connectivity of the CBAR element is determined by the order in which you pick its two nodes. To
create individual CBARs, select Bar from the 1D Elements group under the Nodes/Elements tab. The
input form appears as follows:

Field Contents
• Lower Order - To create simple beam and general beam element
Element Topology
• Higher Order - To create three-noded beam element
• Simple Bar - To create CBAR element
Element Type
• General Beam - To create CBEAM element
Property Select or create a Beam property
• Vector - Orientation vector will be specified by vector components.

Orientation Method • Node - The direction of the vector is from the starting node of the
CBAR to the selected node. The vector is then translated to the
starting end of the bar.
If checked, a varying orientation vector will be defined by a previously
Functional Field
created vector field.
 Linear Statics 57
Element Properties

Field Contents
• Basic - Orientation components are with respect to the basic
coordinate system
Coordinate System
• Reference - Orientation components are with respect to the selected
coordinate system.
If the Coordinate System Type is set to Reference, select the local
Pick coordinate system
coordinate system to be used to specify the orientation components.
Orientation components
Components of orientation vector from the starting end of the bar.
X, Y, Z
Advanced Entries
If checked, vectors can be defined to offset the bar element from the nodes
Offsets
that define it.
End A / End B
If checked, a variable offset vector will be defined by a previously created
Functional Field
vector field.
Coordinate system type for the offset vector at end A.

• Basic - Offset components are with respect to the basic coordinate

system
Coordinate System
• Offset - Offset components are measured with respect to the
element coordinate system
• Reference - Offset components are with respect to the selected
coordinate system.
Select a local coordinate system for offset vector at end A This option is
Pick Coordinate System
available only if Reference Coordinate System is selected.
Offset Component Components of offset vectors (see Note 1)
Pin flags for bar ends A and B, respectively. used to remove connections
between the node and selected degrees of freedom of the bar. The degrees
of freedom are defined in the element’s coordinate system (see Figure 2-9).
The bar must have stiffness associated with the PA and PB degrees of
Pin Flag
freedom to be released by the pin flags. For example, if PA = 4, the PBAR
entry must have a nonzero value for J, the torsional stiffness. (Valid input
for this field: up to five of the unique integers 1 through 6 with no embedded
blanks).
Check the boxes for those degrees of freedom to be released at the starting
End A
node.
Check the boxes for those degrees of freedom to be released at the ending
End B
node.
58
Element Properties

BAR Property
The properties of the CBAR elements are entered on the Beam form. The format of the Beam property
for the Bar element is as follows:

Any of the stiffnesses and flexibilities may be omitted by leaving the appropriate fields on the Beam entry
blank. For example, if fields Inertia along ZZ and Inertia along YY are blank, the element will lack
bending stiffness.
One the most difficult aspects of the CBAR (or CBEAM element) for the first-time users is understanding
the need to define an orientation vector. The best way to see the need for the orientation vector is by an
example. Consider the two I-beams shown in Figure 2-6. The I-beams have the same properties because
they have the same dimensions; however, since they have different orientations in space, their stiffness
contribution to the structure is different. Therefore, simply specifying the I-beam properties and the
 Linear Statics 59
Element Properties

location of the end points via the nodes is insufficient-you must also describe the orientation. This is done
using the orientation vector.
x x

z
z

Figure 2-6 Demonstration of Beam Orientation

Another way of looking at the orientation vector is that it is a vector that specifies the local element
coordinate system. The orientation vector as it is related to the CBAR element coordinate system is

shown in Figure 2-7. Vector v defines plane 1, which contains the elemental x- and y-axes.
v x elem

Plane 1
y elem End b
NB

Plane 2

End a
NA z elem

Figure 2-7 CBAR Element Geometry without Offsets

Referring to Figure 2-7, the element x-axis is defined as the line extending from end A (the end at node
NA) to end B (the end at node NB). Nodes NA and NB are defined on the CBAR entry. The element y-
axis is defined to be the axis in Plane 1 extending from end A and perpendicular to the element x-axis. It
is your responsibility to define Plane 1. Plane 1 is the plane containing the element x-axis and the
orientation vector. After defining the element x- and y-axes, the element z-axis is obtained using the
right-hand rule, z = x ⊗ y . Plane 2 is the plane containing element x- and z-axes. Note that once you
define nodes NA and NB and the orientation vector, the element coordinate system is computed
automatically by SimXpert.
60
Element Properties

The vector shown in Figure 2-7 be may defined by one of two methods on the CBAR entry. One method
is to define vector by entering the components of the vector, (X1, X2, X3), which is defined in a
coordinate system located at the end of the CBAR. This coordinate system is parallel to the output
coordinate system of the node NA. By default this is the basic coordinate system. You can assign a local
coordinate system (output LCS) to nodes by selecting Assign from the Coordinate System toolbox. You
can alternatively define the vector with the use of another node called G0, which is entered on the CBAR
entry.
An additional feature of the CBAR element is the ability to remove some of the connections of individual
degrees of freedom from the nodes. This operation is accomplished using the pin flags feature located on
the CBAR entry (PA and PB). For example, suppose you want to connect two bar elements together with
a hinge (or pin joint) as shown in Figure 4-19. To do this you will need to release the three rotational
degrees of freedom. Therefore you can make this connection by entering DOFs 456 in the PB field of the
CBAR entry.

Figure 2-8 Pin Flags for a Hinge Connection

Also note that the ends of the CBAR element may be offset from the grid points using ZA and ZB as
defined on the CBAR entry. Therefore, the element x-axis does not necessarily extend from node NA to
node NB; it extends from end A to end B.
x elem
v
Plane 1
y elem End b

v ( G0 )
zb

Node NB
Plane 2
End a
z elem
za
Node NA

Figure 2-9 CBAR Element Coordinate System with Offsets

 Linear Statics 61
Element Properties

If the CBAR is offset from the nodes and the components of the orientation vector are entered, then the
tail of vector is at end A, not node NA. If the vector is defined with the use of a node G0, then it is defined
as the line originating at node NA, not end A, and passing through G0. Note that Plane 1 is parallel to the
vector NA-G0 and passes through the location of end A.
The offsets values ZA and ZB are entered by specifying the components of an offset vector in the output
coordinate systems for NA and NB, respectively. The three components of each of the offset vectors are
input using the CBAR entry. When you specify an offset, you are effectively defining a rigid connection
from the grid point to the end of the element.
The element forces and stresses are computed and output in the element coordinate system. Figure 4-10
shows the forces acting on the CBAR element. V1 and M1 are the shear force and bending moment acting
in Plane 1, and V2 and M2 are the shear force and bending moment acting in Plane 2.
y v1

M 1a M 1b
T
x
Fx T
a Plane 1 b

v1

Figure 2-10 CBAR Element Internal Forces and Moments (x-y plane)
z v2

M 2a M 2b

Plane 2

v2

Figure 2-11 CBAR Element Internal Forces and Moments (x-z plane)

The area moments of inertia I1 and I2 are input on the PBAR entry. I1 is the area moment of inertia to
resist a moment in Plane 1. I1 is not the moment of inertia about Plane 1 as many new users may think
at first. Consider the cross-section shown in Figure 2-10 and Figure 2-11; in this case, I1 is what most
textbooks call Izz, and I2 is Iyy.
The area product of inertia I12, if needed, may be input on the PBAR entry. For most common
engineering cross sections, it is usually not necessary to define an I12. By aligning the element y- and the
z-axes with the principal axes of the cross section, I12, is equal to zero and is therefore not needed.
62
Element Properties

Stress recovery locations correspond to the locations C, D, E, and F on the PBAR entry. The location of
these stress recovery coefficients are defined in CBAR’s element coordinate system. Consider the cross
section for a 4mm X 2 mm bar as shown in Figure 2-12. On the PBAR entry you would input 2.0 for C1
and 1.0 for C2, -2.0 for D1 and 1.0 for D2, and so on for points E and F. By request, the stresses are
computed at those four locations. As is commonly done, the stress locations represent the farthest points
from the neutral axis of the cross-section. These points are the locations of the maximum bending stress.

Figure 2-12 Stress Recovery Locations

General Beam Library

General Beam Librayr provides an alternative and convenient method for defining bar cross sections. The
Bar input that has been discussed so far requires you to calculate the cross-sectional properties of the
beam (such as area, moments of inertia, shear center, etc.). Although this is not a particularly difficult
task for standard cross sections, it is tedious and prone to unnecessary input errors.
A library is available to provide you with a simple interface to input beam cross sections into SimXpert.
A number of common cross section types such as bar, box, I-beam, channel, angle, etc. can be described
by the cross section’s dimensions instead of the section properties. For example, a rectangle cross section
may be defined by its height and depth rather than the area, moments of inertia, etc. The section properties
are calculated based on thin wall assumptions.
The Library entry allows you to input cross section types along with their characteristic dimensions. You
can choose from 20 different cross section shapes. These shapes are as follows: ROD, TUBE, I, CHAN
(channel), T, BOX, BAR (rectangle), CROSS, H, T1, I1, CHAN1, Z, CHAN2, T2, BOX1, HEXA
(hexagon), HAT and HAT1(hat sections), and DBOX. For some of these shapes (I, CHAN, T, and BOX),
you can select different orientations. All the shapes supported by SimXpert and their respective
orientations and dimensions are shown in Figure 2-13.
 Linear Statics 63
Element Properties

To define section attributes such as height and width, use the Beam entry and select General as the Beam
Type and Library as the Cross-section Type. To define section properties such as area and moment of
inertia, use the Simple Cross-section type entry. The Library entries are easier to use and still retain most
of the capabilities of the existing Simple method, including non-structural mass.
An additional difference between the Library and the Simple entries is that stress recovery points need
not be specified to obtain stress output for the Library entry. The stress recovery points are automatically
calculated at the extreme fibers to give the maximum stress for the cross section.
This automatic cross section computation greatly simplifies the formulation of design variables for
design optimization applications
64
Element Properties

y elem y elem y elem

C C C
DIM1 DIM1 DIM1
D
F z elem D D
F z elem F z elem
DIM2

E DIM2
E E
TYPE=“ROD” TYPE=“TUBE2” TYPE=“TUBE”
y elem
DIM3 y elem DIM4
C C
F F

z elem
DIM6

DIM4 DIM1 DIM2

z elem
DIM5 DIM3

E D E D
DIM2
DIM1
TYPE=“I” TYPE=“CHAN”
y elem

DIM1 DIM3 y elem

F C D F C

z elem

DIM3 DIM2 z elem

DIM2

E D
DIM4
DIM4
DIM1
E
TYPE=“T” TYPE=“BOX”
 Linear Statics 65
Element Properties

y elem

F C

DIM2 z elem

E D
DIM1

TYPE=”BAR”
y elem y elem

0.5 Þ DIM1 0.5 Þ DIM1 0.5 Þ DIM2 0.5 Þ DIM2

F C
C

DIM3
DIM3

D DIM4
DIM4 F z elem
z elem

E
E D
DIM2 DIM1

TYPE=”CROSS” TYPE=”H”
y elem 0.5 Þ DIM1 0.5 Þ DIM1
F DIM2
F C
DIM2
DIM1
DIM4 E z elem DIM4
C
DIM3

D
DIM3 E D

TYPE=”T1” TYPE=”I1”
66
Element Properties

y elem
DIM2 DIM1
F C

DIM3
z elem DIM4

E D

y elem
TYPE=”CHAN1”
DIM2 DIM1 DIM1
DIM1
F C
F C
y elem
DIM3
DIM3
z elem DIM4 DIM2
E D
DIM4
E D z elem

TYPE=”Z” TYPE=”CHAN2”
y elem y elem

DIM1
DIM4 F C
C
DIM3
F

DIM2 z elem
DIM2
z elem
DIM3
E D DIM4
DIM1 E D
DIM6 DIM5

TYPE=”T2” TYPE=”BOX1”
 Linear Statics 67
Element Properties

y elem y elem

DIM4 DIM4
C DIM3
z elem
F C
E DIM3
F z elem
DIM1 DIM2

D
E D
DIM1

y elem
TYPE=”HEXA” TYPE=”HAT”

DIM3
E F

DIM4
DIM2

DIM5
z elem
C DIM1 D
TYPE=”HAT1”
DIM1
DIM3
DIM7

DIM9

DIM4 DIM6
DIM12
DIM5
DIM10

DIM8

TYPE = “DBOX”

Figure 2-13 Cross-Section Geometry and Stress Recovery Points for PBARL
68
Element Properties

The input for the General Beam Library appears as follows:

 Linear Statics 69
Element Properties

The CBEAM Element

The CBEAM element provides all of the capabilities of the CBAR element discussed in the previous
section, plus the following additional capabilities:
• Different cross-sectional properties may be defined at both ends and at as many as nine
intermediate locations along the length of the beam.
• The neutral axis and shear center do not need to coincide. The feature is important for non
symmetric sections.
• The effect of cross-sectional warping on torsional stiffness is included.
• The effect of taper on transverse shear stiffness (shear relief) is included.
• A separate axis for the center of nonstructural mass may be included.

The input as shown below for the CBEAM entry, is identical to that of the CBAR with the exception that
you select General Beam for the Element Type
70
Element Properties

Beam
The properties of the CBEAM elements are entered on the Beam form. The format of the Beam property
for the Beam element is as follows:

The coordinate system for the CBEAM element, shown in Figure 2-14, is similar to that of the CBAR
element. The only difference is that the element x-axis for the CBEAM element is along the shear center
of the CBEAM. The neutral axis and the nonstructural mass axis may be offset from the elemental x-axis.
 Linear Statics 71
Element Properties

(For the CBAR element, all three are coincident with the x-axis.) The orientation vector is defined in the
same manner as it is for the CBAR element.
yma
zelem
yna Nonstructural Mass
zma
zna Center of Gravity
yelem
Plane 2
Plane 1 v
End A (0, 0, 0)
Neutral Axis
z a offset xelem v ( G0 ) ymb
Node GA Shear Center ynb zmb
znb
End B (xb, 0, 0)
z b offset

Node GB

Figure 2-14 CBEAM Element Geometry System

The CBEAM element presents you with more options than any other element in the SimXpert element
library. It is not expected that you will employ all of the features of the CBEAM element at the same time.
Therefore, you may omit most of the data fields corresponding to the features that are not being used. For
those data fields that are left blank, a default value is used.
An exception to this rule is the data fields for A, I1, and I2. If any of these fields is left blank, a fatal
message occurs. While this is acceptable for the CBAR element, it is not acceptable for the CBEAM
element. The difference is due to the way that the element stiffness matrix is generated. For the CBAR
element, the element stiffness matrix is generated directly from the input data. For instance, if I1 for a
CBAR element is zero, then the corresponding element stiffness matrix term is null, which is not
necessarily a problem. On the other hand, the CBEAM element uses the input data to generate an element
flexibility matrix, which must be inverted to produce the element stiffness matrix. Therefore, positive
values for A, I1, and I2 must be entered.
One difference between the CBAR element and the CBEAM element that is not obvious is the default
values used for the transverse shear flexibility. For the CBAR element, the default values for K1 and K2
are infinite, which is equivalent to zero transverse shear flexibility. For the CBEAM element, the default
values for K1 and K2 are both 1.0, which includes the effect of transverse shear in the elements. If you
want to set the transverse shear flexibility to zero, which is the same as the CBAR element, use a value
of 0.0 for K1 and K2.

PBEAML
As you can with the CBAR element, you can define the property for the CBEAM element by specifying
the cross-sectional dimensions (DIM1, DIM2, etc.) instead of the cross-sectional properties (A, I, etc.)
for the following cross sections: ROD, TUBE, I, CHAN, L,T, BOX, BAR, CROSS, H, T1, I1, CHAN1,
72
Element Properties

Z, CHAN2, T2, BOX1, HEXA, HAT, HAT1, and DBOX as shown in Figure 2-15. The Library entry is
used for this purpose. The format for the Beam Library entry is as follows:
 Linear Statics 73
Element Properties

y elem y elem

C C
DIM1 DIM1
D
F D
z elem F
DIM2 z elem

E
E
TYPE=“ROD” TYPE=“TUBE”
y elem y elem

F C
C
DIM1 DIM4
DIM3 DIM2
D
F z elem
z elem
DIM2 E D
E
TYPE=“TUBE2” DIM1
y elem
TYPE=“L”
y elem
DIM3 DIM4

C F C
F

z elem
DIM6
DIM2
DIM4 z elem
DIM1
DIM3
DIM5

E E D
D
DIM2
DIM1
TYPE=“I” TYPE=“CHAN”

Figure 2-15 Cross -Section Geometry and Stress Recovery Points for PBEAML
74
Element Properties

y elem
DIM3 y elem
DIM1
F C
F C D

z elem
DIM2 z elem
DIM3

DIM2
E D
DIM4
DIM4 DIM1

E y elem TYPE=“BOX”

TYPE=“T” F C

DIM2 z elem

E D
DIM1

TYPE=“BAR”

y elem y elem

0.5 Þ DIM1 0.5 Þ DIM1 0.5 Þ DIM2 0.5 Þ DIM2

F C
C

DIM3 DIM3

DIM4 D DIM4 z elem

F
z elem

E
E D
DIM2 DIM1

TYPE=”CROSS” TYPE=”H”
 Linear Statics 75
Element Properties

y elem
0.5 ² DIM1 0.5 ² DIM1
F DIM2
F C
DIM2
DIM1
DIM4 E z elem DIM4
C
DIM3

D
DIM3 E D

TYPE=”T1” TYPE=”I1”

y elem
DIM2 DIM1
F C

DIM3
z elem DIM4

E D

TYPE=”CHAN1”
y elem

DIM2 DIM1 DIM1

DIM1
F C
F C
y elem
DIM3
DIM3
z elem DIM4 DIM2
E D
DIM4
E D z elem

TYPE=”Z” TYPE=”CHAN2”

Figure 14 (Continued)Cross -Section Geometry and Stress Recovery Points for PBEAML
76
Element Properties

y elem y elem

DIM1
DIM4
F C
C
DIM3
F

DIM2 z elem
DIM2
z elem
DIM3
E D DIM4
DIM1 E D
DIM6 DIM5

TYPE=”T2” TYPE=”BOX1”
y elem y elem

DIM4 DIM4
DIM3
C z elem
F C

E DIM3
z elem
DIM1 DIM2

F
D E D
DIM1
DIM2 TYPE=”HAT”
y elem
TYPE=”HEXA”

DIM3
E F

DIM4
DIM2

DIM5
z elem
C DIM1 D
TYPE=”HAT1”
 Linear Statics 77
Element Properties

DIM1
DIM3

DIM7

DIM9

DIM4 DIM6
DIM12

DIM5
DIM10

DIM8

TYPE = “DBOX”

Figure 14 (Continued)Cross -Section Geometry and Stress Recovery Points for PBEAML

The CBEND Element

The CBEND element forms a circular arc that connects two nodes. This element has extensional and
torsional stiffness, bending stiffness, and transverse shear flexibility in two perpendicular directions.
Typical applications of the CBEND include modeling of pressurized pipe systems and curved
components that behave as one-dimensional members.
Specific features of the CBEND element are:
• Principal bending axes must be parallel and perpendicular to the plane of the element (see
Figure 2-16).
• The geometric center of the element may be offset in two directions (see Figure 2-16).
• The offset of the neutral axis from the centroidal center due to curvature is calculated
automatically with a user-override (DELTAN) available for the curved beam form of the
element.
• Four methods are available to define the plane of the element and its curvature.
• Axial stresses can be output at four cross-sectional points at each end of the element. Forces and
moments are output at both ends.
• Distributed loads may be placed along the length of the element by means of the PLOAD1 entry.

The geometry and properties are entered on the CBEND and PBEND entries, respectively.
78
Element Properties

The transverse shear flexibility can be omitted by leaving the appropriate fields blank on the PBEND
entry.

The format of the CBEND entry is as follows:

Field Contents
Property Select or create a Bend property
• Vector - Orientation vector will be specified by vector components.

Orientation Method • Node - The direction of the vector is from the starting node of the
CBEND to the selected node. The vector is then translated to the
starting end of the bar.
If checked, a varying orientation vector will be defined by a previously
Functional Field
created vector field.
Select a previously created vector field from the Model Browser. This is
Pick Field
option is available only if Functional Field is selected.
Orientation components
Components of orientation vector from the starting end of the bar.
X, Y, Z
Geometry Type Flag to select specification of the bend element. See Table 2-2
Specification (GTYPE)
 Linear Statics 79
Element Properties

Table 2-2 GTYPE Options

GTYP
Configuration E Description

GO 1 The center of curvature lies on the line A-GO (or its extension)
or the orientation vector v .

A B

A B 2 The tangent of centroid arc at end A is parallel to line A- GO or

vector v . Point GO (or vector v ) and the arc AB must be on
the same side of the chord AB .

GO

3 The bend radius (RB) is specified on the PBEND entry: Points

RB
A, B, and GO (or vector v ) define a plane parallel to or
coincident with the plane of the element arc. Point GO (or vector
A B v ) lies on the opposite side of line AB from the center of the
curvature.
GO

4 THETAB is specified on the PBEND entry. Points A, B, and GO

(or vector v ) define a plane parallel to or coincident with the
plane of the element arc. Point GO (or vector v ) lies on the
THETAB opposite side of line AB from the center of curvature
A B

GO
80
Element Properties

Arc of the
Geometric Centroid
Center of
Curvature

zelem Arc of the

Neutral Axis
θB
Plane 2
End A NA
NB
Rele
v
θelem ΔN
ZC
Plane 1
End B RC RB

(Note that Plane 1 is parallel to the

plane defined by NA, NB, and v.)

Figure 2-16 CBEND Element Coordinate System

PBEND
The Bend property defines a curved beam of an arbitrary cross section. Like the CBEAM element, the
CBEND element must be supplied with positive values for Area, Inertia in plane 1, and Inertia in plane
 Linear Statics 81
Element Properties

2. The transverse shear flexibility can be omitted by leaving the appropriate fields blank on the Bend
property entry. The format of the Bend property entry is as follows:

The CBUSH Element

The CBUSH element contains all the features of the CELASi elements without the internal constraint
problem. The following example demonstrates the use of the CBUSH element as a replacement for scalar
elements for static analysis. The analysis joins any two nodes by user-specified spring rates, in a
convenient manner without regard to the location or the output coordinate systems of the connected
nodes. Use of a CBUSH eliminates the need to avoid internal constraints when modeling.
To create the CBUSH, click the Nodes/Elements tab and select Bush from the 1DElements group. You
can enter a Node or an orientation vector as you did for BARS and BEAMS or you can specify a
82
Element Properties

coordinate system to be used as the element coordinate system. In the following example the basic
coordinate system is used to orient the CBUSH.
 Linear Statics 83
Element Properties

PBUSH
In dynamic analysis, the CBUSH elements can be used as vibration control devices that have impedance
values (stiffness and damping) that are frequency dependent. We will ignore those fields for static
analysis and simply input the desired stiffnesses in the appropriate directions.

To accomplish the same task with CELAS elements would require 6 elements, one for each degree of
freedom. In addition to the fact that CELAS elements ideally should be placed between coincident nodes.

Scalar Elements
A scalar element is an element that connects two degrees of freedom in the structure or one degree of
freedom and ground. The degrees of freedom may be any of the six components of a node or the single
component of a scalar point. Unlike the one-, two- and three-dimensional elements, the scalar element
lacks geometric definition. Hence, scalar elements do not have an element coordinate system.
84
Element Properties

Scalar elements are commonly used in conjunction with structural elements where the details of the
physical structure are not known or required. Typical examples include shock absorbers, joint stiffness
between linkages, isolation pads, and many others. Whenever scalar elements are used between nodes, it
is highly recommended that the nodes be coincident. If the nodes are non coincident, any forces applied
to the node by the scalar element may induce moments on the structure, resulting in inaccurate results.
For static analysis, the linear scalar springs are useful. There are three types of scalar springs. The formats
of the CELASi entries (elastic springs) are as follows:
 Linear Statics 85
Element Properties

CELAS2 includes properties on the element entry. The other elastic springs reference a property entry,
the format of which follows:

The sign convention for the scalar force and stress results is determined by the order of selection of the
end nodes. The force in the scalar element is computed by Equation (2-9).

F SPRING = K ( U 1 – U 2 ) (2-9)

Variable Element Properties

In some problems, properties may vary within an element, or a part. For example, the plate thickness may
vary quadratically across a part, or even within an element. You can describe a spatially varying property
either by creating a table that describes the variation or by typing in an equation using variables. You may
also use the following functions in your equation:

acos fmod
asin log
atan log10
atan2 sin
cos sinh
cosh sqrt
exp tan
fabs tanh
86
Element Properties

Variable Property Example:

In this example, we will create a plate of spatially varying thickness. To do this, we will create a shell
property. From there, instead of typing in a constant for Part thickness, we will create a function to define
the varying thickness using the drop-down menu to the right of the textbox. After doing so, complete the
form by choosing a material, a surface, and clicking OK.

Select
Function
 Linear Statics 87
Element Properties

Next we mesh the surface, selecting the variable element property.

88
Element Properties

We can verify that there is now a spatially varying thickness in our model by color coding based on Shell
Thickness. Select Shell Thickness from the Element Fringes menu on the Element Render toolbar:

Model is color coded

based on element
thickness
 Linear Statics 89
Meshing and Element Creation

Meshing and Element Creation

Modeling Guidelines
Finite element modeling in many ways is more like an art than a science since the quality of the results
is dependent upon the quality of your model. One of the more common errors that a beginning finite
element analyst makes in modeling is to simply simulate the geometry rather than to simulate both the
geometry and the physical behavior of the real structure. The following modeling guidelines are provided
to put a little more science back into the art of finite element modeling:
• Choosing the right element.
• Mesh transitions.

The above guidelines are by no means complete; however, they do serve as a good starting point. There
is no better substitute for good modeling than experience. It is also good modeling practice to simulate
and validate a new capability or a feature that you have not used before with a small prototype model
before applying this feature to your production model. Model verification techniques are covered in
Quality Checks.

SimXpert contains a large library of structural elements. In many situations several elements are capable
of modeling the same structural effects. The criteria for the selection of an element may include its
capabilities (for example, whether it supports anisotropic material properties), the amount of time
required to run an analysis (in general, the more DOF an element has, the longer it runs), and/or its
accuracy.
In many cases the choice of the best element for a particular application may not be obvious. For
example, in the model of a space frame, you may choose to use CROD elements if end moments are
unimportant or to use CBAR elements if end moments are important. You may choose to use CBEAM
elements with warping if the members have open cross sections and torsional stresses are estimated to be
significant. You may even choose to represent the members with built-up assemblies of plate or solid
elements. The choice of which type and number of elements to use depends primarily on your assessment
of the effects that are important to represent in your model and on the speed and accuracy you are willing
to accept.
In this context, it is critical that you have a fairly good idea of how the structure will behave prior to
generating your finite element model. The best source of such insight is usually experience with similar
structures. In other words, understanding the load path is crucial in the selection of the appropriate
element. In addition, a few hand calculations can usually provide a rough estimate of stress intensities.
Such calculations are always recommended. If you do not have a fairly good idea of how the structure
will behave, you may be misled by incorrect results due to errors or incorrect assumptions in your input
data preparation.
The following guidelines are provided to help you in selecting the “right” element for your task.
90
Meshing and Element Creation

Choosing the Right Element

Always experiment with a small test model when using elements with which you are not familiar. This
practice is easier than experimenting with a large production model, and it gives you a better
understanding of an element’s capabilities and limitations prior to applying it to a large production
model.
• Zero-Dimensional Elements

When you use CELAS elements to represent concentrated springs between two components of
translation, the directions of the two components must be coaxial. Even small deviations in direction can
induce a significant moment to your model that does not exist in your physical structure. It is
recommended that when a CELAS element is used, the locations of the two end points be coincident in
order to avoid this type of problem. If the two end points are not coincident, you should consider using a
CROD or CBUSH element instead.
• One-Dimensional Elements

If only an axial and/or torsion load is to be transmitted in an element, then the CROD is the easiest
element to use.
A CBAR is easier to use than a CBEAM element. The I1 and/or I2 values can be set to zero.
Use the CBEAM element instead of the CBAR element if any of the following features is important:
• The cross-sectional properties are tapered.
• The neutral axis and shear center do not coincide.
• The effect of cross-sectional warping on torsional stiffness is critical.
• The difference in the mass center of gravity and the shear center is significant.
The formulation for the CBEAM element is based on a flexibility approach; the element stiffness matrix
is generated by inverting the flexibility matrix. For this reason, I1 and I2 must not be zero for the CBEAM
element.
• Two-Dimensional Elements

In general, quadrilateral elements (CQUAD4) are preferred over the triangular elements (CTRIA3). The
CTRIA3 element is a constant strain element. It is excessively stiff, and when used alone, it is generally
less accurate than the CQUAD4 element, particularly for membrane strain. Whenever feasible, the
CQUAD4 element should be used instead of the CTRIA3 element. CTRIA3 should only be used when
necessary for geometric or topological reasons, for example, mesh transition between regions of
quadrilateral elements with different meshes or near the polar axis of a spherical shell.
Avoid using CTRIA3 in locations where the membrane stresses are changing rapidly, for example, in the
web of an I-beam. Since CTRIA3 has constant membrane stresses, a large number of them may be needed
to obtain acceptable accuracy. It is better to use quadrilateral elements or CTRIA6 elements, if possible.
 Linear Statics 91
Meshing and Element Creation

Do not use plate or shell elements (CQUADi, CTRIAi) in stiffened shell structures with very thin panels
that can buckle. Shear panels (CSHEAR) should be used in this case or in any situation where direct
stresses cannot be supported, such as in a very thin curved panel.

Avoid highly skewed elements (see Figure 2-17). The angle α should be as close to 90 degrees as
possible.

Figure 2-17 Highly Skewed Element

Aspect ratio is defined as l ⁄ ω (length/width). Very high aspect ratio (see Figure 2-18) should also be
avoided in areas where there is a high stress gradient.

Figure 2-18 Element with High Aspect Ratio

Warping is a measure of the amount the element deviates from being planar (see Figure 2-19). Element
warping should be minimized.

Element Mid-Plane

Figure 2-19 Highly Warped Element

Mesh Transitions
Mesh transition can be a complicated subject. It may simply be used to refine the mesh in a particular
area, connect different element types (for example, a CBAR element to a solid element), or provide
transitions required to model the geometry of the structure. Two guidelines for mesh transitions are as
follows:
92
Meshing and Element Creation

1. Never place a mesh transition in an area of interest or in an area where there is a large variation
in stress.
2. Mesh transitions should be located away from the areas of interest in a region.
Due to incompatibilities between finite element types, any transition between different element types
(even a transition from CQUAD4 to CTRIA3 elements) can result in local stress anomalies. Normally,
these stress anomalies are localized and dissipate quickly as you move away from the transition.
However, a problem arises when the transition occurs in an area of interest. In this case, the local stress
rises (or decreases) due to the effect of the transition; in other words, the results may be conservative (or
unconservative) in an area near a transition. However, if this localized stress variation occurs away from
areas of interest, the increase (or decrease) in stress caused by the transition should cause no concern.
• Transition from a Coarse Mesh to a Fine Mesh

The transition from a coarse mesh to a fine mesh, or vice versa, may not always be an easy task. One
common method of performing a transition is to use an intermediate belt of triangular elements as shown
in Figure 2-20.

Q4 Q4 T3
T3 Q4
Q4 Q4 T3

Q4 Q4 T3
T3 Q4
Q4 Q4 T3

Figure 2-20 Mesh Transition

Mesh Transition Between Dissimilar Element Types

RBE3
Attaching a plate or bar element to a solid element is a case of transition between dissimilar element
types. This process is more involved than it appears at first glance. Solid elements have stiffness only in
the translational DOFs at the attachment grid points; they have no stiffness for rotational DOFs. A simple
visualization is to think of the attachment of a solid element to a grid point as a “ball-and-socket” joint,
that is, translational forces may be transmitted, but no moment may be transmitted through the
connection.
This incompatibility of the element stiffness matrices represents a modeling problem whenever plate or
bar elements are attached to solid elements. Both plate and bar elements have stiffness for rotational
DOFs (although the plate element may not have a stiffness for the normal rotation). Therefore, special
modeling must be performed whenever a plate or bar is connected to a solid element. Otherwise, the
connection becomes a hinge (for plate elements) or a pinned connection (for bar elements).
 Linear Statics 93
Meshing and Element Creation

Several methods are available to handle the transition between these elements. These methods range from
adding extra elements (for example, adding an additional plate or bar that continues into the solid
element) to using special (R-type) elements for the transition.
One method of handling this transition is to use RBE3 elements. The RBE3 is an interpolation element,
which is ideally suited for this application. By using RBE3s, the rotations of the attached grid points is
simply slaved to the translations of the adjacent grid points. Examples of using RBE3 elements to connect
a solid element to a plate element and bar element are shown in Figure 2-21. The RBE3 elements attach
the rotational DOFs to the translational DOFs on the solid element.

5 1 10

8 4 9

13 12 15

14 11
Plate to Solid Connection

Y 22

X Bar to Solid Connection

Figure 2-21 Typical Transition Between Dissimilar Elements

For the plate to solid connection, two RBE3 elements suffice. To create them, select RBE3 from the
Interpolation Connectors group under the Assemble tab. Pick corner node 1 for the Reference Node,
94
Meshing and Element Creation

check RX, RY, and RZ as teh Reference Grid DOF, pick corner nodes 4, 5, and 8 as the Independent
nodes. Check translational DOFs X, Y, and Z as the Dependent Dof.

Click OK. Do the same for the other node that connects the plate to the solid: pick node 4 as the reference
node, then nodes 1, 5, and 8 as the independent and enter the same parameters as above on the Create
Rbe3 Element form.
For the bar to solid connection, one RBE3 element can make the connection: Select node 12 as the
reference node, and nodes 11, 13, 14, and 22 as the independent. Enter the same parameters as above on
the Create Rbe3 Element form.
These RBE3 elements transmit the loads to the independent DOFs. If RBE2 elements are used, then the
connection is “rigid.”
The important thing to remember when handling these connections is that the solid elements have no
stiffness for rotational DOFs, whereas the real structure does. This means that a special modeling effort
is needed when any element with bending stiffness is connected to a solid element.
When using the RBE3 element, care must be taken to ensure that the independent DOFs are sufficient to
transfer any applied loads. For the bar-to-solid connection in Figure 2-21, if only two independent nodes
 Linear Statics 95
Meshing and Element Creation

are used, the element is “unstable,” that is, since only the translational DOFs are used as independent
DOFs in the sample, the element is unstable for rotation about the axis connecting the two nodes.
Therefore, three non-colinear nodes are used. A simple way to remember this is to ask, “If I constrain the
DOFs that I list as independent on the RBE3, can I prevent any possible rigid body motion?” If the answer
to this question is “yes,” then the RBE3 element is capable of transferring any applied loads. In this way,
you can avoid possible problems in processing the RBE3 elements.

Shell-to-Solid Transition Element (RSSCON)

The RSSCON element conveniently eliminates the need to define RBE3s or MPCs (multipoint
constraints) to constrain a shell element’s translational and rotational degrees of freedom to a solid
element’s translational degrees of freedom. When using the RSSCON capability, the shell element mesh
must line up with the solid element mesh so that there is an exact element-to-element correspondence.

Upper Edge

Solid

Shell

Lower Edge

Figure 2-22 Clamped Connection of a Shell to a Solid

Through the RSSCON Bulk Data entry, the shell elements CQUAD4, CQUAD8, CTRIA3, CTRIA6,
CQUADR, and CTRIAR can be connected to the solid elements CHEXA, CPENTA, and CTETRA.
Elements with midside nodes are also supported. The three translational degrees of freedom and the two
rotational degrees of freedom of the shell edge are connected to the three translational degrees of freedom
of the upper and lower solid edge.
The RSSCON Bulk Data entry defines the connection of a shell element to a solid element. Details of the
RSSCON Bulk Data entry are described in the MD NASTRAN QRG. In SimXpert, you select RSSCON
from the Interpolation Connectors group under the Assemble tab, then simply pick a node on the shell
and one or more on the solid to which the shell is to be connected.
The best modeling practice is illustrated in Figure 2-23. The height of the connected solid element should
be chosen equal to the thickness of the shell. If the height of the connected solid element is much larger
than the thickness of the shell element, then the connection modeled with RSSCON will be stiffer than
the continuum model. For example, in a mesh where shell nodes are identical to or coincide with solid
nodes, the RSSCON Bulk Data entry may model a connection that is too stiff (see Figure 2-24). The
RSSCON connector element can accommodate a variety of mesh topologies, as shown in Figure 2-25.
96
Meshing and Element Creation

Solid

Shell

Figure 2-23 Best Modeling Practice for RSSCON

Figure 2-24 RSSCON in Meshes Where Solid and

Shell Elements Share Grid Points
 Linear Statics 97
Meshing and Element Creation

Slanted

HEXA

TRIA

HEXA20
PENTA

QUAD8 QUAD

Figure 2-25 Modeling Options with RSSCON

The only modeling requirement is that the shell node must lie on the line connecting the lower and upper
solid nodes.
98
Meshing and Element Creation

Mesh Control
Mesh sizes can be set interactively using Seed under the Meshing tab. In addition you can also define
hard points on curves or surfaces to ensure that a node is placed at that location. You do this using
Control > Points from the Misc group under the Meshing tab . Mesh should have high density in areas
of large stress gradients.

Meshing
Automeshing
You can use the selections under the Meshing tab to create multiple elements on geometry.
• AutoMesh - Used to create a finite element mesh on geometry or a tetrahedral mesh inside
bounding TRIA elements.
• Interactive Mesh Size - Interactively modifies the number of elements along a selected curve

Manual Meshing
You can use the selections under the Meshing tab to create mesh without having surfaces.
• 2-3-4 Line Mesh - Creates a mapped mesh by selecting 2,3, or 4 bounding curves. User can
modify the number of elements to be created on each curve. Set or modify the mesh elements
parameters using Params button from the pick menu.
• 3-4 Point Mesh - Creates mesh between the 3 or 4 selected points. You can specify the number of
elements to be created between each pair of selected points. Points should be selected in a
circular manner.
• FEM based group - Creates a solid or shell mesh by dragging quad elements or nodes through
space.
• Features group -Flange - Creates a flange by dragging selected nodes through a specified width
and angle.
• Edit group - Refine - Refines the selected mesh region to specified edge length, while
maintaining element connectivity with congruent elements.

Equivalence Coincident Nodes

Nodes along common edges of adjoining geometry entities need to match. If these nodes are not
coincident, your model will have free edges or faces at these points. Always merge coincident nodes
before analyzing your model using Equivalence from the Modify group under the Nodes/Elements tab.
 Linear Statics 99
Meshing and Element Creation

Quality Checks
Free Edges
You can check that your model has completed merging coincident nodes by displaying free edges in your
model. In Figure 2-26 the model is shown with free edges displayed by selecting Highlight FE Boundary
from the View menu.The picture on the left shows the model with a solid horizontal line running through
the middle. This indicates that a free edge exists there and the top and bottom are not connected. The
picture on the right shows the model after the coincident nodes have been merged. The model is now one
continuous piece.I

Free
(unconnect
ed) edge

Before After

Figure 2-26 Free Edge Check - Before and After Merge Coincident Nodes

Consistent Plate Normals

You can check the orientation of your plate elements using Normals from the Meshing tab from the Edit
group. When the pick box appears, in the Mode list, click Show Normal then click All. In Figure 2-27
you can see that these elements do not have consistent normals

Figure 2-27 Inconsistent Normals

100
Meshing and Element Creation

You can enforce consistent normals by now pulling down Fix Normals in the Mode list and then selecting
a reference element with the desired normal direction. You could also select Reverse Normasl and then
select the elements on which to reverse normals.

Figure 2-28 Consistent Normals

To turn off the display of normal vectors pull down Hide Normals in the Mode list then choose Select All.
 Linear Statics 101
Meshing and Element Creation

Element Shape Checks

The types of quality checks that SimXpert can perform for shell elements (2D Elem) can be seen by
observing the following image of the Check Quality form. The form is accessed using the toolbar by
selecting Quality: Check Quality / 2D Elem.
102
Meshing and Element Creation

• Warp check: Evaluates how far out of plane the element ‘bends’. Warp is computed by
determining the angle between the normals of 2 triangular regions superimposed on the element.
This check is also applicable to quad faces of solid elements.
• Taper check: Compares the ratios of the lengths of opposite edges of an element.
• Skew check: Compares the maximum angles between the element diagonals.
• Interior Angle check: Evaluates the interior angles measured at each of the four (or 3) corner
nodes.

The following measures are used to assess the quality of the elements in the model.

Aspect Ratio
The aspect ratio is calculated as:
Aspect = Lmax/Lmin

where: Lmax and Lmin are respectively the maximum and minimum edge lengths of the
element:

Note: The mid-side nodes of the higher order elements are ignored in computing the aspect ratio.

Length Degeneracy
The Length Degeneracy is defined as the minimum edge length of the element.
Degeneracy = Lmin

where: Lmin is the minimum edge length of the element

Note: The mid-side nodes of the higher order elements are ignored in computing the Length
Degeneracy.

Angle Degeneracy
The Angle Degeneracy is defined as the minimum interior angle of the element.
Angle Degeneracy = Amin

where: Amin is the minimum angle of the element

Note: The mid-side nodes of the higher order elements are ignored in computing the Angle
Degeneracy.
 Linear Statics 103
Meshing and Element Creation

Internal Angles
Angles are computed at each corner (neglecting mid side nodes of higher order elements) from the edge
vectors meeting at each corner (vertex of face).

Jacobian
The Jacobian for a quadrilateral or triangular shaped element is computed as:
Jacobian = Jmin/Jmax

where: Jmin and Jmax are respectively the minimum and maximum values of the determinant of
the Jacobian matrix, J, for the element, computed at the four integration (2X2 Gaussian
Quadrature) points. The Jacobian matrix, J, is the 2X2 matrix in the following equation
relating the partial derivatives of the shape functions, N, with respect to the parametric
coordinates ε and η, to the partial derivatives of the shape functions with respect to the
cartesian coordinates x and y.

∂N ⁄ ∂ε = ∂x ⁄ ∂ε ∂y ⁄ ∂ε ∂N ⁄ ∂x
∂N ⁄ ∂η ∂x ⁄ ∂η ∂y ⁄ ∂η ∂N ⁄ ∂y

Note: The mid-side nodes of the higher order elements are ignored in computing the Jacobian.
The Jacobian of a triangular face is always one (1.).

Skew
The Skew for a quadrilateral face is computed as:
Skew = (90 - α)
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Meshing and Element Creation

where: α is the acute angle formed by the two lines connecting the mid-point of the opposite
edges.

Note: The mid-side nodes of the higher order elements are ignored in computing the Skew.

The Skew for a triangular face is calculated as the minimum of the angles formed by each of the vertices
with the mid-points of its opposite edge with that edge.

Note: The mid-side nodes of the higher order elements are ignored in computing the Skew.

Taper
The quadrilateral face is first divided into two triangles by the diagonal connecting nodes 1 and 3. Let A1
and A2 are the areas of the two triangles thus formed.

1
 Linear Statics 105
Meshing and Element Creation

The quadrilateral face is then divided into two triangles by the diagonal connecting nodes 2 and 4. Let
A3 and A4 are the areas of the two triangles thus formed.

Taper is calculated as:

Taper = (Amax - Aavg)/Aavg

where: Amax is the maximum of the areas, A1, A2, A3, and A4, and Aavg is the average of A1,
A2, A3, and A4.

Note: The mid-side nodes of the higher order elements are ignored in computing the Taper. The
Taper for a triangular face is zero.

Warpage
The quadrilateral face is first divided into two triangles by the diagonal connecting nodes 1 and 3. Let α1
be the angle (degrees) between the normal vectors to the planes containing the two triangles thus formed.

1
106
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The quadrilateral face is then divided into two triangles by the diagonal connecting nodes 2 and 4.
Let α2 (degrees) be the angle between the normal vectors to the planes containing the two triangles thus
formed.

Warpage for a quadrilateral face is calculated as the minimum of the angles α1 and α2.

Note: The mid-side nodes of the higher order elements are ignored in computing the Warpage.
Warpage for a triangular face is zero.

If any element exceeds minimum or maximum tolerance levels specified for an element check, it is
considered to have failed that test.
 Linear Statics 107
Meshing and Element Creation

SimXpert can compute a Quality Index which is a weighted composite of all the selected quality checks.
You can toggle the display of the Quality Index by selecting Render > Fringes from the View menu.
108
Meshing and Element Creation

Elements that violate any of the activated quality criteria will be displayed in magenta. Those elements

color-coded red to orange have marginal quality. You can further investigate which specific tests your
elements may be failing by selecting the individual quality measure from the FE-Qual menu and your
display will update accordingly. The following image shows the model now color-coded based on
Element Render / Warpage.

Once again, failed elements are shown in magenta. Elements with a high value that does not exceed the
threshold are color-coded red or orange.
 Linear Statics 109
Meshing and Element Creation

The following shows how the quality rating is calculated for Warpage using the default settings from the
Quality form

Value Rating
Ideal 0 10
Good 3 9
Max 9 0

Aspect Ratio Taper Jacobian Skew Sum

Value 2.7933 0.3207 0.8675 12.8041
Quality Rating 8.207 4.780 2.333 80293
Weight 1 1 3 1
Weighted Quality 8.207 4.780 6.999 8.293 28.279
Rating
110
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Ideal Rating 10 10 10 10
Weighted Ideal 10 10 30 10 60
Rating

dd

Total Quality Rating = Σ (Quality Rating) * (Weight)

Total Quality Rating = (8.207) (1) + (4.780) (1) + (2.333) (3) + (8.293) (1) = 28.279
Ideal Quality Rating = (10) (1) + (10) (1) + (10) (3) + (10) (1) = 60
Quality Index is calculated by normalizing the Total Quality Rating vs the Ideal
Quality Index = 100 (28.279 / 60) = 47.132
 Linear Statics 111
Meshing and Element Creation

Tools to Help Fix Poorly Shaped Elements

• Manual - Nodes/Elements under the Move group select Manual -allows you to select a node and
drag it to a new location. Element color coding will change in real time to feed back how the
element’s quality is changing. Click the middle mouse button to finalize the new node location.

Nodes moved by dragging

Before After

• Quick Quality - On the Quality tab select Enhance Quality by Smoothing from Fix Elements pull
down menu under the Edit/Fix Elements group - allows you to select elements for mesh quality
enhancement then select desired parameters as shown below:
112
Meshing and Element Creation

• Num. Size Smooth Passes is the number of smoothing passes (iterations) where only the size
of the elements is affected.
• Num. Shape Smooth Passes is the number of smoothing passes (iterations) where only the
shape of the elements is affected.
• Num. Fast Shell Enhancing Passes is the number of smoothing passes (iterations) where
only the quality of failed elements is improved. Once they pass all selected criteria, no further
enhancement is performed for other elements.
• Num. Slow Shell Enhancing Passes is the number of smoothing passes (iterations) that affect
improving the quality of all selected elements, including those whos quality failed.
• Num. Weld Normality Enhancing Passes is the number of smoothing passes (iterations) that
affect improving xxx.
• Num. Warp Enhancing Passes is the number of smoothing passes (iterations) that move the
nodes (within the specified tolerance) normal to the surface to decrease the warping.
• Selecting Split quads to remove warpage causes SimXpert to, as necessary, divide quad
elements into two elements each.
• Selecting Move nodes along feature keeps nodes from being moved off surfaces while the
quality of the elements is being improved.
• Selecting Move nodes along boundary causes nodes on a boundary to be moved only on that
boundary.
• Selecting Visual updates causes the display to be updated
• Selecting Output File causes a file to be written that has information on the quality of the
elements, e.g. Jacobian, that are selected.
 Linear Statics 113
Loads and Boundary Conditions

Loads and Boundary Conditions

This chapter describes the static loads available when performing a linear static analysis. Each of the load
types discussed may be applied to your structure individually or in any combination.
Performing a static analysis requires that all rigid body displacements be removed prior to solving the
static equilibrium equations. This process involves specifying the appropriate boundary conditions for
your model. Boundary conditions are imposed in the form of constraints on selected degrees of freedom
on the model. Typically, several degrees of freedom (at least six) are constrained to ground using SPC
boundary conditions.
Besides single-point constraints, MD .Nastran provides a method of creating linear constraint
relationships between several degrees of freedom known as multiple-point constraints or MPCs. This
chapter discusses both the single-point and multiple-point constraints.

Fixed, Pinned and General Constraint

A Single-Point Constraint (SPC) is a constraint that is applied to a single degree of freedom, which may
be either a component of motion at a node or the displacement of a scalar point.
The primary applications for constraints are:
1. To tie a structure to ground.
2. To apply symmetric or antisymmetric boundary conditions by restraining the degrees of freedom
that must have a zero value to satisfy symmetry or antisymmetry. Symmetry is discussed in the
Modeling Guide.
3. To remove degrees of freedom that are not used in the structural analysis (that is, are not
connected to any structural elements or otherwise joined to the structure).
4. To remove degrees of freedom that are very weakly coupled to the structure. This condition can
occur, for example, to the rotations about the normal of a slightly curved shell. In this case, a
judgment must be made whether to remove the degree of freedom using an SPC (in which case
the structure may be overconstrained), or to leave it in the problem (in which case the stiffness
matrix is nearly singular). A reasonable rule is to constrain the degree of freedom if its stiffness
is less than 10-8 as large as the stiffness in another direction at the same node An analysis
parameter called Automatic Constraints causes an SPC to be applied automatically to components
of motion with zero or very small stiffness. This feature is on by default and is discussed in the
Perform the Simulation chapter.
• SPC, SPC1, and SPCD -- DOF constraints usually specified at model boundaries to define rigid
support points. They can also be used to apply an enforced displacement. Directions are in the
nodal coordinate system.
• SUPORT -- Used with inertia relief. A list of up to six non-redundant degrees of freedom that
describe all possible unconstrained motions.If you hold the SUPORT degrees of freedom
constrained, there is no possible rigid body motion.
114
Loads and Boundary Conditions

Nodal BC
• FORCE and MOMENT -- Concentrated forces and moments, which are applied directly to a
node. The magnitude is entered directly. The direction is defined by entering the components of
a vector.
• RFORCE -- Rotational static load. The forces on the structure are based on the mass distribution
in the model.
• SLOAD -- Concentrated load. Primarily used to apply loads to scalar points.
• TEMP -- Temperature at nodes for determination of thermal loading, temperature-dependent
material properties, or stress recovery.

Element BC
• DEFORM -- Enforced axial deformation for 1D elements for use in statics problems.

Pressure
• PLOAD1 -- A distributed load applied to a line element (a CBAR or CBEAM, for example).
• PLOAD2 -- A pressure load applied to a two-dimensional element (a CQUAD4, CTRIA3, or
CSHEAR, for example)
• PLOAD4 -- General-purpose pressure and/or traction loads applied to a two-dimensional
element or the face of a solid element.

Temperature
• TEMPP1 -- Average temperature and gradient in the thickness direction of a two-dimensional
element.
• TEMPRB -- Average temperature at ends A and B for line elements, includes cross-sectional
temperature gradients for use with CBAR, CBEAM, and CBEND elements only.

Multi-Point Constraint
In SimXpert, the term Multiple-Point Constraint (MPC) is used to describe an imposed linear relationship
between two or more degrees of freedom that are expressed in the form

 Rj uj = 0
j
where:

u j = any degree of freedom defined by a node or scalar point

R j = user-defined scale factor

Multipoint constraints have many important practical applications and can be used to
1. Define the relative motion between two grid points as a degree of freedom.
 Linear Statics 115
Loads and Boundary Conditions

2. Define the average of several motions as a degree of freedom.

3. Supply hinges or sliding joints between parts of a structure.
4. Join dissimilar elements, for example, to join elements with rotational degrees of freedom to
elements that have only translational degrees of freedom (to join shell elements to solid elements
for example).
5. Obtain the resultant of forces on a structure or on part of a structure.
6. Distribute a force to several points in a structure. This is particularly useful if the force is an
unknown force, for example, the force required to compress a fluid.
7. Join elements with non coincident grid points, for example, to change mesh size within a
structure.
8. Replace extremely stiff structural members with rigid connections. This modeling technique
should only be used when necessary to improve the numerical conditioning of the stiffness matrix.
MPCs can be used for this application, but they are not recommended. The preferred method is to
use a Rigid element because this element is simpler, and therefore less prone to error.
9. Define a component of motion at a node that is not aligned with the axes of the nodal coordinate
system, for example, to enable the user to supply a constraint in such a direction with an additional
SPC entry.
• MPC -- Defines a multipoint constraint equation.

Global BC
• Gravity -- The forces on the structure are based on the mass distribution in the model.
• RLOAD1 and RLOAD2 -- Defines a frequency-dependent dynamic excitation.
• Initial Transient Condition -- Defines values for the initial conditions of variable used in
structural transient analysis.
• TLOAD1and TLOAD2 -- Defines time-dependent dynamic load or enforced motion.

LBC Sets
Loads and boundary conditions can be grouped into sets. The applied loads may be used independently
or combined with each other. The loads can also be applied in multiple loading subcases, in which each
subcase represents a particular loading and/or boundary condition. Multiple loading subcases provide a
means of solution efficiency, whereby the solution time for subsequent subcases is a small fraction of the
solution time for the first, for a particular boundary condition.
116
Loads and Boundary Conditions

To group your applied loads into load sets right click on LBC set in the Model Browser and select new
LBC Set.

Supply a name for your LBC set, then select the desired loads and boundary conditions.
 Linear Statics 117
Perform the Simulation

Perform the Simulation

Create an Analysis job

You set up and submit the analysis of your model by right clicking on FileSet and selecting Create New
Nastran Job.
Enter a Job Name, Select Solution Type (SOL 101) which is the linear statics solution and select the file
path and file name for nastran file that will be exported.

General Parameters
Once your job is created, you can expand your job name in the Model Browser and enter parameters that
will control your analysis. There are some special considerations for certain element types that can be
118
Perform the Simulation

controlled from the General Linear Solver Parameters form. Double-click Solver Control. Here we look
specifically at the Model Building Options.
.

Automatic Constraints and Plate RZ Stiffness Factor

When you use the Automesher and create CQUAD4 and CTRIA3 elements the mesher specifies four
nodes for each CQUAD4 and three nodes for each CTRIA3 element. These nodes define the corners of
the element. The element, however, is elastically connected to only five of the six degrees of freedom at
each of its nodes. The element does not provide direct elastic stiffness to the sixth degrees of freedom,
that is, the rotation about the normal to the surface of the element. Therefore, if a node is attached to the
CQUAD4 elements only and all of the elements are in the same plane, then the rotational degrees of
freedom about the surface normal have zero stiffness. Unless precautions are taken, this zero stiffness
results in a singular stiffness matrix and the job fails.
To avoid this potential problem, you have two choices. The first choice is to identify the rotational
degrees of freedom and constrain these components using an SPC entry. If you choose this approach,
make sure that you do not constrain any components that have stiffness attached. To automatically
identify and constrain those degrees of freedom in the model that have no stiffness, you can use the
Automatic Constraints parameter. When this parameter is used, a table is printed in the output file
indicating which degrees of freedom in the model are constrained. It is a good practice to review this table
to ensure that the components being constrained actually should be constrained and that no components
are left unconstrained due to a modeling error. The second method of eliminating the singularity
associated with the normal rotation degree of freedom is to apply an artificial stiffness term to the degrees
of freedom using the Plate RZ Stiffness Factor. It is important to remember when using this parameter
 Linear Statics 119
Perform the Simulation

that the stiffness being included for the rotational degree of freedom is not a true stiffness and should not
be used as such. For example, if you need to connect a CBAR element to the CQUAD4 element, you
should not rely on the K6ROT stiffness to transfer the bending moment at the end of the CBAR into the
plate. Various methods of transitioning different element types are discussed in “Modeling Guidelines”.
Solid elements contain stiffness only in the translation degrees of freedom at each node. Similar to the
normal rotational degrees of freedom for the CQUAD4, you should be aware of the potential singularities
due to the rotational degrees of freedom for the solid elements. You may either constrain the singular
degrees of freedom manually or you can let SimXpert automatically identify and constrain them for you
using the Automatic Constraints parameter. The parameter Plate RZ Stiffness Factor does not affect
solid elements. Also any combination of the solid elements with elements that can transmit moments
require special modeling. Transitioning elements is discussed in “Modeling Guidelines”.
Automatic Constraints is automatically turned on by default in a linear static solution. The default and
recommended value for the Plate RZ Stiffness Factor is 100.0 for a linear static solution.

Shell Normal Tolerance Angle

By default, the direction of the normal rotation vector for flat plate elements is assumed to be
perpendicular to the plane of each element. If the model is curved, the shell bending and twisting
moments must change direction at the element intersection. With the unique normal (Shell Normal
Tolerance Angle) option, the rotational degrees of freedom at each corner of an element are measured
relative to the specified normal vector direction. Thus, all elements connected to a node will use a
consistent direction for defining shell bending and twisting moments.
The objective of the transformation is to remove a potential weakness in curved shell models and allow
the automatic constraint process to remove the true singularity in the assembled stiffness matrix.
Shell normals are available for CQUAD4, CQUADR, CTRIA3, and CTRIAR elements. Normals are
activated if the actual angle between the local element normal and the unique node normal is less than
the Shell Normal Tolerance Angle. The Shell Normal Tolerance Angle value can be changed by
setting it to the desired real value up to 89 degrees.
Shell
Normal

Local Normal of Shell 1 Local Normal of Shell 2

Shell Normal Tolerance Angle Shell Normal Tolerance Angle

Shell 1 Shell 2

Figure 2-29 Unique Node Normal

A shell normal defines a unique direction for the rotational degrees of freedom of all adjacent elements.
A shell normal vector is created by averaging the normal vectors of the attached elements. If the actual
120
Perform the Simulation

angle is greater than the value defined by the Shell Normal Tolerance Angle the edge is assumed to be
a corner and the local element normals are used. Shell normals improve the accuracy of the results in
curved shells where in-plane shear and twisting moments act together.
A material should be entered for Transverse shear flexibility (MID3 on the PSHELL property entry)
when Shell Normal Tolerance Angle is used. The default value for the Shell Normal Tolerance Angle
is 20.0

Mass Handling Options

Weight - Mass Conversion

You must input all of your properties using a consistent set of units. For example, if you are using meters
(m) for defining locations on your grid entries, then your properties, such as areas (A), should be in terms
of m2. SimXpert expects your mass input (MATi, CONMi, etc.) to be in terms of mass units. However,
if you would rather input your mass in terms of weight units, then you must include a Weight - Mass
Conversion factor. The default value for this factor is 1.0. In other words, the weight density is related to
the mass density by the relationship

ρ m =  --- ⋅ ρ w = ( Weight - Mass Conversion factor) ⋅ ρ w

1
 g

where:
 Linear Statics 121
Perform the Simulation

ρ w = weight density

ρ m = mass density
g = gravitational acceleration constant

Density and all other masses are multiplied by this Weight - Mass Conversion factor. The results (e.g.,
displacements, stresses, etc.) are the same using either of the above mass or weight units.
If you are using English units, then the following two sets of entries yield the same results. Of course,
other units in your model must also be consistent, for example, the nodal locations and any properties.

Figure 2-30 Mass Units

Figure 2-31 Weight Units

Node for Weight Generation

• Weight Center of Gravity and Moment of Inertia Check
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Perform the Simulation

Is the weight of my model correct? This question can be answered by activating the Node for Weight
Generation.

where:

Node Result
-1 Weight generation output is skipped (default).
0 The mass properties are computed relative to the origin of the basic coordinate system.
any The mass properties are computed relative to node x. If node x does not exist, the properties
integer > are computed relative to the basic coordinate system.
0

The output from the Node for Weight Generation is written to the .f06 file and includes a rigid body mass
matrix, various coordinate transformations, and the location of the center of mass. The output is generally
more information than most analysts need. The mass and center of gravity (CG) location is typically all
that is used. A partial output is shown in Figure 2-32.

MASS AXIS SYSTEM (S) MASS X-C.G. Y-C.G. Z-C.G.

X 3.375000E+01 0.000000E+00 0.000000E+00 0.000000E+00
Y 3.375000E+01 2.500000E+00 0.000000E+00 0.000000E+00
Z 3.375000E+01 2.500000E+00 0.000000E+00 0.000000E+00

Figure 2-32 Partial Output from the Weight Generator

The weight generator output is in the same units as your density or point masses. In other words, if your
input is in mass units, then the output is also in mass units. If your input is in weight units, then the output
is also in weight units.
The output from the Weight Generator is for informational purposes only and is not used in any
subsequent steps in the solution process.
Remember you can also calculate the mass and center of gravity of your model in SimXpert by selecting
Tools > Scene Properties... and either Combined Mass or Combined Center of Gravity.

Case Control Section

Immediately following the solution and general parameters is the Case Control Section. Case Control
commands are used to
 Linear Statics 123
Perform the Simulation

• Define subcases (e.g., loading and boundary conditions).

• Make selections of loads, constraints, etc.
• Specify output requests.
• Define titles, subtitles and labels for documenting the analysis.

Create Subcase
The subcase dialog box lets you select the loads and constraints to apply to your analysis.You can apply
boundary conditions as both the common level or in subcases. If your analysis requires multiple load or
constraint sets, you must create subcases.
MPCs: pick a constraint set to define constraint equations.
Output Requests
Use the Output Requests dialog box to identify the types of output that you want from the analysis. You
can select to output any combination of the results shown on the following form:

Output Files
The purpose of this section is to introduce the output file generated by a typical run. After an input file is
submitted for execution, several output files may be generated. Table 2-3 provides summary descriptions
of all the potential files generated by SimXpert (the input file is named run1.bdf). The output files that
124
Perform the Simulation

are generated depend on your input file requests that you specify when the job is submitted. Some of the
files shown will not be generated, and some will be generated and deleted automatically once the job is
complete.

Table 2-3 Files Resulting from Submitting the Job Named run1.bdf
run1.bdf The input file describing the model, the type of solution, the output requests,
etc. Generated by SimXpert.
run1.f06 The main text output file containing output such as displacements, element
forces, stresses, etc. Results values are written to this file if Print is checked
for Text Output.
run1.f04 A history of the assigned files, disk space usage, and modules used during the
analysis. Useful for debugging.
run1.log A summary of the command line options used and the execution links.
run1.DBALL A database containing the input file, assembled matrices, and solutions. Used
also for restarting the run for additional analysis or output. Generated if
Nastran DB is selected for Binary Output
run1.MASTER The file containing the master directory of the files used by the run and the
physical location of the files on the system. This file is also needed for a
restart run. Generated if Nastran DB is selected for Binary Output
run1.pch Contains the punch output if requested in the input file. Generated if Punch is
checked for Text Output
 Linear Statics 125
Perform the Simulation

Table 2-3 Files Resulting from Submitting the Job Named run1.bdf
run1.op2, Graphics database used by SimXpert for postprocessing of the
results.Generated if OP2 is selected for Binary Output
runl.xdb Graphics database used by SimXpert for postprocessing of the
results.Generated if XDB is selected for Binary Output
miscellaneous scratch Several scratch files are generated during the analysis which SimXpert will
files automatically delete upon completion of the run.

The main text output is located in the .f06 file and the .f04 and .log files are useful for debugging your
model should problems occur.
126
Results

Results
Once your analysis is complete, select File > Attach Results and navigate to your results file. If your
analysis ran externally to SimXpert and you do not have the model in SimXpert, select Both on the Attach
Results form. This will read in model information as well as results from the results file.
Output data is also stored in Result Cases. If you run your model with several different loading conditions
or through several different analysis types, SimXpert will keep the output data from each analysis in a
different Result Case.
Postprocessing can be divided into two main categories: Chart and State Plot. State Plot postprocessing
can be further divided into the following types of plots:
1. Deformation
Can be displayed in any available render style. You can turn the display of the undeformed shape
on or off as desired.
2. Fringe
Color code your model based on result value
3. Vector
Show vectors representing direction and magnitude of result value.
4. Tensor
5. Contour Line
6. 0D Probe
All plot types can be animated. You can animate a single result case by applying a progressive scale
factor to the deformation result or you can animate over a selection of result sets. All plot types can be
displayed together in the same window if desired.
 Linear Statics 127
Results

Result Plots
The Result Plot properties form is the main control for postprocessing. It is from here you can control
which result set is being displayed, how your model is displayed and select your desired postprocessing
options.

You can use dynamic rotation to manipulate your model while results are displayed and also during
animation.
• How to Select the Data used for postprocessing

The state plot properties form is accessed by clicking on the Results tab and selecting the desired plot
type.
To choose the data used in the display, in the Results Cases list click the desired Result Case (A in figure),
then click the Results Type to use (B), and, if desired, you can make selections for Derivation and Target
Entities. You can limit the Results Cases listed using the Filter text box. If you are animating multiple
Results Cases, simply select all desired cases in the Results Cases list.
• Deformed Shape Plots

The following are some of the options control the appearance of your deformed shape plot:
1. Deformed display scaling - True: applies the related scale factor to the actual computed values for
displacement To see a plot of your actual displacement set the scale factor to 1. Relative: applies
the scale factor to display the maximum displacement as a percentage of your maximum model
dimension. This is usually an exaggerated plot for ease in visualization.
2. Deformed Shape - controls rendering for Deformed shape display.
3. Undeformed Shape - can display or remove the undeformed model, as well as control how it is
Contour Style View Options
• Fringe Plots

The Fringe tab allows access to data transforms. These options are very important to understand since
they control how the data is converted from pure discrete numbers to a visual representation. Improper
selection of data transforms can lead to erroneous interpretation of the results.
128
Results

You can specify which domain in the model to use for result averaging in order to obtain an accurate
representation of the results. The following domains are available:
1. Property - results will not be averaged across property boundaries
2. Material - results will not be averaged across material boundaries
3. All Entities - results will be averaged at all common nodes
4. Target Entities - results will be averaged only between the elements selected as the target entities
5. Element Type - results will not be averaged across boundaries between different types of elements
6. None - no averaging of results between any elements. Fringe values are based on individual
element results only.
When the averaging domain is set to anything other than All Entities the resulting graphics may not be
as smooth but this is a more accurate representation of the results when discontinuities exist in the
structure.
You can compare the difference between using an averaging domain of None to one of the other averaged
domains to assess your mesh quality. If there is a large difference in the maximum result these between
the two fringe plots, especially at locations that do not have sharp corners or breaks in the model, the
mesh may need to be refined in that area.
The Result averaging method controls how SimXpert converts the results from pure data at element
centroids, corners, and nodes to the actual continuous graphical representation. The following methods
are available.
1. Derive/Average - calculates the selected result value first then applies a simple average of all the
contributing nodes.
2. Average/Derive - averages the contributions of the common nodes then derives the result
3. Difference - computes the minimum and maximum results for the elements sharing a common
node. The difference between the maximum and minimum contributor to each node is plotted.
The fringe plot of this difference is an indicator of mesh quality: result differences between
neighboring elements should not be large. If large discontinuities are found the mesh should be
refined in that area. Nodal results will have zero max-difference.
4. Sum - Sums the result values of all contributing nodes. No averaging.
• Fringe attributes

Style allows you to choose between

1. Discrete - Each range on the spectrum is given a unique color block
2. Continuous Colors - The model is displayed with smooth transitions between each color
3. Element Fill - Elements are displayed with one solid color
• Vector Plots

Vector attributes - allows you to choose whether to scale vector lengths are adjusted, and how the vectors
are color coded.
 Linear Statics 129
Results

• Animation

Animation attributes- controls number of frames, delay, and type of scale factor used to generate the
animation (Sinusoid, Linear, etc.)

Chart Plots
SimXpert can create XY plots of results. Control over the contents of a chart is provided by the chart
properties form. The chart properties form is accessed by clicking on the Results toolbox and selecting
Chart. It allows you to control the Results Cases and Results Type shown on the XY data plots. Choose
the Results Cases and the Results Type from the appropriate list boxes. You can limit the Results Cases
you see in the list box by using the Filter button.The Chart Properties form controls whether an XY plot
is displayed, and what type of chart to display.
130
Results
 Linear Buckling 127

Linear Buckling
128
Overview and Definition

Overview and Definition

Introduction
In linear static analysis, a structure is normally considered to be in a state of stable equilibrium. As the
applied load is removed, the structure is assumed to return to its original position. However, under certain
combinations of loadings, the structure may become unstable and continue to deflect without increase in
the magnitude of the loads. In such cases, the structure has actually buckled or has become unstable and
hence, the term “instability” is often used interchangeably with the term “buckling.” Buckling results
from axial forces that act tangent to the axis of loading in case of bars, and membrane forces that act
tangent to the midsurface in case of shells and plates.
Only linear buckling or elastic stability is considered in this user’s guide; in other words, assume there is
no yielding of the structure and the direction of the forces do not change (i.e., follower force effects are
ignored).
This chapter is organized into the following sections:
• Finite element analysis
• Eigenvalue extraction
• Assumptions and limitations of linear buckling analysis
• Examples

Finite Element Analysis

In finite element analysis, the problem of linear buckling is addressed by including the effect of the
differential stiffness to the linear stiffness matrix. The differential stiffness is obtained by including the
higher-order terms of the strain-displacement relationships. From a physical standpoint, the differential
stiffness matrix represents the linear approximation of softening (reducing) the linear stiffness matrix in
the case of a compressive axial load, and stiffening (increasing) the linear stiffness matrix in the case of
a tensile axial load. Since the differential stiffness either adds or subtracts from the linear stiffness, often
it is also called the incremental stiffness. The linear and differential stiffness matrices of an element ‘i’
are denoted as [ka]i and [kd]i respectively.
 Linear Buckling 129
Overview and Definition

The differential stiffness matrix is a function of the geometry, element type, and applied loads. A look at
the differential stiffness matrix of a single planar bar element shown in Single Planar Bar ElementSingle
Planar Bar ElementSingle Planar Bar ElementSingle Planar Bar ElementSingle Planar Bar Element
depicts how a linear buckling analysis is handled using a finite element approach. For clarity, only the y
and θ z degrees of freedom at each end are retained for this example.

Figure 3-1 Single Planar Bar Element

The differential stiffness for this planar bar element can be represented as

6F x – F x – 6F x – Fx
----------i ----------i -------------i ----------i
5li 10 5l i 10
– Fx 2li F x F x – li Fx
----------i -------------i -------i -------------i
10 15 10 5li
[ k d ]i = (3-1)
– 6Fx Fx 6F x Fx
-------------i -------i ----------i -------i
5li 10 5l i 10
– Fx – lF x F x 2l i Fx
----------i ------------i -------i -------------i
10 30 10 15

where Fxi is the axial force in the CBAR element. In this case, Pa (applied load) = F xi since there is only
one element in the model and the applied load is in line with the element axis. In the general case, Fxi is
proportional to P a as long as the structure remains linear; in other words, if P a is increased by a scale
factor a i , then Fxi also increases by the same scale factor. Note also that the differential stiffness matrix
is dependent only on the element type, the applied forces, and the geometry of the structure. This is the
reason why the differential stiffness is also often called the geometric stiffness matrix. Eq. 1 can,
therefore, be rewritten as follows:
130
Overview and Definition

6α i – αi –6 αi –αi
-------- -------- ----------- --------
5l i 10 5l i 10
– α 2l i α i α i – l i α i
--------i -----------
- ------ ------------
10 15 10 5l i
[ kd ]i = Pa = Pa [ kd ] i (3-2)
–6 αi αi 6α α
----------- ------ --------i ------i
5l i 10 5l i 10
– α – l i α α 2l i α i
--------i ------------i ------i -----------
-
10 30 10 15

The system linear stiffness matrix can then be represented as

n

[ Ka ] =  ka i
i

Similarly, the system differential stiffness matrix can be represented as

n

[ Kd ] =  kd i
i

In general, the individual [ k d ] i is more complicated than Eq. 1; however, the concept is the same. The
overall system stiffness matrix is represented by Eq. 3.

[ K ] = [ Ka ] + [ Kd ] (3-3)

The total potential energy is equal to

T T
[ U ] = 0.5 { u } [ K ] a { u } + 0.5 { u } [ K d ] { u }

(3-4)
In order for the system to achieve static equilibrium, the total potential must have a stationary value; in
other words, the relationship in Eq. 5 must be satisfied.

∂[ U ]
------------ = [ K a ] { u } + [ K d ] { u } = { 0 } (3-5)
∂u i

where u i is the displacement of the i-th degree of freedom.

It is convenient to rewrite Eq. 5 as

[ [ K a ] + Pa [ K d ] ] { u } = { 0 } (3-6)
 Linear Buckling 131
Overview and Definition

where K d = P a [ K d ] and Pa is the applied load. In order for Eq. 6 to have a non-trivial solution, the
following relationship must be true:

[ Ka ] + Pa [ Kd ] = { 0 } (3-7)

where | | stands for the determinant of the matrix. Eq. 7 is only satisfied for certain values of Pa . These
values are of the critical buckling loads.
A real structure has an infinite number of degrees of freedom. The finite element model approximates the
behavior of the structure with a finite number of degrees of freedom. The number of buckling loads
obtainable for your finite element model is equal to the number of degrees of freedom of your model. In
other words,

P cr = λ i ⋅ P a (3-8)
i

Eq. 7 can, therefore, be rewritten as

[ Ka ] + λ i [ K d ] = { 0 } (3-9)

Eq. 9 is in the form of an eigenvalue problem, which can be solved using any of the three methods as
described in the next section. Once you obtain the eigenvalues λ i , the buckling loads can then be
obtained using Eq. 8. The values λ i are the scale factors by which the applied load Pa is multiplied to
produce the critical buckling loads Pcr i . As you can see from Eq.8, the magnitude of the applied load P a
is arbitrary for arriving at the correct Pcr i . As an example, if P a is increased by a factor of 10, then the
calculated λ i values in Eq.9 are reduced by a factor of 10; in other words, their resulting products P cri
remain the same.
In general, only the lowest buckling load is of any practical interest. The structure will fail prior to
reaching any of the higher buckling loads.

SimXpert Solution Methodology

Solution 105.
In SimXpert you can solve a linear buckling problem by using solution 105, which follows the procedure
listed below:
1. A subcase is defined by applying the static loads and a linear static analysis is performed. The
distribution of element forces due to the applied loads is generated internally. The actual
magnitude of applied loads is not critical.
2. One additional subcase is needed for the buckling analysis, which requests an eigenvalue method
from the Bulk Data Section to solve the eigenvalue problem.
132
Overview and Definition

3. The differential stiffness matrix is automatically generated for each element that supports
differential stiffness.
4. You must then multiply the first eigenvalue obtained in Step 3 by the applied loads to obtain the
buckling loads (Eq. 8) for each buckling analysis.
There can be many subcases having different loading and/or boundary conditions, but each subcase must
be associated with the relevant additional subcase for eigenvalue.

Eigenvalue Extraction Method

Seven methods of real eigenvalue extraction are available:
Givens
Modified Givens
Householder
Modified Householder
Inverse power
Enhanced inverse power
Lanczos
Three out of these seven methods can be used for linear buckling analysis:
Inverse power
Enhanced inverse power
Lanczos

Inverse Power Method (INV)

The inverse power method is a tracking method since it attempts to extract the lowest eigenvalue and
eigenvector in the desired range first. Their effects are then “swept” out. The next higher mode is then
found, and its effects are “swept” out, and so on--hence, the term “tracking,” which means that one root
at a time is found. Furthermore, each root is found via an iterative process. (The classical literature often
refers to this method as the “inverse iteration method with sweeping”.)
Unfortunately, depending on your selection of the eigenvalue range, the inverse power method can miss
modes, which makes it unreliable. For this reason, the inverse method is not recommended. The
enhanced inverse power method is, in general, a more reliable tracking method.

Enhanced Inverse Power Method (SINV)

This method is similar to the inverse power method except that it uses Sturm sequence logic to ensure
that all modes are found within the specified eigenvalue range. The Sturm sequence informs you of the
number of modes below each trial eigenvalue. See MSC.Nastran Numerical Methods User’s Guide and
 Linear Buckling 133
Overview and Definition

the MSC.Nastran Basic Dynamic Analysis User’s Guide for further details regarding the Sturm
sequence check.

Lanczos Method
The Lanczos method overcomes the limitations and combines the best features of the other methods. It
is efficient, and if an eigenvalue cannot be extracted within the range that you specify, a diagnostic
message is issued. This method computes accurate eigenvalues and eigenvectors. Furthermore, it prints
meaningful user diagnostics and supports parallel processing computers.

Comparison of Methods
The best method for a particular model depends on four factors:
The size of the model (the total number of degrees of freedom)
The desired number of eigenvalues
The available real memory on your computer
How well you can estimate the range of your eigenvalues
The enhanced inverse power method (SINV) can be a good choice if the model is too large to fit into
memory, only a few modes are needed, and you have a reasonable idea of your eigenvalue range of
interest. It is useful for models in which only the lowest few modes are desired. This method is also useful
as a backup method to verify the accuracy of other methods.
For medium to large models, the Lanczos method is the recommended method. Furthermore, the Lanczos
method takes full advantage of sparse matrix methods that can substantially increase computational
speed and reduce disk space usage. For overall robustness, the Lanczos method is the recommended
method.

Assumptions and Limitations of Linear Buckling Analysis

The following assumptions and limitations apply to linear buckling analysis:
1. The deflections must be small.
2. The element stresses must be elastic.
3. The differential stiffness is supported for the following elements: CROD, CTUBE, CBAR,
CBEAM, CBEND, CQUAD4, CQUAD8, CTRIA3, CTRIA6, CSHEAR, CHEXA, CPENTA,
and CTETRA.
4. A minimum of five grid points per half sine wave (buckled shape) is recommended.
5. The distribution of the internal element forces due to the applied loads remains constant.
6. Offsets should not be used in beam, plate, or shell elements for buckling analysis.
7. For 3-D buckling problems, the use of Plate RZ Stiffness Factor (PARAM, K6ROT in MD
Nastran) is recommended for CQUAD4 and CTRIA3 elements. A value of 100 is recommended.
134 Linear Buckling Analysis
Example

8. For structures that exhibit nonlinear material or large deflection deformations, the linear buckling
load obtained from Solution 105 may be different than the actual buckling load. For structures
with significant nonlinearities, it is recommended that you perform a nonlinear buckling analysis
using Solution 106. The discussion of nonlinear analysis is beyond the scope of this user’s guide.
Example
Linear Buckling Analysis

Problem Description
This problem explores the buckling analysis of a plate having uniform cross section. The first five
buckling modes and mode shapes of the plate will be analyzed. The bottom edge of the plate is pinned
while the top edge is allowed to translate in the Y direction while being able to rotate in all directions.
A

In this example you will:

• Create geometry using SimXpert geometry tools.
• Set up simulation conditions for a linear buckling analysis.
• Create deformation, fringe and vector plots of displacement.

Startup SimXpert and Define Materials and Properties

In this section, you will assign global units for the simulation, then create material and element properties
and define a part
 Linear Buckling 135
Example

Enter the Structures Workspace and Set English Units:

1. Startup SimXpert and select Structures as the default workspace from the startup panel.
2. From the Tools menu, select Options, then choose Units Manager from the tree.
3. Click Standard Units.
4. Scroll down then select the row with Standard English Units (in, lb, s,...).
5. Click OK.
6. Choose BC from the tree
7. Check the Display All Dir Vector checkbox.
8. Click OK.

Create an Isotropic Material:

1. On the Material and Properties, select Isotropic from the Material group.
2. Change the Material Name to Aluminum.
3. Enter the values:

Young’s Modulus 10e6

Poisson’s ratio 0.3
Density 0.1

4. Click OK.

Create an Element Property:

1. On the Material and Properties, select Shell from the 2D Properties group.
2. Change the Name to Al Plate.
3. Click the box for Material ID, then pick Aluminum from the Model Browser Tree.
4. Check the box for Part Thickness and enter 0.1.
5. Click OK.

Create a Part:
1. On the Geometry tab, select Create Part from the Part group.
2. On the Create Part form, enter Plate for Title.
3. Click in the 2D Property text box then click Al Plate in the Model Browser tree.
4. Click OK.

Create Plate Geometry

1. On the Geometry tab, select Filler from the Surface group.
136 Linear Buckling Analysis
Example

2. On the Filler form, uncheck Using Curves.

3. Click in the Entities text box.
4. In the X,Y,Z Input box, enter 0 0 0, then click OK.
5. Enter 0 5 0., then click OK.
6. Enter 2 5 0., then click OK.
7. Enter 2 0 0., then click OK.
8. Click Ok on the Filler form.
9. From the View menu, click Model Views, then click Top to show a plan view.
10. From the View menu, click Display, then click Fill to zoom in on the part

Modeling Window Shows: A rectangular surface.

Mesh Surface
1. On the Meshing tab select Surface from the Automesh group.
2. On the Mesher form, click in the Surface to Mesh field.
3. Screen pick the surface.
4. On the Mesher form, enter 0.667 for Element Size.
5. Click OK.

Modeling Window Shows: A rectangular surface meshed with a 3 x 7 grid.

Create Constraints and Loads

Apply a Force on the Top Edge of the Plate:

1. On the LBCs tab, select Force from the Loads group
2. Enter the following values:

Force Name: Force

Magnitude 1000
Direction-X 0
Direction-Y -1
Direction-Z 0

3. Click in the Pick Entities text box.

4. Screen pick the 4 nodes at the short, top end of the plate.
 Linear Buckling 137
Example

5. Click OK.

Modeling Window Shows: Force arrows pointing downward showing a force of F[1000].

Create Constraints:
1. On the LBCs tab, select General from the Constraints group
2. Enter Buckling Constraint for Name .
3. Uncheck the checkboxes for Ty, Rx, Ry, and Rz.
4. Click in the Pick Entities textbox.
5. Screen pick the same 4 top nodes as the Force.
6. Click OK.

Modeling Window Shows: GC[1 3] at each of the 4 nodes at the top end of the plate.

7. On the LBCs tab, select Pin from the Constraints group

8. Click in the Pick Entities textbox.
9. Screen pick the 4 nodes at the bottom end - opposite from the Force.
10. Click OK

Modeling Window Shows: SPC[1 2 3] at each node along the bottom end of the plate

Setting up the Buckling Analysis

You will set up a Job by defining specific output requests. You will create a MD Nastran input file that
will be submitted to the solver.

Create the Buckling Analysis Solution Parameters:

1. Right-click FileSet and click Create New Nastran Job.
2. On the Job Properties form enter Buckling for Job Name.
3. On the Solution Type drop down menu, select Linear Buckling Analysis (SOL 105).
4. Click the ellipses (...) on the Solver Input file.
5. Select the file path and enter Buckling for the file name.
6. Click Save.
7. Click OK.

Specify the General Parameters:

1. In the Model Browser Tree, double-click Solver Control for the Buckling job.
138 Linear Buckling Analysis
Example

2. On the General Liner Solver Parameters form enter the following values:

Plate RZ Stiffness Factor 100.0

Mass Calculation Coupled Mass Matrix
Weight-Mass Conversion 0.00259

3. Click Apply.
4. Click Close.

Specify Subcase Parameters:

1. Right click on Loads/Boundaries, under Eigenvalue Extraction and Select LBC Set.
2. Select DefaultLbcSet from the Model Browser.
3. Double-click Loadcase Control under Eigenvalue Extraction.
4. On the Eigenvalue Subcase Properties form select Lanczos for Method.
5. Enter 5 for Number of Desired Roots.
6. Click Apply.
7. Click Close.

Add Output Requests:

1. Right-click Add Output Requests under Eigenvalue Extraction
2. Select Add Displacement.

Run the Buckling Job:

1. Right click on Buckling.
2. Select Run.

Attach the Nastran Results File

Attach the XDB file from the Nastran execution to the SimXpert database to view the results.
1. From the File menu, select Attach Results, then select Result Entities.
2. Select the file buckling.xdb.
3. Click Open.

Create Deformation Plots

You will visually assess the results using SimXpert to generate deformation plots.
 Linear Buckling 139
Example

Create a Deformation Plot:

1. From the Result toolbox, select State Plot.
2. Under the Plot Data tab, select Deformation for Plot type.
3. For Result Cases select SC2/ Mode 1:Factor = 0.16974.
4. For Results Type select Eigenvectors, Translational.
5. Click Update.
6. From the View menu, click Model Views, then click Isometric View.

7. For Result Cases select SC2/ Mode 2:Factor = 0.73129.

8. For Results Type select Eigenvectors, Translational.
9. Click Update.
140 Linear Buckling Analysis
Example

10. Repeat steps 7 through 9 for the remaining buckling modes.

 Normal Modes 141

Normal Modes
142
Overview and Definition

Overview and Definition

An overview of the Normal Modes Analysis is given here

Introduction
The usual first step in performing a dynamic analysis is determining the natural frequencies and mode
shapes of the structure with damping neglected. These results characterize the basic dynamic behavior of
the structure and are an indication of how the structure will respond to dynamic loading.

Natural Frequencies
The natural frequencies of a structure are the frequencies at which the structure naturally tends to vibrate
if it is subjected to a disturbance. For example, the strings of a piano are each tuned to vibrate at a specific
frequency. Some alternate terms for the natural frequency are characteristic frequency, fundamental
frequency, resonance frequency, and normal frequency.

Mode Vectors and Shapes

The deformed shape of the structure at a specific natural frequency of vibration is termed its normal mode
of vibration. Some other terms used to describe the normal mode are mode shape, characteristic shape,
and fundamental shape. Each mode shape is associated with a specific natural frequency. Natural
frequencies and mode shapes are functions of the structural properties and boundary conditions. The set
of natural frequencies and associated mode shapes for a cantilever beam is shown in Figure 4-1. If the
structural properties change, the natural frequencies change, but the mode shapes may not necessarily
change. For example, if the elastic modulus of the cantilever beam is changed, the natural frequencies
change but the mode shapes remain the same. If the boundary conditions change, then the natural
 Normal Modes 143
Overview and Definition

frequencies and mode shapes both change. For example, if the cantilever beam is changed so that it is
pinned at both ends, the natural frequencies and mode shapes change (see Figure 4-2).

Figure 4-1 The First Four Mode Shapes of a Cantilever Beam

Figure 4-2 The First Four Mode Shapes of a Simply Supported Beam
144
Overview and Definition

Reasons to Compute Normal Modes

There are many reasons to compute the natural frequencies and mode shapes of a structure. One reason
is to assess the dynamic interaction between a component and its supporting structure. For example, if a
rotating machine, such as an air conditioner fan, is to be installed on the roof of a building, it is necessary
to determine if the operating frequency of the rotating fan is close to one of the natural frequencies of the
building. If the frequencies are close, the operation of the fan may lead to structural damage or failure.
Decisions regarding subsequent dynamic analyses (i.e., transient response, frequency response, response
spectrum analysis, etc.) can be based on the results of a natural frequency analysis. The important modes
can be evaluated and used to select the appropriate time or frequency step for integrating the equations
of motion. Similarly, the results of the eigenvalue analysis-the natural frequencies and mode shapes-can
be used in modal frequency and modal transient response analyses.
The results of the dynamic analyses are sometimes compared to the physical test results. A normal modes
analysis can be used to guide the experiment. In the pretest planning stages, a normal modes analysis can
be used to indicate the best location for the accelerometers. After the test, a normal modes analysis can
be used as a mean to correlate the test results to the analysis results.
Design changes can also be evaluated by using natural frequencies and normal modes. Does a particular
design modification cause an increase in dynamic response? Normal modes analysis can often provide
an indication.
In summary, there are many reasons to compute the natural frequencies and mode shapes of a structure.
All of these reasons are based on the fact that real eigenvalue analysis is the basis for many types of
dynamic response analyses. Therefore, an overall understanding of normal modes analysis as well as
knowledge of the natural frequencies and mode shapes for your particular structure is important for all
types of dynamic analysis.

Theory
The solution of the equation of motion for natural frequencies and normal modes requires a special
reduced form of the equation of motion. If there is no damping and no applied loading, the equation of
motion in matrix form reduces to

[ M ] { u·· } + [ K ] { u } = 0 (4-1)

where:
[Μ] = mass matrix
[Κ] = stiffness matrix
This is the equation of motion for undamped free vibration. To solve Equation (4-1) assume a harmonic
solution of the form

{ u } = { φ } sin ωt (4-2)
 Normal Modes 145
Overview and Definition

where:

{ φ } = the eigenvector or mode vector

ω = is the circular natural frequency

Aside from this harmonic form being the key to the numerical solution of the problem, this form also has
a physical importance. The harmonic form of the solution means that all the degrees-of-freedom of the
vibrating structure move in a synchronous manner. The structural configuration does not change its basic
shape during motion; only its amplitude changes.
If differentiation of the assumed harmonic solution is performed and substituted into the equation of
motion, the following is obtained:

2
– ω [ M ] { φ } sin ωt + [ K ] { φ } sin ωt = 0 (4-3)

which after simplifying becomes

2
([K] – ω [M] ){φ} = 0 (4-4)
This equation is called the eigenequation, which is a set of homogeneous algebraic equations for the
components of the eigenvector and forms the basis for the eigenvalue problem. An eigenvalue problem
is a specific equation form that has many applications in linear matrix algebra. The basic form of an
eigenvalue problem is

[ A – λI ]x = 0 (4-5)

where:

A = square matrix

λ =eigenvalues

I= identity matrix
x= eigenvector
In structural analysis, the representations of stiffness and mass in the eigenequation result in the physical
representations of natural frequencies and mode shapes. Therefore, the eigenequation is written in terms
2
of K, ω and M as shown in Equation (4-4) with ω = λ

There are two possible solution forms for Equation (4-4):

2
1. If det ( [ K ] – ω [ M ] ) ≠ 0 the only possible solution is
{φ} = 0 (4-6)
146
Overview and Definition

This is the trivial solution, which does not provide any valuable information from a physical point
of view, since it represents the case of no motion. (“det” denotes the determinant of a matrix.)
2
2. If det ( [ K ] – ω [ M ] ) = 0 , then a non-trivial solution ( { φ } ) ≠ 0 is obtained.
2
([ K] – ω [ M] ){φ } = 0 (4-7)

From a structural engineering point of view, the general mathematical eigenvalue problem reduces to one
of solving the equation of the form

2
det ([K] – ω [M]) = 0 (4-8)

or

(([K] – λ[M]) = 0) (4-9)

2
where: λ = ω

2
The determinant is zero only at a set of discrete eigenvalues λ i or ω . There is an eigenvector
i
{ φi } which satisfies Equation (4-7) and corresponds to each eigenvalue. Therefore, Equation (4-7) can
be rewritten as

2
[ K – ωi M ] { φi } = 0 i = 1,2,3... (4-10)

Each eigenvalue and eigenvector define a free vibration mode of the structure. The i-th eigenvalue λ i is
related to the i-th natural frequency as follows:

ω
f i = ------i (4-11)
2π
where:

f i = i-th natural frequency

ωi = λi

The number of eigenvalues and eigenvectors is equal to the number of degrees-of-freedom that have
mass or the number of dynamic degrees-of-freedom.
 Normal Modes 147
Overview and Definition

There are a number of characteristics of natural frequencies and mode shapes that make them useful in
various dynamic analyses. First, when a linear elastic structure is vibrating in free or forced vibration, its
deflected shape at any given time is a linear combination of all of its normal modes

{u} =  { φi }ξi (4-12)

i
where:

{ u } = vector of physical displacements

{ φ i } = i-th mode vector

ξ i = i-th modal displacement

Second, if [ K ] and [ M ] are symmetric and real (as is the case for all the common structural finite
elements), the following mathematical properties hold:
T
{ φi } [ M ] { φ j } = 0 if i≠j (4-13)

T
{ φ i } [ M ] { φ j } = m j = j – th generalized mass (4-14)

and

T
{ φi } [ K ] { φj } = 0 if i≠j (4-15)

T 2
{ φ i } [ K ] { φ j } = k j = j – th generalized stiffness = ω m j (4-16)

Also, from Equation (4-14) and Equation (4-16) Rayleigh’s equation is obtained

T
2 { φ j } [ K ] { φj }
ωj = ----------------------------------
T
- (4-17)
{ φj } [ M ] { φj }

Equation (4-13) and Equation (4-15) are known as the orthogonality property of normal modes, which
ensures that each normal mode is distinct from all others. Physically, orthogonality of modes means that
each mode shape is unique and one mode shape cannot be obtained through a linear combination of any
other mode shapes.
148
Overview and Definition

In addition, a natural mode of the structure can be represented by using its generalized mass and
generalized stiffness. This is very useful in formulating equivalent dynamic models and in component
mode synthesis.
If a structure is not totally constrained in space, it is possible for the structure to displace (move) as a rigid
body or as a partial or complete mechanism. For each possible component of rigid-body motion or
mechanism, there exists one natural frequency that is equal to zero. The zero-frequency modes are called
rigid-body modes. Rigid-body motion of all or part of a structure represents the motion of the structure
in a stress-free condition. Stress-free, rigid-body modes are useful in conducting dynamic analyses of
unconstrained structures, such as aircraft and satellites. Also, rigid-body modes can be indicative of
modeling errors or an inadequate constraint set.
For a general, unconstrained 3-D structure without mechanisms, there are six rigid-body modes often
described as T1, T2, T3, R1, R2, and R3, or combinations thereof. Rigid-body modes can also be
approximated for certain kinds of dynamic or modal tests in which the test specimen is supported by very
flexible supports, such as bungee cords or inflatable bags. In this case the test specimen itself does not
distort for the lowest mode(s) but instead displaces as a rigid body with all of the deformation occurring
in the flexible support. Rigid-body modes can improperly occur if a structure that should be constrained
is not fully constrained (for example, in a building model for which the boundary conditions (SPCs) were
forgotten).
A mechanism mode occurs when a portion of the structure can displace as a rigid body, which can occur
when there is an internal hinge in the structure. An example of a mechanism is a ball and socket joint or
a rudder in an airplane. A mechanism mode can also occur when two parts of a structure are improperly
joined. A common modeling error resulting in a mechanism is when a bar is cantilevered from a solid
element; the bar has rotational stiffness and the solid has no rotational stiffness, resulting in a pinned
connection when the two are joined.
The presence of rigid-body and/or mechanism modes is indicated by zero frequency eigenvalues. Due to
computer roundoff, the zero frequency eigenvalues are numerical zeroes on the order of 1.0E-4 Hz or less
for typical structures. The same unconstrained model may give different values of the rigid-body
frequencies when run on different computer types.
Rigid-body modes generated by SimXpert are orthogonal with respect to each other and with respect to
the flexible (or elastic) modes. Each rigid-body mode has the following property:

T
{ φ rig } [ M ] { φ rig } > 0

T
{ φ rig } [ K ] { φ rig } = 0

where { φ rig } denotes the rigid-body mode shapes, [ M ] denotes the mass matrix, and [ K ] denotes
the stiffness matrix. The rigid-body modes contain no strain energy.
Figure 4-3 depicts the rigid-body modes for a two-dimensional model of a straight beam. Because the
two-dimensional model has three DOFs per grid point (x-translation, y-translation, and z-rotation), there
 Normal Modes 149
Overview and Definition

are three rigid-body modes. The figure shows classical rigid-body modes, whereby one mode is purely
x-translation, another is purely y-translation, and another is purely z-rotation about the center of the
beam. Because rigid-body modes are a special case of repeated roots, any linear combination of these
displacement shapes also comprises a valid set of rigid-body modes.

Figure 4-3 Rigid-Body Modes of a 2-D Beam

An important characteristic of normal modes is that the scaling or magnitude of the eigenvectors is
arbitrary. Mode shapes are fundamental characteristic shapes of the structure and are therefore relative
quantities. In the solution of the equation of motion, the form of the solution is represented as a shape
with a time-varying amplitude. Therefore, the basic mode shape of the structure does not change while
it is vibrating; only its amplitude changes.
The two modes of a Two-DOF structure are shown in Figure 4-4. The graphical representation of the
eigenvectors in the figure shows the modal displacements of the two mode shapes respectively.
150
Overview and Definition

Figure 4-4 Representations of Mode Shapes for a Two-DOF System

A common misconception about mode shapes is that they define the structural response. Again, mode
shapes are relative quantities. They cannot be used alone to evaluate dynamic behavior. As described
earlier, it is the relation between the structural loading and the natural frequencies that determines the
absolute magnitude of dynamic response. The relation of a specific loading to a set of natural frequencies
provides explicit scale factors that are used to determine the extent to which each particular mode is
excited by the loading. After the individual modal responses to a particular loading are determined, only
then can the various engineering design decisions be made with the actual (absolute) values of stress
and/or displacement. Methods that use the modal results to determine forced response are termed modal
methods or modal superposition methods.

Mode Vector Normalization

When you submit your modal analysis and setup a subcase for analysis you will select a method for result
normalization. Although the scaling of normal modes is arbitrary, for practical considerations mode
 Normal Modes 151
Overview and Definition

shapes should be scaled (i.e., normalized) by a chosen convention. In SimXpert there are three
normalization choices: Mass, Maximum, and Point1

Mass normalization is the default method of eigenvector normalization. This method scales each
eigenvector to result in a unit value of generalized mass

T
{ φi } [ M ] { φ j } = 1.0

Numerically this method results in a modal mass matrix that is an identity matrix. This normalization
approach is appropriate for modal dynamic response calculations because it simplifies both
computational and data storage requirements. When mass normalization is used with a model of a heavy,
massive structure, the magnitude of each of the terms of the eigenvectors is very small.

1
152
Overview and Definition

In Maximum normalization, each eigenvector is normalized with respect to the largest displacement
component.This normalization results in the largest displacement value being set to a unit (1.0) value.
This normalization approach can be very useful in the determination of the relative participation of an
individual mode. A small generalized mass obtained using Maximum normalization may indicate such
things as local modes or isolated mechanisms.
Point normalization of eigenvectors is available for all extraction methods besides Lanczos. It allows you
to chose a specific displacement component at which the modal displacement is set to 1 or -1. This
method is not recommended because for complex structures the chosen component in the non-
normalized eigenvector may have a very small value of displacement (especially in higher modes). This
small value can cause larger numbers to be normalized by a small number, resulting in possible numerical
roundoff errors in mode shapes.
Although mode shapes are relative quantities, a number of modal quantities can be helpful in predicting
qualitative responses or in isolating troublesome modal frequencies. Since relative strains, internal loads,
and stresses develop when a structure deforms in a mode shape, you may recover these quantities during
a normal modes analysis. Basically, any quantity that you can recover for static analysis is also available
for normal modes analysis.
It is important to remember that these output quantities are based on the relative displacements of a mode
shape. The output quantities can be compared for a given mode, but not necessarily from one mode to
another. However, they can still be effectively used in the analysis/design process.
Modal quantities can be used to identify problem areas by indicating the more highly stressed elements.
Elements that are consistently highly stressed across many or all modes will probably be highly stressed
when dynamic loads are applied.
Modal strain energy is a useful quantity in identifying candidate elements for design changes to eliminate
problem frequencies. Elements with large values of strain energy in a mode indicate the location of large
elastic deformation (energy). These elements are those which most directly affect the deformation in a
mode. Therefore, changing the properties of these elements with large strain energy should have more
effect on the natural frequencies and mode shapes than if elements with low strain energy were changed.
Structures with two or more identical eigenvalues are said to have repeated roots. Repeated roots occur
for structures that have a plane of symmetry or that have multiple, identical pieces (such as appendages).
The eigenvectors for the repeated roots are not unique because many sets of eigenvectors can be found
that are orthogonal to each other. An eigenvector that is a linear combination of the repeated eigenvectors
is also a valid eigenvector. Consequently, small changes in the model can make large changes in the
eigenvectors for the repeated roots. Different computers can also find different eigenvectors for the
repeated roots. Rigid-body modes represent a special case of repeated roots.

Method of Computation
Seven methods of real eigenvalue extraction are provided in SimXpert. These methods are numerical
approaches to solving for natural frequencies and modes shapes. The reason for seven different numerical
techniques is because no one method is the best for all problems. While most of the methods can be
 Normal Modes 153
Overview and Definition

applied to all problems, the choice is often based on the efficiency of the solution process. The methods
of eigenvalue extraction belong to one or both of the following two groups:
• Transformation methods
• Tracking methods

In the transformation method, the eigenvalue equation is first transformed into a special form from which
eigenvalues may easily be extracted. In the tracking method, the eigenvalues are extracted one at a time
using an iterative procedure. The recommended real eigenvalue extraction method in SimXpert is the
Lanczos method. The Lanczos method combines the best characteristics of both the tracking and
transformation methods. For most models the Lanczos method is the best method to use. Four of the real
eigenvalue extraction methods available in SimXpert are transformation methods. These methods are
• Givens method
• Householder method
• Modified Givens method
• Modified Householder method

Two of the real eigenvalue extraction methods available in SimXpert are classified as tracking methods.
These methods are
• Inverse power method
• Enhanced inverse power method

Lanczos Method
The Lanczos method overcomes the limitations and combines the best features of the other methods. It
requires that the mass matrix be positive semi-definite and the stiffness be symmetric. Like the
transformation methods, it does not miss roots, but has the efficiency of the tracking methods, because it
only makes the calculations necessary to find the roots requested by the user. This method computes
accurate eigenvalues and eigenvectors. Unlike the other methods, its performance has been continually
enhanced since its introduction giving it an advantage. The Lanczos method is the preferred method for
most medium- to large-sized problems, since it has a performance advantage over other methods.

Givens and Householder Methods

The Givens and Householder modal extraction methods require a positive definite mass matrix (all
degrees-of-freedom must have mass). There is no restriction on the stiffness matrix except that it must
be symmetric. These matrices always result in real (positive) eigenvalues. The Givens and Householder
methods are the most efficient methods for small problems and problems with dense matrices when a
large portion of the eigenvectors are needed. These methods find all of the eigenvalues and as many
eigenvectors as requested. While these methods do not take advantage of sparse matrices, they are
efficient with the dense matrices sometimes created using dynamic reduction.
The Givens and Householder methods fail if the mass matrix is not positive definite. To minimize this
problem, degrees-of-freedom with null columns are removed by the automatic application of static
condensation called auto-omit. Applying the auto-omit process is a precaution and may not remove all
154
Overview and Definition

possible causes of mass matrix singularity, such as a point mass offset from a grid point, but it greatly
improves the reliability and convenience of the Givens and Householder methods. Givens and
Householder methods use different transformation schemes to obtain the eigenvalues. For problems in
which no spill occurs (i.e., all of the matrices fit in your computer's main memory), the Householder
method costs about half as much as the Givens method for vector processing computers. In addition, the
Householder method can take advantage of parallel processing computers.

Modified Givens and Modified Householder Methods

The modified Givens and modified Householder methods are similar to their standard methods with the
exception that the mass matrix can be singular. Although the mass matrix is not required to be
nonsingular in the modified methods, a singular mass matrix can produce one or more infinite
eigenvalues. Due to roundoff error, these infinite eigenvalues appear in the output as very large positive
or negative eigenvalues. To reduce the incidence of such meaningless results, degrees-of-freedom with
null masses are eliminated by automatic static condensation as in the case of the unmodified methods.
The modified methods require more computer time than the standard methods.

Automatic Givens and Automatic Householder Methods

Many times you may not know whether the mass matrix is singular. To assist you in choosing the
appropriate method, two options–automatic Givens and automatic Householder–are available. Initially
the automatic methods use the standard methods. In the first step of the method, if the mass matrix is not
well-conditioned for decomposition, the method shifts to the corresponding modified method. The
modified methods are more expensive and may introduce numerical noise due to the shift, but they
resolve most of the numerical problems of the ill conditioned mass matrix. The automatic methods,
therefore, use the modified methods when necessary for numerical stability but use the standard methods
when the numerical stability is accurate.

Inverse Power Method

The inverse power method is a tracking method since the lowest eigenvalue and eigenvector in the
desired range are found first. Then their effects are “swept” out of the dynamic matrix, the next higher
mode is found, and its effects are “swept” out, and so on. Hence, the term “tracking,” which means that
one root at a time is found. In addition, each root is found via an iterative procedure. (The classical
literature often refers to this method as the inverse iteration method with sweeping.) However, the inverse
power method can miss modes, making it unreliable. The enhanced inverse power method is a more
reliable tracking method.

Enhanced Inverse Power Method

This method is similar to the inverse power method except that it uses Sturm sequence logic to ensure
that all modes are found. The Sturm sequence check determines the number of eigenvalues below a trial
eigenvalue, then finds all of the eigenvalues below this trial eigenvalue until all modes in the designated
range are computed. This process helps to ensure that modes are not missed. The enhanced inverse power
method is useful for models in which only the lowest few modes are needed. This method is also useful
as a backup method to verify the accuracy of other methods.
 Normal Modes 155
Overview and Definition

When you set up your modal analysis and create a subcase for analysis you will select one of the above
methods using the Real Eigenvalues Properties form.s

Comparison of Methods
Since SimXpert provides a variety of real eigensolution methods, you must decide which is best for your
application. The best method for a particular model depends on four factors: the size of the model (the
total number of degrees-of-freedom as well as the number of dynamic degrees-of-freedom), the number
of eigenvalues desired, the available real memory of your computer, and the conditioning of the mass
matrix (whether there are massless degrees-of freedom). In general, the Lanczos method is the most
reliable and efficient, and is the recommended choice.
156
Overview and Definition

For small, dense models whose matrices fit into memory, we recommend using one of the automatic
methods (automatic Householder or automatic Givens). Both automatic Householder and automatic
Givens run modified methods if the mass matrix is singular; however, they run the unmodified methods,
which are faster, if the mass matrix is not singular. Of the two automatic methods, the automatic
Householder method runs faster on computers with vector processing and also supports parallel
processing computers. Note that most real world problems are not small and dense, unless you use
reductive methods such as Dynamic Reduction or superelements.
The enhanced inverse power method can be the best choice when the model is too large to fit into
memory, only a few modes are needed, and a reasonable eigenvalue search range is specified. This
method is also a backup method for the other methods and is used when a check of the other methods'
results is needed.
For medium to large models the Lanczos method is the recommended method. In addition to its reliability
and efficiency, the Lanczos method supports sparse matrix methods that substantially increase its speed
and reduce disk space requirements

Table 4-1 Comparison of Eigenvalue Methods

Method
Modified
Givens, Givens, Inverse Enhanced
Householder Householder Power Inverse Power Lanczos
Reliability High High Poor (can miss High High
modes)
Relative Time:

Few Modes Medium Medium Low Low Medium

Many Modes High High High High Medium

Limitations Cannot analyze Time consuming Can miss modes Time consuming Difficulty with
singular [M] for many modes Time for many modes massless
consuming for mechanisms
Time consuming for Time consuming many modes
problems that do not for problems that
fit in memory do not fit in
memory
Best Small, dense Small, dense To determine a To determine a Medium to
Application matrices that fit in matrices that fit in few modes few modes large models
memory memory Use with
dynamic reduction Backup method
Use with dynamic
reduction
 Normal Modes 157
Overview and Definition

Dynamic Reduction
Dynamic reduction is an optional numerical approach that can be used in SimXpert to reduce a dynamic
model to one with fewer degrees-of-freedom. Typically, the intent of dynamic reduction is to increase the
efficiency of a dynamic solution by working with smaller matrices while maintaining the dynamic
characteristics of the system.
Dynamic reduction is used for a number of reasons. One possible reason may be that a particular model
may be too large from a computer resource standpoint (computer runtime and/or disk space) to be solved
without using reduction. A related issue is that the model may have more detail than required. Many
times dynamic analyses are performed using models that were initially created for detailed static stress
analyses, which typically require refined meshes to accurately predict stresses. When these static models
are used in a dynamic analysis, the detailed meshes result in significantly more detail than is reasonably
required to predict the natural frequencies and mode shapes accurately. Once the natural frequencies and
normal modes are calculated for the reduced model, these modes can be used in the transient or frequency
response solution process.
158
Overview and Definition

Automatic Dynamic Reduction

Automatic dynamic reduction offers a more accurate solution than manual dynamic reduction by
including an approximation of the dynamic effects when forming the transformation. You can select to
perform dynamic reduction using the Solution Parameters form when you set up your modal analysis

It is emphasized that dynamic reduction is an optional technique and is best left to the dynamic analysis
specialist. Whereas dynamic reduction was required in the days of small computer memory and disk
space, now it is no longer required due to increased computer resources and better eigenanalysis methods
(in particular, the Lanczos method).
 Normal Modes 159
Parts and Geometry

Parts and Geometry

The geometry of the parts can be either created in SimXpert, or more likely imported from CAD program
such as Catia, Pro/E.

Units
SimXpert interprets all dimensions and input data with respect to a system of units. It is important to set
the appropriate units prior to importing any unitless analysis files (such as a MD Nastran Bulk Data file)
or creating materials, properties, or loads. You can control the system of units by selecting Tools >
Options Editor... and chosing Structures from the Units Manager tree. If you import a file that contains
units, SimXpert will convert them into those specified in the Units Manager.

Creating geometry
In the first release SimXpert has very limited geometry creation capabilities. It is possible to create curves
and very simple surfaces. For the most part you will be importing geometry from an external source. The
imported geometry can be edited in SimXpert.

Importing geometry
If the geometry of the part or assemble is available in a CATIA v4, CATIA v5, Pro/Engineer, ACIS,
parasolid, IGES, STEP, or STL file, it can be directly imported into the SimXpert Structures Workspace.
160
Materials

Materials

Mass Input
When conducting a SimXpert dynamic analysis, the formulation of the model depends upon the desired
results and the type of dynamic loading. For example, if stresses are of interest, a finer finite element
mesh is required than if only the system level displacement patterns are needed. Many of the modeling
considerations involved in a static analysis are similarly applied in dynamic analysis. A dynamic
analysis, however, requires additional input data which is used to define the dynamic character of the
structure.
In static analysis the stiffness properties are defined by element and material properties. These same
properties are also required for dynamic analysis along with the addition of mass
All mass entries should be entered in the units specified in Tools / Units Manager. Weight units may be
input instead of mass units, if this is more convenient. However, you must convert the weight to mass by
dividing the weight by the acceleration of gravity defined in consistent units:

ρ m = ( 1 ⁄ g )ρ w
where:

ρ m = mass or mass density

g = acceleration of gravity

ρ w = weight or weight density

This can be accomplished with the use of the solution parameter Weight - Mass Conversion. The
function of the Weight - Mass Conversion factor is to multiply the assembled mass matrix by the scale
factor entered. The value of the factor should be entered as 1 ⁄ g The default value for the factor is 1.0.
 Normal Modes 161
Nodes and Elements

Nodes and Elements

Quality Checks
Merge Coincident Nodes
Nodes along common edges of adjoining geometry entities need to match. If these nodes are not
coincident, your model will have free edges or faces at these points. Always merge coincident nodes
before analyzing your model selecting FE Modeling > Node > Equivelnce.

Free Edges
You can check that your model has completed merging coincident nodes by displaying free edges in your
model. In Figure 4-5 the model is shown with free edges displayed by selecting Highlight FE Boundary
from the View menu.The picture on the left shows the model with a solid horizontal line running through
the middle. This indicates that a free edge exists there and the top and bottom are not connected. The
picture on the right shows the model after the coincident nodes have been merged. The model is now one
continuous piece.I

Free
(unconnected
) edge

Before After

Figure 4-5 Free Edge Check - Before and After Merge Coincident Nodes
162
Boundary Conditions

Boundary Conditions
Constraint
A constraint is applied to a single degree of freedom, which may be either a component of motion at a
node or the displacement of a scalar point.
The primary applications for constraints are:
1. To tie a structure to ground.
2. To apply symmetric or antisymmetric boundary conditions by restraining the degrees of freedom
that must have a zero value to satisfy symmetry or antisymmetry.
3. To remove degrees of freedom that are not used in the structural analysis (that is, are not
connected to any structural elements or otherwise joined to the structure).
4. To remove degrees of freedom that are very weakly coupled to the structure. This condition can
occur, for example, to the rotations about the normal of a slightly curved shell. In this case, a
judgment must be made whether to remove the degree of freedom using an SPC (in which case
the structure may be overconstrained), or to leave it in the problem (in which case the stiffness
matrix is nearly singular). A reasonable rule is to constrain the degree of freedom if its stiffness
is less than 10-8 as large as the stiffness in another direction at the same node An analysis
parameter called Automatic Constraints causes an SPC to be applied automatically to components
of motion with zero or very small stiffness. This feature is on by default and is discussed in the
Perform the Simulation chapter.

Fixed, Pinned and General Constraint

• SPC, SPC1, and SPCD -- DOF constraints usually specified at model boundaries to define rigid
support points. They can also be used to apply an enforced displacement. Directions are in the
nodal coordinate system.
• SUPORT -- A list of up to six non-redundant degrees of freedom that describe all possible
unconstrained motions.If you hold the SUPORT degrees of freedom constrained, there is no
possible rigid body motion.
 Normal Modes 163
Boundary Conditions

LBC Sets
Boundary conditions can be grouped into sets by selecting LBC Set from the LBC Set toolbox.

Supply a name for your LBC set, then select the desired boundary conditions.
164
Perform the Simulation

Perform the Simulation

Create an Analysis job

You set up and submit the analysis of your model by right-clicking FileSet, and select Create New
Nastran Job.
 Normal Modes 165
Perform the Simulation
166
Perform the Simulation

The Job Name you type in the textbox will become the filename for all analysis files created from this
execution. Select Solution Type Modal Analysis (SOL 103). You have 5 choices for Job Type: Select the
file path and file name where the job will be exported and ran.
1. Export Bdf and Run Solver - writes the model including all model data, all load case information,
analysis type, and analysis parameters to an analysis-ready file called job name.bdf, then submits
the file to the solver.
2. Export an Analysis Deck only - writes the model including all model data, all load case
information, analysis type, and analysis parameters to an analysis-ready file called job name.bdf.
 Normal Modes 167
Perform the Simulation

3. Export the Model only - writes the model data: nodes, elements, coordinate frames, element
properties, material properties, and loads and boundary conditions without any analysis
parameters to a file called job name.bdf.
4. Run a Model Check - analysis is submitted but will exit after initial model assembly. No solution
is generated.
5. Submit Job to Batch Queue - allows submittal of multiple models to be analyzed sequentially with
a single analysis request.

General Parameters

Mass Handling Options

Mass input is one of the major entries in a dynamic analysis. Mass can be represented in a number of
ways in SimXpert. The mass matrix is automatically computed when mass density or nonstructural mass
is specified for any of the standard finite elements (CBAR, CQUAD4, etc.) in SimXpert, when
concentrated mass elements are entered, and/or when full or partial mass matrices are entered.
168
Perform the Simulation

Lumped and Coupled Mass

Mass is formulated as either lumped mass or coupled mass. Lumped mass matrices contain uncoupled,
translational components of mass. Coupled mass matrices contain translational components of mass with
coupling between the components. The CBAR, CBEAM, and CBEND elements contain rotational
masses in their coupled formulations, although torsional inertias are not considered for the CBAR
element. Coupled mass can be more accurate than lumped mass. However, lumped mass is more efficient
and is preferred for its computational speed in dynamic analysis.
The lumped or coupled mass matrix formulation can be selected from the Mass Calculation pull-down
on the General Parameters form. Table 4-2 shows the mass options available for each element type.

Table 4-2 Element Mass Types

Element Type Lumped Mass Coupled Mass*
CBAR X X
CBEAM X X
CBEND X
CONMi X X
CONROD X X
CHEXA X X
CMASSi X
CPENTA X X
CQUAD4 X X
CQUAD8 X X
CQUADR X X
CROD X X
CSHEAR X
CTETRA X X
CTRIA3 X X
CTRIA6 X X
CTRIAR X X
CTRIAX6 X X
CTUBE X X
*Coupled mass is selected by choosing Coupled Mass Matrix
 Normal Modes 169
Perform the Simulation

The default value for the Weight - Mass Conversion factor assumes that mass (and mass density) is
entered, instead of weight (and weight density).

3
When using English units if the weight density of steel is entered as RHO = 0.3 lb ⁄ in on the Material
entry, using a Weight - Mass Conversion factor of 0.002588 converts the weight density to mass density
for the acceleration of gravity g = 386.4 in/sec^2. The mass density, therefore, becomes 7.765E-4 lbf-
3
sec^2/in^3. If the weight density of steel is entered as RHO = 80000 N ⁄ m when using metric units,
then using a Weight - Mass Conversion factor of 0.102 converts the weight density to mass density for
3
the acceleration of g = 9.8 m/sec^2 gravity. The mass density, therefore, becomes 8160 kg ⁄m .

Node ID for Weight Generation

• Weight Center of Gravity and Moment of Inertia Check
170
Perform the Simulation

Is the weight of my model correct? This question can be answered by activating the Node for Weight
Generation.

where:

Node Result
-1 Weight generation output is skipped (default).
0 The mass properties are computed relative to the origin of the basic coordinate system.
any The mass properties are computed relative to node x. If node x does not exist, the properties
integer > are computed relative to the basic coordinate system.
0

The output from the Node for Weight Generation is written to the .f06 file and includes a rigid body mass
matrix, various coordinate transformations, and the location of the center of mass. The output is generally
more information than most analysts need. The mass and center of gravity (CG) location is typically all
that is used. A partial output is shown in Figure 4-6.

MASS AXIS SYSTEM (S) MASS X-C.G. Y-C.G. Z-C.G.

X 3.375000E+01 0.000000E+00 0.000000E+00 0.000000E+00
Y 3.375000E+01 2.500000E+00 0.000000E+00 0.000000E+00
Z 3.375000E+01 2.500000E+00 0.000000E+00 0.000000E+00

Figure 4-6 Partial Output from the Weight Generator

The weight generator output is in the same units as your density or point masses. In other words, if your
input is in mass units, then the output is also in mass units. If your input is in weight units, then the output
is also in weight units.
The output from the Weight Generator is for informational purposes only and is not used in any
subsequent steps in the solution process.
Remember you can also calculate the mass and center of gravity of your model in SimXpert by selecting
either Combined Mass or Combined Center of Gravity from Scene Properties in the Tools menu.
 Normal Modes 171
Perform the Simulation

Case Control Section

Expand the Nastran tree on the Jobs form and right click on Cases >select Add Subcase. Once you have
created a subcase, you can then right click on Real Eigenvalues.
On the Real Eigenvalues Properties form, you can specify the desired method of Eigenvalue Extraction,
Frequency Range of Interest and Result Normalization methods for normal modes analysis

User Interface for Real Eigenvalue Analysis

When you set up your modal analysis and create a subcase for analysis you will select a method and the
parameters that control the eigenvalue extraction procedure.
172
Perform the Simulation

Field Contents
Frequency range of
interest.
Lower Defines the lower frequency bound in cycles per unit time
Upper Defines the upper frequency bound.in cycles per unit time
Number of Desired Roots Desired number of eigenvalues and eigenvectors (or roots for Inverse
Power methods)
Estimated Number of Inverse power method only. Defines the estimated number of roots in
Roots the range. A good estimate results in a more efficient solution. A high
estimate helps to ensure that all modes are computed within the range
Diagnostic Output Level Lanczos only. Diagnostic level. as described below
Result Normalization See “Mode Vector Normalization” on page 150

The Diagnostic Output Level field is used by the Lanczos method to control the amount of diagnostic
output written to the output f06 file. The value of 0 produces no diagnostic output. The values 1, 2, or 3
provide more output with the higher values providing increasingly more output. In some cases, higher
diagnostic levels may help to resolve difficulties with special modeling problems.
There is an interrelationship among the Frequency Range of Interest and Number of Desired Roots fields
as shown in Table 4-3 and Table 4-4

Table 4-3 Frequency Range and Number of Roots

Method
Inverse and Enhanced Inverse
Field Power All Givens, all Householder
Frequency Lower bound must be input. If Number of Desired Roots is not blank, the lower and
Range of upper bounds are ignored. If Number of Desired Roots is
Interest blank, eigenvectors are found whose natural frequencies
lie in the range between the lower and upper bound.
Number of If this field is blank and Method = If Number of Desired Roots is zero, the number of
Desired Roots Enhanced Inverse Power, then all roots eigenvectors is determined from the Frequency Range of
between the lower and upper bound are Interest.
searched, and the limit is 600 roots.

Default is 3 * Estimated Number of

Roots for Method = Inverse Power only
 Normal Modes 173
Perform the Simulation

Table 4-4 Frequency Range and Number of Roots - Lanczos Method

Number
of
Lower Upper Desired
Bound Bound Roots Roots Found
F1 F2 ND Lowest Number of Desired Roots in range or all in range, whichever is
smaller
F1 F2 Blank All in range
F1 Blank ND Lowest Number of Desired Roots in range [F1, ∞]
F1 Blank Blank Lowest root in range [F1, ∞]
Blank Blank ND Lowest Number of Desired Roots roots in [-∞, ∞]
Blank Blank Blank Lowest root
Blank F2 ND Lowest Number of Desired Roots or all in range [-∞, F2], whichever is
smaller
Blank F2 Blank All below F2

The rules for all Givens and all Householder methods are identical. If any of these methods are selected,
SimXpert finds all of the eigenvalues but only computes the eigenvectors specified by the Frequency
Range of Interest or those specified the Desired Number of Roots. The Frequency Range of Interest
specifies the lower and upper bounds of the frequency range in which eigenvectors are computed, and
the Number of Desired Roots specifies the number of eigenvectors, beginning with the lowest (or the first
rigid-body mode, if present). If a Frequency Range of Interest and the Desired Number of Roots entries
are both specified, the Desired Number of Roots takes precedence.
If the Method used is the Enhanced Inverse Power, the values of the Frequency Range of Interest, and
the Desired Number of Roots determine the number of eigenvalues and eigenvectors that are computed.
These entries also provide hints to help SimXpert find the eigenvalues. The frequency range of interest
gives the range within which SimXpert searches for modes. SimXpert attempts to find all of the modes
in the range between the lower and upper bound or the number specified by the Desired Number of Roots,
whichever is less. If searching stops because the Desired Number of Roots are found, there is no
guarantee that they are the lowest eigenvalues. If the Desired Number of Roots are not found in the range
of interest, the Enhanced Inverse Power method usually finds one mode (or possibly more) outside the
range before stopping the search.
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Perform the Simulation

The Enhanced Inverse Power method is particularly efficient when only a small number of eigenvalues
and eigenvectors are to be computed. Often only the lowest mode is of interest.The following example
illustrates an EIGR entry which extracts only the lowest nonzero eigenvalue.

It is assumed in the example above that the frequency of the lowest mode is greater than 0.01 cycles per
unit time. SimXpert finds one eigenvalue outside the Frequency Range of Interest, and then stops the
search. The eigenvalue found is the lowest nonzero eigenvalue (or a member of the lowest closely spaced
cluster of eigenvalues in cases with close roots).
The following examples demonstrate various features of eigenvalue extraction.
 Normal Modes 175
Perform the Simulation

In this example, the Automatic Householder method is selected, and the lowest 10 modes are requested.

In this example, the same method is requested, but all the modes below 100 cycles per unit time are
requested.

In this example, the Enhanced Inverse Power method is requested for the first six modes found in the
range specified (0.1 to 100 Hz).

Output Requests
• Expand the Simulation tree in Jobs form > Right click on Output Requests from the relevant
subcase.
176
Perform the Simulation

• Right click on Output Request and add desired result types (Displacements, Element Strain
Energies, etc.) for the analysis

Eigenvectors are generated only if an output request for Displacements is included. Output requests are
summarized in Table 4-5.

Table 4-5 Eigenvalue Extraction Output Requests

Nodal Output
Displacements Requests the eigenvector (mode shape) for a set of nodes. Default is for
all nodes.
Grid Point Force Balance Requests the nodal force balance table to be computed for each mode for
a set of nodes.
 Normal Modes 177
Perform the Simulation

Nodal Output
Grid Point Stresses Requests nodal stresses to be computed for a set of nodes.
Constraint Forces Requests forces of single-point constraint to be computed for a set of
nodes for each mode.
Element Output
Element Stresses Requests the computation of modal stresses for a set of elements for each
mode.
Element Forces Requests the computation of modal element forces for a set of elements
for each mode.
Element Strains Requests the computation of modal element strains for a set of elements.
Element Strain Energies Requests the computation of element strain energies for a set of elements.

Output Files
The purpose of this section is to introduce the output file generated by a typical run. After an input file is
submitted for execution, several output files may be generated. Table 4-6 provides summary descriptions
of all the potential files generated by SimXpert (the input file is named Rectangular Plate.bdf). The output
files that are generated depend on your input file requests that you specify when the job is submitted.
Some of the files shown will not be generated, and some will be generated and deleted automatically once
the job is complete.
178
Perform the Simulation

Table 4-6 Files Resulting from Submitting the Job Named Rectangular Plate.bdf
Rectangular Plate.bdf The input file describing the model, the type of solution, the output requests, etc.
Generated by SimXpert.
rectangular plate.f06 The main text output file containing output such as displacements, element forces,
stresses, etc. Generated if Print is checked for Text Output.
rectangular plate.f04 A history of the assigned files, disk space usage, and modules used during the analysis.
Useful for debugging.
rectangular plate.log A summary of the command line options used and the execution links.
rectangular A database containing the input file, assembled matrices, and solutions. Used also for
plate.DBALL restarting the run for additional analysis or output. Optional to generate when Nastran DB
is selected for Binary Output
rectangular The file containing the master directory of the files used by the run and the physical
plate.MASTER location of the files on the system. This file is also needed for a restart run. Generated if
Nastran DB is selected for Binary Output
rectangular plate.pch Contains the punch output if requested in the input file. Generated if Punch is checked
for Text Output
rectangular plate.op2, Graphics database used by SimXpert for postprocessing of the results.Generated if OP2
is selected for Binary Output
rectangular plate.xdb Graphics database used by SimXpert for postprocessing of the results.Generated if XDB
is selected for Binary Output
miscellaneous scratch Several scratch files are generated during the analysis which SimXpert will automatically
files delete upon completion of the run.

The main text output is located in the .f06 file and the .f04 and .log files are useful for debugging your
model should problems occur.
 Normal Modes 179
Results

Results
Once your analysis is complete, select Results Entities from Attach Results in the File menu and navigate
to your results file. If your analysis ran externally to SimXpert and you do not have the model in
SimXpert, select Both from Attach Results in the File menu and navigate to your results file. This will
read in model information as well as results from the results file.
Output data is also stored in Result Cases. If you run your model with several different loading conditions
or through several different analysis types, SimXpert will keep the output data from each analysis in a
different Result Case.
Postprocessing can be divided into two main categories: Chart and State Plot. State Plot postprocessing
can be further divided into the following types of plots:
1. Deformation
Can be displayed in any available render style. You can turn the display of the undeformed shape
on or off as desired.
2. Fringe
Color code your model based on result value
3. Vector
Show vectors representing direction and magnitude of result value.
All plot types can be animated. You can animate a single result case by applying a progressive scale factor
to the deformation result or you can animate over a selection of result sets. All plot types can be displayed
together in the same window if desired.

State Plots
The State Plot properties form is the main control for postprocessing. It is from here you can control
which result set is being displayed, how your model is displayed and select your desired postprocessing
options.

You can use dynamic rotation to manipulate your model while results are displayed and also during
animation.
180
Results

• How to Select the Data used for postprocessing

The state plot properties form is accessed by clicking on the Results toolbox and selecting State Plot.
To choose the data used in the display, in the Results Cases list click the desired Result Case (A in figure),
then click the Results Type to use (B), and, if desired, you can make selections for Derivation and Target
Entities. You can limit the Results Cases listed using the Filter text box. If you are animating multiple
Results Cases, simply select all desired cases in the Results Cases list.
• Deformed Shape Plots

The following are some of the options control the appearance of your deformed shape plot:
1. Deformed display scaling - True: applies the related scale factor to the actual computed values for
displacement To see a plot of your actual displacement set the scale factor to 1. Relative: applies
the scale factor to display the maximum displacement as a percentage of your maximum model
dimension. This is usually an exaggerated plot for ease in visualization.
2. Deformed Shape - controls rendering for Deformed shape display.
3. Undeformed Shape - can display or remove the undeformed model, as well as control how it is
Contour Style View Options
• Fringe Plots

The Fringe tab allows access to data transforms. These options are very important to understand since
they control how the data is converted from pure discrete numbers to a visual representation. Improper
selection of data transforms can lead to erroneous interpretation of the results.
You can specify which domain in the model to use for result averaging in order to obtain an accurate
representation of the results. The following domains are available:
1. Property - results will not be averaged across property boundaries
2. Material - results will not be averaged across material boundaries
3. All Entities - results will be averaged at all common nodes
4. Target Entities - results will be averaged only between the elements selected as the target entities
5. Element Type - results will not be averaged across boundaries between different types of elements
6. None - no averaging of results between any elements. Fringe values are based on individual
element results only.
When the averaging domain is set to anything other than All Entities the resulting graphics may not be
as smooth but this is a more accurate representation of the results when discontinuities exist in the
structure.
You can compare the difference between using an averaging domain of None to one of the other averaged
domains to assess your mesh quality. If there is a large difference in the maximum result these between
the two fringe plots, especially at locations that do not have sharp corners or breaks in the model, the
mesh may need to be refined in that area.
 Normal Modes 181
Results

The Result averaging method controls how SimXpert converts the results from pure data at element
centroids, corners, and nodes to the actual continuous graphical representation. The following methods
are available.
1. Derive/Average - calculates the selected result value first then applies a simple average of all the
contributing nodes.
2. Average/Derive - averages the contributions of the common nodes then derives the result
3. Difference - computes the minimum and maximum results for the elements sharing a common
node. The difference between the maximum and minimum contributor to each node is plotted.
The fringe plot of this difference is an indicator of mesh quality: result differences between
neighboring elements should not be large. If large discontinuities are found the mesh should be
refined in that area. Nodal results will have zero max-difference.
4. Sum - Sums the result values of all contributing nodes. No averaging.
• Fringe attributes

Style allows you to choose between

1. Discrete - Each range on the spectrum is given a unique color block
2. Continuous Colors - The model is displayed with smooth transitions between each color
3. Element Fill - Elements are displayed with one solid color
• Vector Plots

Vector attributes - allows you to choose whether to scale vector lengths are adjusted, and how the vectors
are color coded.
• Animation

Animation attributes- controls number of frames, delay, and type of scale factor used to generate the
animation (Sinusoid, Linear, etc.)

Chart Plots
SimXpert can create XY plots of results. Control over the contents of a chart is provided by the chart
properties form. The chart properties form is accessed by clicking on the Results toolbox and selecting
Chart. It allows you to control the Results Cases and Results Type shown on the XY data plots. Choose
the Results Cases and the Results Type from the appropriate list boxes. You can limit the Results Cases
you see in the list box by using the Filter button. The Chart Properties form controls whether an XY plot
is displayed, and what type of chart to display.
182
Example

Example
Problem Description
The normal modes analysis of a rectangular plate having uniform cross section along its length is
discussed. The left and right side edges of the plate are fixed. The objective of the problem is to find the
first five natural frequencies and mode shapes of the plate.
When working in SimXpert you can create materials and properties prior to having geometry or elements.
In this section, you will assign global units for the simulation, then create an isotropic material and a shell
element property that you’ll use later in the simulation setup.

Startup SimXpert and Define Materials and Properties

In this section, you will assign global units for the simulation, then create material and element properties
and define a part

Enter the Structures Workspace and Set English Units:

1. Startup SimXpert and select Structures as the default workspace from the startup panel.
2. From the Tools menu, select Options, then choose Units Manager from the tree.
3. Click Standard Units.
4. Scroll down and the select the rows with Standard English Units (in, lb, s, ...)
5. Click OK.
6. Click OK.

Create an Isotropic Material:

1. On the Material and Properties tab, select Isotropic from the Materials group.
2. Make sure the Material Category is Isotropic and the Material Model is Linear Elastic.
3. Enter the values:

Young’s Modulus 10.E6

Poisson’s ratio 0.3
Density 0.101

4. Click OK.

Create an Element Property:

1. On the Material and Properties tab, select Shell from the 2D Properites group.
2. Click in the box for Material ID, then pick Isotropic_1 from the Model Browser Tree.
3. Click in the box for Part Thickness and enter 0.1.
 Normal Modes 183
Example

4. Click OK.

Create a Part:
1. On the Geometry tab, select Create Part from the Part group.
2. Enter Plate for Title.
3. Click in the 2D Property text box then click Shell_1 in the Model Browser tree.
4. Click OK.

Create Plate Geometry

Creating the geometry for the plate is accomplished in two steps. First create two parallel lines using
SimXpert’s polyline/spline tool, then fill the surface to create a 2D body:
1. On the Geometry tab, select Curve from the Curve group.
2. Click in the Entities text box.
3. In the X,Y,Z Input box, enter 0 0 0., then click OK.
4. In the X,Y,Z Input box, enter 5 0 0., then click OK.
5. Click Apply on the Polyline Spline form.
6. Click in the Entities text box again and clear the points contained.
7. In the X,Y,Z Input box, enter 0 2 0., then click OK.
8. In the X,Y,Z Input box, enter 5 2 0., then click OK.
9. Click OK.
10. From the View menu, click Model Views, then click Top to show a plan view.
11. From the View menu, click Display, then click Fill to zoom in on the part.

Modeling Window Shows: Two parallel lines.

12. On the Geometry tab, select Filler from the Surface group.
13. Click in the Curves text box.
184
Example

14. On the Pick Filters toolbar, pull down and select Select All.

15. Click OK.

Modeling Window Shows:A rectangular surface.

Mesh Surface
1. On the Meshing tab, select Surface from the Automesh group.
2. On the Mesher form, click in the Surface to Mesh field.
3. Screen pick the surface.
4. On the Mesher form, enter 0.25 for Element Size.
5. Click OK.

Modeling Window Shows:Meshed surface.

Create Constraints and Loads

The plate will be pinned at either end:

Create Single Point Constraint:

1. On the LBCs tab, select Pin from the Constraint group.
2. Click in the Pick Entities text box.
3. On the Pick Filters toolbar, select Pick Nodes.
4. Drag 2 rectangles around the nodes at each end of the plate.
5. Click OK.

Modeling Window Shows:SPC [123] is shown on the left and right edge of the plate.
 Normal Modes 185
Example

Set up Simulation Conditions for a Modal Analysis

We will set up a Job by defining our specific output requests which will give us a BDF file to solve using
MD Nastran.

Creating Job:
1. Right-click FileSet and click Create New Nastran Job.
2. On the Job Properties form enter Modal for Job Name.
3. On the Solution Type drop down menu, select Modal Analysis (SOL 103).
4. Click the ellipses (...) on Solver Input file.
5. Choose the file path and enter Modal for the file name.
6. Click Save.
7. Click OK to create the new job.

Setting General Parameters:

1. In the Model Browser Tree, double-click Solver Control.
2. On the General Linear Solution Parameters form enter the following values:

Weight - Mass Conversion 0.00259

Node for Weight Generation 0

3. Click Apply.

Setting output files:

1. Select Output Files Properties from the list on the left.
2. Check Print.
3. Set Binary Output to XDB.
4. Click Apply.
5. Click Close.

Adding a Subcase:
1. In the Model Browser Tree, double-click Loadcase Control.
2. On the Eigenvalue Extraction Parameters form Enter 5 for Number of Desired Roots.
3. Click Apply.
4. Click Close.

Run job:
1. In the Model Browser, right-click Modal.
186
Example

2. Click Run.

Attach Results
We will attach the XDB file from the MD Nastran analysis to our SimXpert database to view the results.
1. From the File menu, select Attach Results.
2. Click the browse button.
3. Select the file modal.xdb.
4. Click Open.
5. Select Results as the Attach Option
6. From the View menu, click Model Views, then click Isometric View.
7. From the View menu, click Display, then click Fill.

Create Deformation Plots

We will visually assess our results using SimXpert to generate fringe and deformation plots.
1. On the Result tab, select Fringe.
2. Click on the Fringe tab, then click the Display settings tab.
3. Under Element edge display, set Display to Element edges.
4. Click on the Plot Data tab.
5. From the Result Cases, expand the subcase by clicking on the plus sign, select Mode 1:Freq =
357.65.
6. For Results Type select Eigenvectors, Translational.
7. For Derivation select Magnitude.
8. Click Update.
 Normal Modes 187
Example

9. Select View / Entity Display / All Geometry Shown and View / Entity Display / All Finite
Elements Shown to turn off the display of the mesh and geometric surface..

10. Under the PlotData tab, select Deformation for Plot Type.
11. For Result Cases, expand the subcase and select Mode 1:Freq = 357.65.
12. For Results Type select Eigenvectors, Translational.
13. Select Update..

14. Click Clear

15. Select Mode 2.
16. Check Animate
17. Click Update
18. To stop the animation, click the Animation tab and click on the Stop Animation button.
19. Follow the steps above to plot the results for the remaining mode shapes.
188
Example
 Direct Transient Response 189

Direct Transient Response

190
Modal Versus Direct Transient Response

Modal Versus Direct Transient Response

Some general guidelines can be used in selecting modal transient response analysis versus direct transient
response analysis. These guidelines are summarized in Table 5-1.

Table 5-1 Modal Versus Direct Transient Response

Modal Direct
Small Model X
Large Model X
Few Time Steps X
Many Time Steps X
High Frequency Excitation X
Normal Damping X
Higher Accuracy X
Initial Conditions X

In general, larger models may be solved more efficiently in modal transient response because the
numerical solution is a solution of a smaller system of uncoupled equations. This result is certainly true
if the natural frequencies and mode shape were computed during a previous stage of the analysis. Using
Duhamel’s integral to solve the uncoupled equations is very efficient even for very long duration
transients. On the other hand, the major portion of the effort in a modal transient response analysis is the
calculation of the modes. For large systems with a large number of modes, this operation can be as costly
as direct integration. This is especially true for high-frequency excitation. To capture high frequency
response in a modal solution, less accurate high-frequency modes must be computed. For small models
with a few time steps, the direct method may be the most efficient because it solves the equations without
first computing the modes. The direct method is more accurate than the modal method because the direct
method is not concerned with mode truncation. For systems with initial conditions, direct transient
response is the only choice.
Table 5-1 provides a starting place for evaluating which method to use. Many additional factors may be
involved in the choice of a method, such as contractual obligations or local standards of practice.
 Direct Transient Response 191
Overview and Definition

Overview and Definition

Introduction
Transient response analysis is the most general method for computing forced dynamic response. The
purpose of a transient response analysis is to compute the behavior of a structure subjected to
time-varying excitation. The transient excitation is explicitly defined in the time domain. All of the forces
applied to the structure are known at each instant in time. Forces can be in the form of applied forces
and/or enforced motions.
The important results obtained from a transient analysis are typically displacements, velocities, and
accelerations of grid points, and forces and stresses in elements.
Depending upon the structure and the nature of the loading, two different numerical methods can be used
for a transient response analysis: direct and modal. The direct method performs a numerical integration
on the complete coupled equations of motion and is the topic of this document. The modal method
utilizes the mode shapes of the structure to reduce and uncouple the equations of motion (when modal or
no damping is used); the solution is then obtained through the summation of the individual modal
responses. The choice of the approach is problem dependent. This document describes Direct Transient
Response. Modal Transient Response is described in Link to Modal Transient Response doc here.

Theory
In direct transient response, structural response is computed by solving a set of coupled equations using
direct numerical integration. Begin with the dynamic equation of motion in matrix form

[ M ] { u·· ( t ) } + [ B ] { u· ( t ) } + [ K ] { u ( t ) } = { P ( t ) } (5-1)

The fundamental structural response (displacement) is solved at discrete times, typically with a fixed
integration time step Δt .

By using a central finite difference representation for the velocity { u· ( t ) } and the acceleration { u·· ( t ) } at
discrete times,

1
{ u· n } = --------- { u n + 1 – u n – 1 }
2Δt

1
{ u·· n } = -------2- { u n + 1 – 2u n + u n – 1 }
Δt (5-2)

and averaging the applied force over three adjacent time points, the equation of motion can be rewritten
as:
192
Overview and Definition

M- B
-------
2
{ u n + 1 – 2u n + u n – 1 } + --------- { u n + 1 – u n – 1 } + (5-3)
Δt 2Δt
K
---- { u n + 1 + u n + u n – 1 } = 1--- { P n + 1 + Pn + P n – 1 }
3 3
Collecting terms, the equation of motion can be rewritten as:

[ A1 ] { u n + 1 } = { A2 } + [ A3 ] { un } + [ A 4 ] { u n – 1 } (5-4)

where (5-5)

M B K
[ A 1 ] = -------2- + --------- + ----
Δt 2Δt 3

1
{ A 2 } = --- { P n + 1 + P n + P n – 1 }
3

2M K
[ A 3 ] = -------2- – ----
Δt 3

M B K
[ A 4 ] = – -------2- + --------- – ----
Δt 2Δt 3

Matrix [ A 1 ] is termed the dynamic matrix, and { A 2 } is the applied force vector (averaged over
three adjacent time points). This approach is similar to the classical Newmark-Beta direct integration
method except that { P ( t ) } is averaged over three time points and [ K ] is modified such that the dynamic
equation of motion reduces to a static solution [ K ] { u n } = { P n }if no [ M ] or [ B ] exists.

The transient solution is obtained by decomposing [ A 1 ] and applying it to the right-hand side of the
above equation. In this form, the solution behaves like a succession of static solutions with each time step
performing a forward-backward substitution (FBS) on a new load vector. Note that the transient nature
of the solution is carried through by modifying the applied force vector { A 2 } with the [ A 3 ] and [ A4 ]
terms.

In its simplest form, the [ M ] , [ B ] , and [ K ] matrices are assumed to be constant throughout the analysis
and do not change with time. A significant benefit presents itself if Δt remains constant during the
analysis. With a constant Δt , the [ A 1 ] matrix needs to be decomposed only once. Each progressive step
 Direct Transient Response 193
Overview and Definition

in the analysis is only an FBS of a new load vector. If Δt is changed, [ A 1 ] must be re-decomposed,
which can be a costly operation in large problems.
Another efficiency in the direct transient solution is that the output time interval may be greater than the
solution time interval. In many cases it is not necessary to sample output response at each solution time.
For example, if the solution is performed every 0.001 seconds the results can be output every fifth time
step or every 0.005 second. This efficiency reduces the amount of output.

Units in Dynamic Analysis

Because there is more input in dynamic analysis than in static analysis, it is easier to make a mistake in
units when performing a dynamic analysis. The most frequent source of error in dynamic analysis is
incorrect specification of the units, especially for mass and damping.
Table 5-2 shows typical dynamic analysis variables, fundamental and derived units, and common English
and metric units. Note that for English units all “lb” designations are lb f . The use of “lb” for mass (i.e.,

lb m) is avoided.

Table 5-2 Engineering Units for Common Variables

Common Common
Variable Dimensions* English Units Metric Units
Length L in m
2
Mass M lb-sec ⁄ in kg
Time T sec sec
2 2 2
Area L in m
3 3 3
Volume L in m
–1
Velocity LT in / sec m / sec
–2 2 2
Acceleration LT in ⁄ sec m ⁄ sec
Rotation -- rad rad
–1
Rotational Velocity T rad / sec rad / sec
–2 2 2
Rotational Acceleration T rad ⁄ sec rad ⁄ sec
–1
Circular Frequency T rad / sec rad / sec
–1
Frequency T cps; Hz cps; Hz
–2 2 2 2 2
Eigenvalue T rad ⁄ sec rad ⁄ sec
Phase Angle -- deg deg
–2
Force MLT lb N
–2
Weight MLT lb N
194
Overview and Definition

Table 5-2 Engineering Units for Common Variables (continued)

Common Common
Variable Dimensions* English Units Metric Units
2 –2
Moment ML T in-lb N-m
–3 3 4 3
Mass Density ML lb-sec ⁄ in kg ⁄ m
– 1 –2 2 2
Young’s Modulus ML T lb ⁄ in Pa; N ⁄ m
Poisson’s Ratio -- -- --
– 1 –2 2 2
Shear Modulus ML T lb ⁄ in Pa; N ⁄ m
4 4 4
Area Moment of Inertia L in m
4 4 4
Torsional Constant L in m
2 2 2
Mass Moment of Inertia ML in-lb-sec kg-m
–2
Stiffness MT lb ⁄ in N/m
–1
Viscous Damping Coefficient MT lb-sec / in N-sec / m
– 1 –2 2 2
Stress ML T lb ⁄ in Pa; N ⁄ m
Strain -- -- --

*
where: L Denotes length
M Denotes mass
T Denotes time
-- Denotes dimensionless

Damping in Direct Transient Response

The damping matrix [ B ] is used to represent the energy dissipation characteristics of a structure. In the
general case, the damping matrix is comprised of several matrices

G 1
[ B ] = [ B ] + [ B ] + ------- [ K ] + -------  G E [ K E ]
1 2
(5-6)
W3 W4

where:
1
[B ] damping elements (CVISC, CDAMPi) + B2GG
2
[B ] B2PP direct input matrix + transfer functions
G overall structural damping coefficient
W3 frequency of interest in radians per unit time (PARAM,W3) for the
conversion of overall structural damping into equivalent viscous damping
 Direct Transient Response 195
Overview and Definition

[K] global stiffness matrix

GE element structural damping coefficient (GE on the MATi entry)
W4 frequency of interest in radians per unit time (PARAM,W4) for conversion
of element structural damping into equivalent viscous damping
[ KE ] element stiffness matrix

Transient response analysis does not permit the use of complex coefficients. Therefore, structural
damping is included by means of equivalent viscous damping. To appreciate the impact of this on the
solution, a relation between structural damping and equivalent viscous damping must be defined.
The viscous damping force is a damping force that is a function of a damping coefficient b and the
velocity. It is an induced force that is represented in the equation of motion using the [B] matrix and
velocity vector.

[ M ] { u·· ( t ) } + [ B ] { u· ( t ) } + [ K ] { u ( t ) } = { P ( t ) } (5-7)
The structural damping force is a displacement-dependent damping. The structural damping force is a
function of a damping coefficient G and a complex component of the structural stiffness matrix.

[ M ] { u·· ( t ) } + ( 1 + iG ) [ K ] { u ( t ) } = { P ( t ) } (5-8)
Assuming constant amplitude oscillatory response for a SDOF system, the two damping forces are
identical if

Gk = bω (5-9)
or

Gk
b = ------- (5-10)
ω
Therefore, if structural damping G is to be modeled using equivalent viscous damping b , then the
equality Equation (5-10) holds at only one frequency (see Figure 5-1).
Two parameters are used to convert structural damping to equivalent viscous damping. An overall
structural damping coefficient can be applied to the entire system stiffness matrix using PARAM,W3,r
where r is the circular frequency at which damping is to be made equivalent. This parameter is used in
conjunction with the overall structural damping coefficient, G. The default value for W3 is 0.0, which
causes the damping related to this source to be ignored in transient analysis.
PARAM,W4 is an alternative parameter used to convert element structural damping to equivalent viscous
damping. PARAM,W4,r is used where r is the circular frequency at which damping is to be made
equivalent. PARAM,W4 is used in conjunction with the GE field on the MATi entry. The default value
for W4 is 0.0 which causes the related damping terms to be ignored in transient analysis.
Units for PARAM,W3 and PARAM,W4 are radians per unit time. The choice of W3 or W4 is typically
the dominant frequency at which the damping is active. Often, the first natural frequency is chosen, but
196
Overview and Definition

isolated individual element damping can occur at different frequencies and can be handled by the
appropriate data entries.

Damping Structural Damping fs = iGku

Force

Equivalent
Viscous b = Gk ⁄ ω 3 (or ω 4 )
Damping

ω 3 (or ω 4 ) ω
fv = bu· = ib ω u

Figure 5-1 Structural Damping Versus Viscous Damping

(Constant Oscillatory Displacement)

Initial Conditions in Direct Transient Response

You may impose initial displacements and/or velocities in direct transient response. The Global
Boundary Condition TIC (Transient Analysis Initial Condition) is used to define initial displacements or
velocities on the components of nodes. You can select the desired TIC entries when you set up your
analysis job.
If initial conditions are used, they should be specified for all DOFs having nonzero values. Initial
conditions for any unspecified DOFs are set to zero.

Initial conditions { u0 } and { u· 0 } are used to determine the values of { u –1 } , { P 0 } , and { P – 1 }

used in Equation (5-4) to calculate { u1 } .

{ u –1 } = { u 0 } – { u· 0 }Δt (5-11)

{ P – 1 } = [ K ] { u –1 } + [ B ] { u· 0 } (5-12)

In the presence of initial conditions, the applied load specified at t = 0 is replaced by

{ P 0 } = [ K ] { u 0 } + [ B ] { u· 0 } (5-13)
 Direct Transient Response 197
Overview and Definition

Regardless of the initial conditions specified, the initial acceleration for all points in the structure is
assumed to be zero (constant initial velocity).
You can enter the transient analysis initial conditions by selecting TIC from the Global BC toolbox. The
format for the TIC entry is

Engineering Format

Solver Format

Field Contents
G Node, scalar, or extra point to which initial condition is applied.
C Component number of DOF to which initial condition is applied.
U0 Initial displacement.
V0 Initial velocity.
198
Transient Excitation Definition

Transient Excitation Definition

An important aspect of a transient response analysis is the definition of the loading function. In a transient
response analysis, the force must be defined as a function of time. The following entries are used for the
transient load definition:

Entry Description Where to Input

TLOAD1 Defines a time-dependent dynamic load or enforced motion
TLOAD2
LSEQ Generates the spatial distribution of dynamic loads from static load
entries
DAREA Defines scale factors for the spatial distribution of dynamic load BC / Create BC/
DELAY Defines the time delay term τ in the equations of the dynamic SPC BC
loading function
TABLEDi Tabular values versus time for generating dynamic loads

DLOAD Defines a dynamic loading condition as a linear combination of Generated

TLOADi sets. automatically by
SimXpert.

The particular entry chosen for defining the dynamic loading is largely a function of user convenience
for concentrated loads. Pressure and distributed loads, however, require a more complicated format.
There are two important aspects of dynamic load definition. First, the location of the loading on the
structure must be defined. Since this characteristic locates the loading in space, it is called the spatial
distribution of the dynamic loading. Secondly, the time variation in the loading is the characteristic that
differentiates a dynamic load from a static load. This time variation is called the temporal distribution of
the load. A complete dynamic loading is a product of spatial and temporal distributions.
Using Tables and Sets in SimXpert makes it possible to apply many complicated and temporally similar
loadings with a minimum of input. Combining simple loadings to create complicated loading
distributions that vary in position as well as time is also a straightforward task.

The remainder of this section describes the entries for transient excitation. The description is given in
terms of the coefficients that define the dynamic load.

Time-Dependent Loads -- TLOAD1 Entry

The TLOAD1 entry is the most general form in which to define a time-dependent load. It defines a
dynamic loading of the form
 Direct Transient Response 199
Transient Excitation Definition

{P( t) } = {A ⋅ F( t – τ) } (5-14)

The coefficients of the force are defined in tabular format. You need not explicitly define a force at every
instant in time for which the transient solution is evaluated. Only those values which describe the
character of the loading are required. SimXpert interpolates linearly for intermediate values.

Engineering Format

Solver Fromat

Field Contents
EXITEID Identification number of DAREA entry that defines A . You can double click in this
field to select an existing DAREA or create a new one.
DELAY Defines time delay τ . You can double click in this field to create or select an
existing DELAY entry that defines τ . or you can directly enter the value of τ that
will be used for all degrees-of-freedom that are excited by this dynamic load entry.
200
Transient Excitation Definition

Field Contents
TYPE Defines the type of the dynamic excitation as defined in Table 5-3.
TID Identification number of TABLEDi entry that gives F ( t ) . You can double click in
this field to select an existing TABLEDi or create a new one.
US0 Factor for initial displacements.
VS0 Factor for initial velocities.

Table 5-3 Excitation Function Types

Integer Excitation Function
0 Force or Moment
1 Enforced Displacement
2 Enforced Velocity
3 Enforced Acceleration
Values 1, 2, and 3 apply only to the large mass
method for enforced motion.

Time-Dependent Loads – TLOAD2 Entry

The TLOAD2 entry is a general analytical form with which to define a time-dependent load. The value
of the force at a particular instant in time is determined by evaluating the analytic function at the specific
time. You enter the appropriate constants in the function.
The TLOAD2 entry defines dynamic excitation in the form:


 0 , t < ( T1 + τ ) or t > ( T2 + τ )
{P(t)} =  (5-15)
 At̃ B e Ct̃ cos ( 2πFt̃ + P ) , ( T1 + τ ) ≤ t ≤ ( T2 + τ )

 Direct Transient Response 201
Transient Excitation Definition

where: t̃ = t – ( T1 – τ ) .

Engineering Format

Solver Fromat
202
Transient Excitation Definition

Field Contents
EXITED Identification number of DAREA entry that defines A . You can double click in this
field to select an existing DAREA or create a new one.
DELAY Defines time delay τ . You can double click in this field to create or select an existing
DELAY entry that defines τ . or you can directly enter the value of τ that will be
used for all degrees-of-freedom that are excited by this dynamic load entry.
TYPE Defines the type of the dynamic excitation as defined in Table 5-3.
T1, T2 Time constants
F Frequency (cycles per unit time).
P Phase angle (degrees).
C Exponential coefficient
B Growth coefficient
US0 Factor for initial displacements.
VS0 Factor for initial velocities.
 Direct Transient Response 203
Transient Excitation Definition

Time Delay -- DELAY Entry

The DELAY entry defines the time delay τ in an applied load.

Engineering Format

Solver Fromat

Field Contents
Card Type of MD Nastran bulk data entry that will be created.
Di Component number. Cell value is τ i , the Time delay for that component

The node to which it is applied is selected separately. Any number of DELAY entries may be used; as
long as they are grouped in the same Nastran Set.
204
Transient Excitation Definition

Dynamic Load Tabular Function – TABLEDi Entries

The TABLEDi entries (i = 1 through 4) each define a tabular function for use in generating
frequency-dependent dynamic loads. The form of each TABLEDi entry varies slightly, depending on the
value of i, as does the algorithm for y(x). The x values need not be evenly spaced.
The TABLED1, TABLED2, and TABLED3 entries linearly interpolate between the end points and
linearly extrapolate outside of the endpoints as shown in Figure 5-2. TABLED1 has the added option to
perform logarithmic interpolation between points, also. The TABLED4 entry uses the endpoint values
for values beyond the endpoints.
Linear Interpolation Between Endpoints
y

Linear Extrapolation of Segment x6 – x7

Linear Extrapolation of Segment x2 – x1

x
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7

Figure 5-2 Interpolation and Extrapolation for TABLED1, TABLED2,and TABLED3 Entries
 Direct Transient Response 205
Transient Excitation Definition

.The TABLED1 entry has the appears as follows:

Field Contents
TID Table identification number.
XAXIS Specifies a linear or logarithmic interpolation for the x-axis.
YAXIS Specifies a linear or logarithmic interpolation for the y-axis.
xi, yi Tabular values. Values of x are frequency in cycles per unit time.

To enter X-Y pairs, click Add once for each set of X-Y pairs. Click in the box for the first X value and
type in the value. Use the tab key to advance to each successive field. When all values are entered, the
table is defined and you can click Create. To see a plot of your x-y pairs, click Update then select Fit
Curves from the View menu.
206
Transient Excitation Definition

The TABLED1 entry uses the algorithm

y = yT ( x ) (5-16)

The algorithms used for interpolation and extrapolation are as follows:

XAXIS YAXIS yT(x)

LINEAR LINEAR xj – x x – xi
--------------- yi + --------------- yj
xj – xi xj – xi
LOG LINEAR ln ( xj ⁄ x ) ln ( x ⁄ xi )
----------------------- yi + ----------------------- yj
ln ( xj ⁄ xi ) ln ( xj ⁄ xi )
LINEAR LOG
xj – x x – xi
exp --------------- ln yi + --------------- ln yj
xj – xi xj – xi
LOG LOG
ln ( xj ⁄ x ) ln ( x ⁄ xi )
exp ----------------------- ln yi + ----------------------- ln yj
ln ( xj ⁄ xi ) ln ( xj ⁄ xi )

X-Y pairs are entered in the same manner for all tables. For the remaining tables we will look only the
fields that are unique to that table type. The TABLED2 entry appears as follows:

Field Contents
TID Table identification number.
X1 Table parameter.

The TABLED2 entry uses the algorithm

y = y T ( x – X1 ) (5-17)

The TABLED3 entry has the following format:

Field Contents
TID Table identification number.
X1, X2 Table parameters.
 Direct Transient Response 207
Transient Excitation Definition

The TABLED3 entry uses the algorithm

y = y T  ---------------
x – X1
(5-18)
X2
The TABLED4 entry has the following format:

Field Contents
TID Table identification number.
Xi Table parameters. ( X2 ≠ 0.0; X3 < X4 ) .

The TABLED4 entry uses the algorithm

N
i
Ai  ---------------
x – X1
y =   X2 
(5-19)
i=0

N is the degree of the power series. When x < X3 , X3 is used for x ; when x > X4 , X4 is used for x . This
condition has the effect of placing bounds on the table; there is no extrapolation outside of the table
boundaries.

Dynamic Load Set Combination -- DLOAD

One of the requirements of transient loads is that all TLOAD1s and TLOAD2s must have unique SIDs.
If they are to be applied in the same analysis, they must be combined using the DLOAD Bulk Data entry.
The total applied load is constructed from a combination of component load sets as follows:

{ P } = S  Si { P i } (5-20)
i

where:

S = overall scale factor

Si = scale factor for i-th load set
Pi = i-th set of loads

P= total applied load

208
Transient Excitation Definition

The DLOAD entry is created automatically by SimXpert.

Transient Excitation Considerations

A number of important considerations must be remembered when applying transient loads. It is important
to avoid defining discontinuous forcing functions when describing applied loads. The numerical
integration of discontinuous forcing functions may cause different results for the same analysis run on
different computers because of slight numerical differences on different computer types. If the analysis
calls for loadings with sharp impulses, it is best to smooth the impulse over at least one integration time
increment.
The loading function must accurately describe the spatial and temporal distribution of the dynamic load.
Simplifying assumptions must not change the character of the load in magnitude or location.
 Direct Transient Response 209
Example

Example

Transient Analysis of a Two-DOF Model

Consider the two-DOF system shown in Figure 5-3. Direct transient response is run with an initial
displacement of 0.1 meter at node 2. The analysis is run for a duration of 10 seconds with a Δt of 0.01
second. Damping is neglected in the analysis.
y

Node 1 m1

k1

Node 2 m2

k2

Figure 5-3 Two-DOF Model

Enter the Structures Workspace and Set Metric Units:

1. Startup SimXpert and select Structures as the default workspace from the startup panel.
2. From the Tools menu, select Options, then choose Units Manager from the tree.
3. Click Standard Units.
4. Scroll down to, then select the row with Standard Metric Units (m, kg, s,...).
5. Click OK.
6. Click OK.

Create a Part:
1. From the Part toolbox, select Create.
2. Click OK.

Create Nodes
1. On the Nodes/Elements tab, select Node from the Create group.
2. Click in the Locations text box.
3. In the X,Y,Z Input box, enter 0 0 0, then click OK.
210
Example

4. Repeat Step 3 for 0 1 0, and 0 2 0.

5. Click OK on the Node form.

Modeling Window Shows: Three unreferenced nodes are created in the y-direction.

Create Constraints and Loads

1. On the LBCs tab, select General under the Constraint group.
2. Pull down BC Sub-Type to PSPC.
3. Enter Out of Plane for Name.
4. Click in the Pick Entities textbox.
5. Pull down the selection submenu on the Pick Filters toolbar and click Select All

6. Uncheck the checkbox for Ty.

7. Select Permanent Motion for the Constraint Type.
8. Click OK.

Modeling Window Shows: PSPC[13456] is assigned to all three nodes.

Turn on Node Numbering:

1. From the Tools menu, click Identify
2. Select Nodes from the Pick Panel
3. Click All.

Modeling Window Shows: Nodes labeled with their corresponding ID numbers.

4. Notice that Node 1 is located at Y=0, Node 2 at Y=1, and Node 3 at Y=2.
 Direct Transient Response 211
Example

Create Two Concentrated Masses

1. On the Nodes/Elements tab, select Create/Create Element from the Element group.
2. Select 0D as the Element Type and CONM2 as the Element Sub-Type.
3. Click the Locations textbox.
4. Screen Pick Node 1 (the node with the lowest Y value)
5. Enter 0.1 for Mass Value.
6. Click Apply.

Modeling Window Shows: Node 1 has an associated concentrated mass.

7. Change the Mass to 10.

8. Click the Locations textbox.
9. Select Node 2 (the middle node)
10. Click Apply.

Modeling Window Shows: Node 2 has an associated concentrated mass.

Create Two Spring Elements

1. Select 1D as the Element Type and CELAS2 as the Element Sub-Type.
2. Enter the values:

Elastic Property Value 100

(K)
Component Number (C1) 2
Component Number (C2) 2

3. Click the Location textbox.

4. Pick Node 1 and Node 2.
5. Click Apply.
6. Enter the values:

Elastic Property Value 1.0e4

(K)
Component Number (C1) 2
Component Number (C2) 2
212
Example

7. Click the Location textbox.

8. Pick Node 2 and Node 3.
9. Click OK.

Create Constraints and Loads

Constrain the Base of the Model:
10. On the LBCs tab, select General under the Constraint group.
11. Enter Base for Name.
12. Click in the Pick Entities textbox.
13. Select Node 3 (the node with the greatest y value)
14. Uncheck all checkboxes except for (Dof 2) Enforced Diplacement Y.
15. Click OK.

Modeling Window Shows: SPC[2] is assigned to the node with the greatest y dimension.

Create the Initial Conditions:

1. On the LBCs tab, select Initial Transient Condition under the Global group.
2. Enter Initial Displacement for Name.
3. Click in the Pick entities text box and select Node 2 (the middle node)
4. Pull down Component Number to 2
5. Enter 0.1 for Initial Displacement.
6. Click OK.

Setup Analysis
1. Right-click FileSet and select Create New Nastran Job
2. Enter Two_DOF as the Job Name
3. On the Solution Type drop down menu, select Direct Transiet Analysis(SOL 109).
4. Click the ellipses (...) on Solver Input file.
5. Choose the file path and enter Two_DOF for the File name.
6. Click Save.
7. Click OK.

Add Time Step:

1. Double-click Loadcase Control.
2. Select Time Step Definition Table.
 Direct Transient Response 213
Example

3. Right-click the window, choose Add.

4. Enter 1000 for the Number of Time Steps.
5. Enter 0.01 in the Time Increment box.
6. For the Skip Factor enter 1.
7. Click Apply.
8. Click OK.

Run the Analysis:

1. Right click the job, Two_DOF, and select Run.

Create Charts of Result data

Attach Results:
An .xdb file will be created when the analysis has been successfully completed.
1. From the File menu and select Attach Results.
2. Click the browse button
3. Select the file two_dof.xdb.
4. Click Open.
5. Select Result as the Attach Option.
6. Click OK.

Create Graphs of Displacement versus Time:

1. On the Result tab, select Chart.
2. Click on the subcase to select all time steps.
3. Select Displacement, Translational under Result Type.
4. Select Y Component under Derivation.
5. Click in Target Entities list box and pick Node 1 from the window.
214
Example

6. Click Add Curves.

 Direct Transient Response 215
Example

7. When finished with Node 1, click Clear Plot. Clear Node 1 from the Target Entities list box.
Then repeat the steps for plotting for Node 2,

Notice the two different frequencies apparent in this graph. This is called beating.
216
Example
 Modal Transient Response 217

Modal Transient Response

218
Modal Versus Direct Transient Response

Modal Versus Direct Transient Response

Some general guidelines can be used in selecting modal transient response analysis versus direct transient
response analysis. These guidelines are summarized in Table 6-1.

Table 6-1 Modal Versus Direct Transient Response

Modal Direct
Small Model X
Large Model X
Few Time Steps X
Many Time Steps X
High Frequency Excitation X
Normal Damping X
Higher Accuracy X
Initial Conditions X

In general, larger models may be solved more efficiently in modal transient response because the
numerical solution is a solution of a smaller system of uncoupled equations. This result is certainly true
if the natural frequencies and mode shape were computed during a previous stage of the analysis. Using
Duhamel’s integral to solve the uncoupled equations is very efficient even for very long duration
transients. On the other hand, the major portion of the effort in a modal transient response analysis is the
calculation of the modes. For large systems with a large number of modes, this operation can be as costly
as direct integration. This is especially true for high frequency excitation. To capture high frequency
response in a modal solution, less accurate high frequency modes must be computed. For small models
with a few time steps, the direct method may be the most efficient because it solves the equations without
first computing the modes. The direct method is more accurate than the modal method because the direct
method is not concerned with mode truncation. For systems with initial conditions, direct transient
response is the only choice.
Table 6-1 provides a starting place for evaluating which method to use. Many additional factors may be
involved in the choice of a method, such as contractual obligations or local standards of practice.
 Modal Transient Response 219
Overview and Definition

Overview and Definition

Modal transient response is an alternative approach to computing the transient response of a structure.
This method uses the mode shapes of the structure to reduce the size, uncouple the equations of motion
(when modal or no damping is used), and make the numerical integration more efficient. Since the mode
shapes are typically computed as part of the characterization of the structure, modal transient response is
a natural extension of a normal modes analysis.

As a first step in the formulation, transform the variables from physical coordinates { u } to modal
coordinates { ξ } by

{ u( t ) } = [ φ ]{ ξ( t ) } (6-1)

The mode vectors [ φ ] are used to transform the problem in terms of the behavior of the modes as
opposed to the behavior of the nodes. Equation (6-1) represents an equality if all modes are used;
however, because all modes are rarely used, the equation usually represents an approximation.
To proceed, temporarily ignore the damping, resulting in the equation of motion

[ M ] { u·· ( t ) } + [ K ] { u ( t ) } = { P ( t ) } (6-2)
If the physical coordinates in terms of the modal coordinates (Equation (6-1) is substituted into Equation
(6-2)), the following equation is obtained:

··
[M ][ φ]{ξ(t )} + [K]{ φ}{ξ( t) } = {P(t) } (6-3)
This is now the equation of motion in terms of the modal coordinates. At this point, however, the
equations remain coupled.

T
To uncouple the equations, premultiply by [ φ ] to obtain
T ·· T T
[φ ] [M ][ φ]{ξ} + [ φ] [K][ φ]{ξ} = [ φ] {P(t) } (6-4)
where:

T modal (generalized) mass matrix

[φ ] [M ][φ ]
T modal (generalized) stiffness matrix
[φ ] [K][ φ]
T modal force vector
[ φ] {P}

The final step uses the orthogonality property of the mode shapes to formulate the equation of motion in
terms of the generalized mass and stiffness matrices that are diagonal matrices. These matrices do not
have off diagonal terms that couple the equations of motion. Therefore, in this form, the modal equations
220
Overview and Definition

of motion are uncoupled. In this uncoupled form, the equations of motion are written as a set of
uncoupled SDOF systems as
··
mi ξi ( t ) + ki ξi ( t ) = pi ( t ) (6-5)

where:

m i i-th modal mass

k i i-th modal stiffness

p i i-th modal force

Note that there is no damping in the resulting equation. The next subsection describes how to include
damping in modal transient response.

Once the individual modal responses ξ i ( t ) are computed, physical responses are recovered as the
summation of the modal responses

{u( t) } = [φ ]{ξ(t) } (6-6)

Since numerical integration is applied to the relatively small number of uncoupled equations, there is not
as large a computational penalty for changing Δt as there is in direct transient response analysis.
However, a constant Δt is still recommended.
Another efficiency option in the modal transient solution is that the output time interval may be greater
than the solution time interval. In many cases, it is not necessary to sample output response at each
solution time. For example, if the solution is performed every 0.001 second, the results can be output
every fifth time step or every 0.005 second. This efficiency reduces the amount of output.

Units in Dynamic Analysis

Because there is more input in dynamic analysis than in static analysis, it is easier to make a mistake in
units when performing a dynamic analysis. The most frequent source of error in dynamic analysis is
incorrect specification of the units, especially for mass and damping.
 Modal Transient Response 221
Overview and Definition

Table 6-2 shows typical dynamic analysis variables, fundamental and derived units, and common English
and metric units. Note that for English units all “lb.” designations are lb f . The use of “lb.” for mass (i.e.,
lb m ) is avoided.

Table 6-2 Engineering Units for Common Variables

Common Common
Variable Dimensions* English Units Metric Units
Length L in m
2
Mass M lb-sec ⁄ in kg
Time T sec sec
2 2 2
Area L in m
3 3 3
Volume L in m
–1
Velocity LT in / sec m / sec
–2 2 2
Acceleration LT in ⁄ sec m ⁄ sec
Rotation -- rad rad
–1
Rotational Velocity T rad / sec rad / sec
–2 2 2
Rotational Acceleration T rad ⁄ sec rad ⁄ sec
–1
Circular Frequency T rad / sec rad / sec
–1
Frequency T cps; Hz cps; Hz
–2 2 2 2 2
Eigenvalue T rad ⁄ sec rad ⁄ sec
Phase Angle -- deg deg
–2
Force MLT lb N
–2
Weight MLT lb N
2 –2
Moment ML T in-lb N-m
–3 3 4 3
Mass Density ML lb-sec ⁄ in kg ⁄ m
–1 –2 2 2
Young’s Modulus ML T lb ⁄ in Pa; N ⁄ m
Poisson’s Ratio -- -- --
–1 –2 2 2
Shear Modulus ML T lb ⁄ in Pa; N ⁄ m
4 4 4
Area Moment of Inertia L in m
4 4 4
Torsional Constant L in m
2 2 2
Mass Moment of Inertia ML in-lb-sec kg-m
–2
Stiffness MT lb ⁄ in N/m
–1
Viscous Damping MT lb-sec / in N-sec / m
Coefficient
222
Overview and Definition

Table 6-2 Engineering Units for Common Variables (continued)

Common Common
Variable Dimensions* English Units Metric Units
–1 – 2 2 2
Stress ML T lb ⁄ in Pa; N ⁄ m
Strain -- -- --

*
where: Denotes length
M Denotes mass
T Denotes time
-- Denotes dimensionless

Damping
If the damping matrix [ B ] exists, the orthogonality property (see Equation (4-13) in the Normal Modes
document) of the modes does not, in general, diagonalize the generalized damping matrix

T
[ φ ] [ B ] [ φ ] ≠ diagonal (6-7)

In the presence of a [ B ] matrix, the modal transient approach solves the coupled problem in terms of
modal coordinates using the direct transient numerical integration approach described as follows:

[ A1 ] { ξn + 1 } = { A2 } + [ A3 ] { ξn } + [ A4 ] { ξn – 1 } (6-8)

where (6-9)
T M- --------
B- K
[ A1 ] = φ ------- +
2 2Δt
+ ---- φ
Δt 3

1 T
{ A 2 } = --- φ { P n + 1 + P n + P n – 1 }
3

2M
-------- – K
T
[ A3 ] = φ 2
---- φ
Δt 3

T M B K
[ A4 ] = φ – -------2- + --------- – ---- φ
Δt 2Δt 3

These equations are similar to the direct transient method except that they are in terms of modal
coordinates. Since the number of modes used in a solution is typically much fewer than the number of
physical variables, the direct integration of the modal equations is not as costly as with physical variables.
 Modal Transient Response 223
Overview and Definition

If damping is applied to each mode separately, the decoupled equations of motion can be maintained.
When modal damping is used, each mode has damping b i . The equations of motion remain uncoupled
and have the following form for each mode:
·· ·
mi ξi ( t ) + bi ξi ( t ) + ki ξi ( t ) = pi ( t ) (6-10)

or

·· · 2 1
ξ i ( t ) + 2ζ i ω i ξ i ( t ) + ω i ξ i ( t ) = ----- p i ( t ) (6-11)
mi
where:

ζ i = b ⁄ ( 2m ω ) ≡ modal damping ratio

i i i
2
ω i = k ⁄ m ≡ modal frequency (eigenvalue)
i i

The TABDMP1 table defines the modal damping ratios. A table is created by the frequency-damping
pairs specified in the TABDMP1 entry. The solution refers to this table for the damping value to be
224
Overview and Definition

applied at a particular frequency. A particular TABDMP1 table is activated by selecting it when setting
up your analysis.

Field Contents
TYPE Type of damping units:
G (default)
CRIT
Q
X Value Frequency value (cycles per unit time).
Y Value Damping value in the units specified for the model.

If TYPE is “G” the damping values are in units of equivalent viscous dampers, as follows:

gi
b i = ----- K i
ωi
 Modal Transient Response 225
Overview and Definition

If TYPE is “CRIT”, the damping values are in the units of fraction of critical damping C ⁄ C 0 . If TYPE
is “Q”, the damping values are in the units of the amplification or quality factor, Q. These constants are
related by the following equations:

C ⁄ C0 = g ⁄ 2

 1 ⁄ ( 2C ⁄ C 0 )
Q = 
1 ⁄ g
At resonance, the three types of damping are related by the following equations:

bi Gi
ζ i = ------- = -----
b cr 2

b cr = 2m i ω i

1 1
Q i = ------- = -----
2ζ i Gi
(6-12)

The values of fi (units = cycles per unit time) and gi define pairs of frequencies and dampings. Note
that gi can be entered as structural damping (default), critical damping, or quality factor. The entered
damping is internally converted to structural damping using Equation (6-12). Straight line interpolation
226
Overview and Definition

is used for modal frequencies between consecutive fi values. Linear extrapolation is used at and beyond
the ends of the table. We will demonstrate this with an example table.

Figure 6-1 Example TABDMP1 Input

This table is created by selecting TABDMP1 from the Tables submenu of the Materals and Properties tab.

Since we have 4 x-y pairs of data, click Add (+) 4 times. Click in the box for the first X value and type
in the values using the Enter key to advance to each successive field. When all values are entered, the
table is defined and you can click OK.
In our example, if modal damping is entered as shown in Figure 6-1and if modes exist at 1.0, 2.5, 3.6,
and 5.5 Hz, SimXpert interpolates and extrapolates as shown in Figure 6-2 and Table 6-3. Note that there
 Modal Transient Response 227
Overview and Definition

is no table entry at 1.0 Hz; SimXpert uses the first two table entries at f = 2.0 and f = 3.0 to
extrapolate the value for f = 1.0 .
0.20
+
+
+ +
0.10
+ = entered value
= computed value

0.0
2.0 4.0 6.0
f(Hz)

Figure 6-2 Example TABDMP1

Table 6-3 Example TABDMP1 Interpolation/Extrapolation

Entered Computed
X Y f g
2.0 0.16 1.0 0.14
3.0 0.18 2.5 0.17
4.0 0.13 3.6 0.15
6.0 0.13 5.5 0.13

With the modal equations in the form of Equation (6-11), an efficient uncoupled analytical integration
algorithm is used to solve for modal response as decoupled SDOF systems. Each of the modal responses
is computed using
0, No initial conditions for modal
transient response.

·
– bt ⁄ 2m  ξ o + b ⁄ ( 2m ) ξ o 
ξ(t ) = e  ξ o cos ω d t + ------------------------------------- sin ω d t (6-13)
 ωd 
t
– bt ⁄ 2m 1 - bτ ⁄ 2m
mω d 
+e ---------- e p ( τ ) sin ω d ( t – τ )dτ
0
228
Overview and Definition

In a modal transient analysis, you may add nonmodal damping (CVISC, CDAMPi, GE on the MATi
entry, or PARAM,G). With nonmodal damping, there is a computational penalty due to the coupled [ B ]
matrix, causing the coupled solution algorithm to be used. In modal transient response analysis, it is
recommended that you use only modal damping (TABDMP1). If discrete damping is desired, direct
transient response analysis is recommended.
Note that there are no nonzero initial conditions for modal transient response analysis.

Mode Truncation
It is possible that not all of the computed modes are required in the transient response solution. Often,
only the lowest few suffice for dynamic response calculation. It is quite common to evaluate the
frequency content of transient loads and determine a frequency above which no modes are noticeably
excited. This frequency is called the cutoff frequency. The act of specifically not using all of the modes
of a system in the solution is termed mode truncation. Mode truncation assumes that an accurate solution
can be obtained using a reduced set of modes. The number of modes used in a solution is controlled in a
modal transient response analysis through a number of methods.
 Modal Transient Response 229
Overview and Definition

The frequency range selected on the Eigenvalue Extraction form is one means to control the frequency
range used in the transient response solution. This range is entered when you set up your job for analysis.
The Eigenvalue extraction form appears as follows:

Start of Frequency Range of

Interest

End of Frequency Range of Interest

Also, three parameters are available to limit the number of modes included in the solution and can be
used as an alternative to the above. PARAM,LFREQ gives the lower limit on the frequency range of
retained modes, and PARAM,HFREQ gives the upper limit on the frequency range of retained modes.
230
Overview and Definition

PARAM,LMODES gives the number of the lowest modes to be retained. These parameters are accessed
by selecting PARAM from the LBCs tab.

These parameters can be used to include the desired set of modes. Note that the default is for all computed
modes to be retained.
It is very important to remember that truncating modes in a particular frequency range may truncate a
significant portion of the behavior in that frequency range. Typically, high frequency modes are truncated
because they are more costly to compute. So, truncating high frequency modes truncates high frequency
response. In most cases, high frequency mode truncation is not of concern. You should evaluate the
truncation in terms of the loading frequency and the important characteristic frequencies of the structure.

Dynamic Data Recovery

In modal transient response analysis, two options are available for recovering displacements and stresses:
mode displacement method and matrix method. Both methods give the same answers, although with cost
differences.
 Modal Transient Response 231
Overview and Definition

The mode displacement method computes the total physical displacements for each time step from the
modal displacements and then computes element stresses from the total physical displacements. The
number of operations is proportional to the number of time steps.
The matrix method computes displacements per mode and element stresses per mode, and then computes
physical displacements and element stresses as the summation of modal displacements and element
stresses. Costly operations are proportional to the number of modes.
Since the number of modes is usually much less that the number of time steps, the matrix method is
usually more efficient and is the default. The mode displacement method can be selected by using
PARAM,DDRMM,-1.
The mode acceleration method is another form of data recovery for modal transient response analysis.
This method can provide better accuracy since detailed local stresses and forces are subject to mode
truncation and may not be as accurate as the results computed with the direct method.
232
Transient Excitation Definition

Transient Excitation Definition

An important aspect of a transient response analysis is the definition of the loading function. In a transient
response analysis, the force must be defined as a function of time. The following entries are used for the
transient load definition:

Entry Description Where to Input

TLOAD1 Defines a time-dependent dynamic load or enforced motion
TLOAD2
LSEQ Generates the spatial distribution of dynamic loads from static
load entries
DLOAD Defines a dynamic loading condition as a linear combination of Generated
TLOADi sets. automatically by
SimXpert
DAREA Defines scale factors for the spatial distribution of dynamic load BC / Create BC/
DELAY Defines the time delay term τ in the equations of the dynamic SPC BC
loading function
TABLEDi Tabular values versus time for generating dynamic loads

The particular entry chosen for defining the dynamic loading is largely a function of user convenience
for concentrated loads. Pressure and distributed loads, however, require a more complicated format.
There are two important aspects of dynamic load definition. First, the location of the loading on the
structure must be defined. Since this characteristic locates the loading in space, it is called the spatial
distribution of the dynamic loading. Secondly, the time variation in the loading is the characteristic that
differentiates a dynamic load from a static load. This time variation is called the temporal distribution of
the load. A complete dynamic loading is a product of spatial and temporal distributions.
Using Tables and Sets in SimXpert makes it possible to apply many complicated and temporally similar
loadings with a minimum of input. Combining simple loadings to create complicated loading
distributions that vary in position as well as time is also a straightforward task.
The remainder of this section describes the entries for transient excitation. The description is given in
terms of the coefficients that define the dynamic load.

Time Dependent Loads -- TLOAD1 Entry

The TLOAD1 entry is the most general form in which to define a time dependent load. It defines a
dynamic loading of the form

{P( t) } = {A ⋅ F( t – τ) } (6-14)
 Modal Transient Response 233
Transient Excitation Definition

The coefficients of the force are defined in tabular format. You need not explicitly define a force at every
instant in time for which the transient solution is evaluated. Only those values which describe the
character of the loading are required. SimXpert interpolates linearly for intermediate values.

Engineering Format

Solver Fromat

Field Contents
EXCITEID Identification number of DAREA or SPCD entry that defines A . You can double
click in this field to select an existing DAREA or create a new one.
DELAY Defines time delay τ . You can double click in this field to create or select an
existing DELAY entry that defines τ .
TYPE Defines the type of the dynamic excitation as defined in Table 6-4.
234
Transient Excitation Definition

Field Contents
TID Identification number of TABLEDi entry that gives F ( t ) . You can double click in
this field to select an existing TABLEDi or create a new one.
US0 Factor for initial displacements of the enforced degrees-of-freedom.
VS0 Factor for initial velocities of the enforced degrees-of-freedom.

Table 6-4 Excitation Function Types

TYPE Type of Dynamic Excitation
LOAD Applied Load (Force or Moment)
DISP Enforced Displacement using large mass or SPC/SPCD data
VELO Enforced Velocity using large mass or SPC/SPCD data
ACCE Enforced Acceleration using large mass or SPC/SPCD data

Time Dependent Loads – TLOAD2 Entry

The TLOAD2 entry is a general analytical form with which to define a time-dependent load. The value
of the force at a particular instant in time is determined by evaluating the analytic function at the specific
time. You enter the appropriate constants in the function.
The TLOAD2 entry defines dynamic excitation in the form:


 0 , t < ( T1 + τ ) or t > ( T2 + τ )
{P( t) } =  (6-15)
 At̃ e cos ( 2πFt̃ + P ) , ( T1 + τ ) ≤ t ≤ ( T2 + τ )
B Ct̃

 Modal Transient Response 235
Transient Excitation Definition

where: t̃ = t – ( T1 – τ ) .

Engineering Format

Solver Fromat
236
Transient Excitation Definition

Field Contents
EXCITEID Identification number of DAREA or SPCD entry that defines A . You can double
click in this field to select an existing DAREA or create a new one.
DELAY Defines time delay τ . You can double click in this field to create or select an existing
DELAY entry that defines τ .
TYPE Defines the type of the dynamic excitation as defined in Table 6-4.
T1, T2 Time constants
F Frequency (cycles per unit time).
P Phase angle (degrees).
C Exponential coefficient
B Growth coefficient
US0 Factor for initial displacements of the enforced degrees-of-freedom.
VS0 Factor for initial velocities of the enforced degrees-of-freedom.
 Modal Transient Response 237
Transient Excitation Definition

Spatial Distribution of Loading – DAREA Entry

The DAREA entry defines the degrees of freedom where the dynamic load is to be applied and a scale
factor to be applied to the loading. The DAREA entry provides the basic spatial distribution of the
dynamic loading.

Engineering Format

MD Nastran Format

Field Contents
Card Type of MD Nastran bulk data entry that will be created.
Di Scale (area) factors for component i of dynamic loads.
238
Transient Excitation Definition

A DAREA entry is selected by the TLOAD1 or TLOAD2 entry. Any number of DAREA entries may be
used; as long as they are grouped in the same Nastran Set.
After entering data, you will click Store, then pick the node(s) to which the dynamic load is applied.

Time Delay -- DELAY Entry

The DELAY entry defines the time delay τ in an applied load.

Engineering Format

Solver Fromat

Field Contents
Card Type of MD Nastran bulk data entry that will be created.
Di Time delay for component i of dynamic loads
 Modal Transient Response 239
Transient Excitation Definition

After entering data, you will click Store, then pick the node(s) to which the delay in the dynamic load is
to be applied.
Any number of DELAY entries may be used; as long as they are grouped in the same Nastran Set.

Dynamic Load Tabular Function – TABLEDi Entries

The TABLEDi entries (i = 1 through 4) each define a tabular function for use in generating frequency
dependent dynamic loads. The form of each TABLEDi entry varies slightly, depending on the value of i,
as does the algorithm for y(x). The x values need not be evenly spaced.
The TABLED1, TABLED2, and TABLED3 entries linearly interpolate between the end points and
linearly extrapolate outside of the endpoints as shown in Figure 6-3. TABLED1 has the added option to
perform logarithmic interpolation between points, also. The TABLED4 entry uses the endpoint values
for values beyond the endpoints.
Linear Interpolation Between Endpoints
y

Linear Extrapolation of Segment x6 – x7

Linear Extrapolation of Segment x2 – x1

x
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7

Figure 6-3 Interpolation and Extrapolation for TABLED1, TABLED2,and TABLED3 Entries
240
Transient Excitation Definition

The TABLED1 entry has the appears as follows:

Field Contents
X Interpolation Specifies a linear or logarithmic interpolation for the x-axis.
Type
Y Interpolation Specifies a linear or logarithmic interpolation for the y-axis.
Type
X Value, Y Value Tabular values. Values of x are frequency in cycles per unit time. Data is input in
the same manner as described for TABDMP1 on page 225.

The TABLED1 entry uses the algorithm

y = yT ( x ) (6-16)
 Modal Transient Response 241
Transient Excitation Definition

The algorithms used for interpolation and extrapolation are as follows:

XAXIS YAXIS yT(x)

LINEAR LINEAR xj – x- x – xi
-------------- yi + --------------- yj
xj – xi xj – xi
LOG LINEAR ln ( xj ⁄ x ) ln ( x ⁄ xi )
----------------------- yi + ----------------------- yj
ln ( xj ⁄ xi ) ln ( xj ⁄ xi )
LINEAR LOG
xj – x x – xi
exp --------------- ln yi + --------------- ln yj
xj – xi xj – xi
LOG LOG
ln ( xj ⁄ x ) ln ( x ⁄ xi )
exp ----------------------- ln yi + ----------------------- ln yj
ln ( xj ⁄ xi ) ln ( xj ⁄ xi )

X-Y pairs are entered in the same manner for all tables. For the remaining tables we will look only the
fields that are unique to that table type. The TABLED2 entry appears as follows:

Field Contents
TID Table identification number.
X1 Table parameter.

The TABLED2 entry uses the algorithm

242
Transient Excitation Definition

y = y T ( x – X1 ) (6-17)

The TABLED3 entry has the following format:

Field Contents
TID Table identification number.
X1, X2 Table parameters.

The TABLED3 entry uses the algorithm

y = y T  ---------------
x – X1
(6-18)
X2
 Modal Transient Response 243
Transient Excitation Definition

The TABLED4 entry has the following format:

Field Contents
TID Table identification number.
Xi Table parameters. ( X2 ≠ 0.0; X3 < X4 ) .

The TABLED4 entry uses the algorithm

N
i
Ai  ---------------
x – X1
y =   X2 
(6-19)
i=0

N is the degree of the power series. When x < X3 , X3 is used for x ; when x > X4 , X4 is used for x . This
condition has the effect of placing bounds on the table; there is no extrapolation outside of the table
boundaries.

TABLED1/ TLOAD1 Example

First describe the time variation of the load. Remember that the solver will extrapolate linearly for points
beyond this table.
244
Transient Excitation Definition

1. On the Materials and Properties tab, select Table/NastranBDF/TABLED1 from the Element
Properties group.
2. Click ADD (+) four times.
3. Click in the box for the first X value and type in the following data, using the tab key to advance
between fields

X Y
0 0.0
3000 0.0
0.3 1
2 1

4. Click OK.

Define the delay

1. On the LBCs tab, select Force from the Loads group.
 Modal Transient Response 245
Transient Excitation Definition

2. Enter the following data:

F 4
Direction X 1
Direction Y 0
Direction Z 0

3. Check D1 then enter 0.2 and click Store then Exit

4. Screen pick the Node for load application.

5. Click Done then Exit in the Pick Panel.
Create the static loading
1. Right click on LBC in the Model Browser and select New BC > Nodal BC > FORCE.

2. Click Store, then Exit.

3. Screen pick a node.
4. Click Done then Exit in the pick panel.
Create the dynamic loading
1. Right click on Global BC in the Model Browser and New Global BC > RLOAD1.
2. Double click in EXCITE ID and select the Force from the Model Browser.
3. Double click in DELAY and select the Delay from the Model Browser.
246
Transient Excitation Definition

4. Double click in TID and select TABLED1 from the pop-up window

On the TLOAD1 entry is a reference to the applied force (with Set ID 4), the DELAY before the
application of the load (Set ID 3), and the description of the time dependency, TABLED1 (Set ID 1). The
FORCE entry with Set ID 4 positions the loading on the selected node in the 1 direction with a scale
factor of 4.0 applied to the load. The DELAY entry with Set ID 3 delays the loading on the selected node
in the 1 direction by 0.2 units of time. The TABLED1 entry with Set ID 1defines the load time history in
tabular form. The result of these entries is a dynamic load applied to the selected node, component T1,
scaled by 4.0 and delayed by 0.2 units of time.
The figure below shows the applied load (scaled by the FORCE entry and time shifted by the DELAY
entry).
 Modal Transient Response 247
Transient Excitation Definition

Integration Time Step

The TSTEP entry is used to select the integration time step. This entry also controls the duration of the
solution and which time steps are to be output. The integration time step must be small enough to
represent accurately the variation in the loading. The integration time step must also be small enough to
represent the maximum frequency of interest. The maximum frequency of interest is often called the
cutoff frequency. It is recommended to use at least ten solution time steps per period of response for the
cutoff frequency. For a given integration time step, integration errors increase with increasing natural
frequency because there is an upper limit to the frequency that can be represented by a given time step.
Also, integration errors accumulate with total time.
In specifying the duration of the analysis, it is important to use an adequate length of time to properly
capture long period (low frequency) response. In many cases, the peak dynamic response does not occur
at the peak value of load nor necessarily during the duration of the loading function. A good rule is:
always solve for at least one cycle of response for the lowest frequency mode after the peak excitation.
248
Transient Excitation Definition

The integration time step is entered during analysis setup. Once an analysis subcase has been defined,
you can define the properties for the time step table. The Time Step Definition form appears as follows:

where:

Field Contents
Number of Time Steps Number of time steps with the value of Time Increment.
Time Increment Integration time step.
Skip Factor Skip factor, n, for output. Every n-th step will be saved for output.

Notice that you can have multiple time step definitions in one analysis.

Transient Excitation Considerations

A number of important considerations must be remembered when applying transient loads. Very sharp
spikes in a loading function induce a high frequency transient response. If the high frequency transient
response is of primary importance in an analysis, a very small integration time step must be used.
It is also important to avoid defining discontinuous forcing functions when describing applied loads. The
numerical integration of discontinuous forcing functions may cause different results for the same analysis
run on different computers because of slight numerical differences on different computer types. If the
analysis calls for loadings with sharp impulses, it is best to smooth the impulse over at least one
integration time increment.
 Modal Transient Response 249
Transient Excitation Definition

The loading function must accurately describe the spatial and temporal distribution of the dynamic load.
Simplifying assumptions must not change the character of the load in magnitude, location, or frequency
content.
250
Example

Example

Modal Transient Analysis of a Cantilever Beam Model

Consider the cantilever beam shown in Figure 6-4. Modal transient response (SOL 112) is run with loads
applied to nodes 6 and 11 as shown in Figure 6-5. The analysis is run for a duration of 2 seconds with a
Δt of 0.001 second. Modal damping of 5% critical damping is used for all modes. Modes up to 3000 Hz
are computed using the Lanczos method.
y

6 11
x

p6(t) p11(t)

Figure 6-4 Cantilever Beam Model with Applied Loads

3

Node 6 Force(N)
Time
(sec.)

-3

0.1 0.5

End Node Force (N)

Time
(sec.)

-6

0.5

Figure 6-5 Applied Loads for the Beam Model

 Modal Transient Response 251
Example

Open SimXpert

Enter the Structures Workspace and Set Metric Units:

1. Startup SimXpert and select Structures as the default workspace from the startup panel.
2. From the Tools menu, select Options, then choose Units Manager from the tree.
3. Click Standard Units.
4. Scroll down then click the row with Metric Units (m, kg, s,...).
5. Click OK.
6. Choose Structures.BC under the Entity Options branch of the tree.
7. Check the Display All Dir Vector checkbox and enter 25 as Vector Size as percentage of window
size.
8. Click OK.

Create an Isotropic Material:

1. On the Material and Properties tab, select Isotropic from the Materials group.
2. On the Material, enter:

Name Aluminum
Young’s Modulus 7.1e10
Poisson’s Ratio 0.33
Density 2.65e4

Note: This is weight (not mass) density

3. Click OK.

Create an Element Property

1. On the Material and Properties tab, select Beam from the 1D Properties group.
2. Click in the Material textbox and select Aluminum from the Model Browser.
3. Enter the following information:

Name Aluminum Bar

Area 6.158e-4
Inertia ZZ 3.0e-8
Inertia YY 3.0e-8
Torsional constant 6.0e-8
Non Structural Mass 2.414
252
Example

4. Click OK.

Create a Part
1. On the Geometry tab, select Create Part from the Part group.
2. For the Title enter Beam.
3. Click OK.

Generate Curve
1. On the Geometry tab, select Curve from the Curve group.
2. Click in the Entities text box.
3. In the X Y Z Input box, enter 0 0 0 then click OK
4. Enter 3 0 0 then click OK again
5. Click OK on Polyline Spline form
6. From the View menu, click Display, then click Fill.

Modeling Window Shows:One line.

Mesh Curve
1. On the Meshing tab, select Curve from the Automesh group.
2. Click in the Curve to Mesh text box.
3. Screen pick the curve.
4. On the Mesher form, enter 0.3 for Element Size.
5. For Orientation Vector, enter 0 1 0 for X, Y, and Z respectively.
6. Click in the Element Property text box and then click on Aluminum Bar from the Model Browser
tree.
7. Click OK.

Modeling Window Shows:Ten elements created along the curve.

Create Constraints and Loads

Constrain motion in Z-direction
1. On the LBCs tab, select General from the Constraint group.
2. Change the Name to Z Motion.
3. Uncheck the boxes corresponding to Tx, Ty and Rz.
4. Click in the Pick Entities text box.
 Modal Transient Response 253
Example

5. Select Pick Curves in the Pick Filters toolbar.

6. Screen pick the curve.

7. Click OK.

Modeling Window Shows:All nodes labeled with GC[345].

Turn on node numbering

1. From the Tools menu, select Identify
2. Select Nodes in the Identify Entities pick panel
3. Click on All
4. Note the locations of Nodes 1, 6, and 11.
5. Click Exit.

Constrain the fixed end of the cantilever

1. On the LBCs tab, select General from the Constraint group.
2. Change the Name to Fixed End.
3. Only check the boxes corresponding to DOF 1, DOF 2 and DOF 6.
4. Click in the Pick Entities text box.
5. Change the Pick Filter to Nodes.
6. Select Node 1 (at 0 0 0).
7. Click OK.

Modeling Window Shows:Node 1 labeled with GC[126].

Check your model details

1. From the Tools menu, click Scene Properties... > Combined Mass to list mass in message
region. (Or use the following toolbar to do the same action)
254
Example

Create the static loading

1. On the LBCs tab, select Force from the Loads group.
2. For the Force Name, enter End Node Force, and enter:

Force Magnitude 6.
Direction - X 0
Direction - Y 1
Direction - Z 0

3. Click in the Pick Entities text box.

4. Screen pick Node 11 (opposite end from Fixed End) then click Apply

Modeling Window Shows:Force vector at node 11.

5. For the new Force Name, enter Node 6 Force, and enter:

Force Magnitude 3.
Direction - X 0
Direction - Y 1
Direction - Z 0

6. Click in Pick Entities text box.

7. Screen pick Node 6 (middle node)
8. Click OK.

Modeling Window Shows:Force vector at node 6

Create the dynamic loading

1. From the Tools menu, select Options, then choose GUI Options from the tree. Check box Solver
Card, and then click OK.
2. Double-click End Node Force in the Model Browser.
3. Check the box next Transient to activate the dynamic response cards.
4. Check Transient and pull down Type to TLOAD2.
 Modal Transient Response 255
Example

5. On the TLOAD2 form enter:

T2 (Time Constant) 0.5

F (Frequency in cycles 2
per unit time)
PHI (Phase angle in 90
degrees)

6. Click OK.
7. Double-click Node 6 Force in the Model Browser.
8. Check the box next Transient to activate the dynamic response cards.
9. Check Transient and pull down Type to TLOAD2.
10. On the TLOAD2 form enter

DELAY 0.1
T2 0.5
F 4
PHI 90

11. Click OK.

12. From the Tools menu, select Options, then Options Editor..., then choose GUI Options from
the tree. Uncheck the box for Solver Card, and then click OK.

Setup Analysis
1. Right-click FileSet and select Create New Nastran Job
2. Enter Cantilever as the Job Name.
3. Select Modal Transient Analysis (SOL 112).
4. Click the ellipses (...) on Sovler Input File.
5. Select the file path where the job will be exported and enter cantilever for the file name.
6. Click Save.
7. Click OK

Enter Conversion Factor from weight to mass units 1/G where G = 9.81 m/sec**2
1. Double-click Solver Control and select General Linear Solver Parameters.
2. Enter Weight - Mass conversion: 0.102
3. Click Apply.
256
Example

4. Click Close.

Add Additional Output Request to the Subcase:

1. Right Click Output Requests and select Add Subcase
2. Enter Dynamic Loading for the Name.
3. Select DefaultLbcSet
4. Set Modal Damping to Critical Damping (CRIT) and click OK
5. Right Click on Subcase: Dynamic Loading and select Add Output Requests
6. Right Click on Output Requests and select Add Displacement and click Apply
7. Right Click on Output Requests and select Add Acceleration and click Apply
8. Right Click on Output Requests and select Add Element Force and click Apply
9. Right Click on Output Requests and select Add Applied Load and click Apply
10. Click Close

Select Frequency Range for Modes:

1. Double-click Loadcase Control and select Eigenvalue Extraction Parameters
2. Under Extraction, set Method to Lanczos.
3. Enter Lower = -0.1
4. Enter Upper = 3000
5. Set Number of Desired Roots to 0.
6. Click Apply.

Set Time Steps

1. Select Time Step Definition Table.
2. Right click in the window and select Add (+).
3. Enter 2000 for the Number of Time Steps.
4. Enter 0.001 for the Time Increment.
5. Enter 1 for the Skip Factor.
6. Click Apply and then click Ok

Set Damping Parameters

1. Right click on Damping Parameters and select Properties.
2. Right click in the window, select Add.
3. Enter 0 and 0.05 for Frequency and Damping respectively.
4. Click Apply.
5. Right click in the window, select Add.
 Modal Transient Response 257
Example

6. Enter 1000 and 0.05 for Frequency and Damping respectively.

7. Click Apply.
8. Click OK.

Run the Analysis

1. Right-click Cantilever and select Run.

Attach your Results

1. Pull down the File menu and select Attach Results.
2. Click the browse button and navigate to where the job was run.
3. Select cantilever.xdb
4. Click Open
5. Select Results as the Attach Option.
6. Click OK.

Create Graph of applied loads on Nodes 6 and 11

1. From the Result toolbox, select Chart.
2. Click on the subcase in the Result Cases column to select all steps
3. Click on Applied Loads, Translational in the Result Type column
4. Click on Y Component in the Derivation column
5. For the Target Entities select Node 6 and Node 11
6. Click Add Curves.
258
Example

7. The following chart will be displayed:

8. Notice the Time Delay of 0.1 seconds for Node 6

Create Graph of Displacement vs. Time

1. Once again choose the subcase to select all steps
2. Click on Displacements, Translational in the Result Type column
3. Click on Y Component in the Derivation column
4. For the Target Entities select Nodes 6 and 11
5. Click Clear Plot
6. Click Add Curves
 Modal Transient Response 259
Example

7. The following chart will be displayed:

260
Example

8. Repeat the steps above for Acceleration, Translational

Plot the bending moment for the bars at node 6

1. Once again choose the subcase to select all steps
2. Click on Bar Forces, Rotational in the Result Type column
3. Click on Z Component in the Derivation column
4. For the Target Entities select Node 6
5. Click Clear Plot
 Modal Transient Response 261
Example

6. Click Add Curves

262
Example
 Direct Frequency Response 261

Direct Frequency Response

262
Modal Versus Direct Frequency Response

Modal Versus Direct Frequency Response

Two different numerical methods can be used in frequency response analysis. The direct method solves
the coupled equations of motion in terms of forcing frequency. The modal method utilizes the mode
shapes of the structure to reduce and uncouple the equations of motion (when modal or no damping is
used); the solution for a particular forcing frequency is obtained through the summation of the individual
modal responses. The choice of the method depends on the problem.
Some general guidelines can be used in selecting modal frequency response analysis versus direct
frequency response analysis. These guidelines are summarized in Table 7-1.

Table 7-1 Modal Versus Direct Frequency Response

Modal Direct
Small Model X
Large Model X
Few Excitation Frequencies X
Many Excitation Frequencies X
High Frequency Excitation X
Nonmodal Damping X
Higher Accuracy X

In general, larger models may be solved more efficiently in modal frequency response because the
numerical solution is a solution of a smaller system of uncoupled equations. This result is certainly true
if the natural frequencies and mode shape were computed during a previous stage of the analysis. Using
the modal approach to solve the uncoupled equations is very efficient, even for very large numbers of
excitation frequencies. On the other hand, the major portion of the effort in a modal frequency response
analysis is the calculation of the modes. For large systems with a large number of modes, this operation
can be as costly as a direct solution. This is especially true for high-frequency excitation. To capture high
frequency response in a modal solution, less accurate high-frequency modes must be computed. For
small models with a few excitation frequencies, the direct method may be the most efficient because it
solves the equations without first computing the modes. The direct method is more accurate than the
modal method because the direct method is not concerned with mode truncation.
Table 7-1 provides a starting place for evaluating which method to use. Many additional factors may be
involved in the choice of a method, such as contractual obligations or local standards of practice.
 Direct Frequency Response 263
Overview and Definition

Overview and Definition

An overview of the Direct Frequency Response Analysis is given here.

Introduction
Frequency Response Analysis is used to compute the steady state response of structures subjected to
harmonic (oscillatory) excitations (forces). Examples of oscillatory excitation include rotating
machinery, helicopter blades, and unbalanced tires. Oscillatory excitations are defined in the frequency
domain, and can be in the form of forces and/or enforced motions (displacements, velocities, or
accelerations).
Oscillatory loading is sinusoidal in nature. In its simplest case, this loading is defined as having a constant
amplitude with a specific frequency. The steady-state oscillatory response is assumed to occur at the same
frequency as the loading, but not necessarily in phase. Due to the presence of damping in the system,
the response generally lags the excitation. Consequently, the peak response occurs a little while after the
occurrence of the peak load.

Figure 7-1 Phase shift in steady state response

The results obtained from a frequency response analysis usually include the displacements, velocities,
accelerations of nodes as well as stresses and forces of elements. The computed responses are complex
numbers defined as magnitude and phase (with respect to the applied force), or as real and imaginary
264
Overview and Definition

components which are vector components of the response in the real/imaginary plane. These quantities
are graphically presented in Figure 7-2.
i (Imaginary)

u
ui

θ
ur r (Real)

Figure 7-2 Complex Plane

where:

u 2 2
= magnitude = ur + ui

θ –1
= phase angle = tan ( ui ⁄ ur )

u r = real component = u cos θ

u i = imaginary component = u sin θ

Theory
In direct frequency response analysis, structural response is computed at discrete excitation frequencies
by solving a set of coupled matrix equations using complex algebra. Begin with the damped forced
vibration equation of motion with harmonic excitation. The dynamic equilibrium equation for harmonic
excitation is:
 Direct Frequency Response 265
Overview and Definition

[ M ] { X·· ( t ) } + [ B ] { X· ( t ) } + [ K ] { X ( t ) } = { P ( ω ) }e iωt (7-1)

where: [M], [B], and [K] are respectively the mass, damping and stiffness matrices of the
structure, and {P} are amplitudes of the harmonic forces.

The assumption of the harmonic steady state response transforms the dynamic equilibrium equation of
motion into a set of algebraic equations with complex coefficients. For this assumption of steady state
response to be valid, the excitation forces at all locations must be at the same frequency, though not
necessarily at the same phase. Furthermore the response is assumed to be linear.

Method of solution
In direct frequency response analysis, the response is computed at discrete excitation frequencies by
solving directly a set of coupled matrix equations with complex coefficients. For harmonic steady state
response (the basis of a frequency response analysis), assume the displacement to be of the form:

{ X } = { u ( ω ) }e iωt
where {u(ω)} is a complex displacement vector. Taking the first and second derivatives of the above
equation, we obtain the following expressions for the velocity and acceleration vectors:

{ X· } = iω { u ( ω ) }e iωt

{ X·· } = – ω { u ( ω ) }e iωt
2

Substituting the above expressions for X ( t ) , X· ( t ) , and X·· ( t ) into Equation (7-1), transforms into:

2
[ – ω M + iωB + K ] { u ( ω ) } = { P ( ω ) }
The above equation represents a system of simultaneous algebraic equations with complex coefficients.
The left hand side of the equation is complex because of the damping, and the right hand side is complex
because of the phase differences of the excitation forces at different nodes. The solution of this equation
with complex arithmetic produces the displacement vector {u(ω)}, for the excitation {P(ω)}. You need
to solve one set of such complex equations for each excitation frequency. In SimXpert structures, you can
select a range of excitation frequencies for a single job, and the amplitude of the forces can be frequency
dependent.

Damping
The damping matrix [B] comprises terms obtained from damping elements. The contributions of the
overall structural damping coefficient (G), and the elemental structural damping coefficient (as defined
in the material properties) are added to the stiffness matrix directly, making its coefficients complex:

[ K ] = ( 1 + iG ) [ K ] + iΣG E [ K E ]
266
Overview and Definition

where: [K] = global stiffness matrix

G = overall structural damping coefficient (G)

[KE] = element stiffness matrix
GE = element structural damping coefficient (damping coefficient in material
properties)
Consequently all types of damping can be used in the same direct frequency response analysis.
Furthermore, it is not necessary to assume an equivalent viscous form for structural damping.
The overall structural damping value (G) is defined as solution parameter during analysis setup.
 Direct Frequency Response 267
Overview and Definition

The elemental structural damping value (GE) is defined on the material properties form
268
Frequency-Dependent Excitation Definition

Frequency-Dependent Excitation Definition

An important aspect of a transient response analysis is the definition of the loading function. In a
frequency response analysis, the force must be defined as a function of frequency. To create a Frequency-
Dependent dynamic repsonse, use the Dyanamic tab on the Loads and Pressure cards found on the LBCs
tab. For example, the Force form:

The particular entry chosen for defining the dynamic loading is largely a function of user convenience
for concentrated loads. Pressure and distributed loads, however, require a more complicated format.
There are two important aspects of dynamic load definition. First, the location of the loading on the
structure must be defined. Since this characteristic locates the loading in space, it is called the spatial
distribution of the dynamic loading. Secondly, the frequency variation in the loading is the characteristic
that differentiates a dynamic load from a static load. This frequency variation is called the temporal
distribution of the load. A complete dynamic loading is a product of spatial and temporal distributions.
Using Tables and load combinations in SimXpert makes it possible to apply many complicated and
temporally similar loadings with a minimum of input. Combining simple loadings to create complicated
loading distributions that vary in position as well as time is also a straightforward task.
The remainder of this section describes the entries for frequency-dependent excitation. The description
is given in terms of the coefficients that define the dynamic load.
 Direct Frequency Response 269
Frequency-Dependent Excitation Definition

Frequency-Dependent Loads – RLOAD1 Entry

The RLOAD1 entry is a general form in which to define a frequency-dependent load. It defines a
dynamic loading of the form

i { θ – 2πfτ }
{ P ( f ) } = { A [ C ( f ) + iD ( f ) ]e } (7-2)
270
Frequency-Dependent Excitation Definition

The values of the coefficients are defined in tabular format on a TABLEDi entry. You need not explicitly
define a force at every excitation frequency. Only those values that describe the character of the loading
are required. MD Nastran will interpolate for intermediate values.

Engineering Format

MD Nastran Format

Field Contents
EXCITEID Identification number of the DAREA entry set that defines A, the
Thermal Load Set or a BC Set.
DELAY Identification number of the DELAY entry set that defines τ.
 Direct Frequency Response 271
Frequency-Dependent Excitation Definition

Field Contents
DPHASE Identification number of the DPHASE entry set that defines θ.
TC TABLEDi entry that defines C(f).
TD TABLEDi entry that defines D(f).
TYPE Type: Load, Displacement, Velocity, or Acceleration

For each field you can double click in the databox and choose to Select or Create the entry.
iwt
Note: f is the frequency in cycles per unit time and that e = ( cot wt + i sin wt )

Frequency-Dependent Loads – RLOAD2 Entry

The RLOAD2 entry is a variation of the RLOAD1 entry used for defining a frequency-dependent load.
Whereas the RLOAD1 entry defines the real and imaginary parts of the complex load, the RLOAD2
entry defines the magnitude and phase.
The RLOAD2 entry defines dynamic excitation in the form

i { φ ( f ) + θ – 2πfτ }
{ P ( f ) } = { AB ( f )e } (7-3)

The RLOAD2 definition may be related to the RLOAD1 definition by

272
Frequency-Dependent Excitation Definition

iφ ( f )
C ( f ) + iD ( f ) = B ( f )e (7-4)

RLOAD1 RLOAD2
Definition Definition

Engineering Format

MD Nastran Format
 Direct Frequency Response 273
Frequency-Dependent Excitation Definition

Field Contents
EXCITEID Identification number of the DAREA entry set that defines A, the Thermal Load Set
or a BC Set.
DELAY Identification number of the DELAY entry set that definesτ.
DPHASE Identification number of the DPHASE entry set that defines θ in degrees.
TB TABLEDi entry defining amplitude versus frequency pairs for B ( f ) .
TP TABLEDi entry defining phase angle versus frequency pairs for φ ( f ) in degrees
TYPE Type: Load, Displacement, Velocity, or Acceleration

For each field you can double click in the databox and choose to Select or Create the entry.

Note: f is the frequency in cycles per unit time.

274
Frequency-Dependent Excitation Definition

Spatial Distribution of Loading -- DAREA Entry

The DAREA entry defines the degrees-of-freedom where the dynamic load is to be applied and the scale
factor to be applied to the loading. The DAREA entry provides the basic spatial distribution of the
dynamic loading.

Engineering Format

MD Nastran Format

Field Contents
Card Type of MD Nastran bulk data entry that will be created.
Di Scale (area) factors for component i of dynamic loads.

After entering data, you will click Store, then pick the node(s) to which the dynamic load is applied.
 Direct Frequency Response 275
Frequency-Dependent Excitation Definition

A DAREA entry is selected by RLOAD1 or RLOAD2 entries. Any number of DAREA entries may be
used; all those with the same SID are combined.
276
Frequency-Dependent Excitation Definition

Time Delay – DELAY Entry

The DELAY entry defines the time delay τ in an applied load

Engineering Format

MD Nastran Format

Field Contents
Card Type of MD Nastran bulk data entry that will be created.
Di Time delay for component i of dynamic loads
 Direct Frequency Response 277
Frequency-Dependent Excitation Definition

After entering data, you will click Store, then pick the node(s) to which the delay in the dynamic load is
to be applied.
A DAREA entry must be defined for the same point and component. Any number of DELAY entries may
be used; all those with the same SID are combined.
278
Frequency-Dependent Excitation Definition

Phase Lead – DPHASE Entry

The DPHASE entry defines the phase lead θ.

Engineering Format

MD Nastran Format

Field Contents
Card Type of MD Nastran bulk data entry that will be created.
Di Phase lead for component i of dynamic load

After entering data, you will click Store, then pick the node(s) to which the phase lead for the dynamic
load is to be applied.
 Direct Frequency Response 279
Frequency-Dependent Excitation Definition

A DAREA entry must be defined for the same point and component. Any number of DPHASE entries
may be used; all those with the same SID are combined.
280
Solution Frequencies

Solution Frequencies
A major consideration when you conduct a frequency response analysis is selecting the frequency at
which the solution is to be performed. It is important to remember that each specified frequency results
in an independent solution at the specified excitation frequency.
Solution frequencies are defined as part of the analysis setup. Once you create a subcase you can define
properties for Frequency Extraction.

Discrete Defines discrete excitation frequencies.

value

Linear Defines a starting frequency F F end , and the number of

start , an ending frequency
distribution frequency increments to solve.

Logarithmic Defines a starting frequency F

start , an ending frequency F end , and the number of
distribution logarithmic intervals, NF, to be used in the frequency range.
 Direct Frequency Response 281
Example

Example

Direct Frequency Response Analysis of a Cantilever Plate

A 5 in. x 2 in x 0.1 in plate is built in at one end. Compute the displacements, accelerations, and stresses
due to a frequency-varying sinusoidal loading applied at one corner of the free edge. Use a frequency
range of between 20 and 1000 Hz, at a frequency step of 20 Hz. Use structural damping of g = 0.06.

Enter the Structures Workspace and Set English Units:

1. Startup SimXpert and select Structures as the default workspace from the startup panel.
2. From the Tools menu, select Options, then choose Units Manager from the tree.
3. Click Standard Units.
4. Scroll down to, then select the row with Standard English Units (in, lb, s,...).
5. Click OK.
6. Click OK.

Create an Isotropic Material:

1. On the Materials and Properties tab, select Isotropic from the Material group.
2. Change the Name to Steel.
3. Enter the values

Young’s modulus 3.0e7

Poisson’s ratio 0.3
Density 7.3e-4

4. Click OK.

Create an Element Property:

1. Right click Property in the Model Browser Tree, select New Property
2. Pull down Property Category to 2D, Property Group to Shell, and Property Type to Simple Shell.
3. Check the box for Material ID. Click in the Material ID text box, then pick Steel from the Model
Browser Tree.
4. Check the box for Membrane Thickness and enter 0.1.
5. Repeat step 3 for Bending Material ID and Transverse Shear Material ID.
6. Enter Steel Plate for Card Name.
7. Click Ok.
282
Example

Create a Part:
1. From the Part toolbox, select Create.
2. Enter Plate for Title.
3. Click in the 2D Property text box then click Steel Plate in the Model Browser tree.
4. Click OK.

Create Plate Geometry

1. On the Geometry tab, select Filler from the Surface group.
2. On the Filler form, uncheck Using Curves
3. Click in the Entities text box.
4. In the X,Y,Z Input box, enter 0 0 0, then click OK.
5. Enter 0 5 0., then click OK.
6. Enter 2 5 0., then click OK.
7. Enter 2 0 0., then click OK.
8. Click OK on the Filler form.
9. From the View menu, click Model Views, then click Top to show a plan view.
10. From the View menu, click Display, then click Fill to zoom in on the part

Modeling Window Shows: A rectangular surface.

Mesh Surface
1. On the Meshing tab, select Surface from the Automesh group.
2. On the Mesher form, click in the Surface to Mesh field.
3. Screen pick the surface.
4. On the Mesher form, enter 0.5 for Element Size.
5. Click OK.

Modeling Window Shows: A rectangular surface meshed with a 4 x 10 grid.

Create Constraints and Loads

Apply a Unit Force to the Bottom Right Corner of the Plate:
1. On the LBCs tab, select Force from the Loads group.
2. Click in the Pick entities text box.
3. Screen pick the node at the lower right corner of the plate.
 Direct Frequency Response 283
Example

4. Enter the following values:

Name: Unit Force

Magnitude 1
Direction-X 0
Direction-Y 0
Direction-Z 1

5. Click OK.

Modeling Window Shows: A force arrow pointing out of the screen showing a force of F[1].

Constrain the Top Edge of the Plate:

1. On the LBCs tab, select General from the Constraints group.
2. Enter Fixed End for Name.
3. Click in the Pick entities textbox.
4. Screen pick the 5 nodes on the top edge of the plate.
5. Uncheck the checkbox for Rz.
6. Click OK.

Modeling Window Shows: The label GC[12345] at each of the nodes at the top edge of the
plate.

Define a Frequency Dependent Excitation

1. Right click Table in the Model Browser Tree, select New Table > Tabled > TABLED1
284
Example

2. On the SimXpert Grapher, click Add twice and for (X,Y) enter the values (20,1) and (1000,1).

3. Click OK.
4. From the Tools menu, select Options, then choose GUI Options from the tree. Check box Solver
Card, and then click OK.
5. Double-click Unit Force from the Model Browser.
6. Check the box next Transient to activate the dynamic response cards.
7. Check Transient and pull down Type to RLOAD2.
8. Click in the TB text box and select TABLE_1 from the Model Browser Tree.
9. Click OK.
1. From the Tools menu, select Options, then choose GUI Options from the tree. Uncheck box
Solver Card, and then click OK.

Setup the Analysis.

1. If necessary, click the ‘+’ in the Model Browser Tree next to Analysis to expand the tree.
2. Right click on Nastran Jobs and select Create New Job.
3. Enter Plate as the Job Name.
4. On the Solution Type drop down menu, select Direct Frequency Response (SOL 108).
5. Click OK.

Select Coupled Mass Matrix.

1. Right click on General Parameters in the Model Browser Tree and select Properties.
 Direct Frequency Response 285
Example

2. For Mass Calculation, select Coupled Mass Matrix.

3. Click OK.

Enter Structural Damping Coefficient.

1. Right click on Solution Parameters in the Model Browser Tree and select Properties.
2. For Structural Damping Coefficient, enter 0.06.
3. Click OK.

Create and Setup Subcase.

1. Right click on Cases and click Add Subcase.
2. Under Select LBC Set, select DefaultLbcSet.
3. Click Ok.
4. Right click on Frequency Extraction and select Properties.
5. Right click in the window and select Add.
6. For type choose Linear Distribution.
7. For Number of Increments, set 49.
8. For Start Frequency, enter 20; and for End Frequency, enter 1000.
9. Click Apply and then Ok.

Add Output Requests.

1. Right click on Subcase: DefaultLbcSet and select Add Output Requests.
2. Right click on Output Requests and select Add Displacement.
3. Set Sorting to Sort by time step/frequency.
4. Set Format to Polar.
5. Click Apply and then click Close.

Setup Output file.

1. Right click Output File and select Properties.
2. Check the box for Print and click OK.

Run the Analysis.

1. Right click on the job Plate - (Direct Frequency Response (SOL108)) and select Run.
2. Enter Plate for File Name.
3. Click Save.
286
Example

Create Charts of Result data

Attach Results.
1. From the File menu, select Attach Results, then select Results Entities.
2. Select the file plate.xdb.
3. Click Open.

Create a Graph of Displacement vs. Frequency

1. From the Result toolbox, select Chart.
2. For Result Cases, choose SC1 to select all frequencies
3. Click on Displacements, Translational in the Result Type column.
4. Click on Z Component in the Derivation column.
5. Click on Real and select Magnitude as the complex component.
6. For the Target Entities screen pick the node to which the unit force load was applied (node at the
lower right corner of the plate).
 Direct Frequency Response 287
Example

7. Click Add Curves.

8. Click Clear Plot

Create a Graph of Phase vs. Frequency

1. Click Magnitude and change to Phase as the complex component.
288
Example

2. Click Add Curves.

3. Click Clear Plot

Create a Graph of Displacement vs. Frequency at a Different Node

4. Click on Phase and select Magnitude as the complex component.
5. For the Target Entities clear the current node list, then select the middle node along the bottom
free edge.
 Direct Frequency Response 289
Example

6. Click Add Curves.

7. Click Clear Plot

Create a Graph of Phase vs. Frequency

8. Click Magnitude and change to Phase as the complex component.
290
Example

9. Click Add Curves.

Repeat these steps to get plots for all the nodes along the free edge.
 Modal Frequency Response 293

Modal Frequency Response

294
Modal Versus Direct Frequency Response

Modal Versus Direct Frequency Response

Some general guidelines can be used in selecting modal frequency response analysis versus direct
frequency response analysis. These guidelines are summarized in Table 8-1.

Table 8-1 Modal Versus Direct Frequency Response

Modal Direct
Small Model X
Large Model X
Few Excitation Frequencies X
Many Excitation Frequencies X
High Frequency Excitation X
Non modal Damping X
Higher Accuracy X

In general, larger models may be solved more efficiently in modal transient response because the
numerical solution is a solution of a smaller system of uncoupled equations.Using the modal approach to
solve the uncoupled equations is very efficient, even for very large numbers of excitation frequencies.
On the other hand, the major portion of the effort in a modal frequency response analysis is the
calculation of the modes. For large systems with a large number of modes, this operation can be as time
consuming as a direct solution. This result is especially true for high-frequency excitation. To capture
high frequency response in a modal solution, less accurate, high-frequency modes must be computed. For
small models with a few excitation frequencies, the direct method may be the most efficient because it
solves the equations without first computing the modes. The direct method is more accurate than the
modal method because the direct method is not concerned with mode truncation.
Table 8-1 in the provides an overview of which method to use. Many additional factors may be involved
in the choice of a method, such as contractual obligations or local standards of practice.
 Modal Frequency Response 295
Overview and Definition

Overview and Definition

An overview of the Modal Frequency Response Analysis is given here.

Introduction
Frequency Response Analysis is used to compute the steady state response of structures subjected to
harmonic (oscillatory) excitations (forces). Examples of oscillatory excitation include rotating
machinery, helicopter blades, unbalance tires. Oscillatory excitations are defined in the frequency
domain, and can be in the form of forces and/or enforced motions (displacements, velocities, or
accelerations).

Oscillatory loading is sinusoidal in nature. In its simplest case, this loading is defined as having a constant
amplitude with a specific frequency. The steady-state oscillatory response is assumed to occur at the
same frequency as the loading, but not necessarily in phase. Due to presence of damping in the system,
the response generally lags the excitation. Consequently, the peak response occurs a little while after the
occurrence of the peak load.

Figure 8-1 Phase shift in steady state response

The results obtained from a frequency response analysis usually include the displacements, velocities,
accelerations, stresses, strains, element forces, and energies. The computed responses are complex
numbers defined as magnitude and phase (with respect to the applied force), or as real and imaginary
components.
296
Overview and Definition

Theory
The dynamic equilibrium equation for harmonic excitation is:

[ M ] { X·· ( t ) } + [ B ] { X· ( t ) } + [ K ] { X ( t ) } = { P ( ω ) }e iωt (8-1)

where: [M], [B], and [K] are eruptively the mass, damping and stiffness matrices of the
structure, and {P} are amplitudes of the harmonic forces.
The assumption of the harmonic steady state response transforms the dynamic equilibrium equation of
motion into a set of algebraic equations with complex coefficients. For this assumption of steady state
response to be valid, the excitation forces at all locations must be at the same frequency, though not
necessarily at the same phase. Furthermore the response is assumed to be linear.

Method of solution
Modal frequency response analysis uses the mode shapes of the structure to reduce the size, uncouple the
equations of motion (when modal or no damping is used), and make the numerical solution more
efficient. Since the mode shapes are typically computed as part of the characterization of the structure,
modal frequency response is a natural extension of a normal modes analysis.
The variables can be transformed from physical coordinates {X(t)} to modal coordinates {ξ(ω)} by the
following:
iωt
{ X ( t ) } = [ φ ] { ξ ( ω ) }e

The mode vectors [φ] are used to transform the problem in terms of the behavior of the modes as opposed
to the behavior of the grid points. This equation represents an equality if all modes are used; however,
because all modes are rarely used, the equation usually represents an approximation.
Using the orthogonality property of the mode shapes the equation of motion can be formulated in terms
of the generalized mass and stiffness matrices, which are diagonal matrices. If a damping matrix [B]
exists, or the structural damping coefficient (G) is used, the orthogonality property of the modes does not,
in general, diagonalize the generalized damping matrix and generalized stiffness matrix respectively,
However if damping is applied to each mode separately, (modal damping) the uncoupled equations of
motion can be maintained.
The equations of motion therefore have the form:
2
– ω m ξ ( ω ) + iωb ξ ( ω ) + k ξ ( ω ) = p ( ω )
i i i i i i i
for each mode.

The modal form of the frequency response equation of motion is much faster to solve than the direct
method because it is a series of uncoupled single degree-of-freedom systems.
 Modal Frequency Response 297
Overview and Definition

Once the individual modal responses ξi (ω) are computed, physical responses are recovered as the
summation of the modal responses. These responses are in complex form (magnitude/phase or
real/imaginary) and are used to recover additional output quantities that may have been requested.

Damping in Modal Frequency Response

The TABDMP1 table defines the modal damping ratios. A table is created by the frequency-damping
pairs specified in the TABDMP1 entry. The solution refers to this table for the damping value to be
applied at a particular frequency. A particular TABDMP1 table is activated by selecting it when setting
up your analysis.

Field Contents
TID Table identification number.
Type of damping units G (default)
CRIT
Q
fi (X) Frequency value (cycles per unit time).
gi (Y) Damping value in the units specified for the model.
298
Overview and Definition

If TYPE is “G” the damping values are in units of equivalent viscous dampers, as follows:

gi
b i = ----- K i
ωi

If TYPE is “CRIT”, the damping values are in the units of fraction of critical damping C ⁄ C 0 . If TYPE
is “Q”, the damping values are in the units of the amplification or quality factor, Q. These constants are
related by the following equations:

C ⁄ C0 = g ⁄ 2

 1 ⁄ ( 2C ⁄ C 0 )
Q = 
1 ⁄ g
At resonance, the three types of damping are related by the following equations:

b G
ζ i = ------i- = -----i
b cr 2

b cr = 2m i ω i

1 1
Q i = ------- = -----
2ζ i Gi
(8-2)

The values of fi (units = cycles per unit time) and gi define pairs of frequencies and damping. Note that
gi can be entered as structural damping (default), critical damping, or quality factor. The entered
damping is internally converted to structural damping using Equation (8-2). Straight line interpolation is
 Modal Frequency Response 299
Overview and Definition

used for modal frequencies between consecutive fi values. Linear extrapolation is used at and beyond
the ends of the table. We will demonstrate this with an example table.

Figure 8-2 Example TABDMP1 Input

This table is created by selecting TABDMP1 from Tables > Nastran BDF on the Materials and Properties
tab.
Since we have 4 x-y pairs of data, click Add 4 times. Click in the box for the first X value and type in the
values using the Enter key to advance to each successive field. When all values are entered, the table is
defined and you can click OK.
In our example, if modal damping is entered as shown in Figure 8-2and if modes exist at 1.0, 2.5, 3.6,
and 5.5 Hz, SimOffice interpolates and extrapolates as shown in Figure 8-3 and Table 8-2. Note that there
300
Overview and Definition

is no table entry at 1.0 Hz; SimOffice uses the first two table entries at f = 2.0 and f = 3.0 to
extrapolate the value for f = 1.0 .
0.20
+
+
+ +
0.10
+ = entered value
= computed value

0.0
2.0 4.0 6.0
f(Hz)

Figure 8-3 Example TABDMP1

Table 8-2 Example TABDMP1 Interpolation/Extrapolation

Entered Computed
X Y f g
2.0 0.16 1.0 0.14
3.0 0.18 2.5 0.17
4.0 0.13 3.6 0.15
6.0 0.13 5.5 0.13
 Modal Frequency Response 301
Overview and Definition

In addition to being specified as described above, TABDMP1 tables may also be defined as part of
analysis setup. First you indicate the type of damping for the analysis subcase.

Then you type in the damping data as a property of Damping Parameters:

302
Overview and Definition

Mode Truncation in Modal Frequency Response Analysis

It is possible that not all of the computed modes are required in the modal frequency response solution.
Often, only the lowest few suffice for dynamic response calculation. As a minimum, all the modes whose
resonant frequencies lie within the range of forcing frequencies should be retained. For example, if the
frequency response analysis must be between 200 and 2000 Hz, all modes whose resonant frequencies
are in this range should be retained. This guideline is only a minimum requirement, however. For better
accuracy, all modes up to at least two to three times the highest forcing frequency should be retained. In
the example where a structure is excited to between 200 and 2000 Hz, all modes from 0 to at least 4000
Hz should be retained.

The number of modes used in a solution is controlled in a modal frequency response analysis through a
number of methods. The frequency range selected on the Subcase Properties form is one means to control
the frequency range used in the frequency response solution. This range is entered when you set up your
 Modal Frequency Response 303
Overview and Definition

job for analysis. Alternatively you may simply specify the number of modes. The subcase properties form
appears as follows:

Start of Frequency Range of

Interest
End of Frequency Range of
Interest
Number of Modes

Also, three parameters are available to limit the number of modes included in the solution. And can be
used as an alternative to the above. PARAM,LFREQ gives the lower limit on the frequency range of
retained modes, and PARAM,HFREQ gives the upper limit on the frequency range of retained modes.
304
Overview and Definition

PARAM,LMODES gives the number of the lowest modes to be retained. These parameters are accessed
by selecting PARAM from the LBCs tab.

These parameters can be used to include the desired set of modes. Note that the default is for all computed
modes to be retained.

Frequency Excitation Definition

An important aspect of a frequency response analysis is the definition of the loading function. In a
frequency response analysis, the force must be defined as a function of frequency. Forces are defined in
the same manner regardless of whether the direct or modal method is used.

The following entries are used for the frequency-dependent load definition:

Entry Description Where to Input

 Modal Frequency Response 305
Overview and Definition

RLOAD1 Tabular input-real and imaginary

RLOAD2 Tabular input-magnitude and phase
LSEQ Generates the spatial distribution of dynamic loads from static
load entries

DLOAD Defines a dynamic loading condition as a linear combination Generated

of TLOADi sets. automatically by
SimXpert
DAREA Defines scale factors for the spatial distribution of dynamic LBC / SPC BC
load
DELAY Defines the time delay term τ in the equations of the dynamic
loading function
DPHASE Phase lead
TABLEDi Tabular values versus time for generating dynamic loads

There are two important aspects of dynamic load definition. First, the location of the loading on the
structure must be defined. Since this characteristic locates the loading in space, it is called the spatial
distribution of the dynamic loading. Secondly, the frequency variation in the loading is the characteristic
that differentiates a dynamic load from a static load. This frequency variation is called the temporal
distribution of the load. A complete dynamic loading is a product of spatial and temporal distributions.

Frequency-Dependent Loads – RLOAD1 Entry

The RLOAD1 entry is a general form in which to define a frequency-dependent load. It defines a
dynamic loading of the form

i { θ – 2πfτ }
{ P ( f ) } = { A [ C ( f ) + iD ( f ) ]e } (8-3)

iwt
Note that f is the frequency in cycles per unit time and that e = ( cot wt + i sin wt )
306
Overview and Definition

The values of the coefficients are defined in tabular format on a TABLEDi entry. You need not explicitly
define a force at every excitation frequency. Only those values that describe the character of the loading
are required. SimOffice will interpolate for intermediate values.

Field Contents
EXCITEID Identification number of the DAREA entry set that defines A, the
Thermal Load Set or a BC Set.
DELAY Identification number of the DELAY entry set that definesτ.
DPHASE Identification number of the DPHASE entry set that defines θ .
TC TABLEDi entry that defines C(f).
TD TABLEDi entry that defines D(f).
TYPE Type: Load, Displacement, Velocity, or Acceleration

For each field you can double click in the databox and choose to Select or Create the entry.

Frequency-Dependent Loads – RLOAD2 Entry

The RLOAD2 entry is a variation of the RLOAD1 entry used for defining a frequency-dependent load.
Whereas the RLOAD1 entry defines the real and imaginary parts of the complex load, the RLOAD2
entry defines the magnitude and phase.
The RLOAD2 entry defines dynamic excitation in the form

i { φ ( f ) + θ – 2πfτ }
{ P ( f ) } = { AB ( f )e } (8-4)

The RLOAD2 definition may be related to the RLOAD1 definition by

 Modal Frequency Response 307
Overview and Definition

iφ ( f )
C ( f ) + iD ( f ) = B ( f )e (8-5)

RLOAD1 RLOAD2
Definition Definition

Field Contents
EXCITEID Identification number of the DAREA entry set that defines A, the Thermal Load Set
or a BC Set.
DELAY Identification number of the DELAY entry set that definesτ.
DPHASE Identification number of the DPHASE entry set that defines θ in degrees.
TB TABLEDi entry defining amplitude versus frequency pairs for B ( f ) .
TP TABLEDi entry defining phase angle versus frequency pairs for φ ( f ) in degrees
TYPE Type: Load, Displacement, Velocity, or Acceleration

For each field you can double click in the databox and choose to Select or Create the entry.

Note: f is the frequency in cycles per unit time.

308
Overview and Definition

Spatial Distribution of Loading – DAREA Entry

The DAREA entry defines the degrees of freedom where the dynamic load is to be applied and a scale
factor to be applied to the loading. The DAREA entry provides the basic spatial distribution of the
dynamic loading.

Engineering Format

MD Nastran Format

Field Contents
Card Type of MD Nastran bulk data entry that will be created.
Di Scale (area) factors for component i of dynamic loads.

After entering data, you will click Store, then pick the node(s) to which the dynamic load is applied.
 Modal Frequency Response 309
Overview and Definition

A DAREA entry is selected by the RLOAD1 or RLOAD2 entry. Any number of DAREA entries may be
used as long as they are grouped in the same Nastran Set.

Time Delay -- DELAY Entry

The DELAY entry defines the time delay τ in an applied load.

Engineering Format

MD Nastran Fromat

Field Contents
Card Type of MD Nastran bulk data entry that will be created.
Di Time delay for component i of dynamic loads
310
Overview and Definition

After entering data, you will click Store, then pick the node(s) to which the delay in the dynamic load is
to be applied.
A DAREA entry must be defined for the same point and component. Any number of DELAY entries may
be used; as long as they are grouped in the same Nastran Set.
 Modal Frequency Response 311
Overview and Definition

Phase Lead – DPHASE Entry

The DPHASE entry defines the phase lead θ.

Engineering Format

MD Nastran Format

Field Contents
Card Type of MD Nastran bulk data entry that will be created.
Di Phase lead for component i of dynamic load

After entering data, you will click Store, then pick the node(s) to which the phase lead for the dynamic
load is to be applied.
312
Overview and Definition

A DAREA entry must be defined for the same point and component. Any number of DPHASE entries
may be used; as long as they are grouped in the same Nastran Set.

Dynamic Load Tabular Function – TABLEDi Entries

The TABLEDi entries (i = 1 through 4) each define a tabular function for use in generating frequency
dependent dynamic loads. The form of each TABLEDi entry varies slightly, depending on the value of i,
as does the algorithm for y(x). The x values need not be evenly spaced.
The TABLED1, TABLED2, and TABLED3 entries linearly interpolate between the end points and
linearly extrapolate outside of the endpoints as shown in Figure 8-4. TABLED1 has the added option to
perform logarithmic interpolation between points, also. The TABLED4 entry uses the endpoint values
for values beyond the endpoints. These tables may be found under Tabled in the Table Toolbox.
Linear Interpolation Between Endpoints
y

Linear Extrapolation of Segment x6 – x7

Linear Extrapolation of Segment x2 – x1

x
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7

Figure 8-4 Interpolation and Extrapolation for TABLED1, TABLED2,and TABLED3 Entries
 Modal Frequency Response 313
Overview and Definition

The TABLED1 entry appears as follows:

Field Contents
X Interpolation type Specifies a linear or logarithmic interpolation for the x-axis.
Y Interpolation type Specifies a linear or logarithmic interpolation for the y-axis.
x value, y value Tabular values. Values of x are frequency in cycles per unit time. Data is input
in the same manner as described for TABDMP1 on page 299.

The TABLED1 entry uses the algorithm

y = yT ( x ) (8-6)
314
Overview and Definition

The algorithms used for interpolation and extrapolation are as follows:

XAXIS YAXIS yT(x)

LINEAR LINEAR xj – x- x – xi
-------------- yi + --------------- yj
xj – xi xj – xi
LOG LINEAR ln ( xj ⁄ x ) ln ( x ⁄ xi )
----------------------- yi + ----------------------- yj
ln ( xj ⁄ xi ) ln ( xj ⁄ xi )
LINEAR LOG
xj – x x – xi
exp --------------- ln yi + --------------- ln yj
xj – xi xj – xi
LOG LOG
ln ( xj ⁄ x ) ln ( x ⁄ xi )
exp ----------------------- ln yi + ----------------------- ln yj
ln ( xj ⁄ xi ) ln ( xj ⁄ xi )
 Modal Frequency Response 315
Overview and Definition

X-Y pairs are entered in the same manner for all tables. For the remaining tables we will look only the
fields that are unique to that table type. The TABLED2 entry appears as follows:

Field Contents
TID Table identification number.
X1 Table parameter.

The TABLED2 entry uses the algorithm

y = y T ( x – X1 ) (8-7)
316
Overview and Definition

The TABLED3 entry has the following format:

Field Contents
TID Table identification number.
X1, X2 Table parameters.

The TABLED3 entry uses the algorithm

y = y T  ---------------
x – X1
(8-8)
X2
 Modal Frequency Response 317
Overview and Definition

The TABLED4 entry has the following format:

Field Contents
TID Table identification number.
Xi Table parameters. ( X2 ≠ 0.0; X3 < X4 ) .

The TABLED4 entry uses the algorithm

N
x – X1 i
y =  Ai  --------------- (8-9)
 X2 
i=0

N is the degree of the power series. When x < X3 , X3 is used for x ; when x > X4 , X4 is used for x .
This condition has the effect of placing bounds on the table; there is no extrapolation outside of the table

TABLED1/ RLOAD1 Example

First describe the temporal variation of the load. Remember that the solver will extrapolate linearly for
points beyond this table:
1. From the Materials and Properites tab, select Tables > Nastran BDF > TABLED1
2. Click ADD (+) three times
318
Overview and Definition

3. Click in the box for the first X value and type in the following data, using the tab key to advance
between fields

X Y
0 4.0
2 8.0
6 8.0

Define the delay:

1. Right click on LBC in the Model Browser and select New BC > SPC BC > DELAY.
2. Check D1 then enter 0.2 and click Store then Exit

3. Screen Pick the Node for load application.

4. Click Done then Exit in the Pick Panel.
Create the static loading:
1. Right click on LBC in the Model Browser and select New BC > Nodal BC > FORCE.
 Modal Frequency Response 319
Overview and Definition

2. Enter the following data:

F 4
DIR1 1
DIR2 0
DIR3 0

3. Click Store, then Exit.

4. Screen pick a node.
5. Click Done then Exit in the pick panel.
Create the dynamic loading:
6. Right click on Global BC in the Model Browser and New Global BC > RLOAD1.
7. Double click in EXCITE ID and select the Force from the Model Browser.
8. Double click in DELAY and select the Delay from the Model Browser.
320
Overview and Definition

9. Double click in TC and select TABLED1 from the pop-up window

On the RLOAD1 entry is a reference to the applied force (with Set ID 1000), the DELAY before the
application of the load (Set ID 998), and the description of the time dependency, TABLED1 (Set ID 1).
The FORCE entry with Set ID 1000 positions the loading on the selected node in the 1 direction with a
scale factor of 4.0 applied to the load. The DELAY entry with Set ID 998 delays the loading on the
selected node in the 1 direction by 0.2 units of time. The TABLED1 entry with Set ID 1defines the load
in tabular form. The result of these entries is a dynamic load applied to the selected node, component T1,
scaled by 4.0 and delayed by 0.2 units of time.
 Modal Frequency Response 321
Solution Frequencies

Solution Frequencies
A major consideration in a frequency response analysis is selecting the frequencies at which the solution
is to be performed. It is important to remember that each specified frequency results in an independent
solution at the specified excitation frequency.
Solution frequencies are defined as part of the analysis setup. Once you create a subcase you can define
properties for Frequency Extraction.

Discrete Defines discrete excitation frequencies.

value
Linear Defines a starting frequency F F end , and the number of
start , an ending frequency
distribution frequency increments to solve.

Logarithmic Defines a starting frequency F F end , and the number of

start , an ending frequency
distribution logarithmic intervals to be used in the frequency range.

Linear Defines the number of excitation frequencies used between modal pairs in a given range.
clustering

Linear Defines excitation frequencies using a spread about each normal mode within a range.
spreaded
Fractionally Defines excitation frequencies as all frequencies in a given range as a defined fraction of
spreaded the normal modes.

You can use any combination of frequency extraction methods within one analysis.
The examples that follow show the formats of the FREQi entries. Notice that the six sets of excitation
frequencies shown in the examples will be combined in a single analysis if the Set IDs are identical.
322
Solution Frequencies

Discrete Value
This example specifies ten specific (unequally spaced) loading frequencies to be analyzed.

Right click in this window and click Add to enter a

frequency

Enter frequency value (cycles per unit time) then click

Apply

Click OK when done.

 Modal Frequency Response 323
Solution Frequencies

Linear Distribution
This example specifies 14 frequencies between 2.9 Hz and 9.4 Hz in increments of 0.5 Hz.
324
Solution Frequencies

Logarithmic Distribution
This example specifies six logarithmic frequency intervals between 1.0 and 8.0 Hz resulting in
frequencies at 1.0, 1.4142, 2.0, 2.8284, 4.0, 5.6569, and 8.0 being used for the analysis.

Linear and Logarithmic Clustering

The input for these two increment types is identical. The solution frequencies for Linear clustering will
be interpolated linearly, while those for Logarithmic clustering will be interpolated logarithmically.
 Modal Frequency Response 325
Solution Frequencies

This example requests 10 frequencies between each set of modes within the bounds 20 and 2000, plus 10
frequencies between the 20 and the lowest mode in the range and 10 frequencies between the highest
mode in the range and 2000 using linear clustering.

For the clustered increment types the Number of Increments is the number of excitation frequencies
within each subrange including the end points. The first subrange is between the start frequency and the
first modal frequency within the bounds. The second subrange is between the first and second modal
frequencies between the bounds. The last subrange is between the last modal frequency with the bounds
and the end frequency.
Cluster specifies clustering of the excitation frequency near the end points of the range. Cluster is used
to obtain better resolution near the modal frequencies where the response varies the most. A cluster value
of greater than 1.0 provides closer spacing of excitation frequency toward the ends of the frequency
range, while values of less than 1.0 provide closer spacing toward the center of the frequency range.
326
Solution Frequencies

Linear Spreaded
This example chooses 21 equally spaced frequencies across a frequency band of 0.7 ⋅ f N to 1.3 ⋅ f N
for each natural frequency between 20 and 2000 Hz.

The spread defines the +/- fractional amount specified for each mode which occurs in the frequency
range.
The number of increments specifies the number of evenly spaced frequencies per ‘spread’ mode. If this
number is even it will be incremented by one during the analysis.
 Modal Frequency Response 327
Solution Frequencies

Fractionally Spreaded
This example will compute excitation frequencies of 0.6, 0.8, 0.9, 0.95 1.0, 1.05, 1.1, and 1.2 times the
natural frequencies for all natural frequencies, but will use only the computed frequencies that fall within
the range 20 to 2000 Hz.

Frequency Response Considerations

Exciting an undamped (or modal or viscous damped) system at 0.0 Hz using direct frequency response
analysis gives the same results as a static analysis and also gives almost the same results when using
modal frequency response (depending on the number of retained modes). Therefore, if the maximum
excitation frequency is much less than the lowest resonant frequency of the system, a static analysis is
probably sufficient.
Undamped or very lightly damped structures exhibit large dynamic responses for excitation frequencies
near resonant frequencies. A small change in the model (or running it on another computer) may result
in large changes in such responses.

Use a fine enough frequency step size ( Δf ) to adequately predict peak response. Use at least five points
across the half-power bandwidth (which is approximately 2ζf n for an SDOF system) as shown in
Figure 8-5.
328
Solution Frequencies

Peak Response

Peak
----------- = Half-Power Point
Response 2

Frequency

Half-Power Bandwidth
= Excitation Frequency

Figure 8-5 Half-Power Bandwidth

For maximum efficiency, an uneven frequency step size should be used. Smaller frequency spacing
should be used in regions near resonant frequencies, and larger frequency step sizes should be used in
regions away from resonant frequencies.
 Modal Frequency Response 329
Example

Example
Problem Description
Determine the frequency response of a flat rectangular plate excited by a 0.1 psi pressure load over the
total surface of the plate and a 1.0 lb. force at a corner of the tip lagging 45 degrees. Use a modal damping
of 0.03. Use a frequency step of 20 Hz. between a range of 20 and 1000 Hz.; in addition specify five
evenly spaced excitation frequencies between the half power points of each resonant frequency between
the range of 20-1000 Hz.

In this example you will:

• Create geometry using SimXpert geometry tools.
• Perform automatic meshing.
• Set up simulation conditions for a frequency response analysis.
• Define a frequency varying excitation
• Compute nodal displacements for desired frequency domain.

Startup SimXpert and Define Materials and Properties

When working in SimXpert you can create materials and properties prior to having geometry or elements.
In this section, you will assign global units for the simulation, then create an isotropic material and a shell
element property that you’ll use later in the simulation setup.

Enter the Structures Workspace and Set English Units:

1. Startup SimXpert and select Structures as the default workspace from the startup panel.
2. From the Tools menu, select Options, then Options Editor, then choose Units Manager from
the tree.
3. Click Standard Units.
4. Scroll down then click the row with Standard English Units (in, lb, s,...).
330
Example

5. Click OK.
6. Choose Entity Options, then BC from the tree
7. Check the Display All Dir Vector checkbox.
8. Click OK.

Create an Isotropic Material:

1. In the Model Browser Tree, right click Material, select New Material.
2. Make sure the Material Category is Isotropic and the Material Model is Linear Elastic.
3. On the Materials - Structure form, enter:

Material Name: MAT_1

Young’s Modulus 10.E6
Poisson’s Ratio 0.3
Density 0.101

4. Click Ok.

Create an Element Property:

1. In the Model Browser Tree, right click Property, then select New Property
2. Pull down Property Category to 2D, Property Group to Shell, and Property Type to Simple Shell.
3. Check the box for Material ID. Click in the Material ID text box, then pick MAT_1 from the
Model Browser Tree.
4. Check the checkbox for Membrane Thickness then click in the text box and enter 0.1.
5. Repeat Step 3 for Bending Material ID and Transverse Shear Material ID.
6. Click Ok.

Create a Part:
1. From the Part toolbox, select Create.
2. On the Create form, click in the 2D Property text box then click PSHELL_1 in the Model
Browser tree.
3. Click Ok.

Create Plate Geometry

Creating the geometry for the plate is accomplished in two steps. First create two parallel lines using
SimXpert’s polyline/spline tool, then create a surface between the two curves:
1. From the Geometry toolbox, select Curve > Polyline Spline.
 Modal Frequency Response 331
Example

2. Click in the Entities text box.

3. On the Pick Filters toolbar, pull down and select Specify XYZ coordinates.

4. In the X,Y,Z Input box, enter 0 0 0., then click OK.

5. In the X,Y,Z Input box, enter 5 0 0., then click OK.
6. Click Apply on the Polyline Spline form.
7. Click in the Entities text box.
8. On the Pick Filters toolbar, pull down and select Specify XYZ coordinates.
9. In the X,Y,Z Input box, enter 0 2 0., then click OK.
10. In the X,Y,Z Input box, enter 5 2 0., then click OK.
11. Click OK on the Polyline Spline form.
12. From the View menu, click Model Views, then click Top to show a plan view.
13. From the View menu, click Display, then click Fill to zoom in on the part.

Modeling Window Shows:Two parallel lines.

14. From the Geometry toolbar, select Surface > Filler.

15. On the Filler form, check the Using Curves checkbox.
16. Click in the Curves field.
17. On the General Picking toolbar, pull down the selection menu to Select All.On the Pick Filters
toolbar, pull down and select Select All.
332
Example

18. Click Ok

Modeling Window Shows:A rectangular surface.

Mesh the Surface

1. From the FE Modeling toolbox select Mesh > Create > On Part.
2. On the On Part form, change Mesh Type to Surface.
3. Click in the Body to Mesh text box.
4. Screen pick the surface.
5. On the On Part form, enter 0.5 for Element Size.
6. Click Ok

Modeling Window Shows:Meshed surface.

Create Constraints and Loads

The plate will have the translational freedoms on the left end constrained while a force will be applied to
the corner node on the right side.

Create a Fixed End Boundary Condition

1. In the Model Browser Tree, right click LBC, select New LBC
2. Pull down BC Type to SPC BC.
3. Pull down BC Sub-Type to SPC.
4. Change the Name to fixed.
5. Uncheck the box corresponding to DOF 6.
6. Click in the Pick Entities field.
7. Select Pick Curves in the Pick Filters toolbar.

8. Screen pick the edge at the left end of the plate.

9. Click Ok.

Modeling Window Shows:SPC 12345 is shown on the left edge of the plate.
 Modal Frequency Response 333
Example

Create a DAREA:
1. In the Model Browser Tree, right click LBC, select New LBC
2. Pull down BC Type to SPC BC.
3. Pull down BC Subtype to DAREA.
4. Change the Name to Unit DAREA.
5. Uncheck all boxes except the one corresponding to DOF 3 and enter 1 in the text box.
6. Click in the Pick Entities text box.
7. Screen pick the node at the bottom right corner of the plate.
8. Click Ok.

Modeling Window Shows:Bottom right corner is labeled DAREA[3].

Create a Table
1. In the Model Browser Tree, right click Table, select New Table > Tabled > TABLED1.
2. On the SimXpert Grapher form, click Add twice and enter the following values into the
spreadsheet.

X Y
20 1
1000 1

3. Click Update, Create, then Exit.

Create a Global RLOAD2 Entry:

1. In the Model Browser Tree, right click Global BC, select New Global BC > RLOAD2.
2. Pull down Type to RLOAD2.
3. Change the NAME to Point RLOAD2.
4. Click in the EXCITEID text box.
5. Select Unit DAREA from the Model Browser Tree.
6. Click in the TB cell and select TABLED1_1 from the Model Browser Tree.
7. Click Ok.

Define a Phase Delay

1. In the Model Browser Tree, right click LBC, select New LBC
2. Pull down BC Type SPC BC.
3. Pull down BC Sub-Type DPHASE.
334
Example

4. Change the Name to Point DPHASE.

5. Uncheck all boxes except the one corresponding to DOF 3 and enter a value of -45.
6. Click in Pick Entities text box.
7. Screen pick the node at the bottom right corner of the plate (where the unit force is applied).
8. Click Ok.

Modeling Window Shows:Bottom right corner is label DPHASE [3]

Modify the Global RLOAD2 Entry:

1. In the Model Browser Tree, double click on Point RLOAD2 so that it can be modified.
2. On the Modify RLOAD2 property form, click in the DPHASE field
3. Select Point DPHASE from the Model Browser Tree.
4. Click Ok.

Create a Pressure Load

1. In the Model Browser Tree, right click LBC, select New LBC
2. Pull down BC Type to Pressure.
3. Pull down BC Sub-Type to PLOAD2.
4. Change the Name to Press
5. Enter a Pressure value of -0.1.
6. Click in the Pick Entities field.
7. In the Pick Filters toolbar, select Pick Surfaces.
8. Screen pick the surface.
9. Click Ok..

Modeling Window Shows: Pressure vectors indicating that a pressure load has been applied.

Create a Global RLOAD2 Entry:

1. In the Model Browser Tree, right click Global BC, select New Global BC > RLOAD2.
2. Pull down Type to RLOAD2.
3. Change the NAME to Press RLOAD2.
4. Click in the EXCITEID field.
5. Select Press from the Model Browser Tree.
6. Click in the TB cell and select TABLED1_1 from the Model Browser.
7. Click Ok.
 Modal Frequency Response 335
Example

Set up Simulation Conditions for a Modal Frequency

Response Analysis
We will set up a Job by defining our specific output requests which will give us a BDF file to execute
using MD Nastran.

Creating a Job:
1. If necessary, click the ‘+’ next to Analysis in the Model Browser Tree to expand the tree.
2. Right click on Nastran Jobs and click Create New Job.
3. On the Job Properties form enter Modal_Frequency_Response for Job Name.
4. On the Solution Type drop down menu, select Modal Frequency Response (SOL 111).
5. Click Ok to create the new job.

Setting General Parameters:

1. Right click on General Parameters under Solver Control.
2. Click Properties.
3. Set Mass Calculation to Coupled Mass Matrix.
4. Enter the following values:

Weight-Mass Conversion 0.00259

Node for Weight Generation 0

5. Click OK.

Adding a Subcase:
1. In the Model Browser Tree, right click on Cases.
2. Click Add Subcase.
3. Under Select LBC Set, select DefaultLbcSet.
4. Set Modal Damping to Critical Damping (CRIT).
5. Click Ok to close the Subcase Properties form.
6. In the Model Browser, right click on Real Eigenvalue.
7. Click Properties.
8. On the Eigenvalue Extraction form, under Extraction, set Method to Lanczos.
9. Under Frequency Range of Interest, enter 10 for Lower.
10. Under Frequency Range of Interest, enter 2000 for Upper.
11. Change the Number of Desired Roots to 0.
12. Click Ok.
336
Example

13. Right click on Frequency Extraction.

14. Click Properties.
15. Right click in the Frequency Recovery Definition screen area and select Add.
16. On the Frequency Recovery Definition form, enter the following values:

Increment Type Linear Distribution

Start Frequency 20
End Frequency 1000
Number of Increments 49

17. Click Apply.

18. Right click in the Frequency Recovery Definition screen area and select Add.
19. On the Frequency Recovery Definition form, enter the following values:

Increment Type Linear Spreaded

Start Frequency 20
End Frequency 1000
Number of Increments 5
Spread 0.03

20. Click Apply, then click OK.

21. In the Model Browser, right click on Damping Parameters.
22. Click Properties.
23. Right click in the Modal Damping Properties screen area and select Add.
24. Enter the following values:

Frequency 0
Damping 0.03

25. Click Apply.

26. Right click in the Modal Damping Properties screen area and select Add.
27. Enter the following values:

Frequency 10
Damping 0.03
 Modal Frequency Response 337
Example

28. Click Apply, then click Ok.

Add Output Requests:

1. In the Model Browser, right click on Subcase:DefaultLbcSet.
2. Click Add Output Requests.
3. On the Define Output Request form, right click on Output Requests.
4. Select Add Displacement.
5. Click Apply.
6. Right click on Output Requests again.
7. Select Add Single-Point Forces of Constraint.
8. Click Apply.
9. Click Close.

Set Output Files:

1. In the Model Browser, right click on Output File.
2. Click Properties.
3. On the Output Files Properties form check Print.
4. Set Binary Output to XDB.
5. Click Ok to close the Output Files Properties form.

Run Job:
1. In the Model Browser, right click on Modal_Frequency_Response - (Modal Frequency
Response (SOL111)).
2. Click Run.
3. Enter Modal_Frequency_Response for File name.
4. Click Save.

Attach Results
We will attach the XDB file from the Nastran analyses to our SimXpert database in order to view the
results.
1. From the File menu, click Attach Results > Result Entities.
2. Select the file modal_frequency_response.xdb.
3. Click Open.
4. From the View menu, click Model Views, then click Isometric View.
5. From the View menu, click Display, then click Fill.
338
Example

Create Displacement versus Frequency Plots

Plot displacement vs. frequency for 3 nodes along the short, free edge of the plate.
1. From the Result toolbox, select Chart.
2. Under the CurveData tab, select SC1 to choose all of the frequencies.
3. For Results Type select Displacements, Translational.
4. For Derivation select Z Component.
5. Click on Real and change it to Magnitude.
6. Click in the Target Entities box, then select the two end nodes on the short, rightmost edge of
the plate as well as the node in the middle of that edge.
7. Select Add Curves
8. In the Model Browser Tree, double click on Y Axis.under Chart.
 Modal Frequency Response 339
Example

9. Check the box for Logarithmic Scale.

.

Create Animation
1. Close the Chart Property editor windows.
2. Select View / Entity Display / All Geometry Shown to turn off the display of the geometric
surface
3. From the Result toolbox, select State Plot.
4. In the State Plot property editor window, under Result Cases, expand SC1 and select
Freq.=100 then shift pick Freq. =220.
340
Example

5. Under Result Type, select Displacements, Translational.

6. Check the box next to Animate, then click Update.
7. To stop the animation, click the Animation tab and click on the Stop Animation button.
 Nonlinear Analysis 339

Nonlinear Analysis
340
Overview and Definition

Overview and Definition

An overview of the Nonlinear Analysis is given here.

Introduction
Nonlinear Analysis is an optional application module of SimXpert Structures workspace that enables you
to analyze structures that exhibit nonlinear behavior.
One of the considerations in performing any type of analysis is whether the structure will experience
nonlinear behavior. If a structure undergoes displacements with a magnitude on the order of the smallest
characteristic dimension of the structure, higher order effects may occur which may tend to stiffen the
structure. If a structure’s material is loaded above it’s yield point, the structure will then tend to be less
stiff and permanent deformation will exist. Materials like rubber also exhibit characteristics which
though elastic, are highly nonlinear (hyperelastic) in nature. Another very common form of nonlinear
behavior is contact, when portions of a structure with areas of gaps which can close and open under
operating conditions.

Geometric Nonlinearity
Geometrically nonlinear problems involve large displacements; “large” means that the displacements
invalidate the small displacement assumptions inherent in the equations of linear analysis. For example,
consider a classical thin plate subject to a lateral load; if the deflection of the plate’s midplane is anything
close to the thickness of the plate, then the displacement is considered large and a linear analysis is not
applicable.
Another aspect of geometric nonlinear analysis involves follower forces. Consider a slender cantilever
beam subject to an initially vertical end load. The load is sufficient to cause large displacements.

In the deformed shape plot, the load is no longer vertical; it has “followed” the structure to its deformed
state.

Material Nonlinearity
A more obvious nonlinear effect is due to material nonlinearity, where the material constitutive relation
is nonlinear, i.e., there is no longer a linear relationship between forces and displacements. With a
nonlinear constitutive relation, the material stiffness can change during the analysis and the material may
 Nonlinear Analysis 341
Overview and Definition

yield, perhaps resulting in permanent deformation. SimXpert can represent materials that exhibit
nonlinear elastic and plastic behavior.

The time dependent effects of long term load application can be taken into account using a material with
creep properties defined. Creep is a time dependent phenomenon where strain changes under constant
stress. It is a material relaxation whose rate is both load and/or temperature dependent.

Contact Nonlinearity
Many nonlinear materials exhibit their nonlinear behavior in the small strain regime. Representing
materials like rubber, however, require the consideration of element strains that are nonlinear functions
of element deformation and possibly large strains. SimXpert has the capability to model such
hyperelastic materials.

A very common form of nonlinear behavior is contact analysis. In contact problems, portions of a
structure can have areas of gaps which can open and close or slide in relation to each other. Similarly,
boundary conditions can change during a nonlinear analysis.
342
Overview and Definition

Any combination of these nonlinear effects can occur simultaneously in an analysis. The analysis can be
static, quasi-static (creep) or transient dynamic. It is important to remember, however, if any of these
effects occur, displacements are no longer directly proportional to loads and the results of different load
cases cannot be superimposed.

Theory
In a linear static analysis we implicitly assume that the deflections and strains are very small and the
stresses are smaller than the material yield stresses. Consequently, the stiffness can be considered to
remain constant (i.e., independent of the displacements and forces) and the finite element equilibrium
equations

P = Ku

are linear. Where the stiffness matrix K is independent of both u , the generalized displacement vector,
and P , the generalized force vector. This linearity implies that any increase or decrease in the load will
produce proportional increase or decrease in displacements, strains and stresses. Linear static problems
are solved in one step-a single decomposition of the stiffness matrix.
However, we know that in many structures the deflections and the stresses do not change proportionately
with the loads. In these problems the structure’s response depends upon its current state and the
equilibrium equations reflect the fact that the stiffness of the structure is dependent on both u and P .

P = K ( P, u )u
As the structure displaces due to loading, the stiffness changes, and as the stiffness changes the structure’s
response changes. As a result, nonlinear problems require incremental solution schemes that divide the
problem up into steps calculating the displacement, then updating the stiffness. Each step uses the results
from the previous step as a starting point. As a result the stiffness matrix must be generated and inverted
many times during the analysis adding time and costs to the analysis.

Method of solution
In nonlinear statics, any solution scheme for solving the equilibrium equation has to take into account the
fact that K (the stiffness) changes as u (the displacement) changes.
The basic nonlinear solution approach involves a series of incremental solutions. The load is applied in
increments, load increments in a nonlinear static solution, and time increments in a nonlinear transient
dynamic solution. During each increment, a solution is “predicted” using the current state (stiffness and
load increment). Depending on the type of nonlinearity, a force imbalance or “residual” is created during
an iteration where nonlinear behavior occurs. Solution iterations are required to balance equilibrium
(“correct”) for unbalanced forces. The iterations continue during an increment until the convergence
criteria are satisfied. Once convergence is satisfied, a solution is obtained for the increment and the
 Nonlinear Analysis 343
Overview and Definition

solution progresses to the next increment using this “predictor-corrector” method such as the Newton
Raphson solution method shown graphically here.

Figure 9-1 Newton-Raphson Solution Scheme

The following diagram shows the flow sequence of the nonlinear solution sequence of structures
workspace. It shows the input phase, equivalent nodal load vector calculation, matrix assembly, matrix
344
Overview and Definition

solution, stress recovery, and output phase. It also indicates load incrementation and iteration within a
load increment.

Input Phase:
Read Input Data
Space Allocation
Data Check
Incremental
Loads
Equivalent Nodal
Load Vector

Matrix Assembly
Iteration Loop

Matrix Solution
Time Step Loop

Stress Recovery

No
Convergence

Yes

Output Phase

Yes Next
Increment

No

Stop

Figure 9-2 SimXpert Advanced Nonlinear Flow Diagram

The nonlinear incremental solution is a combination of different advancing schemes, different iteration
schemes, and different convergence criteria. Structures workspace has the power and flexibility to easily
include the various parameters and solution methods required for nonlinear analysis.
 Nonlinear Analysis 345
Nonlinear Analysis Options for SimXpert SOL 400

Nonlinear Analysis Options for SimXpert SOL 400

SOL 400 is the general nonlinear analysis solver for SimXpert. The solution options are
• Nonlinear static
• Linear static
• Nonlinear transient
• Normal modes
• Buckling analysis
• Direct frequency response
• Modal frequency response
• Direct complex eigenvalue
• Modal complex eigenvalue
• Modal transient response
• Break squeal with modes
• Break squeal with direct complex eigenvalue
• Break squeal with modal complex eigenvalue
• Nonlinear steady state heat transfer
• Nonlinear transient heat transfer
• RC based steady state heat transfer
• RC based transient heat transfer

These solution options are accessible under Simulations, in the Model Browser tree, for
• Job Name
• Load Cases (under Job Name)
• Create Loadcase (under Job Name)
346
Nonlinear Analysis Options for SimXpert SOL 600

Nonlinear Analysis Options for SimXpert SOL 600

SOL 600 a nonlinear analysis solver for SimXpert. The solution options are
• Nonlinear static
• Linear static
• Linear transient
• Nonlinear transient
• Creep analysis

These solution options are accessible under Simulations, in the Model Browser tree, for
• Job Name
• Load Cases (under Job Name)
• Create Loadcase (under Job Name)
 Nonlinear Analysis 347
Specifying Nonlinear Parameter Values (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Specifying Nonlinear Parameter Values (SOL 400 and

SOL 600)
There are many parameters that are used to control a nonlinear solution process.
• Load increment method and size
• Convergence controls and criteria
• Global element parameters
• Specifying contact bodies and parameters
• Initial conditions
• Case Control Section
Subcases, load increments, and iterations
Following is a discussion of these parameters and the values that should be assigned to them. Also, there
is a discussion of other issues related to creating a nonlinear model.

Load Increment Size (SOL 400)

Selecting a proper load step (time step) increment is an important aspect of a nonlinear solution scheme.
Large steps often lead to many recycles per increment and, if the step is too large, it can lead to
inaccuracies and nonconvergence. On the other hand, using too small steps is inefficient.

Fixed Load Incrementation

When a fixed load stepping scheme is used, it is important to select an appropriate load step size that
captures the loading history and allows for convergence within a reasonable number of recycles. For
complex load histories, it is often necessary to break up the analysis into separate load cases with
different step sizes. For fixed stepping, there is an option to have the load step automatically cut back in
case of failure to obtain convergence. When an increment diverges, the intermediate deformations after
each recycle can show large fluctuations and the final cause of program exit can be any of the following:
maximum number of recycles reached (exit 3002), elements going inside out (exit 1005 or 1009) or, in a
contact analysis, nodes sliding off a rigid contact body (exit 2400). These deformations are normally not
visible as post results (there is a feature to allow for the intermediate results to be available on the post
file, see the POST option). If the cutback feature is activated and one of these failures occurs, the state of
the analysis at the end of the previous increment is restored from a copy kept in memory or disk, and the
increment is subdivided into a number of subincrements. The step size is halved until convergence is
obtained or the user-specified number of cutbacks has been performed. Once a subincrement is
converged, the analysis continues to complete the rest of the original increment. No results are written to
the post file during subincrementation. When the original increment is finished, the calculation continues
to the next increment with the original increment count maintained. These issues are avoided by using
the AUTO increment options (AUTO on the NLPARM card).
348
Specifying Nonlinear Parameter Values (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Adaptive Load (AUTO) Incrementation

In many nonlinear analyses, it is useful to have SimXpert Structures Workspace figure out the appropriate
load step size automatically. The basic scheme for automatic load incrementation is NLAUTO which is
appropriate for most applications and is the default. In addition, so-called “arc-length methods” are
available which are designed for applications like post buckling and snap-through analysis.

NLAUTO Basic Load Incrementation Scheme

The scheme appropriate for most applications is NLAUTO (MSC.Marc AUTO STEP). The primary
control of the load step is based upon the number of recycles needed to obtain convergence. There are a
number of optional user-specified physical criteria that can be used to additionally control the load step,
but they are rarely used or required. The NLAUTO defaults are appropriate for most models and the
NLAUTO entry is not required. For the recycle based option, the user specifies a desired number of
recycles. This number is used as a target value for the load stepping scheme. If the number of recycles
needed to obtain convergence exceeds the desired number, the load step size is reduced, the recycle
counter is reset to zero and the increment is performed again with the new load step. The factor with
which the time step is cut back defaults to 1.2 and can be specified by you. The load step for the next
increment is increased if the number of recycles required in the current increment is less than the desired
number. The same factor that is used for decreasing the time step is used for increasing it. The load step
is never increased during an increment.

Specifying the Load Incrementation Method (SOL 400)

Specification of the load increment can be defined in the job setup menu once a loadcase has been
defined.
 Nonlinear Analysis 349
Specifying Nonlinear Parameter Values (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

1. In the Model Browser tree, under Simulations / NewJob:Name / Load Cases /

NewLoadcase:Name, double-click Load Case Control.
350
Specifying Nonlinear Parameter Values (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

2. Double-click on Load Case Control under Load Cases: name. Click on Stepping Procedure
Parameters in the tree.

In the Stepping Procedure Parameters form the Stepping Type: Adaptive Load Step values can be
specified.
 Nonlinear Analysis 351
Specifying Nonlinear Parameter Values (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Load Increment Size (SOL 600)

Selecting a proper load step (time step) increment is an important aspect of a nonlinear solution scheme.
Large steps often lead to many recycles per increment and, if the step is too large, it can lead to
inaccuracies and nonconvergence. On the other hand, using too small steps is inefficient.

Fixed Load Incrementation

When a fixed load stepping scheme is used, it is important to select an appropriate load step size that
captures the loading history and allows for convergence within a reasonable number of recycles. For
complex load histories, it is often necessary to break up the analysis into separate load cases with
different step sizes. For fixed stepping, there is an option to have the load step automatically cut back in
case of failure to obtain convergence. When an increment diverges, the intermediate deformations after
each recycle can show large fluctuations and the final cause of program exit can be any of the following:
maximum number of recycles reached (exit 3002), elements going inside out (exit 1005 or 1009) or, in a
contact analysis, nodes sliding off a rigid contact body (exit 2400). These deformations are normally not
visible as post results (there is a feature to allow for the intermediate results to be available on the post
file, see the POST option). If the cutback feature is activated and one of these failures occurs, the state of
the analysis at the end of the previous increment is restored from a copy kept in memory or disk, and the
increment is subdivided into a number of subincrements. The step size is halved until convergence is
obtained or the user-specified number of cutbacks has been performed. Once a subincrement is
converged, the analysis continues to complete the rest of the original increment. No results are written to
the post file during subincrementation. When the original increment is finished, the calculation continues
to the next increment with the original increment count maintained. These issues are avoided by using
the AUTO increment options (AUTO on the NLPARM card).

Adaptive Load (AUTO) Incrementation

In many nonlinear analyses, it is useful to have SimXpert Structures Workspace figure out the appropriate
load step size automatically. The basic scheme for automatic load incrementation is NLAUTO which is
appropriate for most applications and is the default. In addition, so-called “arc-length methods” are
available which are designed for applications like post buckling and snap-through analysis.

NLAUTO Basic Load Incrementation Scheme

The scheme appropriate for most applications is NLAUTO (MSC.Marc AUTO STEP). The primary
control of the load step is based upon the number of recycles needed to obtain convergence. There are a
number of optional user-specified physical criteria that can be used to additionally control the load step,
but they are rarely used or required. The NLAUTO defaults are appropriate for most models and the
NLAUTO entry is not required. For the recycle based option, the user specifies a desired number of
recycles. This number is used as a target value for the load stepping scheme. If the number of recycles
needed to obtain convergence exceeds the desired number, the load step size is reduced, the recycle
counter is reset to zero and the increment is performed again with the new load step. The factor with
which the time step is cut back defaults to 1.2 and can be specified by you. The load step for the next
increment is increased if the number of recycles required in the current increment is less than the desired
number. The same factor that is used for decreasing the time step is used for increasing it. The load step
is never increased during an increment.
352
Specifying Nonlinear Parameter Values (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Specifying the Load Incrementation Method (SOL 600)

Specification of the load increment can be defined in the job setup menu once a subcase has been defined.
1. In the Model Browser tree, under Simulations / NewJob:Name / Load Cases /
NewLoadcase:Name, double-click Load Case Control.

2. Double-click on Load Case Control under Loadcase: name. Click on Stepping Procedure
Parameters in the tree.
 Nonlinear Analysis 353
Specifying Nonlinear Parameter Values (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

In the Load Increment Parameters form the adaptive increment parameters can be defined.

Convergence Controls
Three methods are available for determining if convergence is obtained on any given iteration: residual
force, displacement, and strain energy. You can select one of these three criteria for convergence or you
may specify a combination of residual and displacement. The AND combination signals that both
residual and displacement must be met, while the OR combination specifies that either one can satisfy
convergence criteria. If you are using residual there may be cases in which the force residuals are null in
which case is it necessary to switch over to displacement. An Autoswitching option (on by default)
allows for this switching. In addition you can specify that the convergence measures be in absolute terms,
in relative terms, or in both.
The default measure for convergence in SimXpert Structures Workspace is residual which is based on the
magnitude of the maximum residual load compared to the maximum reaction force. This method is
appropriate since the residuals measure the out-of-equilibrium force, which should be minimized. This
technique is also appropriate for Newton methods, where zero-load iterations reduce the residual load.
The method has the additional benefit that convergence can be satisfied without iteration. You have
complete control over how convergence is defined through the Iterations Parameters form in the analysis
setup for individual subcases or through the options on the NLSTRAT entry.
The basic procedures are outlined below.
354
Specifying Nonlinear Parameter Values (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

1. RESIDUAL CHECKING
F residual ∞
---------------------------- < TOL 1 (9-1)
F reaction ∞

F residual ∞ M residual ∞
---------------------------- < TOL 1 and ------------------------------ < TOL 2 (9-2)
F reaction ∞ M reaction ∞

F residual ∞
< TOL 1 (9-3)

F residual ∞
< TOL 1 and M residual ∞
< TOL 2 (9-4)

where: F is the force vector, and M is the moment vector. TOL 1 and TOL 2 are control
tolerances. F ∞ indicates the component of F with the highest absolute value.
Residual checking has one drawback. In some special problems, such as free thermal
expansion, there are no reaction forces. If the AUTOSW flag on the NLSTRAT card is
ON the program automatically uses displacement checking in this cases.

2. DISPLACEMENT CHECKING
δu ∞
- < TOL 1
-------------- (9-5)
Δu ∞

δu ∞ δφ ∞
- < TOL 1 and --------------
-------------- - < TOL 2 (9-6)
Δu ∞ Δφ ∞

δu ∞ < TOL 1 (9-7)

δu ∞ < TOL 1 and δφ ∞ < TOL 2 (9-8)

where: Δu is the displacement increment vector, δu is the displacement iteration vector,

Δφ is the incremental rotation vector, and δφ is the rotation iteration vector. With
this method, convergence is satisfied if the maximum displacement of the last iteration
is small compared to the actual displacement change of the increment. A disadvantage
 Nonlinear Analysis 355
Specifying Nonlinear Parameter Values (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

of this approach is that it results in at least one iteration, regardless of the accuracy of
the solution.

δi Correction to incremental displacements of ith iteration

un Displacements at increment n
F i
δ -
δ0 ------------- ≤ Tolerance
δ1 i

δk  δj
j=0
0 k+1
un + 1 un + 1
u
Figure 9-3 Displacement Control

3. STRAIN ENERGY CHECKING

This is similar to displacement testing where a comparison is made between the strain energy
of the latest iteration and the strain energy of the increment. With this method, the entire model
is checked.
δE-
------ < TOL 1 (9-9)
ΔE
where: ΔE is the strain energy of the increment and δE is the correction to incremental
strain energy of the iteration. These energies are the total energies, integrated over the
whole volume. A disadvantage of this approach is that it results in at least one
iteration, regardless of the accuracy of the solution. The advantage of this method is
that it evaluates the global accuracy as opposed to the local accuracy associated with a
single node.

Different problems require different schemes to detect the convergence efficiently and accurately. To do
this, the following combinations of residual checking and displacement checking are also available.
4. RESIDUAL OR DISPLACEMENT CHECKING
This procedure does convergence checking on both residuals (Procedure 1) and displacements
(Procedure 2). Convergence is obtained if one converges.
5. RESIDUAL AND DISPLACEMENT CHECKING
This procedure does a convergence check on both residuals and displacements (Procedure 4).
Convergence is achieved if both criteria converge simultaneously.
For problems where maximum reactions or displacements are extremely small (even close to the
round-off errors of computers), the convergence check based on relative values could be meaningless if
the convergence criteria chosen is based on these small values. It is necessary to check the convergence
with absolute values; otherwise, the analysis is prematurely terminated due to a nonconvergent solution.
356
Specifying Nonlinear Parameter Values (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Such situations are not predicable and usually happen at certain stages of an analysis. For example,
problems with stress free motion (rigid body motion or free thermal expansion) and small displacements
(springback or constraint thermal expansion) may need to check absolute value at some stage of the
analysis, as shown in the table below. However, it is also difficult to determine when to check the absolute
value and how small the absolute criterion value should be. In order to improve the robustness of a
nonlinear FE analysis, SimXpert Structures Workspace allows you to use the AUTOSW option specified
on the NLSTRAT card to switch the convergence check scheme automatically if the above mentioned
situation occurs during the analysis. Using the AUTOSW option allows SimXpert Structures Workspace
to automatically change the convergence check scheme to Procedure 4 if small reactions or
displacements are detected. This function can be deactivated by specifying an absolute value check
as before.
.

Convergence Variable
Displacement/ Residual Strain Energy
Analysis Type Rotation Force/Torque
Stress-free motion Yes No No
Springback No Yes No
Free Thermal Expansion Yes No No
Constraint Thermal Expansion No Yes Yes
Yes – relative tolerance testing works.
No – relative tolerance testing doesn’t work.

Specifying Convergence Criteria (SOL 400)

Specification of the convergence criteria can be defined in the job setup menu once a subcase has been
defined.
1. In the Model Browser tree, under Simulations/ Job: name/Locadcase:Name, double-click on
Load Case Control, then select Convergence Criteria.
 Nonlinear Analysis 357
Specifying Nonlinear Parameter Values (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Here the Convergence Criteria parameter values can be specified which will be used for the analysis.

Specifying Convergence Criteria (SOL 600)

Specification of the convergence criteria can be defined in the job setup menu once a subcase has been
defined.
1. In the Model Browser tree, under Simulations/ Job: Name/ Load Cases, expand Load Cases:
Name and double-click on Load Case Control, then select Subcase Iteration Parameters..
358
Specifying Nonlinear Parameter Values (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Here the Iteration Parameters values can be specified which will be used for the analysis.
 Nonlinear Analysis 359
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

SimXpert structures workbench supports isotropic, anisotropic, orthotropic, and laminated material
properties. These material properties can be temperature dependent. Furthermore, a nonlinear material
may contain multiple constitutive models, characterizing the distinct ranges of the materials’s response.
The constitutive models in structures workspace nonlinear contain a range of linear and nonlinear
material models to describe the material response of most commonly encountered materials.
The material definitions discussed in this chapter include:
• Isotropic material (Isotropic) -- A linear isotropic material property is defined as a material
having the same properties in each direction. This material may be used with all linear elements.
• Two-dimensional orthotropic material (Orthotropic 2D) -- Linear Material definition for plate
and shell elements. The in-plane material properties are defined with respect to an element
material coordinate system.
• Axisymmetric solid orthotropic material (Orthotropic 3D) -- A linear three-dimensional material
property for axisymmetric analysis only. The elastic properties are specified in three orthogonal
directions.For an Orthotropic material three Young's moduli are required - E1, E2 and Ez - where
the out-of-plane elastic modulus Ez is no longer equal to E1. Three separate Poisson’s ratios are
also required, n12, n1z and n2z, as is the in-plane shear modulus G12.
• Two-dimensional orthotropic material (Orthotropic 2D) -- Defines the linear orthotropic material
property for plate and shell elements. Transverse shear material properties may also be included.
Some engineering materials, including certain piezoelectric materials and 2-ply fiber-reinforced
composites, are orthotropic.
• Three-dimensional orthotropic material -- Defines the linear orthotropic material property for 3-
dimensional and plane strain elements.

Supported Materials
Isotropic
The Isotropic entry is used to specify the linear elastic properties of an isotropic material. An isotropic
material is defined as having the same properties in any direction. Furthermore, the isotropic material is
fully described by only two material constants. These two constants may be any combination of E, G, and
ν . You may specify all three of these constants if desired, but remember, it only takes two of the
constants to define the material. When you enter only two constants, the third is computed from the
following relationship:

E
G = -------------------- (9-10)
2(1 + ν)
where: E = Young’s Modulus
G = Shear Modulus, and
360
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

ν = Poisson’s Ratio
The Isotropic entry may also be used to define the mass density, coefficient of thermal expansion, and
stress limits. The mass properties are only required in static analysis when a gravity loading or rotating
force is used; however, they are useful for model verification with any loading condition. Stress limits
are used to compute margins of safety for certain line elements only. You can create the Isotropic material
by clicking on Material and Properties tab on the Tool Ribbon and selecting Isotropic under the Materials
group. The input for Isotropic appears as follows:

Note: Thermal Exp. Coeff. and Struct. Elem. Damp. Coeff. are ignored if referenced by a Layer
Composite entry.
 Nonlinear Analysis 361
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Orthotropic 2D
The Anisotropic 2Dentry is used to specify a general (linear) stress-strain relationship of the form shown
in Equation (9-11) and Equation (9-12). The Anisotropic 2DAnisotropic 2Dentry can only be used with
plate and shell elements. The reference temperature is given by T REF and the thermal expansion
coefficients are A1, A2, and A3. The component directions X and Y refer to the element material
coordinate system, which is explicitly defined for each element. The material coordinate system for the
CQUAD4 element is shown in Figure 9-11. The in-plane stress-strain relationship is described by
Equation (9-11). Equation (9-12) defines the transverse shear stress - transverse shear strain relationship.

       
 σ x   G 11 G 12 G13   ε x   A 1 
       
 σ y =  G 12 G 22 G23   ε y – ( T – T REF )  A 2  (9-11)
       
 τ xy   G 13 G 23 G33   γ xy   A 3 
       

   
 τ xz  G 11 G 12  γ xz 
  =   (9-12)
 τ yz  G 12 G 22  γ yz 
   
Another method to create a new material, in addition to method described above for Isotropic is to select
Anisotropic 2D from the Material group. The input for Anisotropic 2D appears as follows
362
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Orthotropic 3D
The Orthotropic 3D entry is used to define a linear orthotropic three-dimensional relationship in a cross
sectional coordinate system (x, θ , z). You can only use the Orthotropic 3D with the axisymmetric
CTRIAX6 element. The axisymmetric solid orthotropic material is defined by Equation (9-13).
 Nonlinear Analysis 363
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

1 – ν θx – ν zx
----- ----------
- ---------- 0
E x Eθ E z
 εx  – ν xθ 1 –ν zθ  σx   Ax 
  ----------- ------ ---------- 0    
 εθ  E x Eθ Ez  σθ   Aθ 
  =   + ( T – T REF )   (9-13)
 εz  – ν xz – ν θz 1  σz   Az 
  ---------- ---------- ----- 0    
 γ zx  E x Eθ Ez  τ zx   0 
1
0 0 0 --------
G zx

To preserve symmetry, the following relationships must hold:

ν xθ νθx ν xz ν zx ν θz ν zθ
------- = ------- ;------- = ------- ;------- = ------- (9-14)
Ex Eθ Ex Ez Eθ Ez
The input for Orthotropic 3D appears as follows
364
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

:
 Nonlinear Analysis 365
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Orthotropic 2D
The Orthotropic 2D entry is used to defines a stress-strain relationship as shown in Equation (9-15) and
Equation (9-16). The Orthotropic 2D entry can only be used with the plate and shell elements. Equation
(9-15) defines the in-plane stress-strain relationship. The transverse shear stress-transverse shear strain
relationship is defined by Equation (9-16)

1 – ν 12
  ------ ----------
- 0  
E 1 E1
 ε1   σ1   A1 
  – ν 12 1    
. ε
2  = ----------
- ------ 0  σ 2  + ( T – T REF )  A 2  (9-15)
  E 1 E2    
 γ 12   τ 12   0 
  0 0
1- 
-------- 
G 12

   
 τ 1z  G 1z 0  γ 1z 
  =   (9-16)
 τ 2z  0 G 2z  γ 2z 
   
The image of the form for Orthotropic 2D appears as follows:
366
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)
 Nonlinear Analysis 367
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Elasto Plastic Constitutive Model

The Elasto Plastic Constitutive Model entry is used to define elasto-plastic material properties for large
deformation nonlinear analysis. With Slope selected as Nonlinear Data Input.

With Stress-Strain Data selected, the data input is:

368
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

With Perfectly Plastic as selected, the data input is.

Note: The STRESS field is ignored for Nonlinear Statics (SOL 600).
 Nonlinear Analysis 369
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Failure Constitutive Model

Specifies failure model properties for linear elastic materials to be used for static, quasi static or transient
dynamic analysis.
370
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Remarks:
The Failure Constitutive Model Bulk Data entry contains supplementary data for failure prediction of the
elastic materials with the same MID. If this capability is used in nonlinear analysis, Failure Constitutive
Model will activate progressive failure process.
A progressive failure behavior for a linear elastic material is simulated by Failure Constitutive Model
Bulk Data entry. Failure occurs when any one of the specified failure criteria is satisfied. Upon failure,
the elastic modulus reduces to 10% of the original modulus if there is only one value of modulus as in
isotropic material or in a beam or truss element. If it pertains to an orthotropic material, all of the material
moduli at the integration point are reduced to the lowest modulus specified. The behavior up to the failure
point is linear elastic even if an elasto-plastic material is specified, which is followed by a nonlinear
behavior for the post-failure analysis. If the initial yield stress is less than the allowable maximum stress,
the failure criteria will be ignored. In case of the anisotropic material (Anisotropic 2D, Orthotropic 3D
or MAT9), the progressive failure cannot be applied because no apparent elastic modulus exists in the
material constants.
According to the Maximum Stress Criterion, the material fails when any of the stress components (9
components including 6 normal stress components in tension and compression, and three shear stress
components) exceeds the maximum allowable stress:

σ ij > Xt, Xc, Yt, …, S xy, …etc.

where the indices (x, y, z or i, j) denote material coordinate direction.
According to the Maximum Strain Criterion, the material fails when any of the strain components (9
components including 6 normal strain components in tension and compression, and three shear strain
components) exceeds the maximum allowable strain:

ε ij > Ext, Exc, Ext, …, Gxy, …etc.

where the indices (x, y, z or i, j) denote material coordinate direction.
According to the Hill Failure Criterion, there is no distinction between tensile and compressive behavior.
The failure is determined based on

2 2 2
σ σ σ
-----x- + -----y- + -----z- –  ----- + 2 – -----2 σ x σ y –  -----2 + -----2 – -----2- σ y σ z
1- -----
1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2  2
X Y Z X Y Z Y Z X

2 2 2
τ xy τ yz τ zx
–  -----2 + -----2- – ----2- σ z σ x + ------
1 1 1 - + ------- + ------- > F ind
  2 2 2
Z X Y S xy S yz S zx

in which X, Y, Z, S xy, S yz, S zx are maximum allowable stresses and Find is the failure index prescribed by
the user.
 Nonlinear Analysis 371
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

The Hoffman Failure Criterion introduces distinction between tensile and compressive stresses to
generalize the Hill Failure Criterion, i.e.,

C x ( σ x – σ y ) + C y ( σ y – σ z ) + C z ( σ z – σ x ) +  ----- – ----- σ x
2 2 2 1 1
 X t X c

2 2 2
τ xy τ yz τ zx
+  ---- – ----- σ y +  ---- – ----- σ z + ------
1 1 1 1 - + ------- + ------- > F ind
 Y t Y c  Z t Z c 2 2 2
S xy S yz S zx

with

C x = ---  ----------- + ---------- – ----------

1 1 1 1
2 Xt Xc Yt Yc Zt Zc

C y = ---  ---------- + ---------- – -----------

1 1 1 1
2 Yt Yc Zt Zc Xt Xc

C z = ---  ---------- + ----------- + ----------

1 1 1 1
2 Zt Zc X t Xc Yt Y c

in which Xt, X c, Yt, Yc, Zt, Zc, S xy, S yz, S zx are maximum allowable stresses and Find is the failure index,
prescribed by the user.
The Tsai-Wu Failure Criterion is another generalization of the Hill Failure Criterion:

2 2 2
 ---- σx σy σz
–  σ x +  ---- – ----- σ y +  ---- – ----- σ z + ----------
1- -----
1 1 1 1 1 - + ---------
- + ---------
-
 X t X c  Y t Y c  Z t Z c X t Xc Yt Y c Zt Z c

2 2 2
τ xy τ yz τ zx
- + ------- + ------- + 2F xy σ x σ y + 2Fyz σ y σ z + 2F zx σ x σ z > F ind
+ ------
2 2 2
S xy S yz S zx
372
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

in which Xt, Xc, Yt, Yc, Zt, Zc, S xy, S yz, S zx are maximum allowable stresses, F xy, F yz, Fzx are interactive
strength constants, and F ind is the failure index, prescribed by the user.

Note: • This Bulk Data entry accommodates Marc’s input data under the model definition
option FAIL DATA.
• Failure indices are not computed in the nonlinear module. The element is actually
allowed to fail and when it fails its stiffness is removed from the model during
subsequent time on load steps.

Gasket
Specifies gasket material properties.
 Nonlinear Analysis 373
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Remarks:
1. Gasket defines nonlinear properties in the thickness direction for compression only, designed for
gasket-like materials. Gasket has anisotropy only in the thickness direction, which is called
normal anisotropy.
2. The Gasket entry defines the compressive behavior in thickness. The thickness direction is the
principal direction (3) in 3-dimensional solids and (2) for 2-dimensional solids (plane strain and
axisymmetric elements). Since Gasket material allows only normal anisotropy, linear properties
in Isotropic are required for in-plane behavior.
3. The initial yield pressure should match a point in table TABLD.
4. The loading path for the gasket is always in compression. However, it starts from the origin to
initial yield pressure (nonlinear elastic range) and continues with strain hardening slope into the
plastic region. All the data points are specified in the first quadrant.
5. As many as 10 unloading paths may be defined in the thickness direction using TABLS1 in
pressure vs. gasket closure distance as in the loading path. All the unloading paths must start from
zero pressure and end at the loading path in the plastic region. Unloading behavior at undefined
paths will be interpolated between two adjacent unloading paths. The last point of the last
specified unloading path signifies full compression, which does not allow any further closure
beyond the point.

E
loading path

p y1 D
py G
p y0 B
unloading path

A F C
cp c y0 c p1 cy c y1
Gasket Closure Distance c
374
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

6. See associated MATTG entry for temperature variation of these properties.

7. All continuation cards must be entered.
8. MID, IDMEM, BEHAV, TABLD, TABLU1, YPRS, EPL and GPL must be non-zero.
9. Each unloading curve must begin with gasket pressure of 0.0. Subsequent unloading curves must
start with larger closure distances (when gasket pressure is 0.0) than previous unloading curves.
10. Points on loading and unloading curves must be defined in order of increasing gasket pressure.
11. Gasket may be referenced by solid composite elements only.

Arruda-Boyce/Gent
Specifies hyperelastic (rubber-like) material properties for nonlinear (large strain and large rotation)
analysis with the Aruba-Boyce or Gent model
 Nonlinear Analysis 375
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Remarks:

1. For the Arruda-Boyce model, the strain energy function is

1 1 2 1 3
W = N KT --- ( I 1 – 3 ) + ---------- ( I 1 – 9 ) + ------------------2 ( I 1 – 27 )
2 20N 1050N
(9-17)
19 4 519 5 1⁄3 2
+ ---------------- ( I 1 – 81 ) + ---------------------4 ( I 1 – 243 ) + 4.5K ( J – 1)
7000N 67375N
2 2 2
with I 1 = λ1 + λ2 + λ3
where: NKT is a material constant and N is a material parameter representing the number of
statistical links of the material chain.

If the material test data are available from multiple experiments such as uniaxial and equi-biaxial
tests, the Ogden model is more accurate in fitting experimental results. If only uniaxial tension
data is available, the Arruda-Boyce model provides more accurate data fitting for multiple modes
of deformation.
2. For the Gent model, the strain energy function is

1 Im
W = – --- EI m log ------------------------- (9-18)
6 Im – I1 + 3

where E and I m are tensile modulus and maximum first invariant, respectively.
3. The thermal expansion coefficient is a secant value measured with respect to a temperature, Tref.
The thermal strain is computed by ε th = α ( T – T 0 )
where T0 is an initial temperature. The secant coefficient of thermal expansion is related to the
instantaneous coefficient of thermal expansion by
dε th dα
α = --------- = α + ------- ( T – T 0 ) (9-19)
dT dT
4. All the material constants may be obtained from least squares fitting of experimental data. One or
more of four experiments (Simple Tension/Compress. Data to Pure Shear Data) may be used to
obtain constants for distortional properties. The bulk modulus K may be obtained from pure
volumetric compression data. If all Simple Tension/Compress. Data through Pure Shear Data
fields are blank, the material constants must be specified by the user. Parameter estimation,
specified through any of the TABLES1 entries, supersedes the manual input of the parameters.
5. All the alphanumeric fields are recognizable by the first four letters.
376
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

6. Enter NKT and N/E for Aboyce (leave Im blank). Enter N/E and Im for Gent (leave NKT blank).

Note: The structural damping constant GE is specified in MSC.Marc under the option
DAMPING as a numerical damping γ , i.e.,

C = αM +  β + ----- K
2γ
 ω
in which 2γ is equivalent to GE; α and β are equivalent to parameters ALPHA1 and
ALPHA2 in MD Nastran.

Mooney-Rivlin
Specifies hyperelastic (rubber-like) material properties for nonlinear (large strain and large rotation)
analysis with the Mooney model
 Nonlinear Analysis 377
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Remarks:
1. The generalized Mooney-Rivlin strain energy function may be expressed as follows:
3
i j 1⁄3 2
W ( J, I 1, I 2 ) =  Cij ( I1 – 3 ) ( I 2 – 3 ) + 4.5K ( J – 1) (9-20)
i+j = 1
with
378
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

2 2 2
I1 = λ 1 + λ 2 + λ3
(9-21)
2 2 2 2 2 2
I2 = λ 1 λ 2 + λ 2 λ 3 + λ3 λ 1
where K and J are bulk modulus and volume ratio, respectively.
For small strains, the shear modulus G is related to the Mooney-Rivlin constants by
G = 2 ( C 10 + C 01 ) with C 01 ≈ 0.25 C 10 (9-22)

The model reduces to a Mooney-Rivlin material with only two constants (C10 and C01), and to a
Neo-Hookean material with one constant (C10). The third order Mooney-Rivlin model in
SimXpert Structures uses only five distortional constants (C10, C01, C11, C20, C30) and the bulk
modulus K for volumetric deformation. The hyperelastic material can also be specified using
General Hyperelastic Bulk Data entry.
2. Although the conventional Mooney-Rivlin and Neo-Hookean materials are fully incompressible,
SimXpert Structures workspace provides a compressible rubber model. Nearly incompressible
material may be simulated with a large value of K . The default value for the Mooney-Rivlin
4
model represents a nearly incompressible condition, which is K = 10 ( C10 + C01 ) . The thermal
expansion coefficient is a secant value measured with respect to a temperature, Tref.
3. The thermal strain is computed by ε th = α ( T – T 0 )
where T 0 is an initial temperature.
The secant coefficient of thermal expansion is related to the instantaneous coefficient of thermal
expansion by
dε th dα
α = --------- = α + ------- ( T – T 0 ) (9-23)
dT dT
4. All the material constants may be obtained from least squares fitting of experimental data. One or
more of four experiments (Simple Tension/Compress. Data to Pure Shear Data) may be used to
obtain constants for distortional properties. The bulk modulus K may be obtained from pure
volumetric compression data . If all Simple Tension/Compress. Data through Pure Shear Data
fields are blank, the material constants must be specified by the user. Parameter estimation,
specified through any of the TABLES1 entries, supersedes the manual input of the parameters.
 Nonlinear Analysis 379
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

5. All the alphanumeric fields are recognizable by the first four letters.

Note: The structural damping constant GE is specified in MSC.Marc under the option
DAMPING as a numerical damping γ , i.e.,

C = αM +  β + ----- K
2γ
 ω
in which 2γ is equivalent to GE; α and β are equivalent to parameters ALPHA1 and
ALPHA2 in MD Nastran.

This Bulk Data entry accommodates Marc’s input data under the model definition options MOONEY as
well as the parameter ELASTICITY. It also accommodates General Hyperelastic input data in SimXpert

MATHE_OGDEN_FOAM
Specifies hyperelastic (rubber-like) material properties for nonlinear (large strain and large rotation)
analysis with the Ogden model or Hyperfoam model
380
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Remarks:
1. For the Ogden material model, the strain energy function is
5
μ αk αk αk
-----k- ( λ 1 + λ 2 + λ 3 – 3 ) + 4.5K ( J 1 ⁄ 3 – 1 )
2
W =  α
(9-24)
k=1
where: μ k represents moduli, λ i is the deviatoric stretch ratio defined as
 Nonlinear Analysis 381
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

1
– ---
3
λi = J λ i (9-25)

and J and K are the determinant of the deformation gradient and the bulk modulus, respectively.
A two-term Ogden model is equivalent to a simple Mooney-Rivlin model
μ 1 = 2C 10 and μ 2 = 2C 01
with α1 = 2. and α2 = 2.

2. For the hyperfoam material model, the strain energy function is

5 5
μ αk αk αk μk β
W =  -----k- ( λ 1 + λ 2 + λ 3 – 3 ) +
αk  ----- ( 1 – J k )
βk
(9-26)
k=1 k=1
where: β k represent additional constants for volumetric deformation.

3. The NOT field is used to curve fit the experimental data. The curve fitting is activated if Simple
Tension/Compress. Data, Equivalent Tension Data, Simple Shear Data, Pure Shear Data and/or
Pure Volum. Compress. Data are specified.
4. Nearly incompressible material may be simulated with a large value of K . In the Ogden model,
the default is K = 0 . for incompressibility.
5. The thermal expansion coefficient is a secant value measured with respect to a temperature, Tref.
The thermal strain is computed by ε th = α ( T – T 0 )
where T0 is an initial temperature. The secant coefficient of thermal expansion is related to the
instantaneous coefficient of thermal expansion by
dε th dα
α = --------- = α + ------- ( T – T 0 ) (9-27)
dT dT
6. All the material constants may be obtained from least squares fitting of experimental data. One or
more of four experiments (Simple Tension/Compress. Data to Pure Shear Data) may be used to
obtain constants for distortional properties. The bulk modulus K may be obtained from pure
volumetric compression data. If all Simple Tension/Compress. Data through Pure Shear Data
fields are blank, the material constants must be specified by the user. Parameter estimation,
specified through any of the TABLES1 entries, supersedes the manual input of the parameters.
382
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

7. All the alphanumeric fields are recognizable by the first four letters.

Note: 1. The structural damping constant GE is specified in MSC.Marc under the option
DAMPING as a numerical damping γ , i.e.,

C = αM +  β + ----- K
2γ
(9-28)
 ω
in which 2γ is equivalent to GE; α and β are equivalent to parameters ALPHA1
and ALPHA2 in MD Nastran.
2. This Bulk Data entry accommodates Marc’s input data under the model definition
options OGDEN, and FOAM as well as the parameter ELASTICITY.

Damage Constitutive Model

Specifies damage model properties for hyperlastic materials.

Remarks:
1. The MATHE Bulk Data entry with the same MID must exist for Damage Constitutive Model to
be effective.
The damage capability is available for all the elastomeric materials (Mooney-Rivlin, Ogden,
Gent, Arruda-Boyce).
2. Under repeated application of loads, elastomers undergo damage by mechanisms involving chain
breakage, multi-chain damage, micro-void formation, and micro-structural degradation due to
detachment of filler particles from the network entanglement. The damage model for elastomeric
materials is based on the undamaged strain energy function W 0 , multiplied by a Kachanov
damage factor, K, i.e.,
 Nonlinear Analysis 383
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

W = K ( α, β )W 0 (9-29)

where α and β are parameters for discontinuous and continuous damage models, respectively.
Two types of phenomenological models, discontinuous and continuous, exist to simulate the
damage. The discontinuous damage model simulates the “Mullins’ effect,” which involves a loss
of stiffness (represented by a parameter α ) below the previously attained maximum strain. The
higher the maximum attained strain the larger the loss of stiffness is. There is a progressive
stiffness loss with increasing maximum strain amplitude. Most of the stiffness loss takes place in
the first few cycles provided the maximum strain level is not increased. This phenomenon is
observed in both filled as well as natural rubber although the higher level of carbon black particles
increases the hysteresis and the loss of stiffness. The continuous damage model (Miehe’s
formulation) can simulate the damage accumulation for strain cycles for which the values of
effective energy is below the maximum attained value of the past history. The evolution of
continuous damage parameter is governed by the arc-length of the effective strain energy,
represented by a parameter β .

3. Both the continuous damage as well as the discontinuous damage can be modeled by a cumulative
Kachanov factor in multiplicative or additive decomposition form.
For multiplicative decomposition
2
α + δnβ
 dn exp  – ------------------
-
∞
K ( α, β ) = d + (9-30)
ηn 
n=1
For additive decomposition
2 2
α β
d n exp  – ------ + d m exp  – ------
∞
K ( α, β ) = d +   η n   λ m
(9-31)
n=1 m=1
∞
where d n , δ n , η n , d m , and λm are constants specified by the user, and d is calculated by the
program such that the Kachanov factor assumes a value of unity at zero damage if left blank.
4. The proportionality factor is not used by additive decomposition which requires the continuation
fields to include the continuous damage model.
5. User subroutines must be called out using PARAM,MARCUSUB,CHAR where CHAR is a
character variable such as UDAMAG.

Note: This Bulk Data entry accommodates MSC.Marc’s input data under the model definition
option DAMAGE.

General Hyperelastic
Specifies material properties for use in fully nonlinear (i.e., large strain and large rotation) hyperelastic
analysis of rubber-like materials (elastomers). Below is the Coefficient form.
384
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)
 Nonlinear Analysis 385
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Below is the Test Data form.

Remarks:
1. The generalized Mooney-Rivlin strain energy function may be expressed as follows:

NA ND
i j
  Di ( J – 1 – AV ( T – T0 ) )
2i
U ( J, I 1, I 2 ) = Aij ( I1 – 3 ) ( I 2 – 3 ) +
i+j = 1 i=1

A00 = 0
386
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

where I1 and I 2 are the first and second distortional strain invariants, respectively; J = det F is
the determinant of the deformation gradient; and2D1 = K and 2 ( A10 + A01 ) = G at small
strains, in which K is the bulk modulus and G is the shear modulus. The model reduces to a
Mooney-Rivlin material if NA=1 and to a Neo-Hookean material if NA = 1 and A01 = 0.0. See
Remark 2. For Neo-Hookean or Mooney-Rivlin materials no continuation entry is required. T is
the current temperature and T0 is the initial temperature.
2. Conventional Mooney-Rivlin and Neo-Hookean materials are fully incompressible. Full
incompressibility is not presently available but may be simulated with a large enough value of D1.
3
A value of D1 higher than 10 ⋅ ( A10 + A01 ) is, however, not recommended.
3. Aij and Di are obtained from least squares fitting of experimental data. One or more of four
experiments (Simple Tension/Compress. Data to Pure Shear Data) may be used to obtain Aij. Di
may be obtained from pure volumetric compression data. If all Simple Tension/Compress. Data
through Pure Shear Data are blank, Aij must be specified by the user. Parameter estimation,
specified through any of the TABLES1 entries, supersedes the manual input of the parameters.
4. IF ND=1 and a nonzero value of D1 is provided or is obtained from experimental data in Pure
Volum. Compress. Data, then the parameter estimation of the material constants Aij takes
compressibility into account in the cases of simple tension/compression, equibiaxial tension, and
general biaxial deformation. Otherwise, full incompressibility is assumed in estimating the
material constants.

Orthotropic 3D
The Orthotropic 3D entry is used to define plane strain behavior for linear and nonlinear analysis.
.An orthotropic material has three mutually orthogonal planes of symmetry. With respect to a coordinate
system parallel to these planes, the constitutive law for this material is given by the following more
general form of Hooke’s Law:

ε 11 1 ⁄ ( E1 ) – ( υ 12 ) ⁄ ( E1 ) – ( υ 13 ) ⁄ ( E 1 ) 0 0 0 σ 11
ε 22 ( – υ 12 ) ⁄ ( E1 ) 1 ⁄ ( E2 ) ( – υ 23 ) ⁄ ( E 2 ) 0 0 0 σ 22
ε 33 ( – υ 13 ) ⁄ ( E1 ) ( – υ 23 ) ⁄ ( E2 ) 1 ⁄ ( E3 ) 0 0 0 σ 33
=
γ 12 0 0 0 1 ⁄ ( G 12 ) 0 0 τ12
γ 23 0 0 0 0 1 ⁄ ( G 23 ) 0 τ23
γ 13 0 0 0 0 0 1 ⁄ ( G 13 ) τ13

Due to symmetry of the compliance matrix, E11 ν 21 = E22 ν 12 , E22 ν 32 = E33 ν 23 , and E33 ν 13 =
E11 ν 31 . Using these relations, a general orthotropic material has nine independent constants:

E11, E22, E33, ν12 , ν 23 , ν 31 , G12, G23, G31

 Nonlinear Analysis 387
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

These nine constants must be specified in constructing the material model.

Note: The inequalities E22 > ν 23 E33, E11 > ν 12 E22, and E33 > ν 31 E11 must be satisfied in
order for the orthotropic material to be stable. This is checked by SimXpert Structures
Workspace
388
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)
 Nonlinear Analysis 389
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Stress Dependant Constitutive Model

Specifies stress-dependent material properties for use in applications involving nonlinear materials. This
entry is used if an Isotropic, Anisotropic 2D or MAT9 entry is specified with the same MID in a nonlinear
solution sequence. Below is the form with Stress Data Input.

Below is the form with Hardening Slope Data Input.

390
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Table 9-1 Yield Functions Versus LIMIT1 and LIMIT2

Yield Function (YF) LIMIT1 LIMIT2

von Mises (1) Initial Yield Stress in Tension, Y1 Not used

or Tresca (2)

Mohr-Coulomb (3) 2*Cohesion, 2c (in units of stress) Angle of Internal Friction φ (in
or Drucker-Prager (4) degrees)

Remarks:
1. If TYPE = “NLELAST”, then MID may refer to an Isotropic entry only. Also, the stress-strain
data given in the TABLES1 entry will be used to determine the stress for a given value of strain.
The values H, YF, HR, LIMIT1, and LIMIT2 will not be used in this case.
Thermoelastic analysis with temperature-dependent material properties is available for linear and
nonlinear elastic isotropic materials (TYPE = “NLELAST”) and linear elastic anisotropic
materials. Four options of constitutive relations exist. The relations appear in Table 0-2 along
with the required Bulk Data entries.
Table 9-2 Constitutive Relations and Required Material Property Entries

Constitutive Relation Required Bulk Data Entries

{ σ } = [ Ge ( T ) ] { ε } MAT1 and MATT1

MAT1, MATT1, Stress Dependant Constitutive Model, and

E ( σ, ε ) TABLES1
{ σ } = ------------------ [ G e ( T ) ] { ε }
E

MAT1, Stress Dependant Constitutive Model, TABLEST, and

E ( T, σ, ε ) TABLES1
{ σ } = ------------------------ [ G e ] { ε }
E

MAT1, MATT1, Stress Dependant Constitutive Model,

E ( T, σ, ε ) TABLEST, and TABLES1
{ σ } = ------------------------ [ G e ( T ) ] { ε }
E

In Table 0-2 { σ } and { ε } are the stress and strain vectors, [ G e ] the elasticity matrix, E the
effective elasticity modulus, and E the reference elasticity modulus.
 Nonlinear Analysis 391
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

2. If TYPE = “PLASTIC”, the elastic stress-strain matrix is computed from Isotropic, Anisotropic
2D, or MAT9 entry, and then the isotopic plasticity theory is used to perform the plastic analysis.
In this case, either the table identification TID or the work hardening slope H may be specified,
but not both. If the TID is omitted, the work hardening slope H must be specified unless the
material is perfectly plastic. The plasticity modulus (H) is related to the tangential modulus (ET)
by
ET
H = --------------- (9-32)
E
1 – -----T-
E
where E is the elastic modulus and E T = dY ⁄ dε is the slope of the uniaxial stress-strain curve
in the plastic region. See Figure 0-1.

Y ( or s )

ET

Y1

e
0

Stress-Strain Curve Definition When H Is Specified in Field 5

3. If TID is given, TABLES1 entries (Xi, Yi) of stress-strain data ( ε k, Yk ) must conform to the
following rules (see Figure 0-2):
• If TYPE = “PLASTIC”, the curve must be defined in the first quadrant. The first point must
be at the origin (X1 = 0, Y2 = 0) and the second point (X2, Y2) must be at the initial yield
point ( Y 1 or 2c) specified on the Stress Dependant Constitutive Model entry. The slope of the
line joining the origin to the yield stress must be equal to the value of E. Also, TID may not
reference a TABLEST entry.
• If TYPE = “NLELAST”, the full stress-strain curve (-∞ < x < ∞) may be defined in the first
and the third quadrant to accommodate different uniaxial compression data. If the curve is
defined only in the first quadrant, then the curve must start at the origin (X1 = 0.0, Y = 0.0)
and the compression properties will be assumed identical to tension properties.
392
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Y ( or s )

H3
Y3
Y2 H2 k = 3
k = 2
H1

If TYPE = PLASTIC:
Y1 k = 1 p
ε k = Effective Plastic Strain

Yk + 1 – Y k
H k = -----------------------
p
-
p
εk + 1 – εk

p p
0 ε1 ε2 ε2 ε3 ε3 ε

Figure 9-4 Stress-Strain Curve Definition When TID Is Specified in Field 3

MATTEP
Constitutive Model which specifies temperature-dependent elasto-plastic material properties to be used
for static, quasi static or transient dynamic analysis. This form can only be accessed through the solver
card GUI.
1. Click on Tools/Options, and select GUI Options from the tree.
2. Check the Solver Card checkbox.
3. Click OK.
4. Click on the desired Material Property (material must have an Elasto plastic Constitutive Model).
 Nonlinear Analysis 393
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

5. Check the box next to MATTEP. Shown below is the MATEP portion of an Isotropic Material.

Field Contents
Card Type of MD Nastran bulk data entry that will be created.
MID Identification number of Elasto Plastic Constitutive Model entry. See Remark 1. (Integer > 0)
T(Y0) Identification number of TABLEMi entry for thermo-elasto-plastic material. See Remarks 2.
(Integer > 0 or blank)
T(FID) Identification number of TABLEST entry for temperature-dependent stress-strain curves
(Integer>0 or blank). See Remark 4.
T(H) Identification number of TABLEMi entry for temperature-dependent plasticity moduli in
thermo-elasto-plastic material. See Remarks 3. (Integer > 0 or blank)
T(yc10) Identification number of TABLEMi entry for equivalent 10th cycle tensile yield stress specified
in the Yc10 field of Elasto Plastic Constitutive Model entry. (Integer > 0 or blank).

Remarks:
1. The Elasto Plastic Constitutive Model Bulk Data entry with the same MID must exist for
MATTEP to be effective. All the fields defined in MATTEP correspond to the same fields of
Elasto Plastic Constitutive Model. The value in a particular field of the Elasto Plastic Constitutive
Model entry is replaced or modified by the table referenced in the corresponding field of this
entry.
2. The table represents yield stresses as a function of temperature. Therefore, the curve should
comprise the initial stress from Y0 or FID field on Elasto Plastic Constitutive Model (most likely
at room temperature). T(Y0) field accommodates FID field in case FID field defines the initial
yield stress instead of Y0 field. In this case, the yield stresses at any plastic strain will be scaled
by the same ratio as the initial yield stress at the same temperature.
3. The table represents a normalized plasticity moduli (work hardening slope) as a function of
temperature.
394
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

4. Temperature dependent stress-strain curves may be entered in a general manner using the T(FID)
option. The integer value entered in this field represents the ID of a TABLEST entry which
provides IDs of TABLES1 stress-plastic strain curves vs. temperature. All such curves must be
entered as stress vs. plastic strain. No curves should be referenced on the Stress Dependant
Constitutive Model entry. For this option T(Y0) and T(H) should be left blank and if entered, MD
Nastran will re-set them to blank if T(FID) is a positive integer.
5. This entry must be used in conjunction with IsotropicIsotropic, Elasto Plastic Constitutive Model
and MATT1 all with the same MID. The MATT1 entry must have at least one non-blank entry in
fields 3-7 of the primary MATT1 entry.

Note: This Bulk Data entry accommodates Marc’s input data under the model definition options
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS.

MATTG
Consitutive Model which specifies gasket material property temperature variation. This form can only be
accessed through the solver card GUI.
1. Click on tools/Options and select GUI Options. from the tree,.
2. Check the Solver Card box.
3. Click on Gasket under the Material group.
 Nonlinear Analysis 395
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

4. Check the box next to MATTG.

Field Contents
Card Type of MD Nastran bulk data entry that will be created.
MID Material ID number that matches the material ID of a corresponding Gasket material.
(Integer > 0; required)
IDYM ID of TABLEMi entry that gives the temperature variation of Young’s modulus for the
membrane behavior of the material. (Integer > 0 or blank)
IDVM ID of TABLEMi entry that gives the temperature variation of Poisson’s ratio for the
membrane behavior of the material. (Integer > 0 or blank)
IDDM ID of TABLEMi entry that gives the temperature variation of the mass density for the
membrane behavior of the material. (Integer > 0 or blank)
IDLD ID of TABLEMi entry that gives the temperature variation of the loading curve of the
material. This table has X and Y values of temperature and “Table ID”. The “Table ID”
must be entered as a “real” value with a decimal point but is converted internally to an
integer value. It gives the table to use at that particular temperature, X. (Integer > 0 or
blank)
396
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Field Contents
IDUi ID of TABLEMi entry that gives the temperature variation of the unloading curve of
the material. There can be up to 10 unloading curves and each can have a different
temperature variation. If there is no unloading, there does not need to be any unloading
curves.This table has X and Y values of temperature and “Table ID”. The “Table ID”
must be entered as a “real” value with a decimal point but is converted internally to an
integer value. It gives the table to use at that particular temperature, X. (Integer > 0 or
blank)
IDYPR ID of TABLEMi entry that gives the temperature variation of the yield pressure for the
out-of -plane behavior of the material. (Integer > 0 or blank)
IDEPL ID of TABLEMi entry that gives the temperature variation of the tensile modulus for
the out-of -plane behavior of the material. (Integer > 0 or blank)
IDGPL ID of TABLEMi entry that gives the temperature variation of the transverse shear
modulus for the out-of -plane behavior of the material. (Integer > 0 or blank)
IDGAP ID of TABLEMi entry that gives the temperature variation of the initial gap for the out-
of -plane behavior of the material. (Integer > 0 or blank)

MATTHE
Specifies temperature-dependent properties of hyperelastic (rubber-like) materials (elastomers) for
nonlinear (large strain and large rotation) analysis. This form can only be accessed through the solver
card GUI.
1. Click on tools/Options and select GUI Options. from the tree,.
2. Check the Solver Card box.
3. Click on Gasket under the Material group.
4. Check the box next to MATTHE

Field Contents
Card Type of MD Nastran bulk data entry that will be created.
MID Identification number of a MATHE entry. See Remark 1. (Integer > 0; no Default)
 Nonlinear Analysis 397
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Field Contents
T(Texp) Identification number of a TABLEMi entry for the coefficient of thermal expansion versus
temperature. This field is not presently active. (Integer > 0 or blank)
T(XX) Identification number of TABLEMi entry for the material constant versus temperature related
to the distortional deformation. This field is used for Mooney or Aboyce, or Gent option
depending on the “Model” field of MATHE entry. For Mooney, it is c10; for Aboyce, it is nkT;
for Gent, it is E. (Integer > 0 or blank)
T(YY) Identification number of TABLEMi entry for the material constant versus temperature related
to the distortional deformation. This field is used for Mooney, Aboyce or Gent option depending
on the “Model” field of MATHE entry. For Mooney, it is c01; for Aboyce, it is N; for Gent, it is
Im. (Integer > 0 or blank)
T(ZZ) Identification number of TABLEDMi entry for the material constant versus temperature related
to the distortional deformation. This field is used for ABoyce or Gent option depending on the
“Model” field of MATHE entry. (Integer > 0 or blank) This field is not presently active.
T(TABi) Identification number of a TABLEST entry for the experimental material data for the Mooney-
Rivlin material. See Remark 2. (Integer > 0 or blank) This field is not presently active.

Remarks:
1. The MATTHE entry must have the same ID as the corresponding MATHE entry. Each table ID
on the MATTHE entry corresponds to a parameter on the MATHE entry.
2. If experimental data is provided, it is expected that the user has the data for multiple tests of the
same type at different temperatures. The T(TABi) fields refer to TABLEST entries which in turn
refer to TABLES1 entries for each temperature. The TABLES1 entries contain the measured
stress-strain curves described under MATHE.
3. For Ogden and Foam materials, no temperature dependent* properties are presently available.

ViscoPlastic Constitutive Model using Power Law

Specifies viscoplastic or creep material properties (Power form) to be used for quasi-static analysis.
398
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Specifies viscoplastic or creep material properties (table form) to be used for quasi-static analysis.
 Nonlinear Analysis 399
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Remarks:
1. This Bulk Data entry is activated if a Isotropic, Anisotropic 2D, Orthotropic 3D, or MAT9 entry
with the same MID is specified in a nonlinear analysis. This creep capability is available for
isotropic, orthotropic, and anisotropic elasticity, which can be coupled with plasticity using Elasto
Plastic Constitutive Model entry. Coupling with plasticity is allowed only for selected plasticity
models, which include von Mises, Hill’s anisotropy (creep stays isotropic), and Mohr-Coulomb
models. However, viscoelasticity (MATVE) cannot be combined with viscoplasticity (MATVP).
2. The creep behavior of the material is expressed in terms of creep strain rate as a product of a
number of terms (functions of effective stress, equivalent creep strain, temperature, and time) in
either piece-wise linear curves or exponential form, i.e.,
·c m c n p q–1
ε = A ⋅ σ ⋅ ( ε ) ⋅ T ⋅ ( qt ) (9-33)

or
·c c dK ( t )
ε = A ⋅ f ( σ ) ⋅ g ( ε ) ⋅ h ( T ) ⋅ -------------- (9-34)
dt
The functions f, g, h and K are specified as piece-wise linear functions in a tabular form using
TABLEM1 entry, if the Table Form is selected. Notice that the last term in time shows function
K for the equivalent creep strain in terms of time, instead of creep strain rate.
The creep strain from the creep material is a permanent strain unlike the creep strain for materials
using the CREEP Bulk Data entry. As such, this creep material may be classified as viscoplastic
material. This creep capability is provided for the primary and the secondary creep behavior,
because the tertiary creep involves material instability such as necking.
400
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

3. If the threshold stress is the same as the initial yield stress, the creep deformation occurs only in
the plastic range. If the threshold stress is specified, an implicit integration scheme is used.
Otherwise, an explicit integration is used at the Gauss point level.

Note: This Bulk Data entry accommodates Marc’s input data under the model definition option
CREEP as well as the parameter CREEP.

Required Material Properties

You must define stiffness in some form (for example, Young's modulus (E), Shear Modulus (G), or
hyperelastic coefficients).
For Global Boundary Conditions (such as gravity or rotating force), you must define the data required
for mass calculations, such as density (RHO).
For thermal loads (temperatures), you must define the coefficient of thermal expansion (A).

MCOHE
Specifies material cohesive properties for a fully nonlinear element (large strain and large rotation) used
to simulate the onset and progress of delamination of laminate material.
 Nonlinear Analysis 401
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Cohesive Zone Modeling

Marc has a library of so-called interface elements (186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192,and 193), which can
be used to simulate the onset and progress of delamination. The constitutive behavior of these elements
is expressed in terms of tractions versus relative displacements between the top and bottom edge/surface
of the elements (see Figure 9-5).
402
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

8
top face
4
v1 7
˜ v3
˜ 3
5
v2 bottom face
1 ˜
6
2

Figure 9-5 3-D Linear Interface Element

Considering a 3-D interface element, the relative displacement components are given by one normal and
two shear components, expressed with respect to the local element system (see Marc Volume B: Element
Library for the definition of the local element systems):

top bottom
vn = u1 – u1
top bottom
vs = u2 – u 2
top bottom
vt = u 3 – u3
(9-35)
Based on the relative displacement components, the effective opening displacement is defined as:

2 2 2
v = vn + vs + vt (9-36)

Later on, some modifications of this definition will be discussed.

The effective traction t is introduced as a function of the effective opening displacement and is
characterized by an initial reversible response followed by an irreversible response as soon as a critical
effective opening displacement v c has been reached. The irreversible part is characterized by increasing
damage ranging from 0 (onset of delamination) to 1 (full delamination).
Three standard functions are currently available; namely, a bilinear, an exponential, and a linear-
exponential function (see Figure 9-6):

2G c v if 0 ≤ v ≤ vc
t = --------- ----
vm vc

2G v m – v if vc < v ≤ vm
t = ---------c  ----------------
- Bilinear
v m  v m – v c

t = 0 if v > vm
(9-37)
 Nonlinear Analysis 403
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

v –v ⁄ vc
t = G c ----2- e Exponential (9-38)
vc

2qG c v if 0 < v ≤ v c
t = ---------------------- ----
vc ( q + 2 ) vc
Linear-exponential
2qGc v > vc
t = ---------------------- e q ( 1 – v ⁄ vc )if
vc ( q + 2 )
(9-39)
in which G c is the energy release rate (cohesive energy), v m is the maximum effective opening
displacement (which is only used by the bilinear model), and q is the exponential decay factor (which is
only used by the linear-exponential model).
t t t

v v v
vc vm vc vc

Figure 9-6 Bilinear (left), Exponential (middle), and Linear-exponential (right)

Cohesive Material Model

It can easily be verified that the maximum effective traction t c , corresponding to the critical effective
opening displacement v c is given by:

2G
t c = ---------c Bilinear (9-40)
vm

G
t c = -------c Exponential (9-41)
evc

2qG c
t c = ---------------------
- Linear-exponential (9-42)
vc ( q + 2 )
404
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

So if the maximum effective traction is known, the critical or maximum effective opening displacement
can be determined by:

2G
v m = ---------c Bilinear (9-43)
tc

G
v c = ------c Exponential (9-44)
et c

2qG c
v c = --------------------
- Linear-exponential (9-45)
tc ( q + 2 )
Note that for the bilinear model, the critical effective opening displacement does neither affect the
cohesive energy nor the maximum effective traction.
Until now, the behavior in the normal and shear direction is treated similarly. However, sometimes the
behavior of an interface material may be different in tension and shear. The first method to include such
differences is incorporated by the shear-normal stress ratio β 1 , which defines the ratio of the maximum
stress in shear and the maximum stress in tension [Ref. 26]. This ratio is used to redefine the effective
opening displacement according to:

2 2 2 2 2
v = vn + β1 vs + β1 vt

The effect of β 1 = 0.5 is depicted in Figure 9-7 for the bilinear model.

t t

tension shear
only only
Gc Gc

vc vm v vc vm v

Figure 9-7 Response in Tension and Shear for a Shear-normal Stress Ratio β 1 = 0.5
(Bilinear Model)

Although the use of the shear-normal stress ratio offers some flexibility, it assumes that the cohesive
energy in tension and shear is the same. If one wants to define a different value of the cohesive energy in
shear than in tension, the shear-normal energy ratio β 2 can be used. In a general state of deformation,
 Nonlinear Analysis 405
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

when β 2 ≠ 1 , the curve defining the effective traction versus the effective opening displacement is
defined as a linear combination of the response in pure tension and pure shear. Using β 1 = 0.5 and
β 2 = 0.75 , Figure 9-8 shows the response in tension and shear for the bilinear model.

t t

tension shear
only only
Gc 0.75G c

vc vm v vc vm v

Figure 9-8 Response in Tension and Shear for a Shear-normal Stress Ratio β 1 = 0.5
and a Shear-normal Energy Ratio β 2 = 0.75 (Bilinear Model)
In order to avoid convergence problems in a finite element simulation of delamination, one may activate
so-called viscous energy dissipation. The basic idea of the dissipation model is that when delamination
starts, the rate of deformation may suddenly increase. This increase is used to augment the constitutive
behavior with a viscous contribution being equivalent to this rate of deformation:

ζt c v·
t vis = ---------
- (9-46)
v· r

in which ζ is the viscous energy factor, v· is effective opening displacement rate and v· 0 is the reference
value of the effective opening displacement rate. This reference value can either be user-defined or
calculated by the program. In the latter case, the reference value is given by the maximum effective
opening displacement rate in any interface element, as long as the response in all the interface elements
is reversible. The viscous energy dissipation model does not directly have a physical background, but is
basically numerical in nature.
In the equations discussed above, no distinction has been made between tensile and compressive loading
in the normal direction. Assuming that in compression the behavior will remain reversible, Equation
(9-47) will be adapted as:

2 2 2
v = [ max ( vn, 0 ) ] + v s + v t (9-47)

Since, irrespective of the damage level, the interface elements should be able to sustain ongoing loading
in compression (so that inter-penetration is prohibited), it is possible to make the stiffness in compression
a function of the corresponding (negative) opening displacement. By default, the stiffness in compression
is constant and given by the slope of the traction versus opening displacement curve at the origin. If a
406
Materials (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

non-default value of the stiffening factor in compression F is given, the stiffness at v = – v c is given
by:

∂t ∂t n
-------n- = F --------
∂v n –vc ∂v n 0

So far, the constitutive behavior has been discussed in terms of an effective traction versus an effective
opening displacement. The traction components follow from the effective traction according to:

∂v ∂v
t n = t -------- ; t s ,t = t ---------- (9-48)
∂v n ∂v s ,t
As an alternative to the above mentioned standard models, the UCOHESIVE user subroutine can be used
to enter a user-defined material behavior.
There is a corresponding thermal cohesive model to what was discussed above which uses heat transfer
cohesive elements. In this model, the thermal conductivity can be a function of the displacement opening.
The thermal gradient through the thickness is based upon the temperatures along the top and bottom
surfaces. The UCOHESIVET user subroutine may be used to provide a more complex thermal
conductivity.
 Nonlinear Analysis 407
Elements (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Elements (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Overview
Typical properties include cross-sectional properties of beam elements, thicknesses of plate and shell
elements, material IDs, etc. Properties are assigned to the elements of a specified part or element type,
either directly to the elements, or indirectly through the part to which the elements belong or the geometry
with which the elements are associated.
Properties associate materials with elements.

Element types and associated properties used for nonlinear

analysis
Two-Dimensional Elements
Two-dimensional elements, commonly referred to as plate and shell elements, are used to represent areas
in your model where one of the dimensions is small in comparison to the other two.
• CQUAD4, CTRIA3 - General-purpose plate elements capable of carrying in plane force,
bending forces, and transverse shear force. These element types can be used to model a fully
nonlinear (large strain and large rotation) hyperelastic plane strain process; the MD Nastran
entry PLPLANE is used. This family of elements are the most commonly used 2-D elements in
the SimXpert element library. These are the element types generated by the Automesher.
• CQUAD8, CTRIA6 - Higher order elements that are useful for modeling curved surfaces with
fewer elements than are required if you use the CQUAD4 and CTRIA3 elements. In general, the
CQUAD4 and CTRIA3 elements are preferred over the CQUAD8 and CTRIA6 elements. These
element types can be used to model a fully nonlinear (large strain and large rotation) hyperelastic
plane strain process; the MD Nastran entry PLPLANE is used.

PSHELL
The CQUAD4, CTRIA3, CQUAD8, and CTRIA6 elements are commonly referred to as the plate and
shell elements within SimXpert. Their properties, which are defined using the PSHELL entry, are
identical. For all applications other than composites or shear panels, the PSHELL entry should be used
for plate and shell elements.
408
Elements (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

The format of the Shell Property entry is as follows:

As can be seen, the Shell entry is used to select the material for the membrane properties, the bending
properties, the transverse shear properties, the bending-membrane coupling properties, and the bending
and transverse shear parameters. By choosing the appropriate materials and parameters, virtually any
plate configuration may be obtained.
The most common use of the Shell entry is to model an isotropic thin plate. The preferred method to
define an isotropic plate is to select an isotropic material for the Material (membrane Material ) on the
basic form entry of the Shell properties form and Bending material ID on the advanced portion of the
form. For a thick plate, you may also wish to enter an isotropic material for the Transverse shear material .
Also located on the Shell entry are the stress recovery locations Z1 and Z2, located under Fiber distance
for stress computation on the advanced portion of the form. By default, Z1 and Z2 are equal to one-half
of the plate thickness (typical for a homogeneous plate). If you are modeling a composite plate, you may
wish to enter values other than the defaults to identify the outermost fiber locations of the plate for stress
analysis.
 Nonlinear Analysis 409
Elements (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

The element coordinate systems for the CQUAD4 is shown in Figure 9-9. The orientation of the element
coordinate system is determined by the order of the connectivity for the nodes. The element z-axis, often
referred to as the positive normal, is determined using the right-hand rule (the z-axis is “out of the screen”
as shown in Figure 9-9. Therefore, if you change the order of the nodal connectivity, the direction of this
positive normal also reverses. This rule is important to remember when applying pressure loads or
viewing the untransformed element forces or stresses. Untransformed directional element stress plots
may appear strange when they are displayed by the postprocessor in SimXpert because the normals of
the adjacent elements may be inconsistent. Remember that components of forces, moments, and element
stresses are always output in the element coordinate system.
yelement
N3

N4

β+γ xelement
α = ------------
2

α xmaterial
zelement

β
THETA γ

N1 N2

Figure 9-9 CQUAD4 Element Geometry and Coordinate Systems

Plane strain problems involve a long body whose geometry and loading do not vary significantly in the
longitudinal direction (z direction). In these problems, the dependent variables can be assumed to be
functions of only the x and y coordinates, provided we consider a cross section at some distance away
from the ends. If it is further assumed that the displacement component in the z direction is zero at every
cross section then the strain components εz, γyz, and γ zx vanish and the remaining non-zero strain
components are εx, εy and γxy. Also, since εz is assumed zero, the stress σz can be expressed in terms of
σx and σy for the linear elastic case as:

σz = ν ( σx + σy )
In the Shell Property form the specification of the parameter values for the nonlinear definition of the
shell element are made.
410
Elements (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

The membrane and bending material properties are needed to define the nonlinear properties. It is needed
to specify the element type as 1) implicit structural, 2) implicit heat transfer, or 3) implicit structural and
heat transfer. Also, the number of corner and mid-side nodes must be specified, e.g. four corner nodes
and four mid-side nodes. The structural or heat transfer shell element can be doubly curved thich shell,
doubly curved thin shell, or membrane with motion in three dimensions. The integration scheme for
structural or heat transfer modeling needs to be specified as 1) linear, 2) linear reduced integration
hourglass control (assumed strain), 3) quadratic, 4) quadratic reduced integration, or 5) linear discrete
kirchhoff. If the temperature distribution needs to be specified, it is specified only for the thick shell
element.

Nonlinear Axisymmetric Elements

Nonlinear axisymmetric elements, commonly referred to as 2D solid elements, are used to represent solid
regions in your model that are symmetric about an axis.
 Nonlinear Analysis 411
Elements (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

• CQUADX, CTRIAX - Fully nonlinear (large strain and large rotation), capable for use in
hyperelastic analysis, axisymmetric isoparametric elements are used to model a continuum.

PLPLANE
The CQUADX and CTRIAX elements are axisymmetric isoparametric with fully nonlinear capability.
Their properties, which are defined using the PLPLANE entry, are identical. This MD Nastran entry is
used to model an axisymmetric or plane strain process.

Cohesive Elements (SOL 400)

Nonlinear cohesive elements (are available only in SOL 400) are used to detect the onset and progression
of delamination of composite material.
• CIFQUAD - This planar element is used to simulate the onset and progress of delamination of
composites. It is fully nonlinear. There can be either four or eight nodes per element.
412
Elements (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

• CIFQDX - This axisymmetric element is used to simulate the onset and progress of
delamination of composites. It is fully nonlinear. There can be either four or eight nodes per
element.

PCOHE
The CIFQUAD and CIFQDX elements are planar and axisymmetric, respectively, with fully nonlinear
capability. Their properties, which are defined using the PCOHE entry, are identical. This MD Nastran
entry is used to model a planar or axisymmetric process.

The material property (specified by MD Nastran SOL 400 entry MCOHE) is used to specify the
parameter values that are used to determine the onset and progress of delamination of composites. The
integration scheme can be 0) Gauss, or 1) Newton-Coates/Lobatto. For very stiff interface elements the
Newton-Coates/Lobatto integration scheme may be best to use. The thickness is that of the CIFQAUD
elements only.

Element Integration
SimXpert Structures Workspace normally uses “full” integration elements but “reduced” integration
elements are also available. For full integration, the number of integration points is sufficient to integrate
the governing virtual work expression exactly, at least for linear material behavior. All triangular and
tetrahedral elements in SimXpert Structures Workspace use full integration. Reduced integration can be
used for quadrilaterals and hexahedral elements; in this procedure, the number of integration points is
sufficient to exactly integrate the contributions of the strain field that are one order less then the order of
the interpolation. The (incomplete) higher-order contributions to the strain field present in these elements
will not be integrated.
 Nonlinear Analysis 413
Elements (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Hourglassing
The advantage of the reduced integration elements is that the strains and stresses are calculated at the
location that provide optimal accuracy, the so-called Barlow points. The reduced integration elements
also tend to underestimate the stiffness of the element which often gives better results in a typically
overly-stiff finite element analysis displacement method. An additional advantage is that the reduced
number of integration points decreases CPU time and storage requirements. The disadvantage is that the
reduced integration procedure may admit deformation modes that cause no straining at the integration
points. These zero-energy modes cause a phenomenon called “hourglassing,” where the zero energy
mode starts propagating through the mesh, leading to inaccurate solutions. This problem is particularly
severe in first-order quadrilaterals and hexahedrals. To prevent these excessive deformations, an
additional artificial stiffness is added to these elements. In this so-called hourglass control procedure, a
small artificial stiffness is associated with the zero-energy modes. This procedure is used in many of the
alternate solid and shell elements in SimXpert Structures Workspace. All primary elements translated
from the standard MD Nastran finite elements are fully integrated. Reduced integration elements may be
selected using PARAM,MRALIAS. For more information, see MRALIAS in MD Nastran Quick
Reference Guide.
.

Figure 9-10 Hourglassing

Incompressible Elements
Sometimes fully integrated solid elements are unsuitable for the analysis of (approximately)
incompressible material behavior. The reason for this is that the material behavior forces the material to
deform (approximately) without volume changes. Fully integrated solid element meshes, and in
particular lower-order element meshes, do not allow such deformations (other than purely homogeneous
deformation). For fully incompressible behavior, another complication occurs: the bulk modulus and
hence the stiffness matrix becomes infinitely large. For this case, a mixed (Herrmann) formulation is
required, where the displacement field is augmented with a hydrostatic pressure field. In this formulation,
only the inverse of the bulk modulus appears, and consequently the contribution of the operator matrix
vanishes. In this formulation, the hydrostatic pressure field play the role of a Lagrange multiplier
enforcing the incompressibility constraints.
414
Elements (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Global Element Controls

Assumed Strain
Conventional isoparametric four-node plane stress and plane strain, and eight-node brick elements
behave poorly in bending. The reason is that these elements do not capture a linear variation in shear
strain which is present in bending when a single element is used in the bending direction. As a default in
SimXpert Structures Workspace, the element interpolation functions have been modified such that shear
strain variation can be better represented. For elastic isotropic bending problems, this allows the exact
displacements to be obtained with only a single element through the thickness. Use PARAM,
MARCASUM, 1 to activated this option.

Constant Dilatation
When performing nearly incompressible analysis with displacement based elements, the conventional
isoparametric interpolation methods result in poor behavior for lower order elements. To address this
case, an integration scheme option is included (default) which makes the dilatational strain constant
throughout the element. Constant dilatational element formulation is preferred in approximately
incompressible, inelastic analysis, such as large strain plasticity, because conventional elements can
produce volumetric locking due to over constraints for nearly incompressible behavior. This option is
also the formulation of choice for elastic-plastic analysis and creep analysis because of the potentially
nearly incompressible behavior. Use PARAM, MARCDILT, 1 to activate this option.

Setting Global Element Parameters in MSC SimXpert (SOL

400)
Several parameters are used to specify element characteristics. Assumed strain, constant dilatation, plane
stress, and reduced integration options, are turned ON and OFF for the entire model.
 Nonlinear Analysis 415
Elements (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

1. In the Model Browser tree, under Simulations / Job: Name, double-click on Solver Control, then
select Analysis Options from the tree in the Parameter Set Editor.

Select Large Displacement option, Strain Formulation, or Creep Analysis Type.

2. Select Model Parameters from the tree in the Parameter Set Editor.
416
Elements (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Use the drop-down menus to select Drilling DOF or Off-Plane Shear Computation Method.

Setting Global Element Parameters in MSC SimXpert (SOL

600)
Assumed strain, constant dilatation, plane stress, and reduced integration options, are turned ON and OFF
for the entire model.
 Nonlinear Analysis 417
Elements (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

1. In the Model Browser tree, under Simulations / Job:Name, double-click on Solver Control, then
select Solution 600 Analysis Options from the tree in the Paramter Set Editor.

Use the check boxes to select or un-select Assumed Strain, Constant Dilatation, Plane Stress, or Reduced
Integration.
2. Select Nonlinear Geometric Effects Parameters from the tree in the Paramter Set Editor.
418
Elements (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Select Nonlinear Geometric Effects option or Follower Loads options.

 Nonlinear Analysis 419
Temperature Specification (SOL 400)

Temperature Specification (SOL 400)

Overview
Temperature specification can be done for several reasons.
• Specifying temperature boundary conditions for heat transfer analysis. They can be either
constant or time dependent.
• Specifying initial conditions. The term initial refers to two things.
• For steady-state heat transfer analysis, the temperature for conduction material properties.
• For steady-state heat transfer analysis, the starting temperature for the iteration process.
• Specified temperature set is used to determine equivalent static loads from external loads,
thermal loads, and element deformations.
• Both the thermal loading and temperature dependent material properties are to use the same
temperature set.
• Specifying the temperature set for the temperature dependent material properties.

Uses of Temperature LBC for Heat Transfer GUI

More detailed information about what temperature sets the Temperature LBC GUI can be used to create
for heat transfer analysis is given below.

Temperature Boundary Condition

This is for creating a temperature boundary condition. The information that must be provided is
• Application region -- list of nodes for which the temperature is to be specified.
• Temperature -- a constant value of temperature, or a spatially (x,y,z) varying temperature field
(function).
• Temperature versus time scaling function -- the selected time dependent function (table, e.g.
TABLED1) is multiplied by the constant temperature value.

Uses of 0D, 1D, 2D Initial Temperature for Heat Transfer or

Structural Analysis
To specify the initial (starting) temperature for steady-state heat transfer analysis, or the initial
temperature for analysis of stress-strain problems, this is applicable.

Initial Conditions
If it desired to specify the temperature set for conduction material properties and the starting temperature
for the iteration process, for steady-state heat transfer analysis, the following input is required:
420
Temperature Specification (SOL 400)

• Application region -- list of nodes for which the temperature is to be specified.

• Temperature -- a constant value of temperature, or a spatially (x,y,z) varying temperature field
(function).

Uses of 0D, 1D, 2D Thermally Induced Loading or Material

Temperature Dependency
Thermal Loading
Set for thermal loading
• Application region -- list of elements for which the temperature is to be specified.
• Temperature -- a constant value of temperature, or a spatially (x,y,z) varying temperature field
(function).
• Temperature at end A on the neutral axis -- specify the temperature at location A on one end of
the neutral axis.
• Temperature at end B on the neutral axis -- specify the temperature at location B on the other end
of the neutral axis.

Temperature Dependent Material Properties

Specify the temperature set for temperature dependent material properties.
• Application region -- list of elements for which the temperature is to be specified.
• Temperature -- a constant value of temperature, or a spatially (x,y,z) varying temperature field
(function).
 Nonlinear Analysis 421
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Overview
The simulation of many physical problems requires the ability to model the contact phenomena. This
includes analysis of interference fits, rubber seals, tires, crash, and manufacturing processes among
others. The analysis of contact behavior is complex because of the requirement to accurately track the
motion of multiple geometric bodies, and the motion due to the interaction of these bodies after contact
occurs. This includes representing the friction between surfaces and heat transfer between the bodies if
required. The numerical objective is to detect the motion of the bodies, apply a constraint to avoid
penetration, and apply appropriate boundary conditions to simulate the frictional behavior and heat
transfer. Several procedures have been developed to treat these problems including the use of Perturbed
or Augmented Lagrangian methods, penalty methods, and direct constraints. Furthermore, contact
simulation has often required the use of special contact or gap elements. SimXpert Structures Workspace
allows contact analysis to be performed automatically without the use of special contact elements. A
robust numerical procedure to simulate these complex physical problems has been implemented in
SimXpert Structures Workspace.
Contact problems can be classified as one of the following types of contact.
• Deformable-Deformable contact between two- and three-dimensional deformable bodies.
• Rigid - Deformable contact between a deformable body and a rigid body, for two- or
three-dimensional cases.
• Glued contact in two and three dimensions. This is a general capability for tying (bonding) two
deformable bodies, or a deformable body and a rigid body, to each other.
Contact problems involve a variety of different geometric and kinematic situations. Some contact
problems involve small relative sliding between the contacting surfaces, while others involve large
sliding. Some contact problems involve contact over large areas, while others involve contact between
discrete points. The general Contact Body approach adopted by SimXpert Structures Workspace to
model contact can be used to handle most contact problem definitions.
The contact body approach provides two formulations for modeling the interaction between surfaces of
structures. One formulation is a small-sliding formulation, in which the surfaces can only undergo small
sliding relative to each other, but may undergo arbitrary rotation. An example of this type of application
is the classical Hertz contact problem. The second formulation is a large-sliding formulation, where
separation and sliding of large amplitude, and arbitrary rotation of the surfaces, may arise. An example
is the modeling of a rubber tire rolling on the ground. Currently, the contact pair approach does not
support large-sliding contact between two three-dimensional deformable surfaces.
A special case of the small-sliding formulation is glued contact, in which the surfaces are unable to
penetrate each other, separate from each other, or slide relative to each other. This feature is useful for
mesh refinement purposes.
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Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Contact Methodology
This section describes how contact is implemented in SimXpert Structures Workspace.

Contact Bodies
There are two types of contact bodies in SimXpert Structures Workspace – deformable and rigid.
Deformable bodies are simply a collection of finite elements as shown below.

Figure 9-11 Deformable Body

This body has three key aspects to it:

1. The elements which make up the body.
2. The nodes on the external surfaces which might contact another body or itself. These nodes are
treated as potential contact nodes.
3. The edges (2-D) or faces (3-D) which describe the outer surface which a node on another body
(or the same body) might contact. These edges/faces are treated as potential contact segments.
Note that a body can be multiply connected (have holes in itself). It is also possible for a body to be
composed of both triangular elements and quadrilateral elements in 2-D or tetrahedral elements and brick
elements in 3-D. Beam elements and shells are also available for contact.
Each node and element should be in, at most, one body. The elements in a body are defined using the
BCBODY option. It is not necessary to identify the nodes on the exterior surfaces as this is done
automatically. The algorithm used is based on the fact that nodes on the boundary are on element edges
or faces that belong to only one element. Each node on the exterior surface is treated as a potential contact
node. In many problems, it is known that certain nodes never come into contact; in such cases, the
BCHANGE option can be used to identify the relevant nodes. As all nodes on free surfaces are
considered contact nodes, if there is an error in the mesh generation such that internal holes or slits exist,
undesirable results can occur.
The potential segments composed of edges or faces are treated in potentially two ways. The default is
that they are considered as piece-wise linear (PWL). As an alternative, a cubic spline (2-D) or a Coons
surface (3-D) can be placed through them. The BCBODY option is used to activate this procedure. This
improves the accuracy of the calculation of the normal.
 Nonlinear Analysis 423
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Rigid bodies are composed of curves (2-D) or surfaces (3-D) or meshes with only thermal elements in
coupled problems. The most significant aspect of rigid bodies is that they do not distort. Deformable
bodies can contact rigid bodies, but contact between rigid bodies is not considered.
They can be created either in CAD systems and imported into SimXpert Structures Workspace, or created
directly in SimXpert Structures Workspace. There are several different types of curves and surfaces that
can be entered including:

2-D 3-D
line 4-node patch
circular arc ruled surface
spline surface of revolution
NURB Bezier
poly-surface
cylinder
sphere
NURB
trimmed NURB

Within SimXpert, all contact curves or surfaces are mathematically treated as NURB surfaces. This
allows the greatest level of generality. Within the analysis, these rigid surfaces can be treated in two ways
– discrete piecewise linear lines (2-D) or patches (3-D), or as analytical NURB surfaces. When the
discrete approach is used, all geometric primitives are subdivided into straight segments or flat patches.
You have control over the density of these subdivisions to approximate a curved surface within a desired
degree of accuracy. This subdivision is also relevant when determining the corner conditions (see Corner
Conditions, 434). The treatment of the rigid bodies as NURB surfaces is advantageous because it leads
to greater accuracy in the representation of the geometry and a more accurate calculation of the surface
normal. Additionally, the variation of the surface normal is continuous over the body which leads to a
better calculation of the friction behavior and a better convergence.
To create a rigid body, you can either read in the curve and surface geometry created from a CAD system,
or create it directly into the SimXpert Structures Workspace. You then use the BCBODY option to select
which geometric entities are to be a part of the rigid body. An important consideration for a rigid body is
424
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

the definition of the interior side and the exterior side. For two-dimensional analysis, the interior side is
formed by the right-hand rule when moving along the body.

2
1
3 2
3
1
Interior
Side
4

Interior Side
Figure 9-12 Orientation of Rigid Body Segments

For three-dimensional analysis, the interior side is formed by the right-hand rule along a surface. The
interior side is visualized in MSC SimXpert as the side rendered in color when geometry face shading is
turned on, the exterior side is visualized in SimXpert as the side rendered in grey.
It is not necessary for rigid bodies to define the complete body. Only the bounding surface needs to be
specified. You should take care, however, that the deforming body cannot slide out of the boundary curve
in 2D (Figure 9-13). This means that it must always be possible to decompose the displacement increment
into a component normal and a component tangential to the rigid surface.

Incorrect Correct
Figure 9-13 Deformable Surface Sliding Out of Rigid Surface

Numbering of Contact Bodies

When defining contact bodies for a deformable-to-deformable analysis, it is important to define them in
the proper order. As a general rule, a body with a finer mesh should be defined before a body with a
coarser mesh.
If one has defined a body numbering which violates the general rule, then a BCTABLE definition option
can be used to modify the order in which contact will be established. This order can be directly user-
defined or decided by the program. In the latter case, the order is based on the rule that if two deformable
 Nonlinear Analysis 425
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

bodies might come into contact, searching is done for nodes of the body having the smallest element edge
length. It should be noted that this implies single-sided contact for this body combination, as opposed to
the default double-sided contact.

Contact Detection
During the incremental procedure, each potential contact node is first checked to see whether it is near a
contact segment. The contact segments are either edges of other 2-D deformable bodies, faces of 3-D
deformable bodies, or segments from rigid bodies. By default, each node could contact any other segment
including segments on the body that it belongs to. This allows a body to contact itself. To simplify the
computation, it is possible to use the BCTABLE entry to indicate that a particular body will or will not
contact another body. This is often used to indicate that a body will not contact itself. During the iteration
process, the motion of the node is checked to see whether it has penetrated a surface by determining
whether it has crossed a segment.
Because there can be a large number of nodes and segments, efficient algorithms have been developed
to expedite this process. A bounding box algorithm is used so that it is quickly determined whether a node
is near a segment. If the node falls within the bounding box, more sophisticated techniques are used to
determine the exact status of the node.
During the contact process, it is unlikely that a node exactly contacts the surface. For this reason, a
contact tolerance is associated with each surface.

rance
2 x Tole

Figure 9-14 Contact Tolerance

If a node is within the contact tolerance, it is considered to be in contact with the segment. The contact
tolerance is calculated by the program as the smaller of 5% of the smallest element side or 25% of the
smallest (beam or shell) element thickness. It is also possible for you to define the contact tolerance
through the input.

(t) ( trial ) ( trial )

During an increment, if node A moves from A to A ( t + Δt ) , where A ( t + Δt ) is
beyond the contact tolerance, the node is considered to have penetrated. In such a case, either the
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Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

increment is divided into subincrements as discussed in MSC.Marc Volume A: Theory and User
Information under the Mathematical Aspects of Contact” section or the increment is reduced in size.

A(t)

Atrial (t + Δt)
Figure 9-15 Trial Displacement with Penetration

The size of the contact tolerance has a significant impact on the computational costs and the accuracy of
the solution. If the contact tolerance is too small, detection of contact is difficult, leading to higher costs.
Also many nodes are more likely to be considered penetrating leading to increase in increment splitting,
therefore, increasing the computational costs. If the contact tolerance is too large, nodes are considered
in contact prematurely, resulting in a loss of accuracy. Furthermore, nodes might “penetrate” the surface
by a large amount.
An effective compromise is to bias the tolerance area so that a smaller distance is on the outside surface
than on the inside surface. This is done by entering a bias factor. The bias factor should have a value
between 0.0 and 1.0. The default in SimXpert Structures Workspace is 0.9. This results in good accuracy
and reasonable computational costs. In analyses involving frictional contact, a bias (recommended value:
0.95 - 0.99) to the contact core is also found beneficial to facilitate convergence.
In some instances, you might wish to influence the decision regarding the deformable segment a node
contacts (or does not contact). This can be done using the EXCLUDE variable on the BCBODY bulk
data entry.

(1 - Bias)* tolerance

(1 + Bias)* tolerance

Figure 9-16 Biased Contact Tolerance

 Nonlinear Analysis 427
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Shell Contact
A node on a shell makes contact when the position of the node plus or minus half the thickness projected
with the normal comes into contact with another segment. In 2-D, this can be shown as:

x1 = A + n t ⁄ 2
x2 = A – n t ⁄ 2

Shell
Midsurface

2
x A t
rance
2x tole
x
Figure 9-17 Default Shell Contact

If point x or y falls within the contact tolerance distance of segment S, node A is considered in contact
with the segment S. Here x 1 and x 2 are the position vectors of a point on the surfaces 1 and 2 on the
shell, A is the position vector of a point (node in a discretized model) on the midsurface of the shell, n
is the normal to the midsurface, and t is the shell thickness.
As the shell has finite thickness, the node (depending on the direction of motion) can physically contact
either the top surface, bottom surface, or mathematically contact can be based upon the midsurface. You
can control whether detection occurs with either both surfaces, the top surface, the bottom surface, or the
middle surface. In such cases, either two or one segment will be created at the appropriate physical
location. Note that these segments will be dependent, not only on the motion of the shell, but also the
current shell thickness.
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Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

S 1, S 2 are segments associated with shell consisting of node 1 and 2.

S1
n n S1
2
S2
2
1
1

Include Both Segments Top Segment Only

2
n
S1
S2 2
1

Bottom Segments Only Ignore Shell Thickness

Figure 9-18 Selective Shell Contact

Neighbor Relations
When a node is in contact with a rigid surface, it tends to slide from one segment to another. In 2-D, the
segments are always continuous and so are the segment numbers. Hence, a node in contact with segment
n slides to segment n – 1 or to segment n + 1 . This simplifies the implementation of contact.

n-1
n
n+1

Figure 9-19 Neighbor Relationship (2-D)

 Nonlinear Analysis 429
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

In 3-D, the segments are often discontinuous. This can be due to the subdivision of matching surfaces or,
more likely, the CAD definition of the under lying surface geometry.

Nonmatching
Segments

Continuous Surface Segments Discontinuous Surface Geometry

Figure 9-20 Neighbor Relationship (3-D)
Continuous surface geometry is highly advantageous as a node can slide from one segment to the next
with no interference (assuming the corner conditions are satisfied). Discontinuous surface geometry
results in additional operations when a node slides off a patch and cannot find an adjacent segment.
Hence, it is advantageous to use geometry clean-up tools to eliminate small sliver surfaces and make the
surfaces both physically continuous and topologically contiguous.

Dynamic Impact
The Newmark-beta and the Single Step Houbolt procedure have the capability to allow variable time
steps and, when using the user-defined fixed time step procedure, the time step is split by the algorithm
to satisfy the contact conditions.
For most dynamic impact problems, the Single Step Houbolt method is recommended, as this procedure
possesses high-frequency dissipation. This is often necessary to avoid numerical problems by contact-
induced high-frequency oscillations. If the other dynamic operators are used, it is recommended that
numerical damping be used during the analysis.
In dynamic analysis, the requirement of energy conservation is supplemented with the requirement of
momentum conservation. In addition to the constraints placed upon the displacements, additional
constraints are placed on the velocity and acceleration of the nodal points in contact, except for the Single
Step Houbolt method.
When a node contacts a rigid surface, it is given the velocity and acceleration of the rigid surface in the
normal direction. The rigid surfaces are treated as if they have infinite mass, hence, infinite momentum.
430
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Results Evaluation
The SimXpert Structures Workspace xdb file contains the results for both the deformable bodies and the
rigid bodies. In performing a contact analysis, you can obtain three types of results. The first is the
conventional results from the deformable body. This includes the deformation, strains, stresses, and
measures of inelastic behavior such as plastic and creep strains. In addition to reaction forces at
conventional boundary conditions, you can obtain the contact forces and friction forces imparted on the
body by rigid or other deformable bodies. By examining the location of these forces, you can observe
where contact has occurred, and SimXpert Structures Workspace also allows you to select the contact
status.
It is also possible to obtain the resultant force following from contact on the deformable bodies and the
resultant force and moment on the rigid bodies. The moment is taken about the user-defined centroid of
the rigid body. The time history of these resultant forces are of significant issues in many engineering
analysis. Of course, if there is no resultant force on a rigid body, it implies that body is not in contact with
any deformable body.
Finally, if the additional print is requested using PARAM,MARCPRN,1 or 2, the output file reflects
information showing when a node comes into contact, what rigid body/segment is contacted, when
separation occurs, when a node contacts a sharp corner, the displacement in the local coordinate system,
and the contact force in the local coordinate system. For large problems, this can result in a significant
amount of output.
The motion of the rigid bodies can be displayed in SimXpert as well as the deformable bodies. Rigid
bodies which are modeled using the piecewise linear approach are displayed as line segments for flat
patches. When the rigid surfaces are modeled as analytical surfaces, the visualization appears as
trimmed NURBS.

Tolerance Values
Five tolerances can be set for determination of the contact behavior. Not entering any values here means
that SimXpert Structures Workspace calculates values based on the problem specification.

Relative Sliding Velocity Between Surfaces Below Which Friction Forces Drop
As discussed in Friction Modeling, 439, the equations of friction are smoothed internally in the program
to avoid numerical instabilities. The equations are inequalities whenever two contacting surfaces stick to
each other and equalities whenever the surfaces slide (or slip). Thus, the character of contact constraints
change depending on whether there is sticking or slipping. The smoothing procedure consist of
modifying it in such a way, that there is always slip; the amount is a function of the relative velocity and
a constant RVcnst. The value of this constant must be specified. It actually means, that if we specify a
small value in comparison to the relative velocity, the jump behavior is better approximated, but
numerical instabilities can be expected. A large value means, that we need a large relative velocity before
we get the force at which the slip occurs.
It is suggested to use values between 0.1 and 0.01 times a typical surface velocity.
 Nonlinear Analysis 431
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Distance Below Which a Node is Considered Touching a Surface

In each step, it is checked whether a (new) node is in contact with other surfaces. This is determined by
the distance between the nodes and the surfaces. Since the distance is a calculated number, there are
always roundoff errors involved. Therefore, a contact tolerance is provided such that if the distance
calculated is below this tolerance, a node is considered in contact. A too large value means that a high
number of body nodes are considered to be in contact with the surface and are consequently all moved
to the surface, which can be unrealistic in some applications. A too small value of this number means
that the applied deformation increment is split into a high number of increments, thus increasing the cost
of computation.
The tolerance must be provided buy you, or can be calculated by SimXpert Structures Workspace. In
general, the contact tolerance should be a small number compared to the geometrical features of the
configuration being analyzed. The value calculated by SimXpert Structures Workspace is determined as
1/20 of the smallest element size for solid elements or 1/4 of the thickness of shell elements. If both shell
and continuum elements are present, the default is based upon the smaller of the two values.

Tolerance on Nodal Reaction Force on Nodal Stress Before Separation Occurs

If a tensile force occurs at a node which is in contact with a surface, the node should separate from the
surface. Rather than using any positive value, a threshold value can be specified. This number should
theoretically be zero. However, because a small positive reaction might be due only to errors in
equilibrium, this threshold value avoids unnecessary separations. A too small value of this force results
in alternating separation and contact between the node and the surface. A too large value, of course,
results in unrealistic contact behavior.
SimXpert Structures Workspace calculates this value as the maximum residual force in the structure. The
default for this value, is 10 percent of the maximum reaction force. Consequently, if locally high reaction
forces at a particular point are present, the separation force is large as well. In most cases, however, the
default value is a good measure.
If you indicate that separation is to be based upon stresses, a value of the separation stress is used. The
default value is the maximum residual force at node n divided by the contact area of node n.

Numerical Procedures
Lagrange Multipliers
In performing contact analyses, you are solving a constrained minimization problem where the constraint
is the ‘no penetration’ constraint. The Lagrange multiplier technique is the most elegant procedure to
apply mathematical constraints to a system. Using this procedure, if the constraints are properly written,
overclosure or penetration does not occur. Unfortunately, Lagrange multipliers lead to numerical
difficulties with the computational procedure as their inclusion results in a nonpositive definite
mathematical system. This requires additional operations to insure an accurate, stable solution which
leads to high computational costs. Another problem with this method is that there is no mass associated
with the Lagrange multiplier degree of freedom. This results in a global mass matrix which cannot be
decomposed. This precludes the used of Lagrange multiplier techniques in explicit dynamic calculations
432
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

which are often used in crash simulations. The Lagrange multiplier technique has often been
implemented in contact procedures using special interface elements such as the SimXpert Structures
Workspace gap element. This facilitates the correct numerical procedure, but puts a restriction on the
amount of relative motion that can occur between bodies. The use of interface elements requires an a
priori knowledge of where contact occurs. This is unachievable in many physical problems such as crash
analysis or manufacturing simulation.

Penalty Methods
The penalty method or its extension, the Augmented Lagrangian method, is an alternative procedure to
numerically implement the contact constraints. Effectively, the penalty procedure constrains the motion
by applying a penalty to the amount of penetration that occurs. The penalty approach can be considered
as analogous to a nonlinear spring between the two bodies. Using the penalty approach, some penetration
occurs with the amount being determined by the penalty constant or function. The choice of the penalty
value can also have a detrimental effect on the numerical stability of the global solution procedure. The
penalty method is relatively easy to implement and has been extensively used in explicit dynamic
analysis although it can result in an overly stiff system for deformable-to-deformable contact since the
contact pressure is assumed to be proportional to the pointwise penetration. The pressure distribution is
generally oscillatory.

Hybrid and Mixed Methods

In the hybrid method, the contact element is derived from a complementary energy principle by
introducing the continuity on the contact surface as a constraint and treating the contact forces as
additional elements. Mixed methods, based on perturbed Lagrange formulation, usually consist of
pressure distribution interpolation which is an order less than the displacement field, have also been used
to alleviate the difficulties associated with the pure Lagrange method.

Direct Constraints
Another method for the solution of contact problems is the direct constraint method. In this procedure,
the motion of the bodies is tracked, and when contact occurs, direct constraints are placed on the motion
using boundary conditions – both kinematic constraints (MPC and SPC) on transformed degrees of
freedom and nodal forces. This procedure can be very accurate if the program can predict when contact
occurs. This is the procedure that is implemented in SimXpert Structures Workspace through the
BCBODY option. No special interference elements are required in this procedure and complex changing
contact conditions can be simulated since no a priori knowledge of where contact occurs is necessary.

Mathematical Aspects of Contact

Please refer to MSC.Marc Volume A, Theory and User Information, section 8 for the
complete description.

Automatic Penetration Checking Procedure

To detect contact between bodies whose boundaries are moving towards each other, an automatic
penetration checking procedure is available. This procedure significantly increases accuracy and stability
 Nonlinear Analysis 433
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

for models in which boundary nodes are displacing significantly. Typical examples include metal
forming processes (sheet forming and forging), highly deformable elastomeric models (rubber boots),
and snap-fit problems (inserting a key into a lock).
The automatic penetration checking procedure is automatically activated if the adaptive loading
procedure is selected. If the automatic penetration checking procedure is selected for these two options,
a different procedure, as described below, is used instead.
From a computational perspective, the automatic penetration checking procedure detects penetration
each time displacements are updated.
For implicit analysis, this typically happens after a matrix solution which produces a change in the
displacements due to a change in applied loads and internal forces. The procedure detects nodes
traversing a contact boundary due to the change in displacements. If at least one node penetrates a contact
surface, a scale factor is applied to the change in displacements such that the penetrating nodes are moved
back to the contact surface.
The automatic penetration checking procedure can, therefore, be considered to be a type of a line search.
The procedure also looks at the magnitude of the change in displacement of nodes which already are
contacting and not necessarily penetrating. Using stability considerations, the scale factor calculated
above may be further modified. In addition, for nodes on a contact boundary which are not yet contacting,
a similar procedure is followed to enhance stability.
Because the procedure can reduce the change in displacements, it may require more iterations to
complete an increment. It is important to ensure that the maximum allowable number of iterations to
complete an increment is set to a sufficiently large value. When the adaptive loading procedure is used,
or when the fixed time stepping procedure is used with automatic restarting, the increment automatically
restarts if the maximum allowable number of iterations is exceeded. In the case of the adaptive loading
procedure, the time step is modified.
When dynamics or the arc length control method is used, the above procedure is not available. Instead,
penetration is checked for when convergence is achieved, usually after multiple iterations.

Note: The automatic penetration checking procedure is always used with the default time
stepping procedures in SimXpert Structures Workspace

Contact Tolerance
A node comes into contact with another body when it enters the contact tolerance zone. This area is
dependent upon the value of ERROR and BIAS entered on the BCPARA bulk data entry. When BIAS is
zero (the default is 0.9), the tolerance is equidistant from the actual surface as shown in Figure 9-21(a);
434
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

otherwise, the situation shown in Figure 9-21(b) is used. If a node would have moved past line B, then
an additional iteration is required.

ERROR ERROR*(1-BIAS)

ERROR ERROR*(1+BIAS)
B
(a) Equidistant Default (b) Biased
Figure 9-21 Contact Tolerances

Separation
A node on a body separates from another surface when a tensile load is required to keep it on the surface.
The procedure used is either based upon the nodal force or an effective nodal stress. The default
separation force is the maximum residual force (separation based upon nodal force method) or the
maximum stress at reaction nodes times the convergence tolerance (nodal stress method).

Corner Conditions
When a node slides along a surface composed of multiple segments, three conditions can occur based
on the angle that the segments make. This is true for both two-dimensional and three-dimensional
problems. The Figure 9-22 shows the two-dimensional case for simplicity. If the angle between the two
segments is between 180 - β < α < 180° + β, the node smoothly slides between the segments. If the angle
is such that 0 < α < 180 - β, the node sticks in the sharp concave corner. If the angle is such that α > 180
+ β, the node separates. The value of β is 8.625° for two-dimensional problems and 20° for three-
dimensional problems.

Smooth Sharp Concave

Sharp Convex
Figure 9-22 Corner Conditions
 Nonlinear Analysis 435
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Implementation of Constraints
For contact between a deformable body and a rigid surface, the constraint associated with no penetration
is implemented by transforming the degrees of freedom of the contact node and applying a boundary
condition to the normal displacement. This can be considered solving the problem:

K ââ K âb  u â   f â 
  =  
K bâ K bb  u b   fb 

where â represents the nodes in contact which have a local transformation, and b represents the nodes
not in contact and, hence, not transformed. Of the nodes transformed, the displacement in the normal
direction is then constrained such that δu ân is equal to the incremental normal displacement of the rigid
body at the contact point.

t
P

n
Figure 9-23 Transformed System (2-D)

As a rigid body can be represented as either a piecewise linear or as an analytical (NURB) surface, two
procedures are used. For piecewise linear representations, the normal is constant until node P comes to
the corner of two segments as shown in Figure 9-24. During the iteration process, one of three
circumstances occur. If the angle α is small ( – α smooth < α < α smooth ) , the node P slides to the next
segment. In such a case, the normal is updated based upon the new segment. If the angle α is large
(α > α smooth or α < – αsmooth ) the node separates from the surface if it is a convex corner, or sticks
if it is a concave corner. The value of α smooth is important in controlling the computational costs. A
larger value of α smooth reduces the computational costs, but might lead to inaccuracies. The default
436
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

values are 8.625° for 2-D and 20° for 3-D. These can be reset using the ANG2D or ANG3D fields on the
NLSTRAT entry for each subcase.

P α
α

Convex Corner Concave Corner

Figure 9-24 Corner Conditions (2-D)

In 3-D, these corner conditions are more complex. A node (P) on patch A slides freely until it reaches the
intersection between the segments. If it is concave, the node first tries to slide along the line of
intersection before moving to segment B. This is the natural (lower energy state) of motion.
These corner conditions also exist for deformable-to-deformable contact analysis. Because the bodies are
continuously changing in shape, the corner conditions (sharp convex, smooth or sharp concave) are
continuously being re-evaluated.
When a rigid body is represented as an analytical surface, the normal is recalculated at each iteration
based upon the current position. This leads to a more accurate solution, but can be more costly because
of the NURB evaluation.

Figure 9-25 Corner Conditions (3-D)

When a node of a deformable body contacts a deformable body, a multipoint constraint (MPC) is
automatically imposed. Recalling that the exterior edges (2-D) or faces (3-D) of the other deformable
bodies are known, a constraint expression is formed. For 2-D analysis, the number of retained nodes is
three – two from the edge and the contacting node itself. For 3-D analysis, the number of retained nodes
is five – four from the patch and the contacting node itself. The constraint equation is such that the
contacting node should be able to slide on the contacted segment, subject to the current friction
conditions. This leads to a nonhomogeneous, nonlinear constraint equation. In this way, a contacting
node is forced to be on the contacted segment. This might introduce undesired stress changes, since a
 Nonlinear Analysis 437
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

small gap or overlap between the node and the contacted segment will be closed. During initial detection
of contact (increment 0), the stress-free projection option avoids those stress changes for deformable
contact by adapting the coordinates of the contacting nodes such that they are positioned on the contacted
segment. This stress-free projection can be activated using the BCTABLE entry. A similar option exists
for glued contact; however, in this case, overlap will not be removed.
During the iteration procedure, a node can slide from one segment to another, changing the retained nodes
associated with the constraint. A recalculation of the bandwidth is automatically made. Because the
bandwidth can radically change, the bandwidth optimization is also automatically performed.
A node is considered sliding off a contacted segment if is passes the end of the segment over a distance
more than the contact tolerance. As mentioned earlier, the node separates from the contacted body if this
happens at a convex corner. For deformable contact, this tangential tolerance at convex corners can be
enlarged by using the delayed sliding off option activated via the BCTABLE bulk data entry.

Separation
After a node comes into contact with a surface, it is possible for it to separate in a subsequent iteration or
increment. Mathematically, a node should separate when the reaction force between the node and surface
becomes tensile or positive. Physically, you could consider that a node should separate when the tensile
force or normal stress exceeds the surface tension. Rather than use an exact mathematical definition, you
can enter the force or stress required to cause separation.
Separation can be based upon either the nodal forces or the nodal stresses. The use of the nodal stress
method is recommended as the influence of element size is eliminated.
In many analysis, contact occurs but the contact forces are small; for example, laying a piece of paper on
a desk. Because of the finite element procedure, this could result in numerical chattering. SimXpert
Structures Workspace has some additional contact control parameters that can be used to minimize this
problem. As separation results in additional iterations (which leads to higher costs), the appropriate
choice of parameters can be very beneficial.
When contact occurs, a reaction force associated with the node in contact balances the internal stress of
the elements adjacent to this node. When separation occurs, this reaction force behaves as a residual force
(as the force on a free node should be zero). This requires that the internal stresses in the deformable body
be redistributed. Depending on the magnitude of the force, this might require several iterations.
You should note that in static analysis, if a deformable body is constrained only by other bodies (no
explicit boundary conditions) and the body subsequently separates from all other bodies, it would then
have rigid body motion. For static analysis, this would result in a singular or nonpositive definite system.
This problem can be avoided by appropriate boundary conditions.

Release
A special case of separation is the intentional release of all nodes from a rigid body. This is often used in
manufacturing analysis to simulate the removal of the workpiece from the tools. After the release occurs
in such an analysis, there might be a large redistribution of the loads. It is possible to gradually reduce
the residual force to zero, which improves the stability, and reduces the number of iterations required.
The BCMOVE Bulk Data entry allows the release (separation) of all the nodes in contact with a particular
438
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

surface at the beginning of the increment. The rigid body should be moved away using the BCMOVE
Bulk Data entry or deactivated using the BCTABLE entry to ensure that the nodes do not inadvertently
recontact the surface they were released from.

Higher Order Elements

SimXpert Structures Workspace allows contact with almost all of the available elements, but the use of
certain elements has a consequence on the analysis procedure. Contact analysis can be performed with
all of the structural continuum elements, either lower order or higher order, including those of the
Herrmann (incompressible) formulation, except axisymmetric elements with twist. Friction modeling is
available in all of these elements except the semi-infinite elements. Traditionally, higher order
isoparametric shape functions have interpolation functions which lead to the equivalent nodal forces that
oscillate between the corner and midside nodes. As this has a detrimental effect on both contact detection
and determining contact separation, two procedures have been implemented to eliminate this problem.
1. On the exterior surfaces, the midside nodes are constrained (tied) to the corner nodes
automatically. This effectively results in a linear variation of the displacement along this edge.
Hence, the element does not behave as a full bi-quadratic (2-D) or tri-quadratic element (3-D). All
elements in the interior of the body behave in the conventional higher-order manner. In many
manufacturing and rubber analyses, the lower-order elements behave better than the higher-order
elements because of their ability to represent the large distortion; hence, these lower-order
elements are recommended.
2. (Default for parabolic elements, LINQUAD=1). This is a new method that has the added
advantage of giving an accurate interface pressure distribution.
The constraints imposed on the nodal degrees of freedom are dependent upon the type of element.
1. When a node of a continuum element comes into contact, the translational degrees of freedom
are constrained.
2. When a node of a shell element comes into contact, the translational degrees of freedom are
constrained and no constraint is places on the rotational degrees of freedom. The exception to this
is when a shell contacts a symmetry surface. In this case, the rotation about the element edge is
also constrained.

3-D Beam and Shell Contact

Additionally, beams and shells contact is governed by the rules outlined below.

2-D Beams
All nodes on beams are potential contact nodes. Beam elements can be used in contact in two modes.
1. The two-dimensional beams can come into contact with rigid bodies composed of curves in the
same x-y plane. The normal is based upon the normal of the rigid surface.
 Nonlinear Analysis 439
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

2. The two-dimensional beams can come into contact with deformable bodies either of continuum
elements or other beam elements. As the beams are in two dimensions, they do not intersect
one another.

3-D Beams
Three-dimensional beam elements can be used in contact in three modes.
1. The nodes of the beams can come into contact with rigid bodies composed of surfaces. The normal
is based upon the normal of the rigid surface.
2. Nodes of the three-dimensional beams can also come into contact with the faces of
three-dimensional continuum elements or shell elements.
3. The three-dimensional elastic beams can also contact other elastic beams. In this case, we can
consider beams crossing one another. In such cases, the beams are automatically subdivided
such that four beams are created. As the beams slide upon each other, they are adaptively changed
in length.

Contact Occurs New Beams Created Adaptive Meshing of Sliding Beams

Figure 9-26 Beam-to-Beam Contact

Shell Elements
All nodes on shell elements are potential contact nodes. As the midside nodes of shell elements are
automatically tied, the high-order shell elements have no benefit. Shell elements can contact either rigid
bodies, continuum elements, or other shell elements. Shell-shell contact involves a more complex
analysis because it is necessary to determining which side of the shell contact occurs.

Friction Modeling
The regularized form of the Coulomb friction model can be written as:

2μf n vr
f t = ----------- arctan  -----------------------
π RVCNST
440
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

is a nonlinear relation between the relative sliding velocity and the friction force. Implementation in
SimXpert Structures Workspace has been done using a nonlinear spring model. Noting that the behavior
of a nonlinear spring, as shown in Figure 9-27, is given by the equation:

K –K u1 = F1
–K K u2 F2

u, F u, F

1 2
Figure 9-27 Spring Model

in which K is the spring stiffness and u1 , u 2 , F 1 , and F 2 are displacements and forces of points 1
and 2, the equivalent in terms of velocities is readily seen to read

K – K v 1 = F 1t
–K K v2 F 2t

Since K is a nonlinear function of the relative velocity, the above equation is solved incrementally,
where within each increment a number of iterations may be necessary. For a typical iteration i , the
equation to be solved looks like

i i
K –K
i i δv 1 ΔF 1t
i
= i
(9-49)
–K K
i i δv 2 ΔF 2t

i i i i
where δv 1 and δv 2 are used to update v 1 and v 2 by
i i–1 i
v1 = v1 + δv 1 (9-50)
i i–1 i
v2 = v2 + δv 2
i–1 i–1
Notice that v 1 and v 2 correspond to the beginning of the iteration. For deformable-rigid contact,
it is easy to see that

i
δv 2 = 0 , (9-51)
 Nonlinear Analysis 441
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

since the motion of a rigid body (to which node 2 belongs) is exactly prescribed by you. In a static
analysis, SimXpert Structures Workspace provides no direct information about velocities, so they have to
be calculated from the displacement and time increments. Denoting a time increment by Δt , we can
write

i
i δu 1
δv 1 = --------- , (9-52)
Δt
i i–1
in which δu 1 represents the correction of the incremental displacement Δu 1 for iteration i like (see
also Equation (9-50)).

i i–1 i
Δu 1 = Δu 1 + δu 1 (9-53)

Substituting Equation (9-51) and Equation (9-54) into Equation (9-49) yields

1- i i i
---- K δu 1 = ΔF 1 (9-54)
Δt
For the first iteration of an increment, an improvement of Equation (9-54) can be achieved by taking into
p
account the velocity v 1 at the end of the previous increment. Then Equation (9-51) can be rewritten as

1
1 Δu p
δv 1 = --------1- – v 1 , (9-55)
Δt
so that Equation (9-54) can be modified like

1- 1 1 1 p p
---- K δu1 = ΔF 1 – K [ v r – v 2 ] (9-56)
Δt
For the subsequent iterations,

1- i i i
---- K δu 1 = ΔF 1 (9-57)
Δt
i
In Equation (9-57), v r denotes the relative velocity between the points 1 and 2 at the end of the previous
increment. It must be noted that the additional term in Equation (9-57) is especially important if the
velocity of the rigid body differs much from the relative velocity. This is usually the case in rolling
processes, when the roll has been modeled as a rigid body. For this reason, this improved friction model
is called friction for rolling.
Friction is a complex physical phenomena that involves the characteristics of the surface such as
surface roughness, temperature, normal stress, and relative velocity. The actual physics of friction
442
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

continues to be a topic of research. Hence, the numerical modeling of the friction has been simplified to
two idealistic models.
The most popular friction model is the Adhesive Friction or Coulomb Friction model. This model is used
for most applications with the exception of bulk forming such as forging. The Coulomb model is:

σ fr ≤ – μ σ n ⋅ t
where:

σn is the normal stress

σ fr is the tangential (friction) stress
μ is the friction coefficient
t is the tangential vector in the direction of the relative velocity

vr
t = -------
vr
where: v r is the relative sliding velocity.
The Coulomb model is also often written with respect to forces

f t ≤ – μf n ⋅ t
where:

ft is the tangential force

fn is the normal reaction

Quite often in contact problems, neutral lines develop. This means that along a contact surface, the
material flows in one direction in part of the surface and in the opposite direction in another part of the
surface. Such neutral lines are, in general, not known a priori.
 Nonlinear Analysis 443
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

For a given normal stress, the friction stress has a step function behavior based upon the value of v r
or Δu .

ft or σfr

Stick
vr

Slip
Figure 9-28 Coulomb Friction Model

This discontinuity in the value of σ fr can result in numerical difficulties so a modified Coulomb friction
model is implemented:

vr
σ fr ≤ – μ σ n --- arctan  ----------------------- ⋅ t
2
π  RVCNST
Physically, the value of RVCNST is the value of the relative velocity when sliding occurs. The value of
RVCNST is important in determining how closely the mathematic model represents the step function. A
very large value of RVCNST results in a reduced value of the effective friction. A very small value results
in poor convergence. It is recommended that the value of RVCNST be 1% or 10% of a typical relative
sliding velocity, v r . Because of this smoothing procedure, a node in contact always has some slipping.

Besides the numerical reasons, this ‘ever slipping node’ model has a physical basis. Oden and Pires
pointed out that for metals, there is an elasto-plastic deformation of asperities at the microscopic level
(termed as ‘cold weld’) which leads to a nonlocal and nonlinear frictional contact behavior. The arctan
representation of the friction model is a mathematical idealization of this nonlinear friction behavior.
When the Coulomb model is used with the stress based model, the integration point stresses are first
extrapolated to the nodal points and then transformed so a direct component is normal to the contacted
surface. The tangential stress is then evaluated and a consistent nodal force is calculated.

For shell elements, since σ n ≡ 0 a nodal force based Coulomb model is used:
444
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

vr
f t = – μf n ⋅ --- arctan  ----------------------
- ⋅ t
2
π  RVCNST

ft

C = 0.01 1

C = 0.1
C=1

C = 10

C = 100

-10 ϖr
10

-1

Figure 9-29 Stick-slip Approximation ( f n = 1, C = RVCNST )

This nodal forced based model should not be used if a nonlinear friction coefficient is to be used, as this
nonlinearity is, in general, dependent upon the stress, not the force. This model can also be used for
continuum elements.
The Coulomb friction model can also be utilized as a true stick-slip model. In this procedure, a node
completely sticks to a surface until the tangential force reaches the critical value μf n . Also, to model the
differences in static versus dynamic friction coefficients, an overshoot parameter, α , can be used.
 Nonlinear Analysis 445
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

The stick-slip model is always based upon the nodal forces. When using the stick-slip procedure, the
program flow is:

Initial Contact

No Yes
Δu t ≈ 0

Assume Slipping Assume Sticking

Mode Mode

Determine Solution
of Next Iteration

Remain in Slipping Mode if: Remain in Sticking Mode if:

f t • Δu t < 0 and Δu t > β f t ≤ αμf n

Change to Sticking Mode if:

Change to Slipping Mode if:
f t • Δu t > 0 and Δu t > β
f t > αμf n
or if Δu t ≈ εβ

Note that this procedure requires additional computations to determine if the stick-slip condition has
converged. It requires that

ft
1 – e ≤ ---p- ≤ 1 + e
ft
p
where f t is the tangential force in the previous iteration.

This additional testing on the convergence of the friction forces is not required when the
smooth/continuous model is used.
446
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

The friction model can be represented as shown in Figure 9-30.

ft
αμfn

μfn 2β

2εβ

Δυt

α = 1.05 (default; can be user-defined)

β = 1 x 10-6 (default; can be user-defined)
ε = 1 x 10-6 (fixed; so that εβ ≈ 0)
e = 5 x 10-2 (default; can be user-defined)

Figure 9-30 Stick-Slip Friction Parameters

Coulomb friction is a highly nonlinear phenomena dependent upon both the normal force and relative
velocity. Because the Coulomb friction model is an implicit function of the velocity or displacement
increment, the numerical implementation of friction has two components: a force contribution and a
contribution to the stiffness matrix. The stiffness is calculated based upon:

∂f t
K ij = --------i
∂v rj
This later contribution leads to a nonsymmetric system. Because of the additional computational costs –
both in terms of memory and CPU costs, the contribution to the stiffness matrix is symmetrized. For the
calculation of the instabilities associated with brake squeal, the nonsymmetric friction contribution to the
stiffness is made.
When the stress based friction model is used, the following steps are taken.
1. Extrapolate the physical stress, equivalent stress, and temperature from the integration points to
the nodes using the conventional element shape functions.
2. Calculate the normal stress.
3. Calculate the relative sliding velocity. At the beginning of an increment, the previously calculated
relative sliding velocity is used as the starting point. When a node first comes into contact, it is
assumed that it is first sticking, so the relative sliding velocity is zero.
 Nonlinear Analysis 447
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

4. Numerically integrate the friction forces and the stiffness contribution.

For the case of deformable-deformable contact, loads equal in magnitude and opposite in direction are
applied to the body that is contacted. Each of these loads is extrapolated to the closest boundary nodes.
With this procedure, it is guaranteed that all friction forces applied are in self equilibrium.
The Coulomb friction model often does not correlate well with experimental observations when the
normal force/stress becomes large. If the normal stress becomes large, the Coulomb model might predict
that the frictional shear stresses increase to a level that can exceed the flow stress or the failure stress of
the material. As this is not physically possible, the choices are either to have a nonlinear coefficient of
friction or to use the cohesive, shear based friction model.

σfr Linear Coulomb Model

Observed Behavior

σn

Figure 9-31 Linear Coulomb Model Versus Observed Behavior

The shear based model states that the frictional stress is a fraction of the equivalent stress in the material:

σ
σ fr ≤ –m ------- t
3
Again, this model is implemented using an arctangent function to smooth out the step function:
σ 2 vr
σ fr ≤ – m ------- ⋅ --- arctan  ----------------------- ⋅ t
3 π RVCNST
This model is available for all elements using the distributed load approach.
When a node contacts a rigid body, the coefficient of friction associated with the rigid body is used. When
a node contacts a deformable body, the average of the coefficients for the two bodies are used. Various
BCTABLE options can be used if complex situations occur.
Recalling that friction is a complex physical phenomena, due to variations in surface conditions, lubricant
distribution, and lubricant behavior, relative sliding, temperature, geometry, and so on.
The above two friction models may be extend, if necessary, by means of user subroutine UFRIC. In such
a routine, you provide the friction coefficient or the friction factor as
448
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

μ = μ ( x, f n, T, v r, σ y )
or

m = m ( x, f n, T, v r σ y )

x – position of the point at which friction is being calculated

fn – normal force at the point at which friction is being calculated
T – temperature at the point at which friction is being calculated
vr – relative sliding velocity between point at which friction is being calculated
and surface
σ y – flow stress of the material

Glue Model
A special type of friction model is the glue option, which imposes that there is no relative tangential
motion. The glue motion is activated through the BCTABLE bulk data entry.
A novel application of contact is to join two dissimilar meshes. In such a case, by specifying a very large
separation force and that the glue motion is activated, the constraint equations are automatically written
between the two meshes.

Defining Contact Bodies

This section describes surface geometry definition, motion definition, and friction description in
automatic two- and three-dimensional contact applications. The basic philosophy behind these
applications is the existence of one or more bodies that might or might not come into contact with one
another, or even contact with themselves during an analysis. As far as the contact is concerned, it is the
surface associated with the body that plays a role.
There is a limit of 999 bodies in an analysis. Bodies may be combined if the 999 body limit is not
exceeded. Some can be deformable, others can be rigid. Deformable surfaces must always be declared in
the input file before rigid surfaces.

Deformable and Rigid Surfaces

A deformable surface is simply defined by the set of elements that constitute the body to which it is
associated. When a node of another body or the same body (in self contact) comes into contact with a
deformable surface, information regarding the contacted surface is obtained. This is based upon the
coordinates of the nodes on the face of the element or the coordinates and an averaged normal if the
BCBODY option is used. This can improve the accuracy of the solution.
A rigid surface does not deform. There are two modes to describe the geometric profile of a rigid surface.
In the first, labelled the PieceWise Linear approach (PWL), the profile is defined by sets of geometrical
 Nonlinear Analysis 449
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

data which can be comprised of straight lines, circles and splines, ruled surfaces, surfaces of revolution
and patches, etc. These sets have to be given in a proper sequence around the rigid body they define, even
if it is not necessary that the full enclosure be defined.
In the second method, labelled Analytical, the geometric profile is defined by prescribing 2-D NURB
curves, 3-D NURB surfaces, or exact quadratic descriptions. Using this method, the surface is divided
into line segments or patches The contact condition is based on the true surface geometry. This method
is more accurate for curved surfaces, and might reduce the number of iterations, especially if friction
is present.
In coupled thermal-stress contact (starting in version 2006), it is possible to have a surface defined strictly
by thermal elements with a rigid body motion applied to it.

Motion of Surfaces
Deformable surfaces can move either because of contact with other surfaces, or because of directly
applied displacement boundary conditions or loads.
To each surface, we associate a point (center of rotation) that can be anywhere in space. A translative
velocity and a rotational velocity around that point define the instantaneous motion of the surface. These
velocities are integrated forward in time to define the motion of the surfaces. It is also possible to directly
prescribe the location of the rigid body. As an alternative, you can prescribe a force or SPCD which is
consider a special type of force to the rigid body.
The BCBODY model definition option can be used for the input of constant rigid body motions which
do not change with time during the analysis. However, changes in rigid body motion (time dependent
motion) can be simulated either applying the proper motion to the GRID point at the CG of the rigid body
or by the user subroutine MOTION activated through the model definition option UMOTION.

Cautions
In static analysis, it is necessary to artificially connect (for instance, by very low stiffness springs)
deformable bodies that during an analysis might be completely separated from other deformable bodies
and have no kinematic boundary conditions applied. This is to avoid rigid body motion (PARAM,
MRSPRING).
A debug printout parameter (PARAM,MARCPRN) is available in contact analysis, it produces
information on when any node on the boundary comes into contact or separates from any surface. It also
produces information on whether a contact node is fixed to a surface or is free to slide along it. In addition
to the printed contact information, the incremental displacement and the reaction forces for those nodes
in contact with rigid surfaces are printed in a local coordinate system.
There are three implied loops in the portion of the program dealing with contact: the outermost loop is
over the number of surfaces; the next loop is over the number of sets of geometrical data for each surface;
and the innermost loop is over the number of points comprised in each set. In case of deformable surfaces,
the two inner loops reduce to the list of elements.
450
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Control Variables and Option Flags

The variable RVCNST on the bulk data BCPARA entry allows the system to self-adaptively search for
sticking zones. RVCNST should be a relative sliding velocity very small compared to the typical sliding
velocities in the model, but not so small that it would be overcome by changes between iterations. It is
suggested you use values between 10-1 and 10-2 times a typical relative surface velocity. The SimXpert
Structures Workspace default is 1.0.
The variable ERROR on the BCPARA entry determines the tolerance for contact. A too small tolerance
might provoke too many increment splits. A too coarse tolerance produces unrealistic behavior. If left
blank, the code calculates ERROR as the smallest nonzero element dimension divided by 20 or the shell
thickness divided by 4. If there are splines in surface definitions, a value should be entered.
The variable FNTOL (BCPARA entry) is used for the input of a separation force in a contact analysis. If
the contact force of a node, calculated by SimXpert Structures Workspace, is greater than the prescribed
separation force (FNTOL), the node is to be separated from the contact surface.
You can control the type of friction in a contact analysis. Either shear friction, Coulomb friction or a
frictionless condition can be assumed in the analysis. The friction behavior is either continuous or
true-stick slip behavior.
The computation of Coulomb friction in a contact problem can be based on either nodal stresses or
nodal forces.
During each load increment, separations can occur. You can control the maximum number of nodal
separations allowed in each increment to reduce computational costs. During each load increment, if the
contact of a node (or a group of nodes) is detected, iteration occurs in order to accommodate the contact
condition. Depending on the occurrence of further contact, the load increment recursively split until the
total incremental load is reached.

Time Step Control

The automatic contact procedure is controlled by the TSTEPNL bulk data entry for dynamic problems
or the NLPRAM entry (actually load steps) for static analyses. This is used to determine the motion of
rigid surfaces and to control the splitting of increments if penetration occurs. Even in a quasi-static
analysis, a “time step” must be defined by you. Several procedures can be used to enter this data.
Additional control is achieved using the NLAUTO and/or NLSTRAT bulk data entries. It is highly
recommended that at least 100 increments be specified for all contact problems.
• The NLAUTO and NLSTRAT subcase definition options can be used to define several time
steps, each of the same magnitude.
• The NLAUTO and NLSTRAT subcase definition options can also be used to define a time
period which is divided into equal time steps.
• The NLAUTO or NLSTRAT subcase options can also be used to define a total time period which
is divided into variable size time steps.
 Nonlinear Analysis 451
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Dynamic Contact - Impact

The automatic contact procedure can also be used in dynamic analyses to model impact problems. This
can be used with the implicit single step Houbolt or Newmark-beta operator and vibration. The
TSTEPNL, NLAUTO, and NLSTRAT bulk data entries are used to control the choice. High frequency
vibration or impact where wave propagation is important should use SOL 700.

Two-dimensional Rigid Surfaces

In a two-dimensional problem, the rigid surfaces can be represented by any of or a combination of the
following geometric entities: (1) straight line segments, (2) circular arcs, and (3) spline.
Note that the normal vector of the geometric entities (line segments, circular arc, and the spline) always
points into the rigid-body. The normal vector direction is determined from the direction of the geometric
entity, following a right-handed rule. Care must be taken in entering the coordinates (x, y) data, in a
correct direction, for rigid-surfaces.

Line Segments
When the Line Segment option is chosen, the number NPOINT and the coordinates (x, y) of (NPOINT)
points must be entered for the definition of the rigid surface. SimXpert Structures Workspace
automatically creates a rigid surface consisting of (NPOINT -1) linear segments for the contact problem.
A two-dimensional rigid surface consisted of line segments is shown in Figure 9-32.
This entity supports analytic description/procedure.

Start point
1 2 3 Rigid body
4
y
5 End point
x 6 7 8
Figure 9-32 Two-dimensional Rigid Surface (Line Segment, ITYPE = 1)

Circular Arc
When the Circular Arc option is chosen, one circular segment is created by SimXpert Structures
Workspace. There are five different methods available to define a circular arc in two dimensions. Each
method requires four data blocks with the following type of data may be used to describe the arcs:
452
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Starting Point of Arc(SP)

Ending Point of Arc(EP)
Center of Circle(C)
Radius of Circle(R)
Tangent Angles(TA)
Swept Angle(SA)
Number of Subdivisions(NS)
Clearly, not all of this information is required for each method. The table below describes which data is
required. The default number of subdivisions is 10. If the analytical approach is used, the number of
subdivisions does not influence the accuracy, but is only used for visualization purposes.

Method
Data Block 0 1 2 3 4
1 SP SP SP SP SP
2 EP EP EP EP blank
3 C C C TA1, TA2 C
4 R, NS R, NS R, NS R, NS SA, NS
For methods 1 and 3, a positive radius means the center of the circle is on the surface side. A negative
radius means the center of the circle is on the outside.
For method 2, the first coordinate of the center is taken into account, determining whether the center is
above (>0) or below (<0) the segment defined by the end points.
For planar problems, SP, EP and C are X, Y data.
For axisymmetric problems, SP, EP and C are Z, R data.
For methods 0, 1 and 2, if R is zero, it is calculated as distance from the center to the starting point.
This entity supports analytical description/procedure.
A two-dimensional rigid surface represented by a circular arc is shown in Figure 9-33 and Figure 9-34.

End point
η Center
Start point +
1 Radius

Note: For additional circular arc definitions, see body 12-24

 Nonlinear Analysis 453
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Figure 9-33 Two-dimensional Rigid Surface (Circular Arc, ITYPE = 2, METHOD = 0)

EP EP

SP SP
R R

C+ +
C
Method 0 Positive R Method 1 Negative R

EP

TA2
SP SA
R SP

TA1
C+ X
C +
Method 3 Positive R Method 4 Positive R
Figure 9-34 Two-dimensional Rigid Surface (Circular Arc)

Spline
When the Spline option is chosen, SimXpert Structures Workspace creates a spline by passing from the
second point through to the second to last point entered. The first and the last points entered are used to
define the tangents at the beginning and end of the spline. If a nonanalytical approach is used, then the
spline is internally split into linear segments in such a way that the maximum difference between any of
them and the spline is less than the contact tolerance ERROR. This operation is done before the automatic
tolerance calculation; therefore, a value for ERROR must be entered whenever a spline is used.
Figure 9-35 shows a two-dimensional rigid surface defined by a spline.

6
End point 5 Note: The normal vector η is pointed into the
rigid body.
4
3 2 1
Start point
Rigid body

Figure 9-35 Two-dimensional Rigid Surface (Spline, ITYPE = 3)

This entity supports analytical description/procedure if only one spline is used in a particular rigid body.
454
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Three-dimensional Rigid Surfaces

In a three-dimensional problem, the rigid surfaces are represented by any of or a combination of the
following three-dimensional surface entities:

Surface Entity Type Type Identification (ITYPE)

Ruled surface 4
Surface of revolution 5
Bezier surface 6
4-node patch 7
Poly-surface 8
NURB 9
Cylinder 10
Sphere 11

The variable ITYPE defines the type of surface entity to be used for a rigid surface. Since most of the
three-dimensional surfaces can be easily and adequately represented by a finite element mesh of 4-node
plate (patch) elements, the option ITYPE = 7 is a very convenient way of representing three-dimensional
rigid surfaces. Both the connectivities and the coordinates of the 4-node patches can be generated using
SimXpert, or entered through user subroutine DIGEOM.
The three-dimensional surface entities mentioned above, except 4-node patches, can in turn be generated
from three-dimensional geometric entities. Available three-dimensional geometric entities are:

Geometric Entity Type Type Identification (JTYPE)

Straight line segment 1
3-D circular arc 2
Spline 3
Bezier Curve 4
Poly line 5

The variable JTYPE defines the type of geometric entities to be used for the generation of
three-dimensional rigid surfaces.
For the (PWL) approach, note that all geometrical data in 3-D space is reduced to 4-node patches. The
four nodes will probably not be on the same plane. The error in the approximation is determined by the
number of subdivisions of the defined surfaces. Note that the normal to a patch is defined by the right-
hand rule, based on the sequence in which the four points are entered.
 Nonlinear Analysis 455
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Ruled Surface
When the Ruled surface option is chosen, a ruled surface is created by SimXpert Structures Workspace
based on the input of two surface generators, defined by straight line segment (JTYPE = 1), 3D circular
arc (JTYPE = 2), spline (JTYPE = 3) or Bezier curve (JTYPE = 4). If the surface generator is not a 3D
circular arc, the number NPOINT1 (NPOINT2) and the coordinates (x, y, z) of these NPOINT1
(NPOINT2) points must be entered for the definition of the surface generators. In case the surface
generator is a 3D circular arc, a method (METH) must be selected for the definition of the circular arc.
A 3D circular arc is defined by four points. In addition, the number of subdivisions, NDIV1, along the
first (surface generator) and the NDIV2 along the second (from the first surface generator to second
surface generator) direction must also be entered. For a (PWL) approach, SimXpert Structures
Workspace creates (NDIV1) x (NDIV2) 4-node patches automatically to represent the prescribed ruled
surface. For analytical approach, (NDIV1 + 1) x (NDIV2 + 1) points are created and a NURB surface is
general which passes exactly through these points. The accuracy in general is controlled by the number
of points. Figure 9-36 shows a typical ruled surface.

Start point

End point
η 2

2nd Geometric entity

Start point
1
End point
1: first direction 1st Geometric entity
2: second direction
η: normal direction into the rigid body

y
x
NDIV2 = 3

NDIV1 = 4

NDIV1 = number of divisions in the first direction

NDIV2 = number of divisions in the second direction
Figure 9-36 Three-dimensional Rigid Surface (Ruled Surface, ITYPE = 4)
456
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Surface of Revolution
When the Surface of revolution option is chosen, a surface of revolution is created by SimXpert
Structures Workspace based on the input of one surface generator, defined by straight line segment
(JTYPE = 1), 3-D circular arc (JTYPE = 2), spline (JTYPE = 3) or Bezier curve (JTYPE = 4). If the
surface generator is not a 3-D circular arc, the number NPOINT and the coordinates (x, y, z) of these
NPOINT points must be entered for the definition of the surface generator. In case the surface generator
is a 3-D circular arc, a method (METH) must be selected for the definition of the circular arc. A 3-D
circular arc is defined by four points. In addition, the number of subdivisions NDIV1 along the surface
generator and NDIV2 along the second (circumferential) direction must also be entered.
SimXpert Structures Workspace then creates (NDIV1 x NDIV2) four-node patches automatically, to
represent the prescribed surface of revolution. The axis of revolution is defined by the coordinates (x, y,
z) of two points in space, and an angle of rotation from the initial position is also needed for the definition
of the surface of revolution. A positive rotation is about the axis formed from point 1 to point 2.
Figure 9-37 shows a typical surface of revolution.

Axis of revolution defined

by the coordinates of
points 1 and 2

Start point
Surface generation
(initial position) 1
Point 1
2
Angle of
rotation
End point η

Point 2
z
1: First direction
2: Second direction
y η: Normal direction into the rigid body
x

Figure 9-37 Three-dimensional Rigid Surface (Surface of Revolution, ITYPE = 5)

Bezier Surface
When the Bezier Surface option is chosen, a Bezier surface is defined by the coordinates (x, y, z) of
NPOINT1 x NPOINT2 control points. NPOINT1 points are entered along the first direction and then
repeated NPOINT2 times to fill through the second direction of the surface. NPOINT1 and NPOINT2
have to be at least equal to 4. Number of subdivisions (NDIV1, NDIV2) entered has to be equal or greater
 Nonlinear Analysis 457
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

than NPOINT1 and NPOINT2 for Bezier surface. (NPOINT1-1) x (NPOINT2-1) 4-node patches are
created by SimXpert Structures Workspace for the definition of a Bezier surface. Figure 9-38 shows
a typical Bezier surface. If it can be treated as an analytical surface, an exact conversion to NURBS
is performed.

r13
r23

r22 r33

r03 r12 r32

r21
r11
r31
NPOINT2 = 4 r02
NDIV2 = 4

2
r20
r01 r10

η r30
z
1

y r00 NPOINT1 = 4
NDIV1 = 4
x 1: First direction
2: Second direction
η: Normal direction into the rigid body
Figure 9-38 Three-dimensional Rigid Surface (Bezier Surface, ITYPE = 6)

Four-node patches
When the Four-Node Patches option is chosen, you enter directly all the 4-node patches that comprise
this surface. They are entered following the same format SimXpert Structures Workspace would use to
specify connectivities and coordinates of a mesh of CQUAD4 elements. In this way, a finite element
preprocessor can be used to create surfaces. Alternatively, this data can be entered via the user subroutine
458
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

DIGEOM further permitting you to read by yourself from any data you have access to. Figure 9-39 shows
a typical 4-node patch surface. It cannot be used as an analytical surface.

z
Number of patches = 12

12 Number of nodes = 20
y
Nodal coordinates can be entered
x using user subroutine DIGEOM
13
7

12 13

2 Rigid body 7 2
8

12 η
η 13

1 Rigid body
7 8
1: First direction
2: Second direction
η: Normal vector (right-hand rule) into the rigid body

Figure 9-39 Three-dimensional Rigid Surface (4-Node Patch, ITYPE = 7)

Poly-surface
When the Poly-Surface option is chosen, a poly-surface is defined by the coordinates (x, y, z) of
NPOINT1 x NPOINT2 control points. NPOINT1 points are entered along the first direction and then
repeated NPOINT2 times to fill through the second direction of the surface. NPOINT1 and NPOINT2
 Nonlinear Analysis 459
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

have to be at least equal to 4 for a poly-surface and there is no need to divide it. A typical poly-surface is
shown in Figure 9-40.

53
52 54

43 55
51 44
42
45
33 34
41 35
32
NPOINT2 = 5
23 24 25
31 22

2
21
η 13 14 15
z 12
1

y 11 NPOINT1 = 5
x 1: First direction
2: Second direction
η: Normal direction into the rigid body
Figure 9-40 Three-dimensional Rigid Surface (Poly Surface, ITYPE = 8)

In a three-dimensional contact problem, as in a two-dimensional situation, the surface generators can

be represented in a variety of ways. It can be treated as an analytical surface. Approximate conversion
to NURBS.

Nonuniform Rational Bspline Surface, NURBS

When the NURBS option is chosen, NURBS are defined by the coordinates (x, y, z) of
NPOINT1 x NPOINT2 control points, NPOINT1 x NPOINT2 homogeneous coordinates and
(NPOINT1+NORDER1) + (NPOINT2+NORDER2) normalized knot vectors. If only the control points
are entered, the interpolation scheme is used such that the surface passes through all of control points.
The homogeneous coordinates and knot vectors are calculated by SimXpert Structures Workspace.
460
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

NPOINTS and NPOINT2 have to be at least equal to 3 for the interpolation scheme. A typical surface
described by NURBS is shown in Figure 9-41.

+10

+8 +6

+9

+7 +5
+4

+2

+3
Z

Y X

+1

Figure 9-41 Nonuniform Rational Bspline Surface, NURBS (ITYPE = 9)

Cylinder (Cone) Surface

When the Cylinder (Cone) Surface option is chosen, a cylinder or cone is defined by the coordinates (x,
y, z) of the center, C1, with radius, R1, in top face and the coordinate (x, y, z) of center, C2, with radius,
 Nonlinear Analysis 461
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

R2, in bottom face. The normal vector of cylinder is inwards. If a negative value of R1 is entered, the
normal vector is outwards. A typical cylinder is shown in Figure 9-42.

R1

C1

R2
C2

X Y

Figure 9-42 Cylinder (Cone) Surface (ITYPE = 10)

462
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Sphere Surface
When the Spherical Surface option is chosen, a sphere is defined by the coordinates (x, y, z) of the center,
C1, with radius, R1. The normal vector of sphere is inwards. If a negative value of R1 is entered, the
normal vector is outwards. A typical sphere is shown in Figure 9-43.

R1

C1

X Y
Figure 9-43 Sphere Surface (ITYPE = 11)

3-D Circular Arc

When JTYPE = 2 is chosen, a circular arc is created by SimXpert Structures Workspace. There are three
different methods available to define a circular arc in three dimensions. Circular arcs are denoted using
the following type of data:
Starting point of arc(SP)
Ending point of arc(EP)
Enter of circle(C)
Radius of circle(R)
 Nonlinear Analysis 463
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Swept angle(SA)
Swept angle flag(SAF)
Middle point(MP)
Arbitrary point (lying in plane of circle)(AP)

Method
Data Block 0 1 2
1 SP SP SP
2 EP MP AP
3 C EP C
4 R SAF SA

For Method 1, a positive radius means the center of the circle is on the surface side. A negative radius
means the center of the circle is on the outside.
For Method 2, SAF that is positive means an angle less than 180, a negative value an angle greater
than 180.
For Method 3, the starting point, arbitrary point and center define the plane in which the circular arc lies.
SP, EP, C, MP and AP are X, Y, Z data.
For an arc with 180 degrees, either Method 1 or Method 2 is recommended.
464
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

A three-dimensional rigid surface represented by a circular arc is shown in Figure 9-44.

EP

EP

MP

SP
R
SP

+
C

Method 0 Method 1

SA
SP

+
C

AP

Method 2
Figure 9-44 Three-dimensional Rigid Surface (Circular Arc)

Spline
When JTYPE = 3 is chosen, the spline passes by all NPOINT declared, and has zero curvature at the ends
(enter at least 4 points).

Bezier curve
When JTYPE = 4 is chosen, a Bezier curve is defined by NPOINT control points (enter at least 4 points).

Poly-line
When JTYPE = 5 is chosen, a poly-line defined by NPOINT control points.

Selective Contact Surfaces

In both the two- and three-dimensional contact problems, contact is always detected between nodes on
the surface of a deformable body and the geometrical profile of another surface. There are two modes of
the order in which a node checks contact with other bodies. The default version is the double-sided
contact procedure. In the single-sided contact procedure, the nodes on a lower numbered body can come
into contact with equally or higher numbered surfaces. For instance, the boundary nodes of body number
 Nonlinear Analysis 465
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

1 are checked against the surface profiles of bodies 1, 2, 3, .... The boundary nodes of body number 2,
however, are only checked against surface profiles of bodies 2, 3, ... It is possible, therefore, that due to
surface discretization, a node of body 2 slightly penetrates the surface of body 1.
The double-sided contact option checks possible contact between any two surfaces (surface i is checked
for contact with surface j, and surface j is also checked for contact with surface i, where i, j = 1, 2, 3, ...,
total number of surfaces in the problem).
In addition, the BCTABLE entry is provided to you for the selection of contact surfaces. Through this
option, you can choose, for instance, the surface no. 1 to be in contact with surfaces 3, 5, 6, 7, but not
with surfaces 2 and 4. This option can repeatedly be used during an analysis by specifying different
BCTABLE entries for different subcases.
You can further restrict the potential contact by using the BCHANGE bulk data entry.

Specifying Contact Body Entries

Cross-Ref to Material Info in
Entry Description QRG
BCBODY Defines a flexible or rigid contact body in 2-D BCBODY.
or 3-D.
GMNURB Defines a 3-D contact region made up of GMNURB.
NURBS using the MSC.Marc style.
BSURF Defines a contact body or surface defined by BSURF
Element IDs.
BCBOX Defines a 3-D contact region -- all elements BCBOX.
within the region define a contact body.
BCPROP Defines a 3-D contact region by element BCPROP.
properties. All elements with the specified
properties define a contact body.
BCMATL Defines a 3-D contact region by element BCMATL.
material. All elements with the specified
materials define a contact body.
BCHANGE Changes definitions of contact bodies. BCHANGE.

Defining Contact Bodies in SimXpert GUI

The Application Region form for contact is used to select the contact bodies whether they be deformable
or rigid. Deformable contact bodies are always defined as a list of elements, the boundary of which
defines the contact surface. Rigid bodies are translated as ruled surfaces (2D) or straight line segments
(1D) if a mesh or geometry with an associated mesh is selected. Otherwise, if no mesh is associated
with the selected geometry, the contact definition will be written as geometric NURB surfaces
during translation.
To define deformable contact bodies:
466
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

1. On the LBCs tab, for the Contact group, select Deformable Contact Body.
2. Chose the body type Deformable Solid (3D), Deformable Surface (2D), or Deformable Curve
(1D).

3. Enter the Contact Body name, and assign it to a body by clicking in the Pick Entities text box
and selecting the body.
4. Click OK.
 Nonlinear Analysis 467
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

To define rigid contact bodies:

1. On the LBCs tab, for the Contact group, select Rigid Contact Body.
2. Select the body type Rigid Surface (2D) or Rigid Curve (1D).
468
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

3. Enter the Contact Body name, and assign it to a body by clicking in the Pick Entities text box
and selecting the body.
4. Click OK.
Once the contact bodies have been defined, a contact table can be defined to specify the contact type
between the bodies.
 Nonlinear Analysis 469
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

1. On the LBCs tab, for the Contact group, select Contact Table (BCTABLE)
.

Entry Description
Name Enter a unique name or use the name furnished bt the program.
Basic Form Entries
Structural / Thermo Structural The following applies to both types of solvers, unless noted.
470
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Entry Description
Global Contact Detection The method to be used to detect contact for all the BC Table cells.
• Automatic - the contact detection is automatically determined and
is not dependant on the order they are listed but determined by
ordering the bodies starting with those having the smallest edge
length. Then there will be only a check on contact for nodes of the
slave body with respect to the master body and not the other way
around.
• Double Sided - for each contact body pair, nodes of both bodies
will be checked for contact. First, the lower body id is checked
against the higher body id for contact. If contact is found, contact
constraints are created. Second, the higher body id is checked
against the lower body id for contact. If contact is found, additional
contact constraints are created. Results are dependent upon the
order in which contact bodies are defined.
• Slave to Master - search for contact going from the slave body to
the master body. In this single-sided method, for each contact body
pair, only nodes of the lower-numbered body will be checked for
contact. Blanks the corresponding lower triangular cell of the table
matrix. Only the contact bodies from the upper portion are written .
Contact detection is done opposite of Master to Slave.
• Master to Slave - search for contact going from the master body to
the slave body. In this single-sided method, for each contact body
pair, only nodes of the higher-numbered body will be checked for
contact. Blanks the corresponding upper triangular cell of the table
matrix. Only the contact bodies from the lower portion are written.
Contact detection is done opposite of Slave to Master.
Matrix View (tab) Use this tab to view the contact table, cell(i,j) of T, G, or blank.
Touch All Sets all the defined contact bodies to touch.
Glue All Sets all the defined contact bodies to be glued. This is where all degrees-of
freedom of the contact nodes are tied once the node comes in contact.
Deactivate All Sets no contact between any defined contact bodies.
Deactivate Diagonal Specifies that the defined contact bodies do not come in contact with
themselves.
Copy Cell Select a BC Table cell, select the Copy Cell button, select another BC Table
cell, then click the Paste Cells button. Observe that T, G, or blank are pasted
into the other cell.
 Nonlinear Analysis 471
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Entry Description
This is a matrix of the contact definition for all the previously defined
contact bodies. For the cells above the main diagonal, rows are the touching
bodies, and columns are the touched bodies. For the cells below the main
Contact Table diagonal, rows are the touched bodies, and columns are the touching
bodies. Contact pairs can be selected by clicking in a cell. Clicking on a cell
in the contact table selects that contact pair. Repeated clicking toggles the
contact type between T (touch), G (glue), and “ “ (blank, no contact).
List View (tab) There are two areas named Row Body and Column Body. All the contact
body names are listed in these areas. There is one body name selected for
each area, and they correspond to a BC Table cell. The Row and Column
Body names can be changed, and the new selections correspond to a
different BC Table cell, and the text boxes Touching (Slave) Body and
Touched (Master) Body contain the newly selected names.
Row Body Row body names.
Column Body Column body names.
Touching (Slave) Body The current slave body name. Clicking in a BC Table cell causes the
Touching (Slave) Body name to be displayed here.
Touched (Master) Body The current master body name. Clicking in a BC Table cell causes the
Touched (Master) Body name to be displayed here.
Distance Tolerance The tolerance used to calculate if the slave body is or is not in contact with
the master body. The tolerance is a distance relative to the master body (e.g.
patch), and is on both sides of the it.
472
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Entry Description
Glue Option Options for gluing contact bodies together

• Glue - activates the glue option. All degrees-of-freedom of the

contact nodes are tied, with MPCs, for deformable-deformable
contact once the nodes come in contact. The relative tangential
motion of a contact node is zero for deformable-rigid contact. The
node will be projected onto the contact body.
• Retain Gaps/Overlaps - activates a different glue option that
insures that there is no relative tangential or normal displacement
when a node comes into contact with a contact body. An existing
initial gap or overlap between a contacting node and the contact
body will not be removed. The node will not be projected onto the
contacted body.
• Full Moment with Projection - when shell contact bodies come into
contact all moments are transfered from shell-to-shell -- there is
full moment carrying glue. The nodes will be projected onto the
contacted shell bodies.
• Full Moment without Projection - when shell contact bodies come
into contact all moments are transfered from shell-to-shell -- there
is full moment carrying glue. However, the nodes will not be
projected onto the contacted shell bodies, so any existing gaps or
overlaps between the nodes and the contacted shell bodies will be
retained.
Individual Contact Detection The method to be used to detect contact for a given BC Table cell.

• Automatic
• Double Sided
• Slave to Master
• Master to Slave
Bias Factor The bias factor is used to contract and extend the distance, relative to the
master body (e.g. master patch), for which there is contact. The expression
for the use of the bias is ( 1 ± BIAS ) ⋅ Dis tan ceTolerance . (Real,
0 < BIAS < 1, default = 0.9 if field left blank or not entered in the file. To
obtain a near zero value, enter 1.0E-16)
Structural The following is for structural only.
 Nonlinear Analysis 473
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Entry Description
Separation Threshold Set the Separation Threshold for a pair of contact bodies. This can be a
force or a stress depending on the option set for contact separation. This is
the 1st field of the 4th data block in V10 format. A field can be reference
for MSC.Marc Version 2003 or greater that will write this data in TABLE
format, if this parameter varies with time, temperature, or some other
independent variable. This overrides any other settings for Separation
Force.
Friction Coefficient Coefficient of static friction for this contact body. For contact between two
bodies with different friction coefficients the average value is used
Interference Closure Interference closure distance value. The distance is normal to the contact
surface. If the value is > 0, the interference designates an overlap between
the contact bodies. If the value is < 0, the interference designates a gap
between the contact bodies.
Thermal The following is for thermal only.
Distance Tolerance Table Select a contact tolerance table, e.g. TABLED1.
Near Contact Distance Distance below which near thermal contact occurs. If the value equals 0,
Tolerance near thermal contact does not occur.
Near Contact Distance Select a contact near distance table, e.g. TABLED1. If no table is selected,
Tolerance Table near thermal contact does not occur.
Advanced >>
474
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Entry Description
Global Slave Option Flag • 1: A=1 - the outside of the solid elements in the body will be in the
contact description.
• 10: B=1 - both top and bottom shell faces, of the outside of the
shell elements in the body, will be in the contact description, and
the thickness offset will be included.
• 20: B=2 - only the bottom shell faces, of the outside of the shell
elements in the body, will be in the contact description, and the
thickness offset will be included.
• 30: B=3 - only the bottom shell faces, of the outside of the shell
elements in the body, will be in the contact description, and the
shell thickness will be ignored.
• 40: B=4 - only the top shell faces, of the outside of the shell
elements in the body, will be in the contact description, and the
thickness offset will be included.
• 50: B=5 - only the top shell faces, of the outside of the shell
elements in the body, will be in the contact description, and the
shell thickness will be ignored.
• 60: B=6 - both top and bottom shell faces, of the outside of the
shell elements in the body, will be in the contact description, and
the shell thickness will be ignored.
• 1000: C=1 - only the beam/bar edges are included in the contact
description.
• 10000: C=10 - only the free and hard shell edges are included in
the contact description.
Global Master Option Flag The same as Global Slave Option Flag.
Structural The following is for structural only.
 Nonlinear Analysis 475
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Entry Description
Coordinate Modification

• No Modification - using this will cause no modification of 1) the

coordinates of a node or 2) the tangential error tolerance, to be
performed.
• Stress-free Initial Contact - use this to modify the coordinates of a
node in contact with a deformable body so that stress-free initial
contact can be obtained.
• Delayed Slide Off - use this to extend the tangential error tolerance
at sharp corners of deformable bodies to delay sliding off a
contacted segment.
• Both Stress-free Initial Contact and Delayed Slide Off - using this
causes both Stress-free Initial Contact and Delayed Slide Off
(above) to be used.
Glue Failure Specify method of glue contact usage.

• No Separation - after a two contact bodies come into contact, and

are glued together, they cannot seperate.
• Allow Separation - contact bodies that are glued together can
seperate, as for non-glued contact (based on the maximum residual
force).
• Breaking Glue - contact bodies that are glued together can seperate
when the breaking glued contact criteria is met.
Friction Stress Limit Specifies friction stress limit. This entry is only used for friction type 6
(Coulomb friction using the bilinear model). If the shear stress due to
friction reaches this limit value, then the applied friction force will be
reduced so that the maximum friction stress is given by, with the friction
coefficient and the contact normal stress. (Real, Default = 1.0E20)
Slide Off Distance Specifies delayed slide off distance. This entry should not be made unless
for Coordinate Modification, Delayed Slide Off is selected (see above).
When using the delayed slide off option, a node sliding on a segment will
slide off this segment only if it passes the node (2-D) or edge (3-D) at a
sharp corner over a distance larger than the delayed slide off distance. By
default, the delayed slide off distance is related to the dimensions of the
contacted segment by a 20 percent increase of its isoparametric domain.
476
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Entry Description
Hard-Soft Ratio Specifies hard-soft ratio. This entry is only used if double-sided contact
with automatic constraint optimization is used, (ISTYP=2 on the BCBODY
entry). The hard-soft ratio can be used by the program if there is a
significant difference in the (average) stiffness of the contact bodies
(expressed by the trace of the initial stress-strain law). If the ratio of the
stiffnesses is larger then the hard-soft ratio, the nodes o the softest body are
the preferred slave nodes. (Real, Default = 2.0)
Individual Slave Option Flag The same as Global Slave Option Flag.
Individual Master Option Flag The same as Global Slave Option Flag.
Breaking Glue Controls The following stress components and exponents of stress are used to
determine when the glue contact will break/release. The equation that is
used to determine if the glued-contact will break is

σ t  BGM  σ n  BGN
 --------------
- +  ---------------- >1
 BGST BGSN

BG Maximum Normal Stress Specify the normal stress at which the contact glue breaks (the glued
contact opens). The normal stress is represented by σn.
BG Maximum Tangential Specify the tangential stress at which the contact glue breaks (the glued
Stress contact opens). The tangential stress is represented by σt.
BG First Exponential Stress Exponent for the tangential stress term. The exponent is indicated by BGM.
BG Second Exponential Stress Exponent for the normal stress term. The exponent is indicated by BGN.
Augumented Lagrange
Controls
Augumented Lagrange Augumented Lagrange penalty factor. Used by the segment-to-segment
Penalty Factor contact algorithm only. The penalty factor used in the augmented Lagrange
method is by default calculated from the contact tolerance distance and the
stiffness of the deformable contact bodies involved (average stiffness if the
two deformable bodies are in contact).
Augumented Lagrange Penetration distance beyond which an augmentation will be applied. Used
Penetration Distance by the segment-to-segment contact algorithm only. By default, the
threshold value of this penetration distance is 0.01 times the default contact
tolerance distance.
Thermal The following is for thermal only.
Heat Transfer Coefficient Heat transfer coefficient (film) to environment. This is only necessary for
coupled analysis.
Near Contact Heat Transfer Convection coefficient for near field behavior. Enter a value or select a
Coefficient table, e.g. TABLEM1. The table is temperature dependent.
 Nonlinear Analysis 477
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Entry Description
Natural Convection Specifies natural convection coefficient for near field behavior. If real, the
Coefficient value entered is the near field natural convection coefficient. If integer, the
value entered is the ID of a TABLEM1 entry specifying the near field
natural convection coefficient vs temperature. (Real, or Integer, Default =
0.0 for a heat transfer problem, omit for a structural problem).
Natural Convection Exponent Specifies exponent associated with the natural convection coefficient for
near field behavior. If real, the value entered is the exponent associated with
near field natural convection coefficient. If integer, the value entered is the
ID of a TABLEM1 entry specifying the exponent associated with the near
field natural convection coefficient vs temperature. (Real, or Integer,
Default = 1.0 for a heat transfer problem, omit for a structural problem.)
Surface Emissivity Specifies emissivity for radiation to the environment or near thermal
radiation. If real, the value entered is the emissivity. If integer, the value
entered is the ID of a TABLEM1 entry specifying the emissivity vs
temperature. (Real, or Integer, Default = 0.0 for a heat transfer problem,
omit for a structural problem.)
Distance Dependent Specifies separation distance dependent thermal convection coefficient. If
Convection Coefficient real, the value entered is the separation distance dependent thermal
convection coefficient. If integer, the value entered is the ID of a
TABLEM1 entry specifying the separation distance dependent thermal
convection coefficient. (Real, or Integer, Default = 0.0 for a heat transfer
problem, omit for a structural problem)
Nonlinear Heat Transfer Heat transfer coefficient for nonlinear convective heat transfer for near
Coeffiicient field behavior. Enter a value or select a table, e.g. TABLEM1. The table is
temperature dependent. This is for SOL 400 only.
Nonlinear Convection Exponent associated with the nonlinear convective heat transfer for near
Exponent field behavior. Enter a value or select a table, e.g. TABLEM1. The table is
temperature dependent. This is for SOL 400 only.
Thermal Glue Select whether or not to use thermal glue.

• Solver Default - same as Deactivate.

• Deactivate - the thermal contact conditions are modeled by
convective heat transfer between the bodies.
• Activate - the temperature fields of the contact bodies are tied (with
MPCs) as soon as the bodies come into contact, and there will be
no convective heat transfer over the body interfaces.
478
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Deformable Body
When defining a deformable contact body, the following data from the Contact Table (BCTABLE) can
be used.

Entry Description
Friction Coefficient of static friction for this contact body. For contact between
Coefficient (MU) two bodies with different friction coefficients, the average value is used.
Surface Emissivity Specifies emissivity for radiation to the environment or near thermal
radiation. If real, the value entered is the emissivity. If integer, the value
entered is the ID of a TABLEM1 entry specifying the emissivity vs
temperature. (Real, or Integer, Default = 0.0 for a heat transfer problem,
omit for a structural problem.)
Heat Transfer Coefficient Heat transfer coefficient (film) to environment. This is only necessary
for coupled analysis.
Near Contact Heat Convection coefficient for near field behavior. Enter a value or select a
Transfer Coefficient table, e.g. TABLEM1. The table is temperature dependent.
Natural Convection Specifies natural convection coefficient for near field behavior. If real,
Coefficient the value entered is the near field natural convection coefficient. If
integer, the value entered is the ID of a TABLEM1 entry specifying the
near field natural convection coefficient vs temperature. (Real, or
Integer, Default = 0.0 for a heat transfer problem, omit for a structural
problem).
Natural Convection Specifies exponent associated with the natural convection coefficient
Exponent for near field behavior. If real, the value entered is the exponent
associated with near field natural convection coefficient. If integer, the
value entered is the ID of a TABLEM1 entry specifying the exponent
associated with the near field natural convection coefficient vs
temperature. (Real, or Integer, Default = 1.0 for a heat transfer problem,
omit for a structural problem.)
Nonlinear Heat Transfer Heat transfer coefficient for nonlinear convective heat transfer for near
Coeffiicient field behavior. Enter a value or select a table, e.g. TABLEM1. The table
is temperature dependent. This is for SOL 400 only.
Nonlinear Convection Exponent associated with the nonlinear convective heat transfer for near
Exponent field behavior. Enter a value or select a table, e.g. TABLEM1. The table
is temperature dependent. This is for SOL 400 only.
Heat Transfer Coefficient Heat transfer coefficient (film) to environment. This is only necessary
for coupled analysis.

Selecting and Controlling Contact Behavior

A series of MD Nastran entries can be used to implement and control the contact behavior in an analysis.
 Nonlinear Analysis 479
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Contact Parameters
This section describes the general parameters available for detecting contact, controlling separation, and
modeling friction.

Cross-Ref to Material Info in

Entry Description QRG
BCONTACT Requests contact to be included in BCONTACT.
the analysis.
BCPARA Defines contact parameters used in BCPARA
SimXpert Structures Workspace
BOUTPUT Request 2-D or 3-D contact output BOUTPUT
BOUTPUT request 2-D or 3-D contact output. Only SORT1 output is available.

Defining Contact Control Parameters in SimXpert GUI

In the Model Browser tree, under Simulations / Job: Name, double-click on Solver Control, then under
Contact Control Paramters select one of four parameter titles, e.g. Contact Generic Parameters. Note: this
form is from the SOL400 control; the procedure is the same to access SOL 600 control.
Contact Generic Parameters
2. Shown below is the Contact Generic region of the form
480
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Enforcement of Contact Select the method of defining the contact to be used.

• Node-to-segment contact.
• Small sliding segment-to-segment contact.
Augmentation Method Select the method for augmenting the contact control. This method is
only active for Enforcement of Contact, Small sliding segment-to-
segment contact.

• None.
• Constant Lagrange multiplier for linear element; bilinear
Lagrange multiplier for Quad element.
• Constant Lagrange multiplier.
• Bi-linear Lagrange multiplier.
Override Perminent Glued Click in the checkbox to not use perminent glued contact. SOL 400
Contact (NLGLUE) only.
 Nonlinear Analysis 481
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Contact Detection Parameters

3. Shown below is the Contact Detection region of the form

Distance Tolerance Distance below which a node is considered touching a body (error).
Leave the box blank to have MD Nastran calculate the tolerance.
Bias on Distance Tolerance Contact tolerance BIAS factor. The value should be within the range
of zero to one. Models with shell elements seem to be sensitive to this
parameter. You may need to experiment with this value if you have
shell element models that will not converge.
Suppress Bounding Box Click this checkbox if you want to suppress bounding box checking.
This might eliminate penetration, but slows down the solution.
Check Layers For contact bodies composed of shell elements, this option menu
chooses the layers to be checked. Available options are: Top and
Bottom, Top Only, Bottom Only.
482
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Ignore Thickness Turn this button ON to ignore shell thickness.

Activate 3D Beam-Beam Click this checkbox to activate 3D beam-beam contact.
Contact
Quadratic Contact Turn this toggle ON to activate the new quadratic contact algorithm
that gives significantly improved interface pressure distribution
results when modeling contact using higher order elements.

Contact Separation Parameters

4. Shown below is the Contact Separation region of the form.
 Nonlinear Analysis 483
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Maximum Separations Maximum number of separations allowed in each increment. After the
maximum number of separations have occured, if the standard
convergence tolerance conditions are achieved, the increment will be
considered as converged. Default is 9999.
Retain Value of NCYCLE Click this checkbox if you do not want to reset NCYCLE to zero
when separation occurs. This speeds up the solution, but might result
in instabilities. You can not set this and Suppress Bounding
Box simultaneously.
Increment Specify for which increment separation is to occur in.

• Current.
• Next.
Chattering Specify whether there can be chattering or not.

• Allowed.
• Suppressed.
Separation Criterion Specify the type of variable that is to be used to determine if separation
is to occur.

• Forces.
• Stresses.
Derviation Method of derivation to determine if separation is to occur.

• Force/Area - stress is calculated from nodal point force divided

by nodal point equivalent area.
• Extrapolation - extrapolate integration point stress to determine
nodal point stress.
Relative/Absolute Specify the type of stress used to determine if separation is to occur.

• Relative - relative nodal point stress.

• Absolute - absolute stress.
Force Value Force value at which separation is to occur.
Stress Value Stress value at which separation is to occur.
484
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Contact Friction Parameters

5. Shown below is the Contact Friction region of the form
 Nonlinear Analysis 485
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Type Available options for friction Type.

• None - no friction (default)

• Shear - this is for metal forming
• Coulomb - this is for normal contact
• Shear for Rolling
• Coulomb for Rolling
• Stick-Slip
• Bilinear Shear
• Bilinear Coulomb
Relative Sliding Velocity Critical value for sliding velocity below which surfaces will be
simulated as sticking.
Transition Region Slip-to-Stick transition region.
Friction Force Tolerance Friction Force Tolerance.

Contact Table
This option is useful for controlling or activating contacting bodies and individual contact pairs. To avoid
unnecessary detection of contact between bodies, you can control which bodies potentially may come
into contact with other bodies. By default SimXpert writes BCONTACT=ALLBODY which specifies is
that every body detects the possibility of contact relative to all other bodies and itself if it is a flexible
body. When a BCTABLE is created, you specify the relationship of detection between bodies for contact.
The touching body may contact itself if you request it by activating the diagonal of the Global Contact
Definition table. Whenever the touched body is a flexible one, by default, the capability of double-sided
contact is applied between the contacting bodies. This can be switched off by selecting single-sided
contact or by setting the searching order in the BCTABLE entry.
The following control variables of contact between bodies can be modified throughout the table: contact
tolerance, separation force, friction coefficient, interference closure and contact heat transfer coefficient.
In addition, you can invoke the glue option, delayed slide off a deformable body, and stress-free initial
contact.
In the glue option, specified by a G in the Global Contact Definition table, when a node contacts a rigid
body, the relative tangential displacement is zero. When a node contacts a deformable body, all the
translational degrees of freedom are tied.
By default, if a node slides off the boundary of a deformable body at a sharp corner by a distance more
than the contact tolerance, contact between the node and the contacted body is lost. By invoking the
delayed sliding off option, the tangential contact tolerance is increased by a factor of 10.
In any static contact analysis, a node contacting a body will be projected onto the contacted segment of
this body. Due to inaccuracies in the finite element model, this might introduce undesired stress changes,
486
Contact (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

since an overlap or a gap between the node and the contacted segment will be closed. The option for
stress-free initial contact forces a change of the coordinates of a node contacting a deformable body, thus
avoiding the stress changes. In combination with the glue option, a similar effect can be obtained;
however, the overlap or gap will remain.

Specifying a Contact Table Entry

Cross-Ref to Material Info in
Entry Description QRG
BCTABLE Defines a contact table used in SimXpert BCTABLE.
Structures Workspace

Defining a Contact Table:

1. Click on the Contact Toolbox.
2. Click Contact Table,select BCTABLE.
.

Input Description
Contact Detection • Default (by body #) -This is the default where contact is checked in the
order the bodies are written to the input deck. In this scenario, the most
finely meshed bodies should be listed first. There will be contact checks
first for nodes of the first body with respect to the second body and then
for nodes of the second body with respect to the first body. If Single
Sided contact is activated on the Contact Parameters subform, then only
the first check is done.
• Automatic -Unlike the default, the contact detection is automatically
determined and is not dependent on the order they are listed but
determined by ordering the bodies starting with those having the
smallest edge length. Then there will be only a check on contact for
nodes of the first body with respect to the second body and not the other
way around.
• First ->Second - Blanks the lower triangular section of the table matrix
such that no input can be accepted. Only the contact bodies from the
upper portion are written, which forces the contact check of the first
body with respect to the second body.
• Second-> First - Blanks the upper triangular section of the table matrix
such that no input can be accepted. Only the contact bodies from the
lower portion are written. Contact detection is done opposite of First-
>Second.
• Double-Sided -Writes both upper and lower portions of the table
matrix. This overrules the Single Sided contact parameter set on the
Contact Parameters subform.
Touch All Places a T to indicate touching status for all deformable-deformable or rigid-
deformable bodies.
Glue All Places a G to indicate glued status for all deformable-deformable or rigid-
deformable bodies.
 Input Description
Deactivate All Blanks the spreadsheet cells.
Body Type Lists the body type for each body; either deformable or rigid.
Release This cell can be toggled for each body to Y or N (yes or no). If Y, this indicates
that the particular contact body is to be removed from this subcase. The forces
associated with this body can be removed immediately in the first increment or
gradually over the entire Load Step with the Force Removal switch
described below.
Touching Body These are informational or convenience list boxes to allow you to see
Touched Body which bodies an active cell references and to see what settings are active for
Distance Tolerance and other related parameters below. You must click on the
touched/touching bodies to see what values, if any, have been set for the
pair combination.
Distance Tolerance Set the Distance Tolerance for this pair of contact bodies. You must press the
Enter or Return key to accept the data in this data box. A nonspatial field can be
referenced that will write this data in TABLE format, if this parameter varies
with time, temperature, or some other independent variable. This overrides any
other settings for Distance Tolerance.
Separation Force Set the Separation Force for this pair of contact bodies. You must press the Enter
or Return key to accept the data in this data box. A nonspatial field can be
referenced that will write this data in TABLE format, if this parameter varies
with time, temperature, or some other independent variable. This overrides any
other settings for Separation Force.
Friction Coefficient Set the Friction Coefficient for this pair of contact bodies. You must press the
Enter or Return key to accept the data in this data box. A nonspatial field can be
referenced that will write this data in TABLE format, if this parameter varies
with time, temperature, or some other independent variable. This overrides any
other settings for Friction Coefficient.
Interference Set the Interference Closure for this pair of contact bodies. You must press the
Closure Enter or Return key to accept the data in this data box. A nonspatial field can be
referenced that will write this data in TABLE format, if this parameter varies
with time, temperature, or some other independent variable. This overrides any
other settings for Interference Closure.
Heat Transfer Set the Heat Transfer Coefficient for this pair of contact bodies. You must press
Coefficient the Enter or Return key to accept the data in this data box. A nonspatial field
can be referenced that will write this data in TABLE format, if this parameter
varies with time, temperature, or some other independent variable. This
overrides any other settings for Heat Transfer Coefficient. This is only used in
Coupled analysis.
 Input Description
Retain This is only applicable for the Glued option. Any initial gap or overlap between
Gaps/Overlaps the node and the contacted body will not be removed (otherwise the node is
projected onto the body which is the default). For deformable-deformable
contact only.
Stress-free Initial This is only applicable for initial contact in increment zero, where coordinates
Contact of nodes in contact can be adapted such that they cause stress-free initial
contact. This is important if, due to inaccuracies during mesh generation, there
is a small gap/overlap between a node and the contacted element edge/face. For
deformable-deformable contact only.
Delayed Slide Off By default, at sharp corners, a node will slide off a contacted segment as soon
as it passes the corner by a distance greater than the contact error tolerance. This
extends this tangential tolerance. For deformable-deformable contact only.

Movement of Contact Bodies

The motion of deformable bodies is prescribed using the conventional methods of applying
displacements, forces, or distributed loads to the bodies. Symmetry surfaces are treated as a special type
of bodies which have the property of being frictionless and where the nodes are not allowed to separate.
There are three ways to prescribe the motion of rigid surfaces:
• Prescribed velocity
• Prescribed position
• Prescribed load or displacement of (a) control node(s).

Associated with the rigid body is a point labeled the centroid. When the first two methods are chosen,
you define the translational motion of this point, and the angular motion about an axis through this point.
The direction of the axis can be defined for three-dimensional problems. For two-dimensional problems,
it is a line normal to the plane. For complex time-dependent behavior, the MOTION user subroutine can
be used to prescribe the motion as an alternative to the input. The motion during a time increment is
considered to be linear. The position is determined by an explicit, forward integration of the velocities
based upon the current time step. A time increment must always be defined even if a static, rate-
independent analysis is performed.
When load controlled (a more accurate name would be “control node” rigid bodies) rigid bodies are used,
two additional nodes, called the control nodes, are associated with each rigid body. In 2-D problems, the
first node has two translational degrees of freedom (corresponding to the global x- and y-direction) and
the second node has one rotational degree of freedom (corresponding to the global z-direction). In 3-D
problems, the first node has three translational degrees of freedom (corresponding to global x-, y-, and
z-direction) and the second node has three rotational degrees of freedom (corresponding to the global x-,
y-, and z-direction). In this way, both forces and moments can be applied to a body for the control nodes.
Alternatively, one may prescribe one or more degrees of freedom of the control nodes by using the SPCD
bulk data entries. Generally speaking, load-controlled bodies can be considered as rigid bodies with three
(in 2-D) or six (in 3-D) degrees of freedom. The prescribed position and prescribed velocity methods (see
Figure 9-45) have less computational costs than the prescribed load method (see Figure 9-46), however
it is possible to change the loads and constraints on the control node from one subcase to the next to
prescribe more complex motion of the rigid body.

2
Centroid

1 3
V ω

2
1
Figure 9-45 Velocity Controlled Rigid Surface

Fy

Mz

Fx
Extra Node

Figure 9-46 Load Controlled Rigid Surface

If the second control node is not specified, the rotation of the body is prescribed to be zero.

Specifying a Contact Movement Entry

Cross-Ref to Material Info in
Entry Description QRG
BCMOVE Defines movement of bodies in contact used BCMOVE.
in SimXpert Structures Workspace

This option is used in the Body Approach step.

Initial Conditions
At the beginning of the analysis, bodies should either be separated from one another or in contact. Bodies
should not penetrate one another at the start of the analysis unless the objective is to perform an
interference fit calculation. Rigid body profiles are often complex, making it difficult for you to
determine exactly where the first contact is located.
In the nonlinear module of the SimXpert Structures workspace, before an analysis begins, some
calculations take place. This is defined as increment zero. During increment zero, if a rigid body has
nonzero motion, the initialization procedure brings it into first contact with a deformable body. No
motion or distortion occurs in the deformable bodies during this process. In a coupled thermal mechanical
analysis, no heat transfer occurs during this process. If more than one rigid body exists in the analysis,
each one with a nonzero initial velocity is moved until it comes into contact. Because increment zero is
used to bring the rigid bodies into contact only, you should not prescribe any loads (distributed or point)
or prescribed displacements initially. For multistage contact analysis (often needed to simulate
manufacturing processes), the BCMOVE bulk data entry in conjunction with the BCTABLE bulk data
entry allow you to model contact bodies so that they just come into contact with the workpiece. This
procedure is called a Body Approach subcase.
Perform the Simulation (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Create an Analysis job

This section consists of the description of how to create an analysis job for SOL 400 or SOL 600, and a
description of the inputs for the increments and iterations process.

FileSet
You set up and submit the analysis of your model by right clicking FileSet from the Model Browser tree,
then selecting Create new Nastan Job.
The Job Name you enter in the textbox will become the filename for all analysis files created from this
simulation.
For Solution Type select
1. General Nonlinear Analysis (SOL 400), or
2. Implicit Nonlinear Analysis (SOL 600).
For Solver Input File navigate to the folder where the MD Nastran output files are to be located, and
enter the BDF file name that is to be used.
If it is desired to create the default job setup in the Model Browser tree, click in the checkbox for Create
Default Layout.
Export Settings is used to specify what model is to be exported for analysis. There are two choices for
Type of Model Definition, under Export Settings, Also, there is a list box List of Selected Groups under
Export Settings.
1. Type of Model Definition
• Current Model - the current model (underlined in the Model Browser tree) is exported for
analysis.
• Selected Groups - using this activates the list box for List of Selected Groups.
2. List of Selected Groups
• Pick - select the groups who’s entities are to be exported for analysis
• Clear - using this causes the list box to be cleared of the selected groups
• Modify - using this allows the contents of the list box to be modified
• Show Selected Items - using this causes the window Selected Items to appear, showing the list of
selected groups.
Once the job is created, you can expand your job name on the Jobs form and enter parameters that will
control your analysis.
Load Cases Section
Immediately following the specification of the job name and solution type, and general parameters
(Solver Control), is the Load Cases section. Load Cases commands can be used to define
• Loadcases.
• Loadcase name, e.g. Name (Title).
• Analysis type, e.g. Nonlinear static analysis.
• Use of previously obtained steady state heat transfer results, i.e. temperature results.
• Loadcase Control.
• Loads/Boundaries.
• Constraint Equations.
• Output Requests.

• Load Steps (sub-step under Load Cases) (SOL 400 only).

• Loadcase name, e.g. Name (Title).
• Analysis type, e.g. Nonlinear static analysis.
• Use of previously obtained steady state heat transfer results, i.e. temperature results.
• Loadstep Control.
• Loads/Boundaries.
• Constraint Equations.
• Output Requests.
Create Global Loadcase
A global loadcase defines the master output requests for your analysis. Output requested in the global
loadcase will become the default for all loadcases. The software will write all of these requests and loads
and boundary conditions before the first subcase in the MD Nastran Case Control section. In addition,
you can define cases which let you perform multiple analyses with different load and/or constraint sets.
An analysis type cannot be specified at this level.
Create Loadcase
The loadcase dialog box lets you select the loads and constraints to apply to your simulation.You can
apply boundary conditions at both the global level or in loadcases. If your analysis requires multiple load
or constraint sets, you must create loadcases. An analysis type can be specified at this level, i.e. Nonlinear
Static, Nonlinear Transient.
Load Case Control
The general areas that are covered are Iteration Control Parameters, Convergence Criteria, Stepping
Procedure Parameters, Generic Parameters, Select Nonlinear Initial Condition, and Direct Text Input
(CASE).
These parameters can be used to control how the stiffness matrix is calculated, the number of iterations
that must be performed before the stiffness matrix is updated, the maximun number of iterations that can
be performed for each load increment, the maximum number of line searches per iteration, the
convergence criteria, etc.
Output Requests
Use the Output Requests dialog box to identify the types of output that you want from the analysis. You
can select to output any combination of the results shown on the following form:
Loads/Boundaries
The loads and boundary conditions are structural (i.e. fixed, pinned) or thermal (i.e. fixed temperature at
nodes) constraints, structural (i.e. concentrated load, pressure) or thermal (i.e. heat flux, volumetric
heating) loads. These can be selected from the Model Browser tree or the form.
Constraint Equations
These are MPCs. Pick a constraint set to specify constraint equations.
Load Steps (SOL 400 only)
This can be used to create a chained analysis (e.g. thermal TO structural) using Create Loadstep. Also,
this can be used to create a coupled analysis (e.g. thermal AND structural) using Create Coupled
Loadstep.

Load Cases, Load Steps, Load Increments, and Iterations

In a nonlinear analysis, loading is typically applied in subcases both to allow for the nonlinear behavior
to occur in the numerical processing, and to give you control over restarts if a problem (divergence,
excessive iterations, etc.) occurs during the solution. The subcase structure in a nonlinear analysis differs
from a typical linear analysis. In a nonlinear anlaysis, loadases are cumulative; that is , the loads and
boundary conditions at the end of a loadcase are the initial conditions for the next loadcase. Superposition
cannot be applied in nonlinear anlysis. In general a different loading sequence (reordering the subcases)
requires a completely new analysis.
Chained analysis from Load Steps
Coupled analysis from Load Steps
Load Increments
In the loading history, the total change of loading applied during a subcase can be applied in smaller parts
to allow the solution to converge. These subdivisions within a subcase are termed load increments. Load
increments are specified on the Load Increment Parameters subform. The application of the loading, and
monitoring of the analysis are controlled by the associated time step. The Total Time represents the time
over which the full loading of the subcase is applied. Three types of load incrementations are allowed:
Fixed, Adaptive, and Adaptive Arc Length.
Fixed Load Increments
The total load is divided equally into a number of specified increments.
ΔF = F/Ninc. , ΔF, and Ninc are respectively the load increment, and the number of load ncrements.

This allows the user more control.

The Time Step Size in each increment will be automatically cutback (on request), if convergence
difficulty occurs.
Shown below is an image of the form for SOL 400.

Shown below is an image of the form for SOL 600.

 Nonlinear Analysis 499
Perform the Simulation (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Adaptive Load Increments

The current load increment is evaluated from the previous increment multipled by a specified Time Step
Scale (growth/reduction) Factor (α). The Trial Time Step Size is the initial size of the time step. The
Adaptive Load Incrementation method automatically locates and handles severe nonlineariy. This is the
recommended type (default).

ΔFi = α . ΔFi-1
Shown below is an image of the form for SOL 400.
500
Perform the Simulation (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Shown below is an image of the form for SOL 600.

The Trial Time Step Size is the initial size of the time step.
 Nonlinear Analysis 501
Perform the Simulation (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Adaptive Arc Length Increments

The current load increment is evaluated from the previous increment multipled by the arc-length
magnitude factor (Δλ).

ΔFi = Δλ . Fi-1

Shown below is an image of the form for SOL 400.

Shown below is an image of the form for SOL 600.

502
Perform the Simulation (SOL 400 and SOL 600)
 Nonlinear Analysis 503
Perform the Simulation (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Iterations (SOL 400)

In the increment-iterative solution process (Newton-Raphson), the unbalanced (residual) forces that
occur during a load increment are reintroduced internally into the solution until the solution has
converged. The process of redistributing the unbalanced forces within a load increment is known as the
iteration. The iteration continues within a load increment until the solution converges, or any of the
specified convergence parameter values are exceeded.
504
Perform the Simulation (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

Iterations (SOL 600)

In the increment-iterative solution process (Newton-Raphson), the unbalanced (residual) forces that
occur during a load increment are reintroduced internally into the solution until the solution has
converged. The process of redistributing the unbalanced forces within a load increment is known as the
iteration. The iteration continues within a load increment until the solution converges, or any of the
specified convergence parameter values are exceeded.
 Nonlinear Analysis 505
Perform the Simulation (SOL 400 and SOL 600)

There are five choices for Job Type:

1. Export Bdf and Run Solver - writes model Bdf file, then submits the file to the solver for
execution.
2. Export an Analysis Deck only - writes the model including all model data, all load case
information, analysis type, and analysis parameters to an analysis-ready file called job name.bdf
3. Export the Model only - writes the model data: nodes, elements, coordinate frames, element
properties, material properties, and loads and boundary conditions, without any analysis
parameters, to a file called job name.bdf
4. Run a Model Check - analysis is submitted but will exit after initial model assembly. No solution
is generated.
5. Submit Job to Batch Queue - allows submittal of multiple models to be analyzed sequentially with
a single analysis request

Output Files
The purpose of this section is to introduce the output file generated by a typical run. After an input file is
submitted for execution, several output files may be generated.
506
Results

Results
If you submitted your analysis directly from SimXpert, the results will be attached upon job completion.
If your analysis ran externally to SimXpert, but you have the model in SimXpert, select Attach Results
from the File menu, and navigate to your results file. Then, select Results. If your analysis ran externally
to SimXpert, and you do not have the model in SimXpert, select Attach Results from the File menu, and
navigate to your results file. Then, select Both. This will read in model information as well as results from
the results file.
Output data is also stored in Result Cases. If you run your model with several different loading conditions
or through several different analysis types, SimXpert will keep the output data from each analysis in a
different Result Case.
Postprocessing can be divided into two main categories: Chart and “State Plot”. “State Plot”
postprocessing consists of 10 different types of plots:
1. Deformation
Can be displayed in any available render style. You can turn the display of the undeformed shape
on or off as desired.
2. Fringe
Color code your model based on result value.
3. Contour
Display lines with each representing a constant result scalar value.
4. Scalar
Display scalar values at different locations of the model.
5. Vector
Show vectors representing direction and magnitude of result value.
6. Tensor
Show tensors representing direction and magnitude of result value.
7. Iso-Surface
Display scalar result values on surfaces.
8. 0D Probe
Display result values ate nodes or elements.
9. Free Body
Show result values for defined free bodies.
10. VMT
Determine shear and moment values for different locations of the model.
Also, it is possible to use the Spectrum capability to modify the coloring of any scalar result plot.
 Nonlinear Analysis 507
Results

All plot types can be animated. You can animate a single result case by applying a progressive scale factor
to the deformation result or you can animate over a selection of result sets. All plot types can be displayed
together in the same window if desired.

State Plots
The State Plot properties form is the main control for postprocessing. It is from here you can control
which result set is being displayed, how your model is displayed and select your desired postprocessing
options.
You can use dynamic rotation to manipulate your model while results are displayed and also during
animation.
• How to Select the Data used for postprocessing

The state plot properties form is accessed by clicking on the Results tab and selecting the desired plot
type.
To choose the data used for the display, in the Results Cases list click the desired Result Case, then click
the Results Type to use, and, if desired, you can make selections for Derivation and Target Entities. You
can limit the Results Cases listed using the Filter text box. If you are animating multiple Results Cases,
simply select all desired cases in the Results Cases list.
• Deformed Shape Plots

The following are some of the options that can be used to control the appearance of your deformed shape
plot:
1. Deformed display scaling - True: applies the related scale factor to the actual computed values for
displacement To see a plot of your actual displacement set the scale factor to 1. Relative: applies
the scale factor to display the maximum displacement as a percentage of your maximum model
dimension. This is usually an exaggerated plot for ease in visualization.
2. Deformed Shape - controls rendering for Deformed shape display.
3. Undeformed Shape - can display or remove the undeformed model, as well as control how it is
Contour Style View Options
• Fringe Plots

The Fringe tab allows access to data transforms. These options are very important to understand since
they control how the data is converted from pure discrete numbers to a visual representation. Improper
selection of data transforms can lead to erroneous interpretation of the results.
You can specify which domain in the model to use for result averaging in order to obtain an accurate
representation of the results. The following domains are available:
1. Property - results will not be averaged across property boundaries
2. Material - results will not be averaged across material boundaries
3. All Entities - results will be averaged at all common nodes
4. Target Entities - results will be averaged only between the elements selected as the target entities
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5. Element Type - results will not be averaged across boundaries between different types of elements
6. None - no averaging of results between any elements. Fringe values are based on individual
element results only.
When the averaging domain is set to anything other than All Entities the resulting graphics may not be
as smooth but this is a more accurate representation of the results when discontinuities exist in the
structure.
You can compare the difference between using an averaging domain of None to one of the other averaged
domains to assess your mesh quality. If there is a large difference in the maximum result these between
the two fringe plots, especially at locations that do not have sharp corners or breaks in the model, the
mesh may need to be refined in that area.
The Result averaging method controls how SimXpert converts the results from pure data at element
centroids, corners, and nodes to the actual continuous graphical representation. The following methods
are available.
1. Derive/Average - calculates the selected result value first then applies a simple average of all the
contributing nodes.
2. Average/Derive - averages the contributions of the common nodes then derives the result
3. Difference - computes the minimum and maximum results for the elements sharing a common
node. The difference between the maximum and minimum contributor to each node is plotted.
The fringe plot of this difference is an indicator of mesh quality: result differences between
neighboring elements should not be large. If large discontinuities are found the mesh should be
refined in that area. Nodal results will have zero max-difference.
4. Sum - Sums the result values of all contributing nodes. No averaging.
• Fringe attributes

Style allows you to choose between

1. Discrete - Each range on the spectrum is given a unique color block
2. Continuous Colors - The model is displayed with smooth transitions between each color
3. Element Fill - Elements are displayed with one solid color
• Vector Plots

Vector attributes - allows you to choose whether to scale vector lengths are adjusted, and how the vectors
are color coded.
• Animation

Animation attributes- controls number of frames, delay, and type of scale factor used to generate the
animation (Sinusoid, Linear, etc.)

Chart Plots
SimXpert can create XY plots of results. Control over the contents of a chart is provided by the chart
properties form. The chart properties form is accessed by clicking on the Results toolbox and selecting
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Results

Chart. It allows you to control the Results Cases and Results Type shown on the XY data plots. Choose
the Results Cases and the Results Type from the appropriate list boxes. You can limit the Results Cases
you see in the list box by using the Filter button.The Chart Properties form controls whether an XY plot
is displayed, and what type of chart to display.
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Example

Example

Nonlinear Static Analysis of a Cantilever Beam

Enter the Structures Workspace and Set English Units:
1. Startup SimXpert and select Structures as the default workspace from the startup panel.
2. From the Tools menu, select Options.
3. Select General > GUI Options.
4. If necessary, un-select Solver Card checkbox.
5. Click Units Manager in the tree.
6. Click Standard Units.
7. Scroll down and select standard English units (in, lb, s...)
8. Click OK.
9. Click FEA_Symbols. Structures under Workspaces> Structures> Entity Options in the tree
10. Enter 25 as Size > % of Screen.
11. Click OK.

Create an Isotropic Material:

1. Click on the Materials and Properties tab, select Isotropic in the Material group.
2. Leave the Material Name as the default: Iso_1.
3. On the Material - Structure form enter the values:

Young’s Modulus 3.0e7

Poisson’s ratio 0.3
Density 7.34e-4

4. Click Ok.

Create an Element Property:

1. Cick on Shell under the 2D Properties group.
2. Leave the Name as the default: SHELL_1.
3. Click in the Material text box, then pick Isotropic_1 from the Model Browser tree.
4. Click in the Part Thickness text box and enter 0.1.
5. Click OK.

Create a part:
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1. Click on the Assemble tab and select Create under the Parts group.
2. Click in the 2D Property text box and select SHELL_1 from the Model Browser tree.
3. Click OK.

Create Surface Geometry

Creating the geometry for the surface is accomplished in two steps. First create two parallel lines using
SimXpert’s polyline/spline tool, then create a surface between the two curves:
1. Under the Geometry tab, for the Curve group, click Line.
2. Click in the Entities text box.
3. Enter 0 0 0, then enter “ ; ”.
4. Enter 100 0 0, then click Enter.
5. Click Apply.
6. In the Entities text box, click Clear Selection List to clear the contents from the list box.

7. Enter 0 2 0, then enter “ ; “.

8. Enter 100 2 0, then click Enter.
9. Click OK on the Polyline_Spline form.
10. From the View menu, click Model Views, then click Top to show a plan view.
11. From the View menu, click Display, then click Fill to zoom in on the part.

Modeling Window Shows: Two parallel lines.

12. Under the Surface group select Filler.

13. On the Filler form, click the checkbox Using Curves.
14. On the Filler form, click in the Curves text box and screen pick the two curves.
15. Click OK.

Modeling Window Shows:A rectangular surface.

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Example

Mesh the Geometric Surface

1. Click on the Meshing tab.
2. For the Automesh group select Surface.
3. On the Surface Mesher form, click in the Surface to mesh field.
4. Screen pick the surface.
5. On the Surface Mesher form, uncheck Calculate and enter 5.0 for Size.
6. Click OK.

Modeling Window Shows:Meshed surface.

Constrain the end of the cantilever beam:

1. Click on the LBCs tab and select Fixed under the Constraints group.
2. Change the Name to Fixed End.
3. Click in the Entities text box.
4. On the Pick Filter toolbar, select Pick Curves, and un-select Pick Nodes.
5. Screen pick the short curve on the left end of the beam.
6. Click OK.

Modeling Window Shows:SPC 123456 is shown on the left edge of the surface.

To apply the point force at the free end of the cantilevered beam, apply it at
Node 1:
1. Select Force under the Loads group.
2. Enter the following values:

Name: Applied Force

Magnitude -6000
Direction - X 0
Direction - Y 0
Direction - Z 1

3. Click in the Entities text box.

4. On the Pick Filter toolbar, click Pick Nodes.
5. Screen pick the node on the upper right corner of the beam.
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Example

6. Click OK.

Modeling Window Shows:Top right corner node is enlarged and highlighted.

Set-up Simulation Conditions for a Nonlinear Analysis

Next, specify the values of the solution parameters for a nonlinear analysis.

Specify the analysis solution parameters for Setup Job:

1. Rick click FileSet in the Model Browser tree and select Create New Nastran Job.
2. Enter Beam as the Job Name.
3. Select Implicit Nonlinear Analysis (SOL 600) for Solution Type.
4. Click on the elipses and select the desired file path.
5. Click OK.

Specify the Analysis Options

1. Double click Solver Control under Simulations> Beam in the Model Browser tree.
2. Select Solution 600 AnalysisOptions in the Parameter Set Editor tree.
3. Check Use XDB/FO6/OP2/PCH Selection for SOL 600.
4. Click Apply, then click Close.

Export a Nastran BDF file, then run a Nastran analysis:

1. Under Simulations right click on Beam.
2. Click on Run.
3. Name the file beam.bdf and save to desired location.

Create Stress and Deformation Plots

To create stress and deformation plots it is necessary to first attach the Nastran XBD result file. Then, the
results can be displayed as a State or Chart plot. For this analysis, only State plots are to be created.

Attach a Nastran XDB result file:

1. From the File menu, select Attach Results.
2. Select the file beam.xdb.
3. Click OK.
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Example

Plot a displacement fringe and deformation plot of beam:

1. On the Entity Display Filter toolbar, click Show/Hide All Geometry to turn off the display of
all geometry entities.

2. On the Render toolbar, pull down the finite element display to FE Wireframe.

3. From the Results tab, select Fringe under the Results group.
4. Expand SC1 under Result Cases and select Time = 1:
5. Select Result Type Displacements,Translational.
6. Select Derivation Magnitude.
7. Click Update.

8. Select Deformation as Plot type.

9. Select Result Case Time = 1:
10. Select Result Type Displacements,Translational.
11. Click Update.
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Example

12. Using Shift+right mouse button drag to rotate the model to get a view of the deformation.

13. Click Clear.

Plot stress fringees on the beam

1. Select Fringe as Plot type.
2. Select Result Case Time = 1:
3. Select Result Type Stress Tensor.
4. For Derivation select von Mises.
5. Click Update.
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Example