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Computer graphics.
Book: computer Graphics
Author: Donald Heam M Pauline baker.
Date: 2070/5/12
What is computer Graphics?
-

Use a computer to create pictures.

Started early 60s . Ivan Sutherland (MIT)
CG has many concept.
Computer scientists create libraries, tools that artist /non
techines can use to create pretty pictures.
- Artists use CG tools to creates pretty Pictures.
CG tools:
- CG tools include hardware and software tools.
Hardware Tools:
- Output devices video monitor , printer
- Input devices keyboard , mouse , touch panel,
- Graphics cards/ Accelerator
Software tools:
-

Operating system
Complier
Editor
Debuggers
Graphics library

CG libraries:
- Functions/ routine to draw line or circle etc.
- Ellaborate : pull -down menu, 3D coordinate system etc.

Motivation of CG:
- Appealing picture produce.
- Humans respond better to pictorial information.
- Human brain recognizes visual patterns.
- If it looks right , it is right, Jim Blinn (CG pioneer)
Reasons to study CG:
- information presentation.
- Job in CG ( Games, movies etc)
- New medium for artistic expression.
- Communicate ideas better.
- Take animation course.
Use of CG:
- Art. Entertainment, publishing
- Movies , TV, books, magazines, game
- Image processing
- Alter images, remove noise
- Processing monitoring
- Large systems or plants
- Display simulations:
- Flight simulators, virtual worlds.
- Computer- aided design, architecture, electric circuit
design
- Scientific analysis and visualization.
- Molecular biology(human brain), matlab,
CG Example:
- Biggest CG consumers today are:
- Movies (Hollywood)
- Computer Games: eg Mdden NFL football 2004.

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- Animated movies: E.g Toy story, e.g Finding Nemo

- Special effects: e.g spider man 2,Spider man 3,Matrix
Reloaded.
Elements of CG:
- Poly lines connected st lines( edger, vertices)
- Text; font, typeface
- Filled regions; colors , patterns.
- Raster images: pixels have values (pixmax)
Date:2065/4/13
1.1

HISTROY OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS: The

fundamental principal and technique derive in the past are
still applicable in todays computer graphics technology and
generally will be applicable in the future too.
The history of the computer graphics can be study
as a chronical development of hardware and software. The
evolution of graphics under various terms are expect on
following points.
- Crude plotting on hardcopy devices such as teletypes and
line printers dates from the early days of computing.
- The whirlwind computer developed in 1950 at
Massachusetts institute of Technology ( MIT) had
computer-drive CRT displays for output, both for operator
use and for cameras producing hard copy.
- The SAGE air-defence system developed in the middle
1950s was the first to use command and control CRT
displays console on which operators identified targets with
the light pens.

- The beginning of modern interactive graphics, however

were found in IVAN SUTHER LANDS seminal doctoral
work on the sketchpad drawing systems. He introduced
data structures for storing symbol hierarchies built up via
replication of standard components ( used for drawing
circuit symbols). He also developed interaction technique
that use the keyboard ad light pen for making choices,
pointing and drawing and formulating many other ides and
technique still in use today.
- By the mid- sixties, a number of research projects and
commercial products had appeared as the potentially of
CAD activities in computer, automobile and aerospace
grew enormously for automating drafting-insensitive
activities. The general motor system for automobile design
and Intek Digitek system for lens design were pioneers in
showing the efforts utilizing graphics interaction in the
interactive cycles common in engineering.
- Due to the high cost of graphics hardware , expensive
computing resources, difficulty in wring large interactive
program and due to many other reasons the humancomputer interaction was still done primarily in both mode
using punched cards. After the advent of graphics based
personal computers such as Apple Macintosh and IBM
PC, the costs of both hardware and software droven down.
Millions of graphics computer were sold exclusively for
offices and home. Thus the interactive graphics (GUI) as
the window on the computer became an integral part of
PC featuring graphical interaction.
The reason for making interactive graphics
affordable was the advent of direct-view storage tube (DVST)
which replace buffer and refresh process and eliminated all

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flicker in the system. Before this, buffer memory and

processors were enough only to refresh at 30HZ and only few
thousand lines could be drawn without noticeable flicker.
- Another major hardware advance of late sixties was
attaching a display is a minicomputer, relieving heavy
demands of refreshed display devices (like user-interaction
handling and updating image on the screen) with the
central-time sharing computer.
- In 1968, another such devices was invented. The refresh
display hardware for geometric transformations could
scale, rotate and translate points and lines on the screen at
real time; perform the 2D and 3D clipping and could
produce parallel and perspective projections.
- The development of inexpensive raster graphics, based on
television technology in early seventies contributed more
to the growth of the field. The Raster displays stores
displays stores display primitives (lines, characters or
areas) in a refresh buffer.
The development of graphics cannot be
stand-off without the study of graphics input technology. The
clumsy, fragile light pen has been replaced by mouse, the tablet,
touch panel, digitizers and other devices. Interaction to computer
using devices require no knowledge of programming and only a
little keyboard use; the use makes choices by selecting menus,
icons , check options, places predefined symbols on screen and
draws by indicating consecutive end points to be connected by
lines or interpolated by smooth curves and fills closed areas
bounded by polygons or point contours with shades of gray,
colors on various patterns. Now computer graphics have become
integral and infamous technology in the computers system.

Date: 2065/4/14
Application of computer graphics:
Computer graphics started with the display of
data or hard copy plotter and CRT screens had grown include the
creation, storage and manipulation of mode is of images of
objects. These models come from a diverse set of fields and
include physical mathematical, engineering , architectural,
natural phenomena and so on. There is virtually no area in which
graphical displays cannot be used to some advantages.
Today al most all application
programs even for manipulating text or numerical data uses
graphics extensively in user interface for visualizing and
manipulating the application specific objects. Graphical
interaction has replaced textual interaction with alphanumeric
terminal. Even people who do not use computer encounter
computer graphics in TV commercial or special effects. It is an
integral part of all computer user interfaces and is indepensible
for visualizing 2D, 3D and higher- dimensional objects. We find
computer graphics used in a diverse areas as science, engineering
, medicine business, industry, government, art, entertainment ,
education and others.
COMPUTER AIDED DESING (CAD):
In CAD, interactive graphics is used to design components and
systems of mechanical, electrical, electromechanical and
electronic devices including structures such as buildings,
automobile bodies, airplane, VLSI chips, optical systems and
telephone and computer networks. The emphasis is on
interacting with a computer-based model of the component or

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system being designed in order to test, for example its structural,

electrical or thermal properties. The model is interpreted by a
simulator that feeds back the behavior of system to the user for
further interactive design and test cycles.
Some mechanical parts are manufactured by describing how
the surfaces are to be formed with machine tools. Numerically
controlled machine tools are then set up to manufacture the parts
according to these construction layouts.
Architects are interactive graphics method to layout floor
plans that shows positioning of rooms, doors, windows, stairs,
shelves and other building features. An electrical designer then
try out arrangements for wiring, electrical outlets and other
system to determine space utilization on a building. The realistic
displays then allows architects and their clients to study
appearance of building and even go for a simulated walk
through rooms or around building.
PRESENTATION GRAPHICS:
Another major application areas of computer graphics is the
Presentation Graphics. Presentation Graphics are used to
provide illustrations for reports or to generate transparencies for
use with graphics.
Presentation Graphics is commonly used to summarize
financial, statistical, mathematical, scientific and economic data
for research reports, managerial reports and other types of
reports. Typical examples are bar charts, line graphs, surface
graphs, pie charts and other displays showing relationship
between multiple variables.
The 3D graphics are usually used simply for effects, they can
provide a more digramatic or more attractive presentation of data
relationship.

Date: 2065/4/15
Computer Art:
Computer graphics is used to generate arts. They are widely
used in both fine art and commercial art applications. Fine arts is
drawn by artist hand and this kind of art is perfect to the artist
skill. Artist use a variety of computer methods including specialpurpose hardware, artists paints brush program, other paint
packages, specially developed software. Mathematics packages,
CAD packages, desktop publishing software and animation
packages providing facilities.
Moreover, artists uses a touchpad or a stylus or digitizer to
draw pictures. The movement of object is captured by some
input hardware. These arts are usually generated by using
mathematical functions or algorithms.
Computer art is not as realistic as fine arts. Mostly the
commercial art is used to produce animations to demonstrate or
present commercial products to the public. Find artists uses a
variety of computer techniques to produce images. These images
are created using a combination of 3D modeling package, texture
mapping, drawing programs and CAD software.
These technique for generating electronic images are
also applied in commercial art for logos and other design, page
layouts combining text and graphics, TV advertising sports, and
other areas. Animations are also used frequently in advertising
and TV commercial and produce frame by frame, where each
frame of the motion is rendered and saved as an image file.
A common graphics method exployed in many
commercials is morphing, where one object is transformed into
another.

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Education and training:

Computer graphics is used in education and
training for making it more effective and more illustrative. E.g if
a teacher is to teach bonding of molecules or electron jump form
higher energy state to lower energy state or the structure of gene.
Then he can demonstrate these concepts using computer graphics
software or presentations.
Another example could be taken for surgery. A
student can learn surgery using data gloves and realistic
computer graphics. This way the cost of education will be low
and risk of human life as well. Other examples could be flight
simulator and driving simulator for pilot and driving training.
Modes of physical systems, physiological systems,
population trends or equipments such as the color coded diagram
helping trainees to understand the operation of the system.
Entertainment: Computer graphics methods are new commonly
used in making motion pictures, music videos and TV shows.
Images are drawn in wire-frame form and will be shaded with
rendering methods to produce solid surfaces. Music videos use
graphics in several ways. Graphics objects can be combined with
the line action.
Computer graphics are also used to introduce virtual
characters to movies like character in Lord of the Rings.
Visualization: Some methods generate very large amount of
data/information for example a survey of one lakh peoples
choice for using different toothpaste generates large amount of
data. Analysing the property of the whole amount of data.
Analysing the property of the whole amount of data is very
difficult. If we try to locate each and every data value. Therefore

to visualize large amount of information graphical computer

systems are used.
Image Processing: Image can be created using simple point
program or can be fed into computer by scanning the image.
These picture/ images need to be changed to improve the quality.
Form image/pattern recognition systems, images need to be
changed in specified format so that the system can recognize the
meaning of the picture. For example scanners with OCR features
must have letters similar to standard font set.
Graphical user Interface: GUIs have become key factors for
the success of the software or operating system. GUI uses
graphical objects called gizmos to represent certain objects or
process involved in human computer communication for virtual
purpose. Lots of aesthetics (colors) and psychological analysis
have been done to create user friendly GUI. The most popular
GUI is windows based GUI. The GUI creators are putting having
emphasis on 3D GUI creation.
2.0 HARDWARE CONCEPT: Input device are used to feed
data or information into a computer system. They are usually
used to provide input to the computer upon which reaction,
outputs are generated. Data input devices like keyboards are used
to provide additional data to the computers whereas pointing and
selection devices like mouse , light pens, touch panels are used to
provide visual and indication-input to the application.
2.1 Keyboard, Mouse , Light pen, Touch screen and Tablet
input hardware:

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Keyboard: Keyboard is a primary serial input device. For each

key press, a keyboard senses specific codes(American standard
code for Information Interchange, ASCII) to the computes.
Keyboards are also capable of sending/coding combinations of
key press and special keys like function keys. The coding for the
combination of key pressing is called chording. It is useful for
expert users in giving exact commands to the computer. Cursorcontrolled keys and function keys are used for doing operations
in a single keystroke.
Other types of cursor-pointer devices are trackball or joystick.
A numeric keypad is after included on the keyboard for fast entry
of numeric data.
Several different technologies are used to detect a key
depression including mechanical contact closure, change in
capacitance and magnetic coupling. Chording is not possible
with standard coded keyboard, which returns only an ASCII
code per keystrokes and returns nothing if two keys are pressed
simultaneously. An unencoded keyboard can identify of all key
press simultaneously allowing chording.
Mouse (Mechanical and optical): Mouse is a serial input
device used to select object movement in graphics system. It
converts horizontal movement into vertical movement. Primary
principle of curser movement is to detect the amount of
displacement of mouse in horizontal plane. This displacement is
mapped into screen. Generally the mapping ratio is 1:8 .
According to their working mechanism tow types of mouse are
there. They are:
Mechanical mouse and
Optical Mouse.

Mechanical mouse contains two rollers. One rollers count

horizontal displacement and another roller counts vertical
displacement. The motion of the roller in the base of mechanical
mouse is converted to digital values that are used to determine
the direction and magnetic of movement.
Optical mouse uses a special mouse pad with a matrix of Black
and white grid of lines. The matrix reflects light from the LED
on the bottom of the mouse. The intensity/quality of reflected
light varies as Black and white lines reflects it alternatively. The
alternate reflections are used to calculate the relative position
change.
Advantages:
None of the part of computer screen is obscure (hidden
from head).
Movement becomes easier as had rests at a desk for
movement.
Direct-point- and click.
Easy to use and understand.
Light Pens: Light pens are pencil shaped devices used to select
screen positions by detecting the light coming from points on the
CRT screen. They are sensitive to the short burst of light emitted
from the phosphor coating as the instant electron beam strikes a
particular point. Other light sources , such as background light in
the room are usually not detected by a light pen.
An activated light pen pointed at a spot on the screen as the
electron beam light. Some of that spot generates an electrical
pulse that causes the co-ordinate position of the electron beam to
be recorded.

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Disadvantages:
When used for long time, leads to an arm pain.
Some part of the screen will be obscure by hand.
Cannot read black pixel position.
Reading might be errorous if background light has very
high intensity.
Date:2065/4/16
Touch-Panel: Touch panels are a sensitive surface that is used
to point directly. The panel can be touched by finger or any other
object like stylus Transparent touch panels are integrated with
computer monitor for the manipulation of information display.
A basic touch panel senses voltage drop when a user
touches the panel. It knows where the voltage has dropped and
accordingly calculates the touch position.
- Resistant based touch panel uses two substances of glass
or plastic separates by insulators. When a user touches the
panel these two substances are connected and the resistance
at that point will drop down. The resistance drop is sensed
and the touch position is calculated.
- In capacitance based touch panel, some charge is spread
on the screen. When user touches the panel the charge is
drawn by finger form each side proportionally. The sensor
calculates the charge in frequency of charge/voltage and
find out the touch position.
- In Acoustic(Sound) based touch panel uses very high
frequency (5 Mhz). The sound waves are generated from
X-axis and Y-axis sides are reflected from opposite side of
either axis. When user touches the panel, the sound waves

are interrupted and reflected back from their mid wave. The
sensors on the X -axis and Y-axis sides measured the time,
the sound waves took to get reflected back and estimate the
touch position.
- An optical touch panel uses Infra red (IR) emitters and
sensor on X and Y-axis sides, emitter are placed and on the
apposite sides sensors are placed when a user touches the
screen, the point will interrupt two IR beam from X and yaxis. This is detected by IR sensors and the touch position
is calculated.
Advantages:
Touch panel can be mounted an display screen leaving
more space on desktop but mouse, joystick etc. take some
space.
Tablets (Electronic, Sonic and Resistive ): A common device
for drawing, painting or interactively selecting co-ordinate
position on an object is a digitizer. Typically a digitizer is used to
scan over a drawing on object and to input a set of discrete coordinate position which can be joined with straight line segments
to approximate the curve surface shape.
One type of digitizer is Graphics tablets (data tablets),
which is used to input two dimensional (2D) co-ordinate by
activity a hand curser or stylus as selected position, flat surface.
A had curser contains cross hairs for sighting position, while a
stylus is a pencil shaped device that is pointed to the position of
the tablet. Many graphics tablets are constructed with a
rectangular grid of wires embedded on the tablet surface.
Electromagnetic pulses are generated in sequence along the wires
and an electric signal is induced in a wire coil. In an activated
stylus or hand curser to record tablet position.

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Acoustic (Sonic) tablets use sound waves to detect a stylus

position. Either strip microphones or point microphones are used
to detect the sound emitted by an electrical spark from a stylus
tip. The position of the stylus is calculated by calculating the
arrival time of generated sound at different microphone position.

CPU

Application:
- Digitizing a drawing in a book.

System
Memory

Display
Processor
(Graphic
controller)

System bus

Date: 2065/4/19
2.2 Raster and vector display architecture:

I/O Device

Fig. Architecture of a simple random scna system

Random Scan (or vector display system or Stoke writing or

Calligraphic systems):
- In a random scan display, an image on the screen is drawn
with one line at time and for this reason it is also called
vector display.
- A typical organization a vector system is shown below.
- An application program is input and stored in the system
memory along with the graphic package.
-

Display
Commman

Other
state

Display
Controller
System bus

JAYA
RAM

Mouse
Keyboard

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Fig. Random scan system drawing through the component

lines of an object in any order specified.
- Graphics commands in the application program are
translated by the graphic package in to a display file stored
in the system memory.
- This display file is then accessed by the display processor
to refresh the screen.
- Sometimes the display processor in a random scan is
referred to as a display processing unit or a graphics
controller.
- The buffer stores the computer produce display list or
display program which contains points and line plotting
commands with (x,y) and end point co-ordinates as well as
character plotting commands.
- The commands for plotting points lines and characters are
interpreted by the display processor.

- It sends digital and points co-ordinates to a vector

generator that converts digital co-ordinates values to
analog voltages for beam deflection circuits that display an
electron beam writing on CRT phosphor coating.
- The main principal of the vector system is that the beam is
deflected form end point to end point as detected by
arbitrary order of the display commands term as random
scan.
- Since the light out put of phosphor decays in tens or
hundreds of microseconds, the display processor must
cycle through the display list to refresh the phosphor at
least 30 times per seconds (Hz) to have flicker hence the
buffer holding display list is usually called a refresh
buffer. (Note: jump instruction in the figure above in
refresh buffer is to provide cyclic refresh.
- A CRT beam in this system is adjusted in such a way that
electron beam only hits the spot where the graphics is to
be drawn.
- Thus the refresh rate in this system depends upon the
number of lines to be displayed.
- Random scan display are design to draw all the component
lines of pictures 30 to 60 times per seconds.
- Vector display system are mostly used for line drawing
applications and can not display realistic shaded scenes.
- It produces smooth line drawing because the CRT beam
directly follows the line path definitions that are stored in
the form of line drawing commands.
Disadvantages:
- When the number of command in the buffer goes high the
system take long time to process and draw pictures.
- Cannot apply shading features.

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Date: 2065/4/20
Raster Display:

- Stored intensity values are retrieved form the refresh

buffer and painted on the screen on scan line (one row at a
time).
- It is suited for realistic scenes containing shading and
color pattern.
- In monochrome monitor frame buffer consists of one bit
per each pixel and for color monitor frame buffer consists
of 24 bits for each pixel.
- The refresh rate for this system is at the rate of 60 to 80
frame per second. i.e refresh rate are described in units of
cycle per second.
Raster Scan Display:

Fig. A raster scan system displays an object as a set of discrete

points across each scan line.
The raster graphics developed in early 70s.
It is common CRT monitor.
It is based on TV technology.
In this system, electron beam swaps across the screen one
row at a time form top to bottom.
- Beam intensity vary (on or off) by the movement of
electron beam across each room.
- Picture definitions are stored in refresh buffer or frame
buffer which holds the setup intensity values for all the
screen point also known as pixel. (pel)

C PU

System
Memory

System bus

I/O Device

Fig: Raster scan display

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Diplay
Processor
(Graphic
controlled)

Moniter

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CPU

system
memroy

Frame
Buffer

- Scan line are labeled from Ymax at the top of screen to

zero at the bottom.
- Scan line are labeled from 0 to Xmax .

Video
Controller

Date: 2065/4/21
Video Controller:
System bus

Raster-scan
Generatro

x
Registor

I/O Device

Fig. Architecture of a raster system with a fixed positon

of the system memory requred for the frame buffer

- Interactive raster graphic generally employ several

processing units.
- In addition to the CPU a special buffer processor called
video controller or display controller is used to control the
operations of display device.
- Frame buffer can be any where in the system memory, and
the video controller accesses the frame buffer to refresh
the screen.
- A fixed area of system memory is reserved for the frame
buffer.
- Video controller direct access the frame buffer.
- Frame buffer location and corresponding screen position
are reference in Cartesian co-ordinate.
- Generally the co-ordinate origin is defined at the lower left
screen corner.
- Positive X value increases to the right and positive Y
value increases from bottom to top.
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y
Registor

Pixel
Registor

Memory
Address

Intensity

Frame buffer

Fig. Basic video controller Refresh operation.

- Two register are used to store the co-ordinates of the

screen pixel.
- Initially the X register is set 0 and Y register is set to ymax .
- The value stored in the frame buffer for this pixel position
is then retrieved and then used to set the intensity of CRT
beam.

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- Then the x register is increased by one and process

repeated for the next pixel in the top scan line.
- This process is repeated for each pixel along line.
- When the last pixel of the top scan line has been processed
the x register is reset to zero and y register is decremented
by 1 pixels on the screen lines are processed against
inturn; and the process is repeated for each successive scan
line.
- After cycling though each pixel along the bottom scan line
(y =0) the video controller resets the register the first pixel
poison on the top scan line and refresh process starts over.
- Screen must be refresh at least at the rate of 60 frames per
second.
- To speed of the pixel processing video controller can
retrieve multiple pixel values from the refresh buffer on
each pass. The multiple pixel intensity are then stored in a
separate register and used to controlled the CRT bit
intensity for a group of adjacent pixel. When that group of
pixel has been processes the next block of pixel values is
retrieved from the frame buffer.
- Besides these refresh operation video controller also
performs different operation video controller retrieved
pixel intensity from different memory area on different
refresh cycle.
- In high quality system, for example , two frame buffers are
often provided so that gun buffer can be used for
refreshing while the other is being filled with intensity
values.
- This provides a fast mechanism for generating real time
animations seans different views of moving object can be
successively loaded in the refresh buffer.

- Video controller also contain a look up table instead of

controlling CRT beam intensity directly. This provides a
fast mechanism for changing screen intensity values.
Date: 2065/4/22
Random Scan display Processor:
- Figure given below shows the architecture of raster
graphic system with a display processor.
- It contains a separate display processor the purpose of the
display processor is to free the CPU form graphics loads.
It is also called graphic controller or display co-processor.
Display
processor
memory

Frame
Buffer

Video
Controller
Monitor

CPU

Display
processor

System
Memory

System bus

I/O Device

Fig. Architecture of raster graphics system with a display

processor
The system memory holds the data plus those program that
execute on CPU: the application program, graphics package and
operation system. Similarly display processor holds data plus the
programs that perform scan conversion and the raster operation.

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The frame buffer contain the displayable image created by the

scan conversion and raster operation.
- It has also a separate display processor or memory area in
addition to system memory.
- The major task of display processor is digitizing a picture
definition given in an application program into a set of
pixel intensity values for storage in the frame buffer.
- This process is called scan conversion.
- Graphic commands specifying straight line and another
geometric objects are scan converted into a set of discrete
intensity point.
- Can converting a straight line sequence means that we
have to locate the pixel position close to the line path and
store the intensity for each position in a frame buffer.
- Similar methods are used for scan converting curved lines
and polygon outlines.
- Character can be defined with rectangular grids or they
can be defined as curved outlines.
- The array size of character grids can vary from about 5 by
7 to 9 by 12 or more for high quality display.
- Character grid is display by superimposing the
rectangular grid pattern into the frame buffer at a
specified co-ordinate position.
- Display processor is also design to perform the number of
additional operation.
- It is used for various liens style (Dashed, dotted or solid),
displaying color areas and perform certain transformation
and manipulation on displayed objects.

1. Since the picture definition is stored as the set of line-drawing

instructions and not as a set of intensity values foe all screen
points, vector displays generally have higher resolution than
raster systems. For these reasons, random-scan systems are
designed for line-drawing applications and cannot display
realistic shaded scenes. Moreover, vector displays produce
smooth line drawings because CRT beam directly follows a line
path but raster system in contrast produces jagged lines that are
plotted as a discrete point sets.
Figure below illustrates this:

Fig.: Various Scan Methods

2. Raster scan is easier and less expensive to implement than in

Comparison between raster and vector graphics:

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random scan system, whose vector generators must be highly

accurate to provide linearity and repeatability of beams
deflection.
3. One major advantages of raster graphics over vector graphics
includes the ability to display areas filled with solid colors or
patterns. Moreover, the refresh process is independent of
complexity (i.e. no. of lines) of image and each pixel in buffer
can be read out on each refresh cycles, allowing flicker free
display.
4. Major disadvantage of raster system compared to vector
system is the discrete nature of the pixel representation. This
happens due to scan-conversion of end points (vertices) into their
component pixels in frame buffer. This can be shown in figure
below:

5. Another drawback of raster system arises from the nature of

raster itself. A vector system can draw continuous, smooth line
(curves) from any point on the CRT face to other, the raster
system displays these lines (curves) mathematically using
various algorithms causing problems of jaggering or
staircasing.

Fig. (a): Actual Line

Fig. (b): Jagged Raster Line

Date:2065/4/23

Fig (b): Scan Converted

Fig (a): Actual thick

Fig. Discrete Pixel Representation

Architecture of Graphical display terminals:

Colored CRT monitor
The CRT displays color picture by using the
combination of phosphorous that emits different color light . By
combining the emitted light from the different phosphorous
range of color can be generate. Two basic technique for
producing color display with CRT are:
1. Beam penetration method:
2. Shadow-mask Method. (Roster).
Beam penetration method: This is a random scan method in this
method a line is created. CRT beam is adjusted in such a way

14
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that electron beam only hits the spots where picture is to be

drawn. Two phosphorus layer (Red and green) are adjusted such
that outer layer should red and inner layer should be green. The
color picture depends on how far the electron beam penetrates.
The slow electron beam only excite outer red layer. The high
speed electron beam excite inner green layer. At the intermediate
speed, the combination of red and green lights are emitted to
show two additional colors orange or yellow.

screen shadow mask grid is placed whose number is same as a

number of pixel. Three electron gun is adjusted for each
phosphorous. The electron beams is detected and focus on the
shadow mask hole. The Passed from the hole activate the dot
triangle and produce the color spot on the screen. The color of
pixel is controlled by light of intensity. By combing three color,
17 million color can be obtained. For true color each pixel has 24
bits in the frame buffer.
Date:2065/5/2

Shadow mask grid

Electron gun

Chapter : 3
Line Drawing Algorithm:
The Cartesian slope equation of a
Scan line Algorithm:
straight line as, y = mx+b .(i)
When m represents the slope of the line and b as the y intercept.
y
Magnified phosphorous
dot trigger
(x2,y2)

y2

Figure: Operation of delta shadow mask method

(x1,y1)
y1

Operation of delta-delta mask CRT. These electron guns aligned

with the triangular color dot patterns on the screen, are directed
to each do triangle by a shadow mask.
It is used in raster scan system object is the set of discrete point
across each scan line. Three types of phosphorus dots is coated
in each pixel that is red, green and blue. Just behind the CRT

x1

x2

Suppose two end points of a lien segment at positions (x1,y1) and

(x2,y2) are shown in fig.
y y
1
2 x .(ii)

m=x

2
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b = y mx .(iii)
For any given x-interval

x along the line, we compute the

corresponding y- intercept y form equation (ii).

y = m x (iv)

x= y
These equations form the basis of determining deflection voltage
in analog devices.
Case: I
For m < 1,

DDA ( Digital differential Analyzer):

This algorithm samples the line at unit interval in one-coordinate
and determines corresponding integer values nearest the line path
for other co-ordinates.
The equation of the line is,
Y = mx+b.(i)
m = y2-y1/x2-x1 ..(ii)
For any interval

x , corresponding interval is given by

y=m

x.
Case I :

Then

x can be proportional to a small horizontal deflection

voltage and the corresponding vertical deflection is set to

calculated from equation (iv).

y as

m < 1 , we sample at unit x interval i.e

x = 1.

Xk+1 = xk+1 ..(iii)

Then we compute each successive y-values,

Case: II
For m >1

y=m
Yk+1 = yk + m ..(iv)

Then, y can be set proportional to a small vertical deflection

voltage with the corresponding horizontal voltage set

Case: II

proportional to

successive x-values.

x calculated from equation (V)

Case III
When m = 1, then x = y and then horizontal and vertical
voltages equal.
Comments:
1. It uses multiplication
2. It uses float operation.

m > 1, we sample at unit y-interval i.e

y = 1 and compute each

Therefore, 1 = m x
x = 1/m
Xk+1- xk = 1/m..(v)
Yk+1 = y k + 1.(vi)
Above equation hold for the lines processed from left end to
right end. For the reverse process i. e if the line is to be
processed form right to left then,

16
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y

For m <1, x = -1
Xk+1 = xk-1
Yk+1 = yk- m

18
16
14
12
11
10
8
6
4
2

For m >1, y = -1
Yk+1 =y-k +1 (ix)
Xk+1= xk -1/m.(x)
Therefore , in general,
Yk+1 = y m
xk+1 = xk 1 for m < 1
yk+1= yk 1
xk+1 = xk 1/m

x
2 4 6 8 10 11 12 14 16 18 202224 26

for m >1

y 2 y1 30 15 15
=
= =3
x x
15 10 3
2

(10 ,15)

Eg. Example: Digitize a line with end points (10,15) and (15,
30).
Solution:
The slope of line is
m=

(11 ,17)

m >1

So we sample at y interval. The formula is given by xk+1 =

xk+1/m.

S.N
1
2
3
4

x
10
10
11
11

y
15
16
17
18

Comments:
1. It is faster to calculate pixel position.
2. Due to propagation of round off errors due to successive
addition the calculated pixel may shift among from the
true line path.
Algorithm:
1. Declare the variables, x1,y1 and x2 , y2 dx, dy ,del x, del y
as real and k as integer.
2. Perform
dx = x2-x1
dy = y2 y1
3. Test if |dy|<|dx| then
Steps = |dx|

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Else steps = |dy|

k+1

4. set del x = dx/steps

del y = dy/steps
x= x1
y = y1
5. Plot (x, y)
6. Do for k = 1 to
steps x = x+ delx
y = y +del y

d2

Plot (x,y)
End do.
Date: 2065/5/3
3.Bresenhans line Algorithm (BLA) :
DDA includes calculation related to m and 1/m which is little
complicated. Bresenhans improves DDA algorithm by only
involving integer calculation. .

Bresenhans Algorithm selects the best pixel co-ordinate by

testing the sign of an integer parameter whose value is
proportional to the difference between the separation of two
pixel actual line path.
Case I:
m < 1 m >0
Let (xk, yk) be the pixel position determined then the next pixel
to be plotted is either (xk+1,yk) or (xk+1,yk+1)

Let d1 and d2 be the seperatio of pixel position (xk+1, yk) and

(xk+1, yk+1) from the actual line path.

13
12

Y = mx +b
Then, at smapling position (xk+1)
Y = m(xk+1) +b
From fig.

11
10
9
8
7
8

10 11

12

13

14 15

d1 = y y k
d2 = yk+1- y
d1 - d2 = (y yk) (yk+1-y)

th

Let us define a decision parameter Pk for the k step by

18 Pk = x (d1- d2)
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Pk+1 = pk + 2 y 2 x (vi)
Therefore, Initial decision parameter. P0

x>0,
Therefore, Pk <0 if d1 < d2
Pk 0 , if d1 > d2
Pk =

=2

= 2

x{ y-yk (yk+1 y )}

=
=

x{ 2{ m(xk+1)+b} 2 yk 1}
x 2yk

x +(2m+2b-1)

y xo- 2

xyo +( 2m+ 2b-1) x

x yo + 2 m

Pk = 2. ( y/ x).xk x -2yk x +( 2m+2b-1)

x P k = 2 y xk 2 x yk +c

=2

y xo - 2

Po = 2

x yo + 2

y+2

P0 = 2

Pk+1 = pk +2

y .(iv)

If pk 0 then we plot upper pixel.

Therefore, yk+1 = yk+1..(v)

y/ x. xo

#. Digitize a line with end points ( 15, 18) and (10,15) using BLA

Pk+1 Pk = 2

i.e pk+1 = pk +2 y 2 x ( yk+1

yk) Where,
Yk+1 yk = o or 1
If pk< 0 , then we plot lower pixel
Yk+1 = y k (iii)

xyo+ 2

Pk+1 = 2 x xk+1 2 x yk+1

+c.(ii) From (i) and (ii)
x ( yk+1- yk)

x
x

y = /15-18/ = 3
x = /10-15/ = 5
m < 1, we sample at x direction.
First pixel ,(10, 15)

y (xk+1- xk) 2

y xo- 2 x yo + 2. ( y/ x). x + 2 ( yo mxo) x

Solution:
Where, C = (2m+2b-1) x is a
constant. Now, for next step,

x + 2b

=2

x{2mxk + 2m + 2b-2yk-1} since, xk+1=

xk+1 Pk = 2mxk

x yo + c [ from (i)]

= 2 y xo 2

x{ y-yk- yk-1+y} since, yk+1 = yk+1

Pk =

y xo 2

y x
= 2 3- 5
=1
We know that
, If pk < 0
Pk+1 = pk+2 y
yk+1 = yk
if p 0
Pk+1 = pk + 2 y 2 x
19 Yk+1 = yk+1
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We have pk 0,
So, p1 = p0 + 2 y 2 x
=1+2x32x5
= -3

20
19
18

P2 = p1+ 2 y
= - 3+2 x 3
=3

17
16
11

12

13 14

15

# Digitize a line with end points ( 15, 15 ) and (10, 18 ) use BLE

P3 = p2 + 2 y 2 x
= 3+ 2 x 3 2 x 5
= 9 10
= -1

and DDA.
Solution:

Pk

xk+1 , yk+1

11,

16

1
2

-3
3

12,
13,

16
17

-1

14,

17

15,

18

y = /15-18/ = 3
y = / 10-15/ = 5
m = 3/ 5 = 0.6
m < 1, we sample at x direction,
First pixel , ( 10, 15)
Note:
P0 = 2 y x
For, Pk 0 ,
=235
Pk+1 = pk+ 2 y 2 x
yk+1 = yk-1 ( when the slope is ve )
=1
We know that,
Pk < 0
If pk 0
Pk+1 = pk + 2 y
P1 = po + 2 y 2 x
Yk+1 = yk
=1+2x32x5
-3
Pk < 0
P2 = pk + 2 y.
= -3 + 2 x 3
=3
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2. Load (x0, y0) into the frame buffer; that is plot the first
point.

P3 = p2 + 2 y 2 x
= 3 + 23 2 5
= -1
Pk < 0
P4 = p3 + 2 y
= -1+ 23
=5
K
0
1
2
3
4

pk
1
-3
3
-1
5

3. Calculate constants x, y , 2 y and 2 y 2 x and

obtained the starting value for the decision parameter as ;
po = 2

xk+1
11
12
13
14
15

yk+1
17
17
16
16
15

4. At each xk along the line, starting at k= 0 , perform the

following test:
If pk <0 the next point to plot is ( xk+1, yk) and pk+1 = pk +2

y.

Otherwise , the next point to plot is ( xk+1, yk+1) and pk+1= pk+
2

y2

5. Repeat step 4
20

x times.

# Digitize a line with end point s( 20, 10) and (30, 18). The slope
of the line is 0.8 using BLE.

19
18
17
16

Case:II m > 1

15
10

11 12 13

14

15 16

Date: 2065/5/4
Bresenhams line algorithm:
1. Input the tow line end points and store the end point in (x0,
y0)

d1

d2

yk+1

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xk

xxk+1

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y ( x- xk+1+x)

=
=

y ( 2x xk+1 + x)
y ( 2x 2xk + 1) [ since, xk+1 = xk+1]
b

y
=

yk+3

2xk

1 }

yk+2
yk+1

y/m{2(yk+1-b) 2xkm m}

x { 2 ( yk+1 b) 2 xk ( y/ x)

yk

xk xk+1 xk+2

=2
Let (xk, yk) be the pixel position determined then the next pixel
to the plotted is either ( xk+1, yk+1) or ( xk, yk+1)
Let d1 and d2 be the separation of the pixel positons ( xk, yk+1)
and ( xk+1, yk+1) for the actual line path.

Y = mx +b
The actual value of x is given by
x = (y-b)/m
Sampling position at yk+1

Pk = y ( d1- d2)
y>0
Pk < 0 if d1 < d2
Pk 0, if d1 d2
y (d1 d2)

x( yk+1-b)- 2

y . xk

y/

x}

= 2 x yk 2 y xk + 2(1-b) x y
Pk = 2 x yk 2 y xk + c ..(ii)
Let C = 2 ( 1-b) x y
Now for next step,
Pk+1 = 2 x yk+1 2 y xk+1 + c.(iii)
From equation (i) and (ii)
Pk+1 pk = 2 x ( yk+1- yk) 2 y ( xk+1- xk)

Form figure,
d1 = x - xk
d2 = xk+1 x
Let us define a decision parameter pk and Pk is defined by,

Pk =

y{2 k +1

Pk+1 = pk + 2

x ( yk+1- yk) 2

y ( xk+1 xk)

Where, , xk+1- xk = 0 or 1
If pk 0
Pk+1 = pk + 2 x 2 y
We plot , xk+1 = xk+1, yk+1 = yk+1
P< 0
Pk+1 = Pk+ 2 x
Xk+1 = xk
For initial parameter,

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Po = 2

x yo 2

i. Check if (y 1>y2) then,

y xo +c

t = x1; x1 = x2 ; x2 = t

=2

x yo 2

=2

x yo 2

=2

x yo 2

yxo+2 x 2 (yo mxo)

=2

x yo 2

y xo + 2

Po = 2

y xo + 2 ( 1-b)
y xo + 2

x 2b

t = y1 , y1 = y2 ; y2 = t.
ii. Find initial decision parameters. P = 2dx dy
iii. Plot the first point (x1,y1)

iv.

x 2 x yo + 2. ( y/ x).xo

x-

Repeat the following till y1 < y2

a. If P< 0 then , P = P+2dx.

Else, P = P+ 2dx-2dy
X1 = x1 +a

Note: m < 1, x-direction sample. xk+1 = xk+1

m > 1, y direction sample. yk+1 = yk +

Date: 2065/5/10

Bresenhams Complete algorithm:

1. Input the two end points (x1,y1) and (x 2,y2)

2.

Compute dx= |x2 x1| and dy = |y2 y1|

3. If x2 x1 < 0 and y2 y1 > 0 or x2-x1>0 and y2 y1 < 0.

Then set a = -1, else a = 1
4. If dy < dx then,
i. If x1>x2 then, t = x1 ; x1 = x2 ; x2= t
t = y1 ; y1 = y2 ; y2 = t
ii. Find initial decision parameter P = 2dy - dx
iii. Plot the first pixel (x1, y1)
iv. Repeat the following till /x1/ < /x2/
a. If P< 0 then,
P = P+ 2dy
Else, P = P+ 2dy 2dx
y = y1+a
b. Increase x1 by 1 i.e x1 = x1+1
c. Plot (x1,y1)
5. Else /m/>1
23

b. Increase y1 by 1. i.e y1 = y1+1

c. Plot (x1,y1)
points that ar all at a
Circle: A cicle is defined as a set of
given distance r
from the centre position (xc,
yc). This
distance relationship is expressed by the pythogorean theorem
2
2
2
in cartesian co-ordinate as (x x1) + (y-y1) = r
Methods to draw circle:
a. Direct method
b. Trigonometric method
c. Midpoint Circle method.
Direct method:
2
2
2
X +y = r ; y = r 2 x 2
Trigonometric method:
x = xcos , y = ysin
Bresenhams mid point algorithm :
This is also a scan conveting algorithm . The equation of the
2
2
2
circle with the centre (h,k) is given by , (x-h) +(y-k) = r
.(i)

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2 2

When, h = 0, x = 0 then the equation of the circle at origin x +y

2
= r (ii)
Differentiating both sides,
2x+2y dy/dx = 0
Or dy/dx = -x/y , where , dy/dx = slope
Now , if dy/dx = 0, then x = 0.
If, dy/dx = -1, then x = y

The cicle function tests are performed for the mid position
between pixels near the circle path at each sampling step.

yk
yk -1
Mid

x +

Point

y2

=r

(0,r)
(-y,x)

(y,x)

xk xk+1 xk+2
(-x,y)

(x,y)

Fig. Midpoint between candidate pixels at sampling position

xk+1 along a circular path.

(r,0)
(-x,-y)

Here assume that we have just plotted the pixel (xk,yk ). We next
need to determine whether the pixel at position (xk+1,yk) or the
one at the position (xk+1,yk-1) is closer to the circle.

(x,-y)

(-y,-x)

(y,-x)

Fig. Symmetry of circle

Consider circle section for x = 0, x = y where slope of the curve
varies from 0 to1.Calculation of circle point (x,y) in one octant
gives the circle point shown for the other seven octants. To apply
the mid point we define a circle function as,
2 2
2
fcicle (x,y) = x +y r
..(iii) Suppose,
f(x,y) = < 0 if (x,y ) is inside the circle boundary.
= 0 if (x,y) is on the circle boundary.
>0 , if (x,y ) is outside the circle boundary.

The decision parameter is the circle function which we have

evaluated in equation (iii) at the mid point between these two
pixel.
I,e Pk = fcicle ( xk+1, yk-1/2)
2

= (xk +1) +(yk -1/2) r

..(iv)

If pk< 0 , this mid pixel is inside the circle and the pixel on the scan
line yk is closer to the circle boundary . Otherwise the mid point is
outside or on the circle boundary , and we select the 24 pixel yk -1,
successive decision parameters can be obtained

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using incremental calculation. We obtained a recursive

expression for the next decision parameter by evaluating the
circle function at sampling position.
Xk+1 +1 = xk +2

For initial decision parameter.

(x0,y0) = (0,r)
Hence , P0 = f(x0+1, yo- )
= f( 1, r-1/2) 2
2
= 1+ (r-1/2) r
2

= (xk+1+1) + ( yk+1-1/2) r

(v)

Substituting equation (iv) from (v).

2

Pk+1 pk = (xk+1 + 1 ) + (yk+1- ) (xk +1) - (yk- ) .(VI)

If pk 0 , the mid position lies on outside the circle hence, xk+1

= xk+1, y k+1 = yk -1;
Now from equation (vi)
xk+1 = xk +1

= 1 + r r + 1/4 r

Pk+1 = fcircle (xk+1+1 ,yk+1 )

Pk+1 = pk + (xk + 1+1) + (yk-1-1/2) (xk+1) (yk )

2
= pk+(xk + 1)+ 2(xk+1). 1 + 1 + (yk -1/2) -2 ( yk -1/2).1 + 1
2
2
(xk +1) (yk-1/2)
Pk+1 = pk + 2(xk+1- yk+1)+1.(vii)
Where xk+1 = xk +1, yk+1 = yk 1;
If pk < 0, the midpoint lies inside the circle,
Xk+1 = xk + 1, yk+1 = yk
Substituting the value in equation (vi)
2
2
2
2
Pk+1 = pk + (xk+1 +1 ) + (yk ) (xk+1) (yk )
2
2
= Pk + (xk+1) + 2(xk+1).1. + 1 (xk +1)
= Pk + 2(xk +1)+1
= Pk + 2(xk+1)+1
Therefore, Pk+1 = pk + 2xk+1 +1 .(viii)

Po = 5/4 r
Po = 1-r
P = 1-r .(ix) since 5 and 4 are integer values so can be
rendered off.
2

Date: 2065/5/12

# Digitize x +y = 100 in first

octant. Given,
Centre = (0, 0)
Radius (r ) = 10
We demonstrate the mid point circle algorithm by determining
positions along the circle octant in the first quadrant from x = 0,
to x = y.
The initial value of the decision parameter is
Po = 1-r
= 1 10
= -9
Successive decision parameter values are positions along the
circle path are calculated using mid-point method as,
Pk+1 = pk + 2xk+1 + 1 ( Pk<0)
Set , xk+1 = xk +1 , yk+1 = yk
Pk+1 = pk + 2xk+1 2yk+1 + 1 ( Pk >
0) Set xk+1 = xk + 1, yk+1 = yk 1

25
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K
1
1
2
3
4
5
6

Pk
-9
-6
-1
6
-3
8
5

xk+1 yk+1
(1,10)
(2,10)
(3,10)
(4,9)
(5,9)
(6,8)
(7,7)

2xk+1
2
4
6
8
10
12
14

2yk+1
20
20
20
18
18
16
14

10
9

Yk+1 = yk
Pk+1 = pk + 2xk+1 2yk+1 + 1 (pk 0)
Yk+1 = yk -1
K
0
1
2
3

pk
-4
-1
4
3

xk+1 yk+1
(1,5)
(2,5)
(3,4)
(4,3)

2xk+1
2
4
6
8

2yk+1
10
10
8
6

(1,5)
(-1,5)
(-1,-5)
(1,-5)
(5,1)
(5,-1)
(-5,-1)
(-5,1)

Actual pixel
(3,8)
(x,y)
(1,8)
(-x,y)
(1,-2)
(-x,-y)
(3,-2)
(x,-y)
(7,4)
(y,x)
(7,2)
(y,-x)
(-3,2)
(-y,-x)
(-3,4)
(-y,x)

(2,5)

(4,8)

(-2,5)

(0,8)

(-2,-5)
(2,-5)
(5,2)

(0,-2)
(4,-2)
(7,5)

(5,-2)

(7,1)

(-5,-2)
(-5,2)

(-3,1)
(-3,5)

Other pixel
(1,5)

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0

6 7

# Digitize a circle (x-2) + (y-3) = 25

Solution:
Center C (h,k) = ( 2,3)
Radius (r ) = 5
st
1 pixel (0,5)
Po = 1-r
= 1-5
= -4
Pk+1 = pk + 2xk+1 + 1 (pk< 0)

(2,5)

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(3,4)

(3,4)
(-3,4)
(-3,-4)
(3,-4)
(4,3)
(4,-3)
(-4,-3)
(-4,3)

(5,7)
(-1,7)
(-1,-1)
(5,-1)
(6,6)
(6,0)
(-2,0)
(-2,6)

8
7
6
5
Centre

4
3
2
1

(4,3)

(4,3)
(-4,3)
(-4,-3)
(4,-3)
(3,4)
(3,-4)
(-3,-4)
(-3,4)

(6,6)
(-2,6)
(-2,0)
(6,0)
(5,7)
(5,-1)
(-1,-1)
(-1,7)

0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2

3 4

5 6

Complete
Algorithm:
1. Get the input centre (xc, yc) and radius of the circle.
2. Set x = 0, and y = r.
3. Plot the first point and its symmetry at appropriate
positions by x = x+xc , y = y + yc
4. Compute the initial decision parameter. P = 1- r
5. Repeat the following till x < y.
i. Set x = x+1.
ii. Check if P< 0 then.
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P = P+2x +
1 Else,
y = y-1
p = p+2x 2y +1
iii. Shift the point (x, y) and its symmetry points by x = x+xc
, y = y+yc and plot.
iv. sdf
Ellipse: Ellipse is an elongated circle. Therefore elliptical curves
can be generated by modifying circle drawing
procedures to take into
account the different dimensions of an
ellipse along the major and minor axes.
The equation of ellipse in standard form is given by
,
2 2
2 2
x /a + y /b = 1
2 2
Therefore, y = +- b (1-x /a )
y

(0,b)

(-x,y)

R1

Let us define an ellipse function centered at origin

2 2
2 2
2 2
by f(x, y)= b x + a y a b .
If f(x,y) < 0 , the point lies inside the ellipse.
= 0, the point lies on the ellipse.
> 0, the point lies outside the ellipse.
Starting at ( 0,b) we take unit steps in x -direction until we reach
the boundary between region 1 region 2 ( R1 , R2 ) . Then we
switch to unit steps in y-direction over the remainder of curve in
first quadrant. At each step, we need to test the value of the
slope of the curve .The ellipse slope is calculated from equation
2 2
2 2
: x /a +y /b = 1
Differentiating both sides w.r to x
2
2
2x/a + 2y/b . dy/dx = 0
2
2
Dy/dx = -2b x/2a y
At the boundary region 1 and region 2 , dy/dx = -1
2
2
and 2b x= 2a y..
2
2
Therefore , we move out of region 1 (R1) when 2b x 2a y. For
region R1.
22 22 22

b x +a y -a b = 0

(x,y) R2
2b

yk

(a,0)

2a

y
(-x,-y)

k-1

(x,-y)

(mid point)

This algorithm is used to display the ellipse in standard form.

st
The algorithm is applied throughout the 1 quadrant according
to the slope of the ellipse. For the region (R1) where the slope
of the curve is less then one. We process by taking unit steps in
x-direction and for the region (R2) we take unit steps in ydirection.

x x
k

k+1

Fig. Mid point between candidate pixel at sampling position

xk+1 along in elliptical path.

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2 2 2
2 2
If (xk, yk) is the pixel first plotted then the candidate pixel are
= b +a (b -b+1/4)- a b
2
2 2
2
2
2 2
(xk+1,yk) and (xk+1, yk-1). Let us define decision parameter at
= b + a b a b+1/4a a b
2
2
2
the midpoint (yk-1/2) at sampling position xk +1 by
Po = b a b +a /4 .(v)
Pk = f (xk +1, yk-1/2)
22 22 22
2
2
2
2
2 2
b x +a y -a b = 0
= b (xk +1) +a (yk-1/2) a b ..(i)
2
2
2
2
2 2
Pk+1 = b (xk+1+1) +a (yk+1-1/2) a b .(ii)
Substituting (i) from (ii)
y
2
2
2
2
2
2
k
Pk+1 pk = b { (xk+1 +1) (xk+1) } +a {(yk+1-1/2) (yk )
y

}
If Pk< 0, mid point lies inside the ellipse, So we plot,
(xk+1, yk) i.e xk+1 = xk +1. yk+1 = yk
2
2
2
Therefore, Pk+1 = pk + b { (xk +1) + 2xk+1+1 (xk + 1) } +
2
2
2
a {(yk ) (yk ) }
2

pk+1 = pk + 2b xk+1 + b
.(iii) Where,
xk+1 = xk + 1 , yk+1 = yk
If Pk 0, the mid point
lies outside the ellipse so we plot
(xk+1, yk-1). i.e xk+1 = xk +1 , yk+1 = yk -1.
2
2
2
Therefore, Pk+1 = pk + b {(xk +1) +2 (xk +1)+1}+a {(yk-12
2
1/2) (yk -1/2) }
2
2
2
= pk + b {2xk+1+1} +a {(y k-1/2) 2(yk ) +1 (yk
2
2
2
2
) } = pk + 2b xk+1 + b - 2a yk+1
2
2
Therefore, Pk+1 = pk + 2b xk+1 2a yk+1 +
2
b Where,
Xk+1 = xk +1
Yk+1 = yk -1
Now initial decision parameter is given by is given by ,
P0 = f(x0+1, y0 -1/2)
= f(0+1, b-1/2)
2 2 2
2
2 2
= b 1 +a (b-1/2) a b

k-1

(mid point)

k x
k+1

Fig. Mid point between candidate pixel at sampling position

yk-1 along an elliptical path.
For region R2 ( /m/>1)
If (xk,yk) be the pixel just plotted then the candidate pixel at (
xk,yk-1) and (xk+1, yk -1). So let us define the decision parameter
at the midpoint xk+1/2 at sampling position yk-1 by
Pk = f(xk+1/2, yk-1)
2
2
2
2
2 2
= b (xk +1/2) +a ( yk -1) a b (i)
2
2
2
2
2 2
Pk+1 = b (xk+1+1/2) + a (yk+1-1) a b .(ii)
Substituting (i) from (ii)
2
2
2
2
2
Pk+1 pk = b { ( xk+1+1/2) (xk+1/2) } + a {(yk+1-1) (yk 2
1) } ..(iii)
If pk > 0 , the mid point lies outside the ellipse, so we plot
(xk,yk-1)
xk+1 =xk ; yk+1 = yk-1
2
2
2
2
2
2
Pk+1 = pk + b {(xk+1/2) (xk+1/2) }+a { (yk -1 1) (yk -1) }
2
2
2
29 = pk + a {(yk+1) 2(yk-1)+1 (yk-1) }

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= pk+a {-2yk+1 +1}

2
2
Pk+1 = pk - 2a yk+1+a (iv) Where xk+1 = xk, yk+1 =
yk -1
If pk 0, the midpoint lies on/inside the ellipse, so we plot (xk+1,
yk -1) i. e
Xk+1 = xk +1
Yk+1 = yk -1
2

Pk+1 = pk + b { xk +1 + ) (xk+1/2) }+a {(yk-1-1) (yk -1) }

2
2
2
2
2
= pk + b {(xk+1/2) +2(xk +1/2)1+1-(xk +1/2) } +a {(yk -1)
2
2(yk -1).1 + 1.-(yk -1) }
2
2
= pk + b {2xk + 1+1}+a {-2y +2 +1}
2
2
2
Therefore, Pk+1 = pk + 2b xk+1 2a yk+1 + a ...(v)
Where, xk+1 = xk+1
yk+1 = yk -1
The initial value of initial decision parameter for region 2 is
P0 = f(x0+1/2, yo-1)
2
2
2
2 2 2
P0 = b (x0+1/2) + a (yo -1) a b .(vi)
[Note: (xo,yo) for region 2 in the last point for region 1. The
pixel for other quadrant are determined by symmetry]
Date: 2065/5/16
Algorithm:
1. Obtain the centre xc , yc semi-major and semi-minor axis
length as a and b.
2. Set x = 0, y = b
3. plot the point (x,y) and its symmetry points at appropriate
positions by x = x+xc , y = y+yc

4. Compute initial decision parameter for R1 ,

2 2 2
a b +a /4
2
2
5. Repeat the following till 2b x < 2a y
i. x = x+1
ii. Test if P1 < 0 then
2
2
P1 = p1 +2b x+b
Else,
y = y-1
2

P1 = b -

P1 = p1+2b x- 2a y = b

iii. Plot the points (x,y) and its symmetry points at

approximate position by
x = x+xc
y = y+yc
6. Compute initial decision parameter for R2
2
2
2
2
2 2
P2 = b (x+0.5) + a (y-1) a b
7. Repeat the following till y>0
i. y = y-1
ii. Test if P2 > 0 then
2
2
P2 = p2 2a y +a
Else,
X = x+1
2
2
2
P2 = p2 +2b x 2a y + a
iii. Plot the points (x,y) and its
symmetry points at
approximate points by x = x+xc , y = y +yc
2

# Digitize an ellipse (x-2) /64 + (y+5) /36 = 1. Using mid point

algorithm.
Solution:
Center = (2,-5)
a=8
b=6

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2
2
Pk+1 = pk 2a yk+1 +a Where, xk+1 = xk; yk+1 = yk -1
If pk 0
2
2
2
Pk+1 = pk + 2b xk+1 2a yk+1 + a Where, xk+1 = xk+1 ; yk+1 = yk

For region R1

First pixel is (0,6)

2 2
2
Po = b a b +a /4
= 36 - 64 6 + 64/4
= -332
positions long the
Successive decision parameter values ad
ellipse path are calculated using the midpoint method as
2
2
If pk < 0, pk+1 = pk + 2b xk+1 + b
If p 0,
2
2
2
Pk+1 = pk +2b xk+1-2a yk+1 + b where xk+1 = xk +1 ; yk+1 = yk -1
2

K
0
1
2

pk
-151
233
745

2b xk+1
576
576
-

(xk+1,yk+1 )
(8,2)
(8,1)
(8,0)

2a yk+1
256
128
-

A plot of the selected positions around the ellipse boundary

within the first quadrant is shown in fig.

2b xk+1 2a yk+1
pk
(xk+1, yk+1)
-332
(1,6)
72
768
-224
(2,6)
144
768
-44
(3,6)
216
768
-208
(4,5)
288
640
-108
(5,5)
360
640
288
(6,4)
432
512
244
(7,3)
504
384
2
2
We now move out of region 1, since 2b x >2a y
For region 2, the initial point is (x0,y0) = (7,3) and the initial
decision parameter is
2
2
2 2 2
P0 = b (x0+1/2) +a (y-1) a b
2
2
= 36(7+1/2) + 64(3-1) 36 64
= 36 225/4 + 644 3664
= - 151
The remaining positions along the ellipse path in the first
quadrant are then calculated as
If pk > 0
k
0
1
2
3
4
5
6

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0

7 8

Fig. Positions along an elliptical path centerted on the origin with

a=8 and b = 6 using the midpoint algorithm to calculate pixel
addresses in first quadrant.
In the following procedure, the mid point algorithm is
used to display an ellipse with input parameters a,b , x center and
y center. Position along the curve in the first quadrant are
generated and then shifted to their proper screen positions.
Intensities for these positions and the symmetry positions in the

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other three quadrants are loaded into the frame buffer using the
set pixel routine.

P(x,y)
p (x,y)

Transformation: Changing co-ordinate description of an object

is called transformation.
Types:
- Rigid body transformation ( transformation without
defomation in shape. )
- Non rigid body transformation (transformation with
change in shape)
Basic Transformations:
1. Translation
2.Rotation
3.Scaling

Other Transformation
1.reflection
2.Shearing

x'

x
=

y'

t+x

# Translate the given points (2,5) by the translating value

(3,3) Solution:
(x,y) = (2,5)
Tx = 3
Ty = 3
X = x+ tx
Y= y+ty
x'235

y'

Two dimensional transformation:

1. Translation: Changing the co-ordinate position along a st.
line is called translation.
If P(x,y) is taranslated to a position p(x,y) by tx units parallel
to x-axis and ty units parallel to y axis then,
X = x+ tx
Y = y+ ty
In matrix form:
ty

i.e p = p+T where T is transformation matrix.

ty

P(x,y)
p (x,y)

Scaling: The co-ordinate position of an object by multiplying a

constant factor ( scaling factor) is called scaling.
Scaling Techniques:
a. About origin
b. About fixed point

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y

About origin: If p(x,y) be scaled to a point p(x,y) by sx times

in x-unit and sy times in y-units then,
x = x. sx
y = y.sy
In matrix form:
x'
y'

P(x,y)

sx 0 x
0 sy y

p (x,y)

(x y

f , f)

i.e
p = S (sx, sy).P(x,y)

.
Scaling:
# Scale the given triangle whose co- ordinate values are (2,3),
(1,2) , (3,4) where the scaling factor is (2,3) about (i) origin (ii)
about fixed point (1,2)

P(x,y)
p (x,y)

Where
S (sx, sy) is a scaling matrix
If sx = sy scaling type is uniform
If sx is not equal to sy scaling type is differential.

Rotation: Changing the co-ordinate position along a circular

path is called rotation.
y
P(x,y)

p (x,y)

(b) About fixed point: If p(x,y) be scaled to a point p(x,y) by

sx times in x-unit. and sy time in y-unit about
(xf,yf) then
x xf = sx(x-xf)
y yf = sy ( y-yf)

In matrix form,

Types of rotation:
a. About origin
b. About any point
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y
P(x,y)

About origin: If p(x,y) is rotated to a new position p(x,y) in

anti-clockwise direction by an angle , then (x,y) can be
calculated as following.
Let the angle made by line OP with x-axis is and the radius of
circulation path is r then,
x = r cos
y = r sin
Also,
x = r cos( + )

p (x,y)

(x

r , yr)
x

o
x- xr

y = r sin( + )

Do yourself .

x = r(cos . Cos sin. Sin

) x = xcos y sin

# Rotate the triangle having co-ordinates (1,2) , (2,3) (4,5) by 60

about origin.

y = r( sin . Cos + cos

.sin) = xsin + y cos
In matrix form:
x'

cos

sin x

y'

y
Sin

cos

Note: +ve ( anticlock wise)

ve ( clock wise )
b. About any point: if (x,y) is rotated to a new position p(x,y)
by an angle , then (x, y) can be calculated as following.
Now x xr = r cos
y yr = r sin ( + )

Date: 2065/5/18
Matrix Representation and Homogeneous Co-ordinates:
To treat all the transformation in the same manner, homogeneous
co-ordinate are used for reapresentation. Each points (x,y) is
represented by triple (x,y,h).
(x,y,h) and (x,y,h) represent same point if on one is multiple
of other.
Ie x/x = y/y = h/h
So, (x,y,h) and (x/h, y/h,1) also represent same point, for
simplicity we use h = 1.
Therefore, (x,y) in Cartesian system is represented as (x,y,1) in
homogeneous co-ordinate system.
Now (22) matrix is changed into 3 3
matrix, 34 For translation:

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x'
y'

Let p be the point translated by T(tx1,ty1) to point p then,

P = T (tx1,ty1). P
Let p be the point translated by T(tx2,ty2) to point p then,
P = T (tx2, ty2). P
= T (tx2,ty2).T (tx1,ty1).p

1 0 t xx
y

1 ty

=0

0 1z

z'

Therefore, p = T(tx,ty ).p

For Rotation (about origin)
x'
y'

Sin

z'

0 y

= Sin

Net transformation = T(tx2,ty2). T (tx1,ty1)

0 x

cos

cos

1 z

1 0 t x1

=0
0

P = R( ). P

=0

For Scaling : (about origin)

x'
y'

sx 0
= 0

0 x

y1

1 0 t x1

0 10
0 tx + tx
1

y1

0 1
2

1 ty1 + ty2
0

= T(tx1+ tx2, ty1+ty2)

T(tx1,ty2). T(tx1,ty1) = T(tx1+ tx2, ty1+ty2)
Which demonstrates that two successive translations are
additive.

0 y

1 z
z'

0 0

Inverse Transformation:
For inverse translation:
-1
T (tx,ty )= T ( -tx , -ty )
For inverse Rotation:
-1
R ( = R( - )
-

For inverse scaling: s

1
(sx,sy) = S(1/sx, 1/sy)
# Prove that two successive translations are additive.
i.e T(tx, ty). T(t x2,ty2) = T(t x1 +tx2, ty1 +ty2).

# Prove that two successive rotations are additative. i.e R(2) .

R(1) = R(1
+2) Solution:
Let p be the point rotated by R(1) to point p then p = R(1 )
.p
Let p the point rotated by R(2) to point p then
P = R(2). P
Net transformation = R(2). R(1)
P = R(1+ 2 ) p

Solution:
35 # Prove that two successive scalings are multiplicative.
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i.e S(sx2 , sy2). S(sx1,sy1) = S (sx1, sx2, sy1,

sy2) Solution:
Concatenating transformation matrices for two successive
scaling operations produces the following composite scaling
matrix.

2 0

=0
0

0
0

y2

0 sx1 0
0

y1

sx1 sx2

0
0

0 1/ 2 1/ 2 0

0
2/ 2

y1

x2

0
2/ 2

3/ 2 3/ 2 0
0
0
1

s s

1/ 2 1/ 2 0

=
sx2

The transformation points are ,

A = TA

Or s(sx2,sy2) S(sx,sy) = S(sx1 sx2,Sy1 sy2)

2/ 2

2/ 2 0 7
3 / 2 3 / 2 0 15

# Rotate the ABC by 45 clock wise about origin and scale it

by (2,3) about origin.

B=TB
2/ 2

Solution:

2/ 2 0 5

3/ 2 3/ 2 0 8=
0

A(7,15)

1 1

C = TC
C (10,10)

2/ 2

B(5,8)

2 / 2 0 10
3 / 2 3 / 2 0 10

Step 1: Rotation by 45 (clock wise)

Step-II: Scaling by (2,3)
S(2,3)
Net transformation: = S(2,3). R(-45)

= 30 / 2 + 30 / 2 + 0

40 / 2
=

1
0

20 / 2 + 20 / 2 + 0

0 0 cos 45

Sin45

3 0 Sin45

cos 45

0 + 0 + 0 +1

General pivot point rotation: We can rotate any selected point

(xr,yr) by following the sequence of translate rotate translate
operations.

36
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Step 1: Translate the object such that fixed pont moves to origin
i.e T(-xr,-yr) .
Step 2: Rotate the object coordinate origin i.e R() .
Step 3: Translate back the object so that the pivot point is
returned to its original position T(xr,yr).
This transformation sequence is illustrated in fig below.

x y

( r, r)

(a) Original position of object (b) Translation of object so

And pivot point
that povit point (xr,yr)
is at origin.

Net Transformation (T) = T(xr,yr). R(). T(-xr,-yr)

1

=0

sin

0 1

xr

cos

0 0

1 0 0

General Fixed point Scaling:

A transformation sequence to produce scaling with respect
to a selected fixed position (xf, yf) using a scaling function is
illustrated below:
1. Translate the object so that the fixed point coincides with the
co-ordinate origin.
2. Scale the object with respect to the co-ordinate origin.
3. Use the inverse translation of step 1 to return the object to its
original position.
The transformation sequence is illustrated in fig below:

x y

(d) Translation of object so

That the pivot point is
Returned to position
(xr, yr)

y sin

0 0 1

x y

( r, r)

(c) Rotation about origin

0 xr cos

( r, r)

(a) Original position of object

And fixed point

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(b) Translate object

so that fixed point
(xr, yr) is at origin.

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y
A(7,15)
x y

( r, r)

C(10,10)

B(5,8)

(d) Translate object so

the fixed point is
Returned to position

1 0 xf

Net Transformation T = 0 1

Step:1
T(-5,-8)
Step: 2

(xf,yf)

(c) Scale object with respect

To origin

R(90 )
Step: 3
T(5,8)
Step: 4
T(-10,-10)
Step:5
S(2,2)
Step: 6
T(10,10) Net
transformation:
T(10,10). S(2,2). T(-10,-10).T(5,8).R(90) . T(-5,-8)

sx
y

0 0 1

0 sy
0 0

0
0 sy

0 0

1
1 0 0

f
1

x f (1 sx )
y f (1 s y )

0 0

sx

0 1 0 xf

Date: 2065/6/5
# Rotate the ABC by 90 anticlock wise about ( 5,8) and scale
it by (2,2) about (10,10)
Solution:

10 2 0 0 1

0 10 1

5 cos 90

sin 90

=0

10 0 2 0 0

1 10 0

8 sin 90

cos 90

0 0

0 01

0
0

Other transformation:
1. Reflection
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1 0 0 1

0 0

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2. Shearing.
Reflection: Providing a mirror image about an axis of an object
is called reflection.
(i) about x-axis (y =0) x
=x
y = -y
In matrix from,
x'
y'
1

1 0

P = Rfy.P
Rfy = Reflection matrix about y-axis
y
2

2
Reflected object

Original position

3
x

0 x

=0

1 0 y
0

P = Rfx.P
Rfx = Reflection matrix about x-axis
y

Date: 2065/6/6

1
Original position
2

3
x

3
Reflected object
1

(ii) about y-axis (x=0) x

= -x
y = y
In matrix from,
1 0 0 x

x'
y'
1

0 y
1

Alternative way for reflection:

Step:1
Rotate the object so that y axis concise x-axis. i.e R(90) Step: 2
Reflection about x-axis. Rfx
Step: 3
Rotate back the object so that y-axis move to original position
. R(-90)
Net transformation:
i.e Rfy = R(90) . Rfx. R(-90)
cos 90

= sin 90
0
0 1 0 1 0

=1

0 0

sin 90
cos 90

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0
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1 0 0

01

1
0

1
0

0 cos 90

sin 90

0 sin 90

cos 90

1 0

1 0 1 0

1 0

01

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0 1 0

0 1

1 0 0

1 0

y = x

0
0

0
0

0 0

0
0
0 1

p(x,y)

p(x,y)

p(x,y)
45

# Determine transformation matrix responsible for refection

of object about the line y = x
(1) R(-45)
(2) Rfx
(3) R(45 )
Net transformation ,
R(45). Rfx R(-45)
sin 45

= sin 45

0 1

cos 45

cos 45

0 0

= 1

0 cos 45
0 sin 45

0 0 1

# Determine transformation matrix responsible for reflection of

about the line y+x = 0 .
Solution:
(i)
R(45)
(ii) Rfx
(iii) R(-45)
Net transformation,
R(-45) Rfx . R(+45)
cos 45

sin 45

= sin 45 cos 45

01
0

0 cos 45

sin 45

0 sin 45

cos 45

0 0 1

sin 45

cos 45

2
1
2
0

2
1
2
0

.i.e x = y
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0
1

0
0

1 0 0
0 1 0

0 0 1

2
1
2
0

2
1
2
0

0
0
1

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1
=

1
0

2
1

2
0

0 1

(5) R(0,2)

2
0

2
1
2

0 1 0
1 0 0

0 =

y
(0,2)

0 0 1

y+x = 2

i. e x = -y
y = -x

(2,0)
y

# Determine transformation responsible for reflection of object

about the line y +x = 2.
(i)
T(0,-2)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

# Determine transformation matrix responsible for reflection of

object about the line y = mx+b
(i)
T(0,-b)
(ii) R(- )
(iii) Rfx
(iv) R( )
(v) T(0,b)
Net transformation = T(0,b). R( ) . Rfx.R(- ). T(0,-b)
1

R(45 )
Rfx
R(-45)
R(0,2)

cos

sin

0
1

sin

cos

0 0 b

cos

# Determine transformation responsible for reflection of object

the line y+x = 2.
(1) T(0,-2)
(2) R(45)
(3) Rfx
(4) R(-45)

sin

0 1 0

sin

cos

0 0

0
1

1 b

0 0 1

1 0 0 1

cos

sin

0 sin cos

b sin
b cos

1
0

1 b

0 0 1

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0
1
1 0 0
0 cos sin 0 cos
sin

0 1

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1 0 0
=0 1 b
0

Reflection:

0 1

1 + m2
m
2

1+m
0

1 + m2
1

1+ m
2m
+m2
0
1

1+m
0

1 0 0
=0 1 b
0

1+m
m

1+m
0

1+m
1

1+m
1

1+m
0

1+m
1

# Determine the X-formation matrix responsible for reflection

about y = x+3 .
(1) T(0,-3)
(2) R(-45)
(3) Rfx
(4) R(45 )
(5) T(0,3)

2m
2bm2
2
1+ m
1+ m
2
2
m 1 bm +b

1+ m 2

1+ m

(0,3)

1
45
x

2
1

1+m 1+m
1
1 +m 1+m
0
0

1+m
2b
1+m
1

2
= 2mm

(-b,0)

2bm

2m

Shearing: Transformation that causes deformation in the

original object by supposing as if the object is composed of
internal layers and these layers are caused to slide over is
shearing.

(0,b)

(-b,0)

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c(x,y) c(x,y)

clip

The procedure that identifies these portions of the picture that are
either inside or outside of the specified region of span is
clipping .

x1

About x-axis
y = y
x= x+x1 where,
x1 y
x1 = Shx.y
where, Shx is shearing constant.
y = y
x= x+shx.y
In matrix form,
x'1 shx
y'
1

Line clipping:
p2

clip
p1
B
B

Similarly about yaxis x = x

y=y+shy.x
x'

y'

= sh

Cohen Sutherland line clipping:

In this method, every line endpoint is assigned a four digit
binary code(region code) that identifies the location of the point
relative to the boundary.
For,
b1 : left b2
: right b3 :
below

0 0 x
1

p1

0 y

p3
p2

0 x

=0

0 y
1

P = SHy.p
2D window clipping:

43

b4 : above

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1001

1000

0001

0000

0010

0100

0101

The lines which con not be identified as completely inside or

outside a window by these tests are checked for intersection with
the window boundary. Such lines may or may not cross into the
window interior.
In the fig. aside , region code of
P1 = 0001
P2 = 1000

1010

0110

p3

(x

p2
wmin
,

p3

(x

wmax)

wmax, wmax)

p2

p4

p1

(x

wmin, wmin)

(x

wmax, wmin)

The value 1 indicates its relative position. If a point is within

clipping rectangle then region code is 0000. So ,
If x xwmin < 0 , b1 = 1
If xwmax x < 0 , b2 = 1
If y ywmin < 0 , b3 = 1
If ywmin y < 0 , b4 = 1
If the region codes of both end points are 0000 then we accept
the line.
Any line that have one in the same bit position is rejected i.e
if RA AND RB 0
Line is completely outside .

P1 AND P2 = 0
So we need further
calculation. Starting form p1,
Intersection of P 1 with left boundary is
calculated. Region code of P1 = 0000
P1 AND P2 = 0 .
Intersecting of P2 with above boundary is calculated region code
of p2 = 0000
Since both end points have region codes (0000) .So P1, P2
portion of the line is saved.
Similarly,
For P3 , P4.
P3 = 1000
P4 = 0010

P3 AND P4 = 0
So we need further calculations; starting from P3 region code of
P3 is 1000, i.e b4 is high, so intersection of P3 with upper
boundary which yields P3 having region code 1010.
Again p3 AND P4 0
So P3P4 is totally clipped.
The intersection point with vertical boundary can be obtained by
y = y1 + m(x-x 1)

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Where (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) are end points of line and y is the coordinate value of intersection point where x value is either xwmin
or xwmax and m = y2 y1 / x2 x1 .
Similarly , intersection point with horizontal boundary
x = x1 + (y-y1)/m
Where , y = ywmin or ywmax
# Use cohen Sutherland algorithm to clip the line for the
following dimensions. Line endpoints (15, 45) and (25,15)
Window:
Lower left: ( 10, 20)
Upper right : ( 30, 40)
Date: 2065/6/7

Two dimensional object to screen viewing Transformation:

Mechanism for displaying view of a picture on an output
device:
A graphical package allows a user to specify which part of the
defined picture is to be displayed and where that part is to be
placed on the display device. Any convenient Cartesian coordinate system; referred to as the world co ordinate reference
frame can be used to define the picture.
For a 2-D picture, a view is selected by specifying a subarea of
the total picture area. A user can select single area for displaying
or several areas could be selected for simultaneous display. The
picture parts within the selected areas are then mapped onto
specified areas of the device co-ordinates. When the multiple

view areas are selected, these areas can be placed in separate

display locations or some areas could be inserted into other,
larger display area. Transformations from world to device coordinates involve translation rotation and scaling operations, as
well as procedures for deleting those parts of the picture that are
outside the limits of a selected display area.
A world co-ordinate area selected for display is called a
window. An area on the display device to which a window is
mapped is called a view port. The window defines what is to be
viewed. The viewport defines where it is to be displayed.
Often, windows and viewports are rectangles in standard
positions, if the rectangle edges are parallel to the co-ordinate
axis.
The mapping of a port of a world co-ordinate scene to a
device co-ordinates is referred to as viewing transformation.
Sometimes , the 2D viewing transformation is simply referred to
as the window to viewport transformation or the windowing
transformation.
Fig. given below illustrates the mapping of a picture
selections that falls within a rectangular window onto a
designated rectangular viewpoint.

wmax

wmin

wmin

wmax

World Co-ordinate

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vmax

vmin

x vmin

vmax

Device co-ordinate

Fig. A viewing transformation using standard

window and viewpoint.

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y
rectangles for the
world

Steps to be followed for window to viewpoint transformations

area:
- Generate world co-ordinate
- Convert world co-ordinate to view co-ordinate.
- Map the view co-ordinate to normalized viewing coordinate.
- Map the normalized viewing co-ordinate to device coordinate system.
These steps can be illustrated through a pipeline.

Map viewing

Construct world
co-ordinate
scene using

modeling co-ordinate
transformation

co-ordinates to
Normalized viewing NVC

Map normalized
DC
viewpoint to

Co-ordinates

co-ordinates

device

to viewing
co-ordinate

using window
viewpoint
Specification

co-ordinate

Convert world
WC

VC

Viewport

yo

xo

world

World co-ordinate

Normalized device co-ordinate

By changing the position of the viewport we can view objects at

different positions on the display area of an output device. Also
by varying size of the viewport we can change the size and
proportions of displayed objects.
Window to viewport transformation:

Fig. The two dimensional viewing transformation pipeline

Fig. given below show a rotating view co-ordinate reference
frame and the mapping to normalized co-ordinates.

window
wmax

vmax

y
y
y wmin

wmin

World co-ordinate
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w max

vmin

vmin

vmin

vmax

Device co-ordinate

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It is the mechanism for displaying view of a picture on an output

device. The world co-ordinate selected for display is called
window. The area on the display device to which window is
mapped is called viewport. So, window defines what is to be
viewport defines where it is to be displayed. The mapping of part
of world co-ordinate scence to device co-ordinate is called
viewing transformation or window-to-viewport transformation.

( wmax, wmax)

( vmax, vmax)

(x,y)

(u,v)

The value of sx and sy is found by calculating the position of

(x,y) in the window to the corresponding position of point (u,v)
in the viewpoint.
To maintain the same relative position, so
xx

ux

w min

v min

=x
x
x
w max
w min
v max
v min
yy
uy
w min
v min
Or, y y
= y
y
w max
w min
v max
v min
x x
v max
w min
x
Sx = x
w max
w min
y y
v max
w min
Sy = y
y

w max

( wmin, wmin)

w min

v max

( vmin, vmin)

1
0

Window to viewport transformation can be explained as:

- Choose the world co-ordinate in a rectangle.
- Transform it to origin.
- Scale it with appropriate value.
- Transform it to the relative position in viewport.

0
1 y

x
v min

x
w min

w max

0
v min

Twv

w min

v max

w min

xw min

0 1 y

w min

w max

w min

Is the required window- to viewpoint transformation.

Step 1: T (-xwmin, -ywmin)

Step:2: S (sx, sy)
Step:3: T(xvmin, yvmin)

# Determine window to view port transformation for the

following dimensions of windows and viewpoint.
Window
viewpoint
Lower left corner
(5,10)
(8,12)
Upper right corner
(15,20)
(12,18)

Net transformation,
Twv = T (xvmin, yvmin). S(sx, sy).T(-xwmin, -ywmin)

Different types of Graphical package are:

1. GKS (Graphical kernel system)

47
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2. PHIGS(programmers Hierarchical interactive graphics

standard)
3. GL(Graphics Library)
4. Open GL.
Data Structural Concept:
Introduction:
Data may be organized in different ways; the logical or
mathematical model of a particular organization of data is called
data structure. In other words, data structure is a collection of
data elements whose organization is characterized by accessing
operations that are used to store and retrieve individual data
elements.
Data structure is of two types:
1. Linear data structure. E.g Array, stack, Queue etc.
2. Non linear data structure. E.g Trees.
(i)

Array: An array is collection of similar elements all

elements of any given array must be of the same type.
1

(ii)

.....................

100

Fig. Array of 100 students

Stack: A stack is defined formally as a list (a linear data
structure) in which all insertion and deletions are made at
one end called the top of the stack(TOS). The fundamental
operations which are possible on a stack are:
push - insertion
pop - deletion
peep extract information

- Update Update information associated at some location

in the stack.
The most recently pushed element can be checked prior to
performing a pop operation.
A stack is based on the last in first out algorithm (LIFO) in
which insertion and deletion operations are performed at one end
of the stack. The most accessible information in a stack is at the
top of the stack and least accessible information is at the bottom
of the stack.
If someone wants to delete on item from an empty stack, it
causes underflow and if someone wants to add an element to the
stack (which is already full) then it is the case of overflow.
A

Top of the stack

B
C
D

Bottom of the stack

Implementation of Stack:
Stack can be implemented in two ways:
1. pointer (Linked list)
2. Array
Push operation:
Step 1: Check for the overflow
If TOS = size
Output: stack overflow and exit.
Step 2: Increment the pointer value by one
TOS = TOS +1
Step 3: Perform insertion

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S[TOS] = value
Step 4: Exit
POP operation:
Step 1: Check for the underflow
If TOS = 0
Output: Stack underflow and exit
Step 2: Decrement the pointer value by one
Value = S[TOS]
TOS = TOS-1
Step 3: Return the former information of the stack
Return [value]
Step 4: Exit.
PEEP operation: If one interested only about an information
stored at some location in a stack, then peep operation is
required. In this operation we simply move the pointer to the
desired location and then fetch the information associated with
the location.
Step 1: [ Check for the stack underflow]
If TOS-i+1 < 0
Output : Stack underflow and exit.
th
Step 2: [Return the i element from the top of the stack]
Return[S(TOS i+1)]

Step 1: [Check for underflow]

If TOS-i+1<0
Output stack underflow and exit.
Step 2: [Change the element]
S(TOS-i+1) = value
Step 3: Return
Polish Notation: The process of writing the operator of an
expression either before their operands or after them is called the
polish notation in honor of its discover, the Polish
mathematician Jan Luksiewicz..
The polish notations are classified into three categories:
these are:
- Infix
- Postfix
- Prefix
For example, take an expression a+b, for infix +sign is placed
between two operands a+b. For postfix, we can write the same
expression as ab+ i.e operator is placed after the operands.
For prefix the same expression can be written as +ab.

Date: 2065/6/8
Update Operation: It is required when the content of some
location in a stack is to be changed. Suppose one wants to update
th
information at the i location in the stack s. We move TOS
th
pointer to the i location from the top of the stack and input the
new value of that location.

Queue:
Deletion

49
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Front

insertion
Rear

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This is a linear data structure used to represent a linear list and

permits deletion to be performed at one end of the list and
insertion on the other end of the list. The information is such a
list is processed in the same order as it was received, i.e on first
come first serve basis.(FCFS)
A queue has two pointes; front and rear , pointing to the
front and rear elements of the queue respectively. Consider a
queue consisting of n elements and an element value which we
have to insert into the queue. The value NULL (0) of front
pointer employees an empty queue. Figure given above
illustrates a queue.
1

11 22

Rear
2

3 4

22

33

Front

33 44

Step 4:

Step 5:

Algorithm to Delete an element form queue:

Step 1: [check the underflow condition ] If

front = 0
Output: Underflow and return.

3 4

22

33 44

Front
1

Q[rear] = value
[ Set the front pointer ]
If front = 0
Front = 1
Return

Front

Step 2: [Remove an element ]

Value = Q[front]
Step 3: [check for empty queue] If
front = rear
Front = 0
Rear = 0
Else
Front = front + 1

Rear

44 55

Rear

Step 4:
Algorithm to insert an elements into queue:
Step 1: [check overflow condition]
If rear size
o/p : overflow and return
Step 2:
nter]
Step 3:

Return (Value )

2 3

11

22 33

44 55
(a)

33

44 55
(c)

[ Increment rear poi

Rear = rear+1
[Insert an item ]

6
22 33

44

55

(b)
33

44 55

66

(d)

Circular queue:
Suppose we have an array Q that contains n element in
in the array. When this technique is
50 which Q1 comes after Qn
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used to construct a queue then the queue is called the circular

queue. In other words we can say that a queue is called circular
when the last room comes just before the first room. Fig given
below show the circular queue .

(viii)

77

66 55

(x)

44 33

77 66

55

Insert 33

Delete 88
F

Q[2]

Linked List :
Q[1]

A linked list is defined as the collection of nodes.

Q[n]
Node 1
Start

Node 2
.

Node 3
.

Node 4
.

\o

node

Each node has two port.

(i)

(iv) 99

information

88 77

Pointer to the next node.

Front Rear

F
(v)

(ii) 99

R
99 88 77 66

Insert
99

Insert 66

FR
(iii)

99 88

(vi)

88 77 66

Insert 88
Delete 99
F
(vii)

88

77 66 55

(ix)

44

77

Insert 44

Insert 55
F

66 55

Information part may consist of one or more than one fields. In

other words a linked list consist of a series of a structure contains
one or more then one contiguous information fields and a pointer
to a structure containing its successor. The last node of the list
contains NULL (\0).
The pointer contains the address of the location where
the next information is stored. A linked list also contains a list
pointer variable called start, which contains the address of the
first node is the list. Hence , there is an arrow drawn from start
to the node in the linked list. If there is no node in the list, the is
called NULL list or EMPTY list.
The different operations performed on the linked list are:
(1) Insertion:
a. Inset a node at the beginning of the list.
b. Inset a node at the end of the list.
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c. Inset a node between the nodes.

(2) Deletion
a. Delete a node at the beginning of the list.
b. Delete a node at the end of the list.
c. Delete a node between the nodes.
(3) Traversing . : Traveling from one node to another node.

in the figure above. Now it is possible to define a doubly linked

as a collection of nodes, each nodes having three fields.
- pointer to previous node ( pointer to predecessor)
- Information field
- Pointer to next node (pointer to successor) Different
operations performed on doubly linked list are:
1. Insertion
2. Deletion
3. Traversing.

Doubly linked list:

A singly linked list is so named because each list element
contain a pointer to the next element . In that list traveling is
possible only in one direction. Some times it is required to
transverse the list in either direction forward or backward. This
involves the performance and efficiency of algorithms. So
traversing of linked list in both the directions requires nodes
having the links as given in figure below:

Non linear data structure:

(1) Trees
N1
T1

T3
T2

N2

N13
N4

N3

N12

information
N5

right link
right link
left link

N6

N8

N9

N11
N10

N18
N7

N14

left link

N15
N16
N17
node
N
N =NULL = \0

Doubly linked list

The links are used to denote the predecessor and successor of a

node. The link denoting the predecessor of a node is called the
left link and that denoting its successor is right link. A list with
this type of arrangement is called Doubly Linked List as shown

Fig. Tree T having 18 nodes

A tree T is defined as a set of finite set of one or more nodes
such that.
- There is a special node called the root R.
- The remaining nodes are divided into n 0
Disjoint sets T1,T2,T3,Tn , where each of these set is a
tree . T1, T2, T3,Tn is called the subtree of the root.
The root node N1 has three subtrees T1,T2,T3 and the roots of
52 these subtrees are N2,N3,N4 respectively . The roots of these

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subtrees of a node is called its degree, root N1, has degree 3.

Similarly node N5 has degree 5 and node N14 has degree 0. A
node
with
degree
0
is
called
leaf.
N6,N7,N8,N9,N10,N11,N12,N18 are called leaf nodes. The
leaf nodes are also called Terminal nodes and rest of nodes in a
tree is called non-terminal.

left successor of R. If T2 is not empty then the root of T2 is

known as right successor of R.
R

ROOT

Binary tree

T1

Left child

Right child

T2

Forest:
N2

N5

N6

N1

Expression :
E = v + u/x* y-z

N3

N7

Z
N18

N8
N14

N9

N15

+
N16

V
N17

A forest is a set of n 0 disjoint trees, where n represents no of

nodes in the tree. The meaning of forest is very close to a tree
because if we remove the root of a tree, we get a forest. For e.g
in the fig. above we remove N1, we get the forest of three trees.
It is shown in the figure above.
Binary tree:
A binary tree T is a finite set of nodes, which is either empty
or consists of special nodes called R and two disjoint binary tree
T1 and T2 (Which are called the left subtree and right subtree
respectively). If T1 is not empty then the root of T1 is called the

y
.
u

Complete Binary Tree: A binary tree T is called complete if

each node of T can have at the most two children. A binary tree
L
at level L can have at the most 2 nodes.
0
If L = 0
2 =1
1
If L = 1
2 =2
2
If L = 2
2 =4
3
2 =8
53 If L = 3

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Implies that there is only one node in the tree that is root.
e1

v1
Level 0

Level 1

e4

v4

10

11

12

13

14

15

e5
e6

e7

v4

e2
e7

v5

v3
e8

Fig.(e)

v2
e3

v6

e9

Fig.(d)

v2

e1

e4

Level 4

e2

Level 5

e4

e2
v3

e5

v5

Level 3

v2

e3

e6
Level 2

e1

v1

e3
v3

v1
Fig.(f)

Traversing Binary Tree:

1. Pre order
Traversal
2. In order
Traversal
3. Post order
Traversal

RAB
ARB
ABR

2. Graphs: graphs G is defined as set of two tuples G = (V,E).

Where ,
V represents set of vertices of G and E represents the set of
edges of G. There exists a mapping from the set of edges to a set
of pairs of element of V. Fog eg. given below shows the different
types of graphs.
v1

v2
Fig.(a)

v1

v2
Fig.(b)

v1

From the figure it is clear that fig. (a) consists of two vertices
each one is stand alone. Fig (b) contains an undirected graph
having one edge and two vertices. Fig. (c) consists of two
vertices and one edge and it is called directed graph. Fig. (d)
illustrates an undirected graph with six vertices and nine edges.
Fig (e) is a directed graph with five vertices and seven edges. Fig
(f) consists of three vertices and four edged in which two edges
are directed and two are undirected known as mixed graph.
Path: A sequence of edges of a digraph (directed graph) such
that the terminal vertex of an edge sequence in the initial vertex
of the next if exits is called the path. For example:

v2
Fig.(c)

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e1

v1
e5
e6

v2
e8

v4
e4

e2
e7

v5

v3
e3

E = {(v1,v2), (v2,v3), (v3,v4),(v4,v5),(v5,v1)}

If we consider the element of E, we find that E is a set of five
tuples, i.e for edge.
e1 = (v1,v2)
e2 = (v2,v3)
e3 = (v3,v4)
e4 = (v4,v5)
e5 = (v5,v1)
From e1 and e2 we find that v2 is common in both. In the e1 , v2
is the terminal vertex and it is initial vertex of e2. Similarly in e2
and e3 , v3 is corner and so on. Thus we can say that there is
cycle and there exist a circular path that is shown by the dark line
in the above fig.
Date: 2065/7/24
Three dimensional Graphics:
6.1 Three Dimensional object to screen perspective
viewing Transfomation:

The 3D viewing process is inherently more complex then is the

2D viewing process. In 2D we simply specify specify the
window on 2D world and a viewpoint on the 2D-view surface.
Conceptually objects in the world are clipped against the window
and are then transformed into the viewpoint for display. The
extra complexicity 3D-viewing is caused in the part by the added
dimensions and in part by the fact that display device are only
2D
The solution is mismatch between 3D object and 2D displays is
accomplished by introducing projections which transforms 3D
objects onto a 2D-projection plane.
In 3D-viewing , we specify a new volume in world a
projection onto a projection plane and a viewport on the view
surface. Conceptually objects in the 3D-new volume and are then
projected. The content of the projection of the new volume onto
the projection plane, called the window, are then displayed
(transformed into the view port for display). Figure below shows
the conceptual model of the 3D-viewing process.

Fig. Conceptual model of 3D-viewing process.

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Projections: Projections transform points in a co-ordinate

system of dimension n into points in a co-ordinate system of
dimension less than n projection of 3D-object is defied by
straight projection rays (Called projectors) emanding from a
centre of projection, passing through each point of the object and
intersecting a projection plane to form the projected object. If the
projection is onto a plane (rather than some curved surface) and
uses straight objectors (rather then curved) then we call it
planargeometric projection.
Types of Geometric Projection:
1. Parallel projection
2. Perpesctive projection.

Similarly in 3D,
x = x1+(x2-x1)u
y = y1+(y2-y1)u
y = z1+(z2-z1)u
Let direction of projection is given by vector [xp,yp,zp] and the
image is to be projected on the xy-plane. If we have a point on
the object at (x1,y1,z1) and the projected point be (x2,y2) then the
equation of the line is ,
x = x1+xpu
y = y1+ypu
z = z1+zpu
But on the xy
plane 0 = z1+zpu
u = -z1/zp
x2 = x1-z1(xp/zp)
y2 = y1-z1(yp/zp)

Parallel projection:

x = x1+(x2-x1)u
y = y1+(y2-y1)u u [0,1]

If the distance between COP and POP is infinite then projection

is called parallel projection, i.e the rays from COP are paralleled.
So it maintains relative proportion of the object. In this
projection we extend parallel lines from each vertex plane of the
screen.
Equation of line in 2D is (y-y1)/(xx1) = (y2-y1)/(x2-x1)
In parametric form,
56

However, while drawing the projected image we just ignore the z

plane.
(2) Perspective projection: If the distance between POP and
COP is finite and converges to a single point (Vanishing point)
then the projection is called perspective projection i.e it

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transforms points of 3D object along projection lines that meet at

vanishing point. The size of the object doesnt remains same and
varies with the distance of the object from COP. Objects further
from viewing position is displayed smaller than objects of same
size that are nearer to viewing positions. Perpesctive projection
is more realistic than parallel.
If the COP at [ xc,yc,zc] and the point on the object is
[x,y,z] then projection ray will be the line joining these points.
Equation of the line is
x = xc+(x1-xc)u
y = yc+(y1-yc)u
z = zc+(z1-yc)u
The projected point on xy plane i.e (x2,y2) will be the point
where the line intersects the xy plane.
i.e zc = 0, zc+(z1-zc)u =
0 i.e u = -zc/(z1-zc)
x2 = (xcz1-x1zc)/(z1-zc)
y2 = (ycz1 y1zc)/(z1-zc)
[x2,y2,z2] = [ (xcz1-x1zc)/(z1-zc), (ycz1 y1zc)/(z1 zc), 0]

In homogenous form (Homogenous co-ordinate

system) [x2,y2,z2,1] = [ xcz1-x1zc, ycz1-y1zc, 0, z1-zc]

In Matrix form ,

However z value is needed for hidden surface detection, so

transformation matrix changes to

Date: 2065/7/25
Extension of two-dimensional to three dimensional
transformation:
AB = perspective projection of AB

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Just as 2D-transfromtion can be represented by 3x3 matrices

using homogeneous co-ordinate can be represented by 4x4
matrices, provided we use homogenous co-ordinate
representation of points in 3D space as well
Translation:
- Translation in 3D is similar to translation in the 2D except that
there is one more direction parallel to the z-axis.
- If , tx,ty,and tz are used to represent the separate shifts , then the
translation of the position (x,y,z) into the point (x,y,z) is done
by
x = x +tx
y = y +ty
z = z+tz
- In matrix notation using normalized homogeneous
coordinate this is performed by the matrix multiplication.

Inverse translation,
T-1 (tx,ty,tz) = T(-tx,-ty tz)

Scaling:
(i) About origin:
Explicit expression:
X = x*sx
Y = y*sy
Z= z*sz
- The matrix representation for the scaling x-formation of a
position p(x,y,z) relative to the co-ordinate origin.
Matrix form:

Where scaling parameter sx,sy,sz are assigned positive values.

(iii) About any fixed point: (xf, yf, zf)
- Scaling w.r.t to a selected fixed position (xf,yf,zf) can
be represented with the following transformation.
Step:1 Translate the fixed point with the origin T(-xf,-yf,zf) Step:2 Scale the object relative to the co-ordinate origin.
S(sx,sy,sz)
Step:3 Translate the fixed point back to its origin
position. T(xf, yf,zf)
Net transformation
T = T(xf,yf,zf). S(sx,sy,sz). T(-xf,-yf,-zf)

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Axis of rotation
X
Y
Z

Direction of +ve rotation

y to z
z to x
x to y

Rotation About z-axis:

Z-component does not change. The rotation of a point about
zaxis is equivalent to rotation of point projected on xy plane
(keeping z-value constant ) which is equivalent to 2D rotation i.e
rotation angle is equal to the angle between initial and final
projected points on xy-plane
x = xcos
ysin y = xsin
+ ysin z = z

Rotation:

Rotation about xaxis: x = x

y = ycos+zsin
z = ysin+zsin
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About y-axis:
Y = y
z = zcos xsin
x = zsin+ x cos
Date: 2065/7/27

Rotation about any co-axis:

(a) Parallel to any of the co-axis: When an object is to be
rotated about an axis that is parallel to one of the co-ordinate
axis, we need to perform some series of transformation.
1. Translate the object so that the rotation axis coincides
with the parallel co-ordinate axis. T(-a,-b,-c) where,
(a,b,c) is any point on the rotation axis.
2. Performed the specified rotation about the axis. Rx( )
3. Translate the object so that the rotation axis is moved to
its original position. T(a,b,c)
Net transformation,
= T(a,b,c) Rx(). T(-a,-b,-c)

(b) Not parallel to any of the co-axis:

When an object is to be rotated about an axis that is not parallel
to one of the co-ordinate axes, we need to perform some series of
transformation.
(i) Translate the object such that rotation axis passes through
co-ordinate origin.
(ii) Rotate the axis such that axis of rotation coincides with
one of the co-ordinate axis.
(iii) Perform the specific rotation about the ordinate axis.
(iv) Apply inverse rotation to bring the rotation axis back to
its original orientation.
(v) Apply inverse translation to bring the rotation axis back to
its original position.
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Where (a,b,c) are direction cosines of rotation axis i.e a2+b2+c2

=1.

(ii) For step II rotation can not be performed directly since the
rotation is not about any of the co-ordinate axis hence. It is done
in two steps.
(a) Rotation by angle about x axis.
(b) Rotate by angle about y axis.

Let p1, p2 be the two end points of axis of rotation then the
axis vector is given by:

Step (a)
Angle for rotation of u around x-axis into xz plane is equal to
angle between u (projection of u on yz plane and z-axis ).

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Step: 5
T(x1, y1,z1)
Net transformation,
-1
-1
= T(x1,y1,z1). R x( ) R y() R2(). Ry().Rx( )T(-x,-y,-z)

Date:2065/7/28
Steps (b)
U moves to the position u after being rotated by about x axis
so the position of ' ' ur is given by
u = Rx( ).u

Reflection:
(i) About Axis: Reflection about axis is equivalent to 180
rotation about the axis.
About z-axis:

About x-axis:

About y-axis:

Step: 4
(a) R-1 y()

(ii) About any axis:

(b) R-1 x( )

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T (x1,y1,z1) Rx (- ) Ry(-) . Rfz Ry(). Rx () T(-x1,-y1,z1) (iii) About plane:

X = x ,
Y = y
Z = z
(a) about xy plane (z-axis)

In 2D, shearing about x-axis means x-values changes by amount

proportional to y-values and y-values remains same.
However in 3D, z-axis means x and y value change by
amount proportional to z-value and z-value remains same. i.e x=
x+ Shx.z
y = y + Shy.z
z = z

(b) about xz plane (y-axis):

Similarly,

(c ) about yz-plane (x-axis):

About any plane:

Step:1: Translate the plane such that it passes through origin i.e
normal vector passes through origin.
Step:2: Rotate the plane such that normal vector lies on one of
the co-ordinate axis.
Step:3: Perform reflection about the plane whose normal vector
is one of the co-ordinate axis.
Step:4: Rotate back the plane such that normal vector takes its
original orientation.
Step5: Translate back the plane to its original position.
Shearing:

#1. Find the transformation matrix for the reflection of 3D object

about plane 2x+y-4z+5 = 0 .
#2. Find the transformation matrix for the reflection of 3D abject
about plane passing through origin whose normal vector is (i+j
+k) (all are vector).
#3. Reflection of 3D object about axis joining the points (1,2,3)
and (4,5,6).
# 4. Rotation of 3D object by 60 about axis joining the points
(1,2,3) and (6,5,7).

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Date:2065/8/4

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Realization In 3-D Graphics:

Many computer graphic application involve the display of 3D objects and scenes. For examples CAD systems allow the
users to manipulate models of machine components, automobile
bodies and aircraft parts. Simulation system present a
continuously moving picture of a 3-D world to the pilot of ship
or aircraft. These applications differ from 2-D applications not
only in the added dimension: they also requires concern for
realism in the display of objects.
Producing a realistic image of a 3-D scene on a 2D-scene on a
rd
2D-display present many problem. How is depth, the 3
dimension to be displayed on the scene? How are pars of the
object that are hidden by other object to be modified and
removed form the image? How is a 3-D world to be modulated
in a computer in a computer so that images can be generated?
There are a no. of techniques for achieving realism.
The basic problem addressed by visualization technique is
sometimes called depth cueing. When a 3 -D scene is projected
onto a 2-D display scene , information about the depth of objects
in the image tends to be reduced or loosed entirely. Techniques
that provide depth cues are designated to restore or enhance the
communication of depths to the observer. The different
technique for achieving realism are:
- Parallel projection.
- Perspective projection
- Intensity cues.
- Stereoscopic views.
- Kinetic depth effect.
- Hidden line elimination
- Shadding with hidden surface removed
- 3-D images.

Modelling 3-D scenes: The techniques used to generate different

kinds of 3-D scenes are start from a model of the scene. The
model is needed for two purpose.
1. It is used by viewing algorithm together with information
about the location of the viewer.
2. It is used to modify and analyze the objects in the scene,
activities usually considered part of the application
program.
The information in a model of a 3-D scene can be divided into
two important classes: geometry and topology. Geometry is
concerned with measurements , such as the location of a point or
the dimension of the object. Topological information records the
structure s of a scene: how points are combined to form
polygons, how polygons form object and how object from
scenes.
3-D objects Representation:
Polygon surface:
- The most commonly used boundary representation for a 3D graphic object is a set of surface polygon that enclose
the object interior. Many graphic system stored all object
description a sets of surface polygon. This simplifies and
speed of the surface rendering and display a object scene
all the surface describe with linear equation.
- A polygon representation of a polyhedron precisely
defines the surface of a objects.

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Date: 2065/8/5

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Polygon Table Representation:

Polygon surface is generally used to represent 3-D object. It
consists of two parts:
(1) Geometric table.
(2) Attribute Table.
(a) Geometric table: It contains vertex co-ordinates and
parameter to identify the spatial orientation of polygon
surface.
(b) Attribute table: It gives attribute information for an object
(degree of transparency, surface reflectivity etc)
Geometric data consists of three tables:
(i)
Vertex table: It stores co-ordinate values for each
vertex of the object.
V
E1
S1

E4
E3

S2

5
E5

V2

E2

V3

Vertex
V1
V2
V3
V4

coordinate
(x1,y1,z1)
(x2,y2,z2)
(x3,y3,z3)
(x4,y4,z4)

V5

V4

E1
E2
E3
E4
E5
Surface table:
Surface
S1
S2

(v1,v2)
(v2,v3)
(v3,v1)
(v1,v5)
(v3,v4)
Edge
(E1,E2,E3)
(E3,E4,E5,E6)

Rues for creating Geometric table:

1. Every vertex in listed as an end point for at least
tow edges.
2. Every edge is par of at least one polygon
3. Each polygon has at least one shared edge.
4. Every surface is close.
Plane Equation:
It is used to determine the spatial orientation of the individual
surface component of the object.
The equation of the plane is
Ax+By+Cz +D = 0

(x5,y5,z5)

Solution of plane Co-efficient:

1. Algebraic Approach.
2. Vertex Approach.

(ii) Edge Table:

It contains pointers back into vertex to identify the edges for
each polygon.
Edge
Vertex

(1) Algebraic Approach:

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C(x3,y3,z3)
V3

B(x2,y2,z2)
V2

B = (z3-z2) (x2z3 x3z2)+(x2-x3)

C = (y2 y3) y1 (x2 x3)+ (x2y3 x3y2)
D = -x2(y2z3-y3z2) +y1(x2z3-x3z2)- z1(x2y3 x3y2)

V1

A(x y z )
1, 1, 1

D(x4,y4,z4)

If (x1,y1,z1) , (x 2,y2,z2) and (x3,y3,z3) are three successive

vertex of the plogygon then
Ax +By+Cz = -D
(A/D)x +(B/D)y+(C/D)z = -1

As vertex values and other information are entered into the

polygon data structure, values for A, B, C and D are computed
for each polygon and store with other polygon data.
Date: 2065/8/9
Vector Approach:
Y

(A/D)x1 +(B/D)y1+(C/D)z1 = -1 .(i)

(A/D)x2 +(B/D)y2+(C/D)z2 = -1 .(ii)
(A/D)x3 +(B/D)y3+(C/D)z3 = -1 (iii)
By cramers rule:

BV2(x2,y2,z2)
D
C
V3(x3,y3,z3)

1 y 1 z1
A = 1 y2 z 2
y z
1 3
3
x

B=

x1
2

x3
x1

1 z1
1
1

z3
y1 1

The position vector of v1,v2, and v3 are

V1 = OA = (x1,y1,z1)

C = x2 y 2 1
x3

D=

y3 1

x1 y1
x2 y2
x 3 y3

A
V1(x1,y1,z1)

z1
z2
z3

Expanding the determinant we can write that,

A = (y3z3 y3z2) y1(z3-z2) + z1(y3-y2)

V2 = OB = (x2,y2,z2)
V3 = OC = (x3,y3,z3)
Taking cross product AB AC
AB = OB OA
= (x2-x1, y2-y1,z2-z1)
AC = OC OA
= (x3-x1,y3-y1,z3-z1)
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i
g

AB AC =

x1

y 2 y1 z 2

x1

x2

y 3 y1

z3

B(1,1,0)
C(1,1,1)

= i {(z3-z1).(y2-y1) (z2-z1).(y3-y1)}
= -j { (x2 x1)(z3 z1) (z2 z1)(x3-x1)}
= k {(x2-x1) (y3 y1) (y2-y1)(x3-x1)}
Component of y
i=

2
y y
3

y1
0y

R2 R1+R2
R3 R1 +R3

y1

y3 y1

z
1

N = AB AC
AB = OB OA

z1

z
2

z3

1
z

z3

Y
A(1,0,0)

= (1-1,1-0,0-0)
= (0,1,0)

z
1

AC = OC OA

=(1-1,1-0,10) = (0,1,1)

Note: The bold alphabets are

vector notation.

N = AB AC

Similarly,
B = Component of j
C = component of k
Hence , the plane coefficients (A,B,C) gives normal vector to the
plane. Further , if P(x,y,z) be any point on the plane then,
N.P = (A, B, C). (x,y,z)
= Ax+By+Cz
D = -N.P

= (0,1,0)(0,1,1)
= j(j+k)
= 0+i
=i
= (1,0,0)
Therefore, A = 1, B= 0, C=0

r r

D = N .P

Eg.

= -(1,0,0).(1,0,0)
= -1
D =1

equation of plane is

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Ax+By+Cz+D = 0
Or , x-1 = 0
The plane equation are used ot determine the positon of spatial
points relative to the palne surface of an object .
If p(x,y,z) is any point on the plane then the distance between
the point and the plane is

d=

Ax + By + Cz
2

+B

+C

If d = 0 , Ax+By+Cz+D = 0 i.e point is on the plane. If

d<0, Ax+By+Cz+D = 0 i.,e point is inside the plane. If
d>0, Ax+By+Cz+D = 0 i.e point is outside the plane.
The side of the plane that faces the object interior is inside face
and visible face is outside face.
If polygon vertices are specified in counter clockwise direction
when viewing the outer side of the plane in right handed coordinate system the direction of normal vector will be from
inside to outside.
Date: 2065/8/16
Polygon Meshes: It is a collection of edges , vertices and
surfaces such that each edge is shered by at most
1. Two polygons. An edge connects two vertices and a polygon
2. is a closed sequence of edge. An edge can be shared by two
adjacent polygon and vertices is shared at least two edges. \
Figure:
Visible Surface detection Method:

- The method that are used for identifying those of a scene

that are visible from a chosen viewing position are referred
to as visible surface detection methods.
- Sometimes these methods are also known as hidden
surface elimination method.
Classification of visible surface Detection Algorithm:
- Visible surface detection algorithms are broadly classified
according to whether they deal with object definitions
directly or with their projected images . These tow
approaches are called
- Object space Method.
- Image Space Method.
- An object space method compares objects and parts of
objects to each other within scene definition to determine
which surfaces are visible.
- An image space method visibility is decided point by point
at each pixel position on the projection plane.
- Most visible surface algorithms use image-space method
although object space method can be used effectively to
locate visible surfaces in some cases.
- Line display algorithm generally use object space method
to identify visible lines in wire-frame display.
Date: 2065/8/17
Back Face detection:
- A fast and simple object space method for identifying the
back-faces of a poly hedron is based on the inside-outside
tests.

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- A point (x,y,z) is inside a polygon surface with plane

parameters A, B, C and D if,
Ax +By+Cz +D < 0
- When an inside point is along the line of sight to the surface ,
the polygon must be a back face (we are inside that face
cannot see the front of it form our viewing position).
- We can simplify this tests by considering the normal vector N
to a polygon surface, which has certain components (A,B,C).
- In general if V is a vector in the viewing direction from the
eye (or camera) position, as shown in fig. then the polygon
is back face if,
- V.N > 0
(A,B,C)

(A,B,C)

Xv
V

Zv

Fig. A polygon surface with plane parameter C<0 in a righthanded co-ordinate system is identified as a back-face when the
viewing direction is along the ve vz axis.
Object is centered at origin if D > 0 (back face) else front face.
Y

z+1 = 0 Back face

i.e D> 0 invisible

- Furthermore , if object description have been converted to

projection co-ordinate and our viewing direction is parallel to
X
(0,z,0)
the viewing zv axis then,
- V = (0,0,vz) and V.N = vzC
z-1 = 0
Visible
So that we only need to consider the sign of C (i.e z-component
i.e d=-1
of the normal vector N)
Z
- In a right handed viewing system with viewing direction
Depth Buffer Method (z-Buffer Method):
along the negative zvaxis , the polygon is back face if C< 0
- A commonly used image-space approach for detecting visible
and also if C = 0 .
surface is the depth buffer method which compares surface
- Thus, in general ,we can label any polygon as back face if its
depth at each pixel position on the projection plane.
normal vector has z-component value.
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- This process is also referred to as the z-buffer method, since

object depth is usually measured from plane along the z-axis
of a viewing system.
- This method is usually applied to scenes containing only
polygon surface because depth values can be computed very
quickly and the method is easy to implement.
- With object description converted to projection co-ordinate
each (x,y) position on a polygon surface corresponds to the
orthographic projection point (x,y) on the view plane.
- Therefore for each pixel position (x,y) on the view plane
object depth can be compared by comparing z-values.
Yv
S3

2
S1
Xv
(x,y)

Depth buffer: To sore the depth value for each (x,y) position as
surface S are processed.
A Refresh buffer: To store the intensity value for each position.
- Initially , all positions in the depth buffer are set to 0 (minimum
depth) and the refresh buffer is initialized to the back-ground
intensity.
-

Each surface listed in the plygo tables is then processed.

One scan line at a times calculaign the depth (z-value) at each
(x,y) pixel position.
- The calculated depth is compared to the value previously
stored in the depth buffer at that position.
- The calculated depth is greater than the value stored in the
depth buffer, the new depth value is stored and the surface
intensity at that position is determined and place in the same
x-y location in the refresh buffer.

Zv

Fig. At view plane position (x,y) surface s1 has the

smallest depth form the view plane and so its surface intensity
value (x,y) is saved.
- -We can implement the depth buffer algorithm in normalize
co-ordinates so that the z-values range form zero at the back
clipping plane to zmax at the front clipping plane.
- The value of zmax can be set to either one ( for a unit cube) or
to the largest value that can be stored in the system.

Depth buffer Algorithm:

1. Initialize the depth buffer and refresh buffer as depth (x,y)
=zmin or 0
2. For each pixel on each polygon surface compare depth value
(z-value) to previously stored value in depth buffer (x,y).
If z > depth (x,y) then set
Depth(x,y) = z , refresh(x,y) = Isuface(x,y)
3. Plot the point(x,y) and z-value at each depth buffer with
corresponding values in refresh buffer.

In this method two buffer areas are required. One is the

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y

After all surfaces have been processed the depth buffer contins
depth values for visible surfaces and refresh buffer contains
corresponding intensity values for those surface.
Where,
Isurface(x,y) is the projected intensity value for the surface at
pixel position (x,y).
The mathematics involved (Calculation of z-value):
Depth values for a surface position (x,y) are calculated from the
plane equation for each surface.
Z = (-Ax By D)/C
From position (x,y) on a scene line the next position across the
line the next position across the line has co-ordinates(x+1,y) and
the position immediately below on the next line co-ordinates
(x,y-1).
Now we determine the depth of the next position (x+1,y) as
Depth (x+1,y).
Z = [-A(x-1)-ByD]/C Or, z = z A/C

x x

k+1

- The ratio A/C is constant for each surface, so succeeding

depth values across a scan line are obtained from processing
values with a single addition.
- On each scan line, we start by calculating the depth on a left
edge of the polygon that intersects the scan lines as shown in
the fig. below.
top scan line

left edge
intersection

y scan line

- Depth values at each successive position across the scan line

are then calculated from the above equation for z.
- We first determine the y-coordinate extents of each polygon
and process the surface form the top-most scan line as shown
in the above figure.
- Starting at a top vertex, we recursively calculate n positions
down a left edge of the polygon as:
- x = x 1/m
- where, m is the slope of the edge of the polygon.

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iii)
y scan line

Depth values down the edge are then obtained recursively

as, Z = [-Ax-By-D]/C
y = y -1 and x = x 1/m
z = z + (A/m+B)/c
If we are processing down a vertical edge, the slope is infinite
and the recursive calculations reduces to
Z = z + B/C .

Scan line Method:

The scan line method solve the hidden surface problem
one scan line at a time.
Processing of the scan line start from the top to the bottom
of the display.
This method calculates, the z-value for only the
overlapping surface which is tested by scan line.
It request edge table, polygon table/surface table active
edge list and flag.
y

Scan Line 1
A

S1

S2

Scan Line 2

# What are the advantages and disadvantages of z-buffer

algorithm?
Advantages:
- No presorting and object-object comparisons are required .
- Time taken by visible surface calculation is constant .
- It is simple and easy implementation hardware.
- If memory is at permission scan converted in strips.
- Good for animation.
Disadvantage:
- Requires amount of memory for z and frame buffer.
- It is subject to aliasing.
Note from miss:

C
H
D

Scan Line 3
G
x

Fig. Scan lines crossing the projection of tow surfaces, s1 and s2

in the view plane. Dashed line indicate the boundaries of hidden
surfaces.
Edge table contents:
i)
ii)
iii)

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Coordinate end points for each scan line.

Pointers in the polygon table to identify the surfaces
bounded by each line.
Inverse slope of each line.

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Polygon table contents:

i)
Coefficients of plane equations for each surfaces.
ii)
Pointers into edge table.
iii) Intensity information of the surfaces.
Active edge list contains edges that cross the current scan line,
shorted in order of increasing x.
Flag is defined for each surface that is set ON or OFF to
indicate if a position alone a scan line is inside or outside of the
surface at left most boundary surface flag is ON and at right
most flag is OFF.
Above figure illustrate the scan line method for locating
visible portion of surfaces for pixel position along the line.
The active list for scan line one contains information form the
edge table for edges AB , BC, EH and FG.
For position along this scan line between edges AB and BC,
flag (S1) = ON and flag (S 2) = OFF.
Therefore no depth calculation are necessary and intensity
information for surface S1 is entered from the polygon table into
the refresh buffer.
Similarly , between edge EH and FG
Flag (S1) = OFF and flag (S2) = ON
On other position along scan line 1intersect surfaces, so the
intensity values in the other areas are set to the background
intensity. The background intensity can be loaded throughout the
buffer in an initialization routine.
For scan line 2 and 3 figure, the active edge list contains edges
AD, EH, BC and FG.
Along the scan line 2, from edge AD to edge EH, flag (S1 )=
ON and flag (S2 )= OFF
Between edges EH and BC,

Flag (S1)= ON and flag (S2) = ON

Therefore depth calculation must be made using the plane
coefficient for the two surfaces.
For this example the depth of surface S 1 is assumed to be less
than that of S2, So intensity for surface S1 are loaded into the
refresh buffer until boundary BC is encountered. Then the flag
for the surface S1 goes off. And intensity for surface S2 are
stored until edge FG is passed.
For the scan line 3 the active edge list contains the same edge
as scan line 2.
Since no changes have occurred in line intersection, it is
unnecessary again to make depth calculation between edges EH
and BC. The surfaces must be in the same orientation as
determined on scan line 2. So the intensity for the surface S1 can
be entered without further calculation.
Any number of overlapping polygon surfaces can be processed
with this scan line method. Flag for the surfaces are set to
indicate whether a position is inside or outside, and depth
calculation are performed when surfaces overlap.
Algorithm:
1. Established data structure.
I. Edge table with line endpoints , inverse slope to polygon
pointers.
II. Polygon table with plane coefficient, colour and pointer to
edge table.
III. Active edge list sorted in increasing order of
x. IV. A flag for each surface.
2. Repeat for each scan line.
I. Update AEL for scan line y,

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II. Scan line across light using background color until flag
goes ON.
III. When one flag is ON , enter intensity of that surface to
refresh buffer.
IV. When two or more flags are ON, do depth sorting and
stored the intensity of pixel nearest to the view plane.
Need for Shading in Engineering Data visualization: The
realism of a raster scan image of a 3D scene depends upon the
successful stimulation of shading effects.
Once visible surface has been identified by hidden surface
algorithm , a shading model is used to compute the intensities
and color to display for the surface.
The Shading model doesnot precisely stimulate the behaviour
of light and surfaces in the real world but only approximation
actual condition.
The shading model has two components.
1. Properties of surfaces
2. Properties of illumination falling on it.
The principle surface property is its reflectance which determine
how much of the incident light is reflected.
- If a surface has different reactance for light of different
wavelength, it will appear to be color.
- If a surface is texture or has a patterned printed on it, the
reflectance will vary with position on the surface.
- Another surface property that play a role in shaded picture is
transparency.
Light Source:

When we view a opaque non-luminous object, we see reflected

light from the surface of the object. The total reflected light is the
sum of the contribution from the light source and other reflective
surfaces as shown in the figure:
Light source

Reflecting surface

eye

Fig. Light viewed from an opaque non luminous surface is in

general a combination of reflected light from a light source and
reflection of light reflection from other surfaces.
- Thus a surface that is not directly exposed to light sources
may still be visible if near by objects are eliminated.
- Sometimes light sources are referred to as light emitting
source and reflecting surface such as walls of a room are
termed light reflecting source.
- A luminous object in general can be both light source and a
light reflector. For example: A plastic globe with a light bulb
inside both emits and reflects light from the surface of globe.
- A simplest model for a light emitter is a point source.
- A near by source such as long fluorescent light is more
accurately modelled as a distributed light source.

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i=r
or cos ri = cos r
or L . N = N . R

But practically when light is incident on opaque surface part of it

is reflected and part of it is absorbed.
I = A+R
Shining material reflects more and dull surface absorb more of
incident light. Rough surface tends to scatter the reflected light in
all direction. The scattered light is called diffuse reflection.
So surface appears equally bright from all viewing directions.

Fig. Diverging ray paths

From a point light
Source.

Fig. An object illuminated with

a distributed light source.

- When light source is incident on a opaque surface, part of it is

reflected and part of it is absorbed.
- The amount of incident light reflected by a surface depends
on the type of material.
- Shining material reflects more incident light and dull surface
absorbs more of the incident light.
- Surface to produce a uniform illumination is called the
ambient light or background.

In addition to diffuse refection, light source creates high lights or

bright spots called specular reflection. How ever this effect is
seen more on shiny surface then dull surfaces. Examples:
Persons forehead.

Reflection of light:
I

Basic illumination models:

Ambient light: Surface that is not exposed directly to a light
source still will be visible if near by objects are illuminated. This
light is called ambient light.

In ideal reflection i = r
Let L be the unit vector along incident ray. N be the unit vector along
normal ray. R be the unit vector along reflected ray then, 75
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For low reflective surface kd = 0

Ia

Ia

Diffuse Reflection: Diffuse reflection is constant over each

surface in a scene independent of viewing direction. The
intensity of diffuse reflection due to ambient light is
Iadiff = kd. Ia
Where,
Kd = diffuse reflection co-efficient
For highly reflective surface kd= 1

If surface is exposed to a point source we assume diffuse

reflections from this surface are scattered with equal intensity in
all directions. Such surfaces are also called ideal diffuse
reflectors which follows Lamberts Cosine Law.

Characteristic of Ambient light:

- It provide general level of brightness for all surfaces.
- It has no spatial or directional characteristics.
- It has same intensity for each surface regardless of viewing
direction.
If intensity of ambient light = Ia
Then Iamb = Ia
If we take surface reflectivity then,
Iamb = Ia
If we take surface reflectivity then
Iamb = kaIa
Where ka is co-efficient of ambient reflection.

diff

Lamberts Cosine Law: The radiant energy force from any

small surface dA in and direction N relative to surface normal is
proportional to cosN .
Light intensity cosN

dA
N

energy

Although there is equal light scattering in all directions from an

ideal diffuse reflection, the brightness of the surface depends on
the orientation of the surface related to the light source. If the
surface is perpendicular to source it appears brighter.

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N

Idiff = kd Il cosr
= kdIl ( L.N )
Total diffuse reflection = Diff ( due to amb.)+Diff. due to
pt.source.
= kaIa +kdIL( L.N )

N
L

(small ns)

Shiny surface
(large ns)

The empirical formula for calculating the specular reflection

range is given by phong Model.
Phong Model: It sets the intensity of the specular reflection
s
proportional to cos , where s is specular reflection parameter
and is determined by the type of surface that we want to display.
For very shiny surface s is set 100 and for dull surface s is set 1.
The intensity of specular reflection can be modeled using
specular reflection coefficient ()
s
Ispec = () I Lcos
g

i.e incident light is reflected only in specular reflection direction.

r
So V and R coincides.
Objects other than ideal reflection for a finite range of viewing
positions around R . Shiny surfaces have narrow specular
reflection range and dull surfaces have a wider range.

Dull surface
Specular Reflection:
In shiny surface we see high light or bright spot from certain
viewing directions called specular reflection. This is due to total
or nearly total reflection of light.
For ideal reflector,
(perfect mirror) = = 0

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Silver
P

Gold
0.5

N
Dilelectric
(glass)
0

90

= ksIL (V R )

The glass exhibits appreciable specular reflection when.

90
At = 0 only 4% of incident light is specularly reflected.
Similarly for gold at = 0 , almost 50% of light is specularly
reflected and at = 90 almost 100% incident light is specularly
reflected.
However ,for many opaque materials specular reflection is
nearly constant for all incident angles. So, we replace () by a
constant ks (specular reflection co-efficient).
Ispec = ksIL cosr

Expanding R in terms of L and N

From fig. aside,
R + L = OM
= 2 OQ (diagonal of ||gm bisect each other )
= 2| OQ |. N
= 2 ox cos. N
= 2( L . N ). N
R = 2( L . N ). N - L
Total intensity is,
I = Iamb +Idiff +Ispec
= KaIa+ kdIL ( N . L )+KsIL(V . R
s
) Where, R = 2( N . L ). N - L
Polygon Rendering Methods:
(i)
Constant Intensity shading Method.
(ii) Gouraud
Shading
method(Intensity
Interpolation)
(iii) Phong Shading Method (Normal Vector
Interpolation).

78 (i) Constant Intensity Shading Method:

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I2

N3
I2

I1

(ii) Gouraud Shading:

It renders the polygon surface by linearly interpolating intensity
values across the surface.
The intensity is calculated for a point for each surface (usually at
the center) and that intensity is applied to all the points of that
surface. Hence, all the points over the surface of the polygon are
displayed with same intensity value given
r s
by I = ka Ia +ka Ia ( N . L )+ksIL(V R )
Where, R = 2( N . L ). N - L

N2

N1

N3
N4

This method is faster and simple but not realistic and holds
following assumptions:
(a) Object is polyhedron and is not an approximation of an
object with a curved surface.
(b) All light sources are sufficiently far from the object so that
r
N . L is constant.
(c) The viewing position is sufficiently far so that V . R is
constant.

Nv

Steps:
(i)

Determine the average unit normal vector at each

polygon vertex by
Ni
Navg =

N
i
N +N +N +N
= r1 r2 r3
r4

N1 + N 2 + N3 + N 4

Disadvantage:
- The intensity discontinuity occurs at the border of the two
surfaces.

(ii)
(iii)

Calculate the intensity at each vertex by

I = kaIa + kaIa( N.L )+ksIl (V .R )ns
Linearly interpolate the vertex intensities over the
surface.
I4 = y4 y2 I1 +

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y1 y2

y4

y1 y2

I2

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(x4, I4)

(iii) Phong Shading: It renders the polygon surface by

linearly interpolating normal vector across the surface.

(x5, I5)
(xp, ?)

(y1, I1)

(y2, I2)
(y4, ?)

1
p

N2

N 3

I2

x+1

Similary,
IP = x5 x p I 4 + x p x4 I 5
x5 x4

Nv

x5 x4

In fig. aside, I can be calculated by interpolation

between I1 and I2.

Steps:

I = y y2 I1 + y1 y I 2
y1 y2
y1 y2
I = ( y 1) y2 I1 + y1 ( y 1) I 2
y1 y 2
y1 y2

I = I +

a) Determine the average unit normal vector at each polygon

vertex.
N
N = i

I I
2

avg

Similarly , intensity at x sampling position is

I = x 5 x I 4 + x x4 I 5
x 5 x4

x5 x4

At next sampling position (x+1)

x5 (x +1)
x5 x4

I = I +

I4 +

Ni

y1 y2

(x +1) x4

I5

b) Linearly interpolate the vertex normal over the surface of

the polygon.
c) Apply an illumination model along each scan line.
s
I = ka Ia +ka Ia ( N . L )+ksIL(V R )
Calculation for step (b).

x 5 x4
I5 I 4
x5 x4
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N3

Chapter:4
NEED FOR MACHINE INDEPENDENT GRAPHICAL
LANGUAGE

N
p

Np

N5
N

N2

N
x1

GRAPHICS SOFTWARE
There are two general classifications for graphics:

xp+1

N can be obtained by interpolating N1 and N 2

yy

N=

y1 y 2

.N1 +

y y
1

y1 y 2

.N 2

Similarly for next scan line.

N'=

( y 1) y2

.N 1

y1 y2

N2 N 1
N '= N +
y1 y2

+y

( y 1)

.N

y1 y 2

Similarly, for horizontal scan, N 1 can be obtained from

interpolation between N and N 5 given by
N =
p

x5 x p
xP x
.N +
N
x5 x
x5 x

1. General Programming Packages:

A general programming package provides
extensive set of graphics functions that can be
used I n high level programming language such
as C or FORTRAN.
An example of a general graphics programming
package is the GL (Graphics Library) system on
Silicon Graphics equipment.
Basic functions in a general package include
those for generating picture components (St.
Line, polygon, circles and other figures) setting
color and intensity values, selecting views and
BC applying transformations.

Similarly normal vector at next sampling position xp+1 is

N5 N
NP'=Np+

x5 x

Comments:
(i)
Requires more calculation and hence time consuming.
(ii) Produces more realistic.

2. Special Purpose Application Packages:

Application graphics packages are designed for
non-programmers, so that users can generate
displays without worrying about how graphics
operations work.
The interface to the graphics routines in such
packages allows users to communicate with the
programs in their own terms. Example: CAD

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SOFTWARE STANDARDS
The primary goal of standardized graphics software is
portability.
When packages
are designed with standard graphics
functions, softwares can
be moved easily from one
hardware system to another.
Without standards, programs designed for one hardware
often cant be transformed to another system without
extensive rewriting of the programs. Thus we require
machine independent graphical language.
and national
standards
planning
International
organizations in many countries have co-operated in an
effort to develop generally accepted standard for computer
graphics.
Graphical Kernel System (GKS) was adopted as the first
graphics software standard by the International standard
Organization (ISO) and by various national standards
organizations, including the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI).
Although GKS was originally designed as a 2D graphics, a
3D GKS extension was subsequently developed.
The second software standard to be developed and
approved by the standards organization was PHIGS
(Programmers
Hierarchical Interactive
Graphics
Standard) which is an extension of GKS.
Increased capabilities for object modeling,
color
specifications and picture manipulations are provided in

PHIGS.

Standard Graphics functions are

defined as a set of
specifications that is independent of any programming
language. A language binding is then defined as a
particular high level programming language. This
language gives the syntax for accessing the various
standard graphics functions from this language.
Discussion of available languages and file formats:
File Format: A file format is a standard method of encoding
data for storage. There are many types of file formats, they are
important because they tell programs what kind of data is
contained in the file and how data is organized.
File formats are of two types:
(2) Proprietary
(3) Universal
Proprietary and universal
The structure of proprietary is under the sole control of the
software developer who invented the format. This file can be
opened or saved without the use of an import or export filter by
the program that created them.
Universal file formats are based on openly published
specification and are commonly used by many different program
and on different operating system.
For example: Adobe photoshop by default saves images in its
proprietary format, but it can also save file in several universal
formats such as TIFF , GIF , JPEG, PICT and TGA. A word
processing program can read and save files in specific formats
such as DOC and TXT.

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All the bitmap based to graphics programs can use any of the
file formats listed in the fig. below:
Format
Description
1. BMP
A graphics format which is used
in windows BMP is used for
wall paper.
2. PICT
(picture). It is generally used on
MACS computers.
3. TIFF
(Tagged Image file format).A bit
map format defined in 1986. by
Microsoft and Aldus and widely
used in both Macs and PCs. This
format is usually the best to use
when exchanging bit map files
that will be printed or edited
further.
4.JPEG
(Joint
photographic
expert
group).This bit map format is
Common on the world wide web
and is often used for photos and
high resolution images.(24-bit or
millions of colors )that will be
viewed on the screen.
5. GIF
(Graphic
Interchange
Format).Like JPEG images GIF
images are often found on world
wide web pages. Unlike JPEG
images, GIF images are reduced
to 256 or fewer unique colors.
6. PNG
(portable, network graphics).
This format was developed as an

alternative
to
GIF
and
JPEG.PNG, like JPEG, can store
the color images in a small
amount of space, but PNG file
can also store transparency
information the way GIF files
do. The PNG format was
initially designed for use in web
pages.
Most vector base programs create and save file in a proprietary
file format. These formats are either incompatible with other
programs not totally supported by other programs. In the later
case, other programs may use import filters to use these file
formats. Import filters never work perfectly because program
using the import filter will not have the same exact features as
the program that created the file. This lack of commonality has
forced the software developer to create universal files formats,
which enables user of one program to work with files created -in
other programs. Only a handful of common file formats such as
date exchange formats (DF) and initial graphics exchange
specifications (IGES), exists for vector graphics. This universal
format should enable you to create a vector file in one program ,
such as AUTOCAD and use it in another program such as corel
DRAW or VISIO.
Graphics software:
1. Paint program: Paint program works with bit map images.
2. Photo manipulation program: It works with bit map images
and are widely used to edit digitized photographs.

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3. Computer Aided Design program: CAD software is used in

technical design fields to create models of objects that will be
built or manufactured. CAD software allows user to design
objects in 3 dimensions and can produce 3-D frames and solid
models.
4. 3-D Modelling Programs: It is used to create visual effects.
3-D modeling program works by creating objects like surface
, solid, polygon etc.
5. Animation: Computer are used to create animation for use in
various fields, including games, and movies composing to
allow game makers and film makers to add characters and
objects to scenes that did not originally contain them.
Error Diagnostics: Programming errors often remain
undetected until an attempt is made to compile the program once
the compile command has been issued. However, the presence of
certain errors will become readily apparent, since these errors
will prevent the program from being compile successfully, some
particular common errors of this types are declaring constants
and variables improperly , a reference to an undeclared variable
and incorrect punctuation. Such errors are referred as syntactical
error or grammatical error. Most version of C program will
generate a diagnostic message when a syntactical error has been
detected (the compiler usually come to an interrupt when this
happens). This diagnostic messages are not always completely
straight forward in their meaning, but they are nevertheless
helpful in identifying the nature and location of the error.
Logical Debugging: Syntactical errors and certain types of
logical errors will cause diagnostic messages to be generated
when compiling or executing a program. Errors of this types are

easy to find and correct. Some types of logical errors can be

much more difficult to detect, however, since the output resulting
from a logically incorrect program may appear to be error free.
Moreover, logical errors are often hard to find even when they
are known to exits (as for example, when the computed output is
obviously incorrect)

Chapter:5
PROJECT MANAGEMENT
A project is an inter-related set of activities that has
definite starting and ending point that result in a unique product
or service. Each project is unique, even if it is routined.
Uncertainties such as the advent of new technologies or the
timing of certain events can change the character of projects.
Projects are temporary activities as personal materials and

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facilities are assembled to accomplish a goal within a specified

time frame.
Projects are common in everyday life. Planning weddings,
remodeling rooms, writing term papers and organizing surprise
birthday parties are examples of small projects.

hiring is done and any necessary training is

conducted.
Project manager must demonstrate leadership and
provide the motivation necessary to accomplish the
task required.
Project manager also evaluates progress and tasks
and appropriate action is taken when the project
schedules are in jeopardy (trouble).

ELEMENTS OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Successful project management involves the coordination
of tasks, people, organization and other resources to achieve a
goal. Three major elements are the
1. Project Manager
2. Project Team
3. Project Management System

2. PROJECT TEAM
The project team is a group of people often
differential functional areas or organizations, led by
the PM.
Members of the project team may be the represent
the supplier of essential materials, components or
services and may be actively involved in the
conduct of the project.
The size and constituency of the team may fluctuate
during the life of the project.

1. PROJECT MANAGER(PM)
Project manager integrate people from various
functional areas to achieve a specified project goals.
Traditional organization hierarchy tends to slow
progress on project because of lack of
communication, coordination and some time
motivation.
A project manager can overcome these road blocks
to project compilation.
A project manager is responsible for establishing
the project goals and providing the means to achieve
them.
The project manager must also specify how the
work will be done and ensure that the appropriate

3. PROJECT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

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The project management system consists of an

organizational structures and information system.
The organizational structure is specified by the top
management and defines the relationship of the
project team members to the project manager.
Assistance from personnel in other functional areas
must be negotiated by the project manager.

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Under this structure, the PM has minimal control

over the timing of the project, but resource
duplications across functional areas are minimized.
Project management system also provides for the
integrative planning and control of the performance,
costs expressed in dollars or resource uses, the interrelated effects of schedule changes and the
projected times and cost of project completion.
Network planning methods provide the information
needed to manager projects.

1. Describing The Project:

The project manager must first describe the project
into that every one involve will understand.
With the input of the team project manager must
carefully define all project activities and
precedence.
An activity is the smallest unit of work effort
consuming both time and resources that the project
manager can schedule and control.
If the precedence relationships determine a
sequence of undertaking activities, it specifies that
one activity can not start until the preceding activity
has been completed.

NETWORK PLANNING METHOD

Network planning method can help project manager to
monitor and control project. These methods and treat a project at
a set of inter-related activities that can be visually displaced in a
network diagram which consists of nodes (circle) and arc (arrow)
that shows the relationship between the activities.
Two network planning methods were developed in 1950s:
A. PERT (Program Evaluation and Review technique)
B. CPM (Critical Path Method)

2. Diagramming the Network:

Network planning method manages the projects which involves

different four steps:
1. Describing the project.
2. Diagramming the network
3. Establishing time of completion
4. Monitoring project progress
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Diagramming the project as a network requires

establishing the precedence relationship between the
activities.
The two different approaches are required for
diagramming the project as a network.
i. Activity on Arc(AOA)
ii. Activity on Node(AON)
(i)

Activity on Arc (AOA)

It uses arcs to represent activity and nodes to
represent events.

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An event is a point where one or more

activities are to be completed and one or
more other activities are to be begun.
An event consumes neither time nor
resources because AOA approach emphasizes
activity connection points i.e. it is event
oriented.
Here the precedence relationship is required,
an event cannot occur until all the preceding
activities have been completed.
Here connection used in AOA network is to
number events sequentially from left to right.
(ii)

Activity on Arc (AON)

S
U

3
2

S and T must be
completed before U can
be completed.

U and V cant begin

until both S and T
have been completed.

2
U

4
1

U and V cant begin

until both S and T have
been completed.

Here node represents activity and arc

indicates the relationship between them.
This approach is activity oriented.
Here the precedence relationship requires that an
activity not begin until all preceding activities
have been completed.

AON

S
1

T
2

U
3

Activity Relationship
US

Dummy

AOA

Dummy
T

Fig. given below shows the AOA and AON approaches

for several activities relationships commonly encountered;

precedes T which
precedes U.
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U
3

U cant begin until

both S and T have
been completed V
cant begin until T has
been completed.
V

T and U cant begin

until S has been
completed. V cant
begin until both T and
U have been
completed.

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# In a Hospital project ,11 major activities are identified. It also

specified the immediate predecessors (those activities that must
be completed before a particular activity can begin),for each
activity, as shown in the following table.
Activity
Description
Immediate Predecessors

I
A
F

START

FINISH
C

A
B
C
D
E

Select administrative
and medical staff
Select site and do site survey
Select equipment
Prepare final construction
plants and layout.
Bringing utilities to the site

Interview applicants and

and fill positions in nursing,
support staff, maintenance
and security.
Purchase and take delivery
Of equipment
Construct the hospital
Develop an information
system.
Install the equipment
Train nurses and support
staffs.

A
B

AOA Network for a given Hospital Project.

B
(b) AOA Diagram .

G
H
I
J
K

(a) Draw the AON network diagram.

(b) Draw the AOA network diagram.
(a) AON Diagram.

2
A

C
START1

C
B

D
A
E,G,H
F,I,J

J
G

FINISH
9

D
4

AOA Network for a given Hospital Project.

4.Monitoring Project progress:
Gantt Chart:
Gantt Chart (named after its developer Henry Gantt) are useful for
scheduling, budgeting and resource planning. A Gantt chart is a
special type of bar chart where each bar represents an 88 activity.
The bars are drawn along a time line. The length of each

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bar is proportional to the duration of time planned for the

corresponding activity.
Gantt Charts are very useful in software project management.
If the Gantt charts used for software project management; each
bar consist of a white part and a shaded part. The white part of
the bar shows the length of time each task is estimated to take.
The shaded part shows the slack time, i.e , the latest time by
which a task must be finished.

Jan 1

Jan 15

March 15

April 1

Specification

Design

Code

Nov 15

Specification
Design Database
Design GUI
Part

MIS
Application

Requirement

July 15

Code database
Part

Test

Doucument
Integrate

& test

Database
Part

G.U.I
Part

Database
Part

G.U.I
Part

REVIEW OF PROGRAM DEBUGGING TECHNIQUES

LOGICAL DEBUGGING:
We have seen that syntactical errors and certain type of
logical errors will cause diagnostic messages to be generated
when compiling or executing a program. Errors of this type
are easy to find and correct. Some types of logical errors can
be much more difficult to detect, however, since the output
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resulting from a logically incorrect program may appear to be

error-free. Moreover, logical errors are often hard to find even
when they are known to exist (as, for example, when the
computed output is obviously incorrect). Thus a good bit of
detective work may be required in order to find and correct
errors of this type. Such detective work is known as logical
debugging.

can be particularly difficult, though an observant programmer

can often detect the presence of logical errors by studying the
computed results carefully to see if they are reasonable.

Detecting Errors:
Correcting Errors:
The first step is attacking logical errors are to find out if
they are present. This can sometimes be accomplished by
testing a new program with data that will yield a known
answer. If the correct results are not obtained, then the
program obviously contains errors. Even if the correct results
are obtained, however, one cannot be absolutely certain that
the program is error-free, since some errors cause incorrect
results only under certain circumstances (as, for example,
with certain values of the input data or with certain program
options). Therefore a new program should receive thorough
testing before it is considered to be debugged. This is
especially true of complicated programs or programs that will
be used extensively by others.
As a rule, a calculation will have to be carried out by hand,
with the aid of a calculator, in order to obtain a known
answer. For some problems, however, the amount of work
involved in carrying out a hand calculation is prohibitive.
(Remember, a calculation that requires a few minutes of
computer time may require several weeks to solve by hand!).
Therefore a sample calculation cannot always be developed to
test a new program. The logical debugging of such programs

Once it has been established that a program contains a

logical error, some resourcefulness and ingenuity may be
required to find the error. Error detection should always begin
with a thorough review of each logical group of statements
within program. Armed with the knowledge that an error
exists somewhere, the programmer can often spot the error by
such careful study. If the error cannot found, it sometimes
helps to get the program aside for a while. (This is especially
true if the programmer is experiencing some fatigue or
frustration). It is not unusual for an overly intent programmer
to miss an obvious error the first time around.
If an error cannot be located simply by inspection, the
program should be modified to print out certain intermediate
results and the return. (This technique is sometimes referred
to as tracing). The source of error will often become evident
once these intermediate calculations have been carefully
examined. In particular, the programmer can usually identify
the particular area within the program where things begin to
go wrong. The greater the amount of intermediate output, the
more likely the chances of pinpointing the source of error.

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Sometimes an error simply cannot be located, despite the

most elaborate debugging techniques. On such occasions
beginning programmers
are often inclined to suspect a
problem that is beyond
their control, such as a hardware
error or an error in the complier. In almost all cases, however,
the problem turns out to be some subtle error in the program
logic. Thus the beginning programmer should resist the
temptation to simply blame the computer and not look further
for that elusive programming error. (Hardware errors do
occur on rare occasions, though they usually produce very
bizarre results, such as the computer dying or the terminal
spewing out random, unintelligible characters. Also, compiler
errors occasionally crop with a new compiler but are usually
corrected after a compiler has been in use for a while).
Finally, the reader should recognize the fact that some
logical errors are inescapable in computer programming,
though a conscientious programmer will make every attempt
to minimize their occurrence. The programmer should
therefore anticipate the need for some logical debugging
when writing realistic, meaningful Pascal programs or any
programs.

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