Lecture Notes

Introduction to Dierential Geometry

MATH 442
Instructor: Ivan Avramidi
New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology
Socorro, NM 87801
August 25, 2005
Author: Ivan Avramidi; File: diffgeom.tex; Date: April 12, 2006; Time: 17:59
Contents
1 Manifolds 1
1.1 Submanifolds of Euclidean Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Submanifolds of R
n
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Dierential of a Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.3 Main Theorem on Submanifolds of R
m
. . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.1 Basic Notions of Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.2 Idea of a Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.3 Rigorous Denition of a Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.4 Complex Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Tangent Vectors and Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.1 Tangent Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.2 Vectors as Dierential Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.3 Tangent Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.4 Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.5 Submanifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.6 Change of Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4 Vector Fields and Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4.1 Vector Fields in R
n
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4.2 Vector Fields on Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4.3 Straightening Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2 Tensors 25
2.1 Covectors and Riemannian Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.1 Linear Functionals and Dual Space . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.2 Dierential of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1.3 Inner Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1.4 Riemannian Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
I
II CONTENTS
2.1.5 Curves of Steepest Ascent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2 Tangent Bundle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2.1 Fiber Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2.2 Tangent Bundle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3 The Cotangent Bundle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3.1 Pull-Back of a Covector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3.2 Phase Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3.3 The Poincar e 1-Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4 Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.4.1 Covariant Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.4.2 Contravariant Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.4.3 General Tensors of Type (p, q) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.4.4 Linear Transformations and Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.4.5 Tensor Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.4.6 Tensor Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.4.7 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.4.8 Einstein Summation Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3 Dierential Forms 55
3.1 Exterior Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.1.1 Permutation Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.1.2 Permutations of Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.1.3 Alternating Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.1.4 Exterior p-forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.1.5 Exterior Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.1.6 Interior Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.2 Orientation and the Volume Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2.1 Orientation of a Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2.2 Orientation of a Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2.3 Hypersurfaces in Orientable Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.2.4 Projective Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.2.5 Pseudotensors and Tensor Densities . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.2.6 Volume Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.2.7 Star Operator and Duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.3 Exterior Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.3.1 Coderivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.4 Pullback of Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.5 Vector Analysis in R
3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
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CONTENTS III
3.5.1 Vector Algebra in R
3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.5.2 Vector Analysis in R
3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4 Integration of Dierential Forms 89
4.1 Integration over a Parametrized Subset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.1.1 Integration of n-Forms in R
n
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.1.2 Integration over Parametrized Subsets . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.1.3 Line Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.1.4 Surface Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.1.5 Independence of Parametrization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.1.6 Integrals and Pullbacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.2 Integration over Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.2.1 Partition of Unity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.2.2 Integration over Submanifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.2.3 Manifolds with boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.3 Stokess Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.3.1 Orientation of the Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.3.2 Stokes Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.4 Poincar e Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5 Lie Derivative 107
5.1 Lie Derivative of a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.1.1 Lie Bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.1.2 Flow generated by the Lie Bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.2 Lie Derivative of Forms and Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.2.1 Properties of Lie Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.3 Frobenius Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.3.1 Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.3.2 Frobenius Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.3.3 Foliations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.4 Degree of a Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.4.1 Gauss-Bonnet Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.4.2 Laplacian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.4.3 Brouwer Degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.4.4 Index of a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.4.5 Linking Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
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IV CONTENTS
6 Connection and Curvature 143
6.1 Ane Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.1.1 Covariant Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.1.2 Curvature, Torsion and Levi-Civita Connection . . . . . . 146
6.1.3 Parallel Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.2 Tensor Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
6.2.1 Covariant Derivative of Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
6.2.2 Ricci Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.2.3 Normal Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.2.4 Properties of the Curvature Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.2.5 Bianci Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.3 Cartans Structural Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7 Homology Theory 163
7.1 Algebraic Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.1.1 Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.1.2 Finitely Generated and Free Abelian Groups . . . . . . . 167
7.1.3 Cyclic Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.2 Singular Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.2.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
7.3 Singular Homology Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7.3.1 Cycles, Boundaries and Homology Groups . . . . . . . . 176
7.3.2 Simplicial Homology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
7.3.3 Betti Numbers and Topological Invariants . . . . . . . . . 178
7.3.4 Some Theorems from Algebraic Topology . . . . . . . . . 180
7.3.5 Examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7.4 de Rham Cohomology Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7.4.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
7.5 Harmonic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7.6 Relative Homology and Morse Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.6.1 Relative Homology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.6.2 Morse Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8 207
8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Bibliography 209
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CONTENTS V
Notation 211
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VI CONTENTS
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Chapter 1
Manifolds
1.1 Submanifolds of Euclidean Space
Idea: Manifold is a general space that looks locally like a Euclidean space
of the same dimension. This allows to develop the dierential and integral
calculus.
Let n N be a positive integer. The Euclidean space R
n
is a set of points x
described by ordered n-tuples (x
1
, . . . , x
n
) or real numbers.
The numbers x
i
R, i = 1, . . . , n, are called the Cartesian coordinates of
the point x.
The integer n is the dimension of the Euclidean space.
The distance between two points of the Euclidean space is dened by
d(x, y) =

_
n

k=1
(x
k
y
k
)
2
.
The open ball of radius centered at x
0
is the set of points dened by
B

(x
0
) = x R
n
d(x, x
0
) < .
A neighborhood of a point x
0
is the set of points that contain an open ball
around it.
1
2 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS
Let x
0
R
n
be a xed point with Cartesian coordinates x
i
, i = 1, . . . , n,
in the Euclidean space and S R
n
be a neighborhood of x
0
. An injective
(one-to-one) map
f : S R
n
dened by
y
i
= f
i
(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) , i = 1, . . . , n,
where f
i
(x) are smooth functions, is called a coordinate system in S .
The map f is injective if for any point x in S
det
_
f
i
x
j
_
0 .
1.1.1 Submanifolds of R
n
Let n, r N be positive integers and m = n + r. Let M R
m
be a subset of
the Euclidean space R
m
.
Then M is a submanifold of R
m
of dimension n if for any point x
0
M in M
there exists a neighborhood with a coordinate system such that every point
in this neighborhood has coordinates (x
1
, . . . , x
n
, x
n+1
, . . . , x
n+r
), where the
last r coordinates (x
n+1
, . . . , x
n+r
) are given by smooth functions of the rst
n coordinates (x
1
, . . . , x
n
):
x

= f

(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) , = n + 1, . . . , n + r .
The coordinates (x
1
, . . . , x
n
) are called the local coordinates for M near x
0
.
More generally, let
F : R
m
R
r
be a smooth map described by r equations
y

= F

(x
1
, . . . , x
m
) , = 1, . . . , r .
Let y
0
R
r
and
M = F
1
(y
0
) = x R
m
F(x) = y
0

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1.1. SUBMANIFOLDS OF EUCLIDEAN SPACE 3
be a subset of the Euclidean space R
m
described by the locus of r equations
F

(x
1
, . . . , x
m
) = y

0
, = 1, . . . , r .
Suppose that M is non-empty and let x
0
M, that is
F(x
0
) = y
0
.
Then the Implicit Function Theorem says that if
det
_
F

(x
0
)
_
0 ,
where = 1, . . . , r and = n + 1, . . . , n + r, then there is a neighborhood of
x
0
such that the last r coordinates can be expressed as smooth functions of
the rst n coordinates:
x

= f

(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) , = n + 1, . . . , n + r .
If this is true for any point of M, then M is a n-dimensional submanifold of
R
m
.
The matrix
_
F

x
j
_
,
where = 1, . . . , r and j = 1, . . . , m is called the Jacobian matrix.
The General Implicit Function Theorem says that if at a point x
0
the Ja-
cobian matrix has the maximal rank equal to r,
rank
_
F

x
j
(x
0
)
_
= r ,
then there exists a coordinate system in a neighborhood of x
0
such that the
last r coordinates can be expressed as smooth functions of the rst n coor-
dinates.
If this is true for every point of M, then M is a n-dimensional submanifold
of R
m
.
The number r is called the codimension of M.
If the codimension r is equal to 1, that is n = m 1, then M is called a
hypersurface.
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4 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS
1.1.2 Dierential of a Map
Let R
n
be a Euclidean space and x
0
R
m
. Then the tangent space to R
m
at
x
0
is a vector space R
m
x
of all vectors in R
m
based at x.
Let
F : R
m
R
r
be a smooth map described by r smooth functions
y

= F

(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) , = 1, . . . , r .
Let x
0
R
m
and x = x(t), t (, ), be a curve in R
m
such that
x(0) = x
0
and
dx
dt
(0) = v ,
where v R
m
x
0
is the tangent vector to the curve at x
0
.
Let y
0
= F(x
0
) R
r
and y(t) = F(x(t)). Then
y(0) = y
0
and
dy
dt
(0) = w,
where w R
r
x
0
is the tangent vector to the image of the curve at y
0
.
We compute
w

=
m

i=1
_
F

x
i
_
(x
0
)v
i
.
Thus there is a linear transformation
F

: R
m
x
0
R
r
y
0
,
so that
F

v = w.
F

is called the dierential of the map F at x

0
.
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1.1. SUBMANIFOLDS OF EUCLIDEAN SPACE 5
1.1.3 Main Theorem on Submanifolds of R
m
The matrix of the linear transformation F

is exactly the Jacobian matrix.

Therefore, the dierential F

at a point x
0
is a surjective (onto) map if and
only if m r and the Jacobian at x
0
has the maximal rank equal to r.
Recall that F

: R
m
x
0
R
r
y
0
is surjective if for any w R
r
y
0
there is v R
m
x
0
such that F

v = w.
Thus, we have the following theorem.

Theorem 1.1.1 Let F : R

m
R
r
with m > r, y
0
R
r
and
M = F
1
(y
0
) = x R
m
F(x) = y
0
.
If M is non-empty and for any x
0
M the dierential F

: R
m
x
0
R
r
y
0
is
surjective, then M is a n = (m r)-dimensional submanifold of R
m
.
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6 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS
1.2 Manifolds
1.2.1 Basic Notions of Topology
First we dene the basic topological notions in the Euclidean space R
n
.
Let x
0
R
n
be a point in R
n
and > 0 be a positive real number.
The open ball in R
n
of radius with the center at x
0
is the set

(x
0
) = x R
n
d(x, x
0
) < .
The closed ball in R
n
of radius with the center at x
0
is the set

(x
0
) = x R
n
d(x, x
0
) .
Let U R
n
be a subset of R
n
. A point x U is an interior point of U
if there is an open ball B

(x) of some radius > 0 centered at x such that

B

(x) U.
A point x R
n
is a boundary point of U if every open ball B

(x) of any
radius > 0 centered at x contains at least one point from U and one point
from its complement (that is not from U).
The set U
o
of all interior points of U is called the interior of U.
The set U of all boundary points of U is called the boundary of U.
A set U R
n
is open if every point of U is an interior point of U, that is,
U = U
o
.
A set F R
n
is closed if its complement R
n
\F is open, that is, F = F
o
F.
The sets and R
n
are both open and closed.
The union of any collection of open sets is open.
The intersection of any nite number of open sets is open.
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1.2. MANIFOLDS 7

Denition 1.2.1 A general topological space is a set M together with

a collection of subsets of M, called open sets, that satisfy the following
properties
1. M and are open,
2. the intersection of any nite number of open sets is open,
3. the union of any collection of open sets is open.
Such a collection of open sets is called a topology of M.
A subset of M is closed if its complement M \ F is open.
The closure

S of a subset S M of a topological space M is the intersec-
tion of all closed sets that contain S ; it is equal to

S = S S .
A subset S M of a topological space is dense in M if

S = M, that is,
every non-empty subset of M contains an element of S .
A topological space is called separable if it contains a countable dense
subset.
A topology on M naturally induces a topology on any subset of M. Let
A M be a subset of M. Then the induced topology on A is dened as
follows. A subset V A is dened to be open subset of A if there is an open
subset U M of M such that V = U A.
Let x M be a point in a topological space M. An open set in M containing
the point x is called a neighborhood of x.

Denition 1.2.2 Let M and N be two topological spaces and F : M

N be a map from M into N. The map F is said to be continuous if the
inverse image of any open set in N is an open set in M.
That is, if for any open set V N the set
F
1
(V) = x M F(x) V
is open in M.
The direct images of open sets do not have to be open!
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8 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS
Let the map F be bijective, that is, injective (one-to-one) and surjective
(onto). Then there exists the inverse map F
1
: N M.

Denition 1.2.3 A map F : M N is called a homeomorphism if it

is bijective and both F and F
1
are continuous.
Homeomorphisms preserve topology, that is, they take open sets to open
sets and closed sets to closed sets.
A topological space M is called Hausdor if any two points of M have
disjoint neighborhoods.
A collection of subsets of a topological space M is called an open cover of
M if the union of all subsets in the collection coincides with M.
A subcollection of subsets that is itself a cover is called a subcover.

Denition 1.2.4 A topological space M is called compact if every

open cover of M has a nite subcover.
A subset M R
n
of a Euclidean space if called bounded if there is an open
ball B
C
(0) of some radius C centered at the origin such that M B
C
(0).

Theorem 1.2.1 Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem. Let M R

n
be a
subset of R
n
with the induced topology. Then M is compact if and only
if M is closed and bounded in R
n
.
Properties of Continuous Maps.

Theorem 1.2.2 Let M and N be two topological spaces and M be

compact. Let F : M N be a continuous map from M into N. Then
the image F(M) of M is compact in N.
That is, a continuous image of a compact topological space is compact.
Proof :
1. Let U

A
be an open cover of F(M) in N.
2. Then F
1
(U

)
A
is an open cover of M.
3. Since M is compact it has a nite subcover F
1
(U
i
)
n
i=1
.
4. Then U
i

n
i=1
is a nite subcover of F(M).
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 12
1.2. MANIFOLDS 9
5. Thus F(M) is compact.

Theorem 1.2.3 A continuous real-valued function f : M R on a

compact topological space M is bounded.
Proof :
1. f (M) is compact in R
n
.
2. Thus f (M) is closed and bounded.

1.2.2 Idea of a Manifold

A manifold M of dimension n is a topological space that is locally homeo-
morphic to R
n
.
Amanifold M is covered by a family of local coordinate systems U

; x
1

, . . . , x
n

A
,
called an atlas, consisting of open sets, called patches (or charts), U

, and
coordinates x

.
A point p U

that lies in two coordinate patches has two sets of

coordinates x

and x

related by smooth functions

x
i

= f
i

(x
1

, . . . , x
n

) , i = 1, . . . , n .
The coordinates x

and x

are said to be compatible.

If all the functions f

are smooth, then the manifold M is said to be smooth.

If these functions are analytic, then the manifold is said to be real analytic.
Each patch is homeomorphic to some open subset in R
n
.
Thus, a manifold is locally Euclidean.
The collection of all patches (charts) is called an atlas.
The collection of all coordinate systems that are compatible with those used
to dene a manifold is called the maximal atlas.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 13
10 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS
Let M be an n-dimensional manifold with local coordinate systems U

; x
1

, . . . , x
n

A
and N be an m-dimensional manifold with local coordinate systems V

; y
1

, . . . , y
m

B
.
The product manifold L = M N is a manifold
L = M N = (p, q) p M, q N
with local coordinate systems W

; z
1

, . . . , z
n+m

A,B
where
W

= U

and
(z
1

, . . . , z
n

) = (x
1

, . . . , x
n

)
and
(z
n+1

, . . . , z
n+m

) = (y
1

, . . . , y
m

) .
Examples
Unit Sphere S
n
.
S
n
= x R
n+1
d(x, 0) = 1
Stereographic projection:
: R
n+1
R
n
Let
R =

_
1
n

j=1
(x
j
)
2
Then
x
n+1
= R,
1,2
(x) =
_
x
1
1 R
, ,
x
n
1 R
_
.
Torus T
n
= S
1
S
1
.
T
n
has local coordinates (
1
, ,
n
) (angles).
Topologically it is the cube [0, 1]
n
with the antipodal points identied.
Real Projective Space RP
n
.
RP
n
is the space of unoriented lines through the origin of R
n+1
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 14
1.2. MANIFOLDS 11
The set of oriented lines through the origin of R
n+1
is S
n
.
Topologically RP
n
is the sphere S
n
in R
n+1
with the antipodal points
identied, which is the unit ball in R
n
with the antipodal points on the
boundary (which is a unit sphere S
n1
) identied.
RP
n
is covered by (n + 1) sets
U
j
= L RP
n
L with x
j
0 , j = 1, . . . , n + 1 .
The local coordinates in U
j
are
v
1
=
x
1
x
j
, , v
n
=
x
n
x
j
.
The (n + 1)-tuple (x
1
, . . . , x
n+1
) identied with (x
1
, . . . , x
n+1
), 0,
are called homogeneous coordinates of a point in RP
n
.
1.2.3 Rigorous Denition of a Manifold
Let M be a set (without topology) and U

A
be a collection of subsets
that is a cover of M, that is,
_
A
U

= M.
Let

: U

R
n
, A,
be injective maps such that

(U

) are open subsets in R

n
.
The set

(U

) is an open subset in R
n
. The maps
f

(U

) R
are called the transition functions (or the overlap functions). We assume
that the transition functions are smooth.
The pair (U

) is called a coordinate patch (or chart).

A point p U

is assigned coordinates of the point

(p) in R
n
. Thus,

is
called a coordinate map.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 15
12 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS
Now, we take the maximal atlas of such coordinate patches.
The topology in M is dened as follows.
Let W M be a subset of M. A point p W in W is said to be an interior
point if there is a coordinate chart (U

) including p such that U W.

A subset W of M is declared to be open if all of its points are interior points.
If the resulting topological space is Hausdor and separable, then M is said
to be an n-dimensional smooth manifold.
The regularity of the transition functions determines the regularity of the
manifold. If the transition functions are only dierentiable once, then the
manifold is called dierentiable. If they are of class C
k
, then the manifold
is called a manifold of class C
k
. If they are of class C

, then the manifold

is called smooth. If the transition functions are analytic, then the manifold
is called analytic.
Let F : M R be a real-valued function on M. Let (U

, x

) be a local
coordinate system. Then the function
F

= F
1

(U

) R
is a function of n real variables F

(x
1

, . . . , x
n

).
The function F is said to be smooth if the function F

is smooth in terms
of local coordinates x

.
The process of replacing the map F by the function F

= F
1

is usually
omitted, and the functions F and F

are identied, so that we think of the

function F directly in terms of local coordinates.
1.2.4 Complex Manifolds
Let M be a set and U

A
be its cover. Let

: U

C
n
be injective maps from U

to the complex n-space C

n
so that

(U

) are
open subsets of C
n
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 16
1.2. MANIFOLDS 13
Let the transition functions
f

(U

) C
n
,
dened by
z
k

= f
k

(z
1

, . . . , z
n

) ,
where z
k

= x
k

+ iy
k

and z
k

= x
k

+ iy
k

, k = 1, . . . , n, be complex analytic.
That is, they satisfy Cauchy-Riemann conditions
x
k

x
j

=
y
k

y
j

,
x
k

y
j

=
y
k

x
j

,
or
z
k

z
j

= 0 ,
with j, k = 1, . . . , n.
Then M is called a n-dimensional complex manifold.
The topological dimension of a n-dimensional complex manifold is 2n.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 17
14 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS
1.3 Tangent Vectors and Mappings
A tangent vector to a submanifold M of R
n
at a point p
0
M is the velocity
vector p at p
0
to some parametrized curve p = p(t) lying on M and passing
through the point p
0
.
Whitney theorem: Every n-dimensional manifold can be realized as a sub-
manifold of R
2n
, or as a smooth submanifold of R
2n+1
.
So, every manifold is a submanifold of a Euclidean space.
However, the intrinsic geometry of M does not depend on its embedding in
a Euclidean space.
1.3.1 Tangent Vectors
We x a point p
0
M on manifold M and consider a curve p : (, ) M
such that
p(0) = p
0
.
Let (U

, x
j

) be a local chart about p

0
. The curve is described in local coor-
dinates by
x
i

= x
i

(t) .
The velocity vector p(0) is described in (U

, x

) by an n-tuple
_
x
1

(0), . . . , x
n

(0)
_
.
Let (U

, x
j

) be another local chart containing p

0
. Then the velocity vector
p(0) is described in (U

, x

) by an n-tuple
_
x
1

(0), . . . , x
n

(0)
_
.
These n-tuples are related by the chain rule
x
i

(0) =
n

j=1
_

_
x
i

x
j

_
(p
0
) x
j

(0) .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 18
1.3. TANGENT VECTORS AND MAPPINGS 15

Denition 1.3.1 A tangent vector at a point p

0
M of a manifold
M is a map that assigns to each coordinate chart (U

, x

) about p
0
an
ordered n-tuple (X
1

, . . . , X
n

) such that
X
i

=
n

j=1
_

_
x
i

x
j

_
(p
0
)X
j

.
1.3.2 Vectors as Dierential Operators
Let f : M R be a real-valued function on M.
Let p M be a point on M and X be a tangent vector at p.
Let (U

, x

) be a coordinate chart about p.

The (directional) derivative of f with respect to X at p (or along X, or in
the direction of X) is dened by
X
p
( f ) = D
X
( f ) =
n

j=1
_
f
x
j

_
(p)X
j

.
Theorem 1.3.1 D
X
( f ) does not depend on the local coordinate system.
Proof :
1. Chain rule.

The intrinsic properties are invariant under a change of coordinate system.

They should not depend on the choice of the local chart.
There is a one-to-one correspondence between tangent vectors to M at p and
rst-order dierential operators acting on real-valued functions in a local
coordinate chart (U

, x

) by
X
p
=
n

j=1
X
j

x
j

p
.
Therefore, we can identify tangent vectors and the dierential operators.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 19
16 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS
Let us x an index j = 1, . . . , n. The curve
x
i
(t) = x
i
0
, i j, x
j
(t) = t ,
is called the j-th coordinate curve.
The velocity vector to this curve is given by
x
i
(0) =
i
j
,
where
i
j
is the Kronecker symbol dened by

i
j
=
_
1, if i = j ,
0, if i j .
The dierential operator corresponding to this velocity vector is

x
j

.
1.3.3 Tangent Space
Let M be a manifold and p M be a point in M. The tangent space T
p
M
to M at p is the real vector space of all tangent vectors to M at p.
Let (U, x) be a local chart about p. Then the vectors

x
1

p
, ,

x
n

p
form a basis in the tangent space called the coordinate basis, or the coor-
dinate frame.
A vector eld X on an open set U M in a manifold M is the dierentiable
assignment of a tangent vector X
p
to each point p U.
In local coordinates
X =
n

j=1
X
j
(x)

x
j
.
Example.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 20
1.3. TANGENT VECTORS AND MAPPINGS 17
1.3.4 Mappings
Let M be an n-dimensional manifold and N be an m-dimensional manifold
and let F : M N be a map from M to N. Let (U

)
A
be an atlas in M
and (V

)
B
be an atlas in N. We dene the maps
F

F
1

(U

(V

)
from open sets in R
n
to R
m
dened by
y
a

= F
a

(x
1

, . . . , x
n

) ,
where a = 1, . . . , m.
The map F is said to be smooth if F
a

are smooth functions of local coor-

dinates x
i

, i = 1, . . . , n.
The process of replacing the map F by the functions F

F
1

is
usually omitted, and the maps F and F

are identied, so that we think of

the map F directly in terms of local coordinates.
If n = m and the map F : M N is bijective and both F and F
1
are
dierentiable, then F is called a dieomorphism.
That is, a dieomorphism is a dierentiable homeomorphism with dieren-
tiable inverse.
If this is only true in a neighborhood of a point p M, then F is called a
local dieomorphism.
Example.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 21
18 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS

Denition 1.3.2 Let M and N be two manifolds and F : M N be

a map from M into N. Let p
0
M be a point in M and X T
p
0
M be
a tangent vector to M at p
0
. Let p = p(t), t (, ), be a curve in M
such that
p(0) = p
0
, p(0) = X .
Then the dierential of F is the map
F

: T
p
0
M T
F(p
0
)
N
dened by
F

X =
d
dt
F(p(t))

t=0
.
F

does not depend on the curve p(t).

The matrix of the linear transformation F

in therms of the coordinate bases

/y

and /x
i
is the Jacobian matrix
(F

i
=
y

x
i
,
that is,
(F

X)

i
=
n

i=1
y

x
i
X
i
.
1.3.5 Submanifolds

Denition 1.3.3 Let M be an n-dimensional manifold and W M be

a subset of M. Then W is an r-dimensional embedded submanifold of
M if W is locally described as the common locus of (nr) dierentiable
independent functions
F

(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) = 0 , = 1, . . . , n r ,
such that the Jacobian matrix has rank (nr) at each point of the locus,
that is,
rank
_
F

x
i
(x)
_
= n r , x W.
Every embedded submanifold of a manifold is itself a manifold.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 22
1.3. TANGENT VECTORS AND MAPPINGS 19

Theorem 1.3.2 Let n and r be two positive integers such that n > r.
Let M be an n-dimensional manifold and N be an r-dimensional man-
ifold. Let q N be a point in N such that the inverse image W =
F
1
(q) is nonempty. Suppose that for each point p W the dier-
ential F

of the map F is surjective, that is, has the maximal rank

rank F

(p) = r .
Then W is an (n r) dimensional submanifold of M.
Example. Morse Map. (Height function F : M R for trousers surface
M in R
3
).
Let p
0
M and v T
p
0
M be a tangent vector to M at p
0
. Then F

: T
p
0
M
R = T
F(p
0
)
M is the projection of v to z-axis dened by F

(v
1
, v
2
, v
3
) = v
3
.
Let p
0
M and z = F(p
0
). F
1
(z) is an embedded submanifold if F

is
onto, that is, T
p
0
M is not horizontal. If T
p
0
M is horizontal, then F

= 0
(hence, not onto).

Denition 1.3.4 Let M and N be two manifolds and F : M N be a

dierentiable map from M into N.
A point p M is a regular point if the dierential F

: T
p
M T
F(p)
N
is surjective.
A point p M is a critical point if it is not regular.
A point q N is a regular value of F if the inverse image F
1
(q) is
either empty or consists only of regular points.
A point q N is a critical value of F if it is not regular.
Thus, we can reformulate the main theorem as follows.
Theorem 1.3.3 Let n and r be two positive integers such that n >
r. Let M be an n-dimensional manifold and N be an r-dimensional
manifold. Let q N be a regular value of F. Then the inverse image
W = F
1
(q) is either empty or is an (nr) dimensional submanifold
of M.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 23
20 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS

Theorem 1.3.4 Sards Theorem. Let M and N be two manifolds and

F : M N be a smooth map from M into N. Then the set of critical
values of F is a set of measure zero in N, that is, almost all values of F
are regular values.
The critical values of a map F : M N cannot ll up any open set in N.
1.3.6 Change of Coordinates

Theorem 1.3.5 Inverse Function Theorem. Let M and N be two n-

dimensional manifolds and F : M N be a dierentiable map from M
into N. Let p
0
M be such that the dierential F

: T
p
0
M T
F(p
0
)
N is
bijective. Then F is a local dieomorphism in a neighborhood U of p
0
,
that is, F(U) is open in N and F : U F(U) is a dieomorphism.

Theorem 1.3.6 Let M be a manifold, p

0
M be a point in M, and
(U, x) be a local coordinate chart about p
0
. Let F : U R
n
be a
dierentiable map dened by y
i
= F
i
(x), i = 1, . . . , n, such that
det
_
F
i
x
j
_
(p
0
) 0 .
Then there is a neighborhood V of p
0
such that the n-tuple (y
1
, . . . , y
n
)
forms a compatible coordinate system in V.
Example.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 24
1.4. VECTOR FIELDS AND FLOWS 21
1.4 Vector Fields and Flows
1.4.1 Vector Fields in R
n
Let x = (x
j
) R
n
be a point in R
n
and v(x) T
x
R
n
be a vector at x given by
v =
n

j=1
v
j
(x)
j
,
where
j
= /x
j
and the components v
j
(x) are smooth (or just dieren-
tiable) functions of x. Then v(x) is called a vector eld in R
n
.
Let t (, ) and

t
: R
n
R
n
be a family of dieomorphisms such that

0
= Id
and for any t, t
1
, t
2
(, ) such that t, t
1
+ t
2
(, ) there holds

t
1

t
2
=
t
1
+t
2
and

t
=
1
t
.
Such a one-parameter group of dieomorphisms is called a ow on R
n
.
A ow
t
denes a vector eld v by
v(x) =
d
dt

t
(x)

t=0
with the components
v
j
(x) =
dx
j
dt
.
The corresponding dierential operator
v( f )(x) =
d
dt
f (
t
(x))

t=0
=
n

j=1
v
j
(x)
f
x
j
is the derivative along the streamline of the ow through the point p.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 25
22 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS
Conversely, every vector eld v determines a ow, which is determined by
requiring v to be the velocity eld of the ow.
Such a ow is dened as the solution of the system of ordinary rst-order
dierential equations
dx
j
dt
= v
j
(x
1
(t), . . . , x
n
(t)) , j = 1, . . . , n,
with the initial conditions
x
j
(0) = x
j
0
.
The solution of this system denes the integral curves of the vector eld v.

Theorem 1.4.1 Fundamental Theorem on Vector Fields in R

n
Let R
n
be an open set in R
n
and v : U R
n
be a smooth vector eld on U.
Then for any point x
0
U there is > 0 and a neighborhood V of x
0
such that:
1. there is a unique curve (called the integral curve of v) x(t) =

t
(x
0
), t (, ) such that for any t (, )
x(t)
dx(t)
dt
= v(x(t))
and x(0) = x
0
;
2. the map
V (, ) R
n
dened by (x, t)
t
(x) is smooth and for any t
1
, t
2
(, )
such that t
1
+ t
2
(, )

t
1

t
2
=
t
1
+t
2
holds in V. The family of maps
t
is called a local one-parameter
group of dieomorphisms or a local ow.
Remarks.
The local ow is only dened in a small neighborhood of the point x
0
.
The one-parameter group is not a group in the strict sense.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 26
1.4. VECTOR FIELDS AND FLOWS 23
The integral curves exist only for a small time.
If the vector eld is not dierentiable, then the integral curve is not unique.
1.4.2 Vector Fields on Manifolds
Let W be an open subset of a mnifold M and v be a smooth vector eld on
W.
Let (U

, x

) be a local chart in W.
If W U

, then one can proceed as in R

n
.
If W is not contained in a single chart, then we choose a cover of W and
proceed as follows. Let p W and (U

, x

) and (U

, x

) be two charts
covering p.
Then the integral curves in both local coordinate systems have the same
meaning and dene a unique integral curve in M. This denes a local ow
on W in M. We just need to check that if the ow equations are satised in
one coordinate system, then they are satised in another coordinate system.
1.4.3 Straightening Flows
Let U be an open set in a manifold M and
t
: U M be a local ow on
a M such that
0
(p) = p. Then
t
(p) depends smoothly on both the time t
and the point p.
Note that if a vector eld does not vanish at a point p, i.e. v
p
0, then it
does not vanish in a neighborhood of p.
Let p
0
be a xed point in M and W be a suciently small hypersurface
passing through p
0
such that v
p
is transversal to W at every point of p W.
This just means that v is nowhere tangent to W.
If W is small enough it can be covered by a single coordinate chart. Let
(u
1
, . . . , u
n1
) be local coordinates for W such that the the point p
0
has coor-
dinates (0, . . . , 0).
Then for a small neighborhood of a point p and suciently small t the n-
tuple (u
1
, . . . , u
n1
, t) gives a local coordinate system near p in M.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 27
24 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS
Proof: (follows from Inverse Function Theorem).
Consider a map F : W (, ) M given by F(p, t) =
t
(p).
The dierential of this map at p
0
(that is, at u = 0), is
F

u
j
=

u
j
, j = 1, . . . , n 1 .
Also,
F

v =
d
dt

t
(p
0
) = v .
Thus
F

= Id ,
and, hence, (u
1
, . . . , u
n1
, t) can be used as a coordinate system near p
0
.
In these coordinates the ow is

s
(u, t) = (u, t + s)
and
v =

t
.
Thus, near a non-singular point of a vector eld v one can introduce local
coordinates (u
1
, . . . , u
n1
, u
n
) such that
du
j
dt
=
j
n
that is,
du
j
dt
= 0, if j = 1, . . . , n 1, and
du
n
dt
= 1 .
Near a non-singular point of a vector eld all ows are qualitatively the
same.
Let v be a vector eld on a manifold M. A point p M is called a singular
point of a vector eld v if v
p
= 0 and a non-singular if v
p
0.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 28
Chapter 2
Tensors
2.1 Covectors and Riemannian Metric
2.1.1 Linear Functionals and Dual Space
Let E be a real n-dimensional vector space.
Let B = e
1
, . . . , e
n
be a basis in E.
Then for any v E
v =
n

j=1
v
j
e
j
The real numbers (v
1
, . . . , v
n
) are called the components of v with respect
to the basis B.
Remark. Every real vector space of dimension n is isomorphic to R
n
.

Denition 2.1.1 Let E be a real vector space. A linear functional on

E is a linear real-valued function on E. That is, it is a map
: E R
satisfying the linearity conditions: a, b, R and v, w E
(av + bw) = a(v) + b(w) .
25
26 CHAPTER 2. TENSORS
Given a basis e
j
, j = 1, . . . , n, we dene
a
j
= (e
j
) .
Then for any v E we have
(v) =
n

j=1
a
j
v
j
.

Denition 2.1.2 Let E be a real vector space. The set of all linear
functionals on E is called the dual space and denoted by E

.
The dual space is a real vector space under the natural operations of addition
and multiplication by scalar dened by: , E

, c
1
, c
2
R, v E,
(c
1
+ c
2
)(v) = c
1
(v) + c
2
(v) .
Let e
j
be a basis in E and
j
, j = 1, . . . , n, be linear functionals on E
such that

j
(e
i
) =
j
i
.
Then

j
(v) = v
j
.

Theorem 2.1.1 Let E be a real vector space and e

j
, j = 1, . . . , n, be
a basis in E. Let and
j
, j = 1, . . . , n, be linear functionals on E such
that

j
(e
i
) =
j
i
.
Then the linear functionals
j
for a basis in the dual space E

, called
the dual basis to the basis e
j
, so that for any E

=
n

j=1
a
j

j
.
The real numbers
a
j
= (e
j
)
are called the components of the linear functional with respect to the
basis
j
.
Proof :
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 29
2.1. COVECTORS AND RIEMANNIAN METRIC 27
1.

2.1.2 Dierential of a Function

Denition 2.1.3 Let M be a manifold and p M be a point in M. The

space T

p
M dual to the tangent space T
p
M at p is called the cotangent
space.

Denition 2.1.4 Let M be a manifold and f : M R be a real valued

smooth function on M. Let p M be a point in M. The dierential
d f T

p
M of f at p is the linear functional
d f : T
p
R
dened by
d f (v) = v
p
( f ) .
In local coordinates x
j
the dierential is dened by
d f (v) =
n

j=1
v
j
(x)
f
x
j
In particular,
d f
_

x
j
_
=
f
x
j
.
Thus
dx
i
_

x
j
_
=
i
j
.
and
dx
i
(v) = v
i
.
The dierentials dx
i
form a basis for the cotangent space T

p
M called the
coordinate basis.
Therefore, every linear functional has the form
=
n

j=1
a
j
dx
j
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 30
28 CHAPTER 2. TENSORS
That is why, the linear functionals are also called dierential forms, or
1-forms, or covectors, or covariant vectors.

Denition 2.1.5 A covector eld is a dierentiable assignment of

a covector
p
T

p
M to each point p of a manifold. This means that
the components of the covector eld are dierentiable functions of local
coordinates.
Therefore, a covector eld has the form
=
n

j=1
a
j
(x)dx
j
Under a change of local coordinates x
j

= x
j

(x

) the dierentials transform

according to
dx
j

=
n

i=1
x
j

x
i

dx
i

.
Therefore, the components of a covector transform as
a

i
=
n

j=1
x
j

x
i

j
.
2.1.3 Inner Product
Let E be a n-dimensional real vector space.
The inner product (or scalar product) on E is a symmetric bilinear non-
degenerate functional on E E, that is, it is a map ( , ) : E E R such
that
1. v, w E,
(v, w) = (w, v)
2. v, w, u E, a, b R
(av + bu, w) = a(v, w) + b(u, w)
3. v E,
if (v, w) = 0, w E, then v = 0 .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 31
2.1. COVECTORS AND RIEMANNIAN METRIC 29
4. If, in addition, v E,
(v, v) 0
and
(v, v) = 0 if and only if v = 0 ,
then the inner product is called positive denite.
For a positive-denite inner product the norm of a vector v is dened by
v =
_
(v, v)
Let e
j
be a basis in E.
Then the matrix g
i j
dened by
g
i j
= (e
i
, e
j
)
is a metric tensor, more precisely it gives the components of the metric
tensor in that basis.
The matrix g
i j
is symmetric and nondegenerate, that is,
g
i j
= g
ji
, det g
i j
0 .
For a positive denite inner product, this matrix is positive-denite, that
is, it has only positive real eigenvalues. One says, that the metric has the
signature (+ +). In special relativity one considers metrics wich are not
positive denite but have the signature ( + +).
Two vectors v, w E are orthogonal if
(v, w) = 0 .
A vector u E is called unit vector if
u = 1 .
The basis is called orthonormal if
g
i j
=
i j
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 32
30 CHAPTER 2. TENSORS
The inner product is given then by
(v, w) =
n

i, j=1
g
i j
v
i
w
j
.
Let v E. Then we can dene a linear functional E

by
(w) = (v, w) .
Therefore, each vector v E denes a covector E

called the covariant

version of the vector v.
Given a basis e
j
in E and the dual basis
j
in E

we nd

i
=
n

j=1
g
i j
v
j
.
This operation is called lowering the index of a vector.
Therefore, we can denote the components of the covector corresponding
to a vector v by the same symbol and call them the covariant components
of the vector.
In an orthonormal basis, of course,
v
i
= v
i
.
Similarly, given a covector E

we can dene a vector v E such that

w E

(w) = (v, w) .
Let g
i j
represent the matrix inverse to the matrix g
i j
.
Then the contravariant components can be computed from the covariant
components by
v
i
=
n

j=1
g
i j
v
j
.
This operation is called raising the index of a covector.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 33
2.1. COVECTORS AND RIEMANNIAN METRIC 31
Thus, the vector spaces E and E

are isomorphic. The isomorphism is pro-

vided by the inner product (the metric).
The space E can also be considered as the space of linear functionals on E

.
A vector v E denes a linear functional v : E

R by, for any E

v() = (v).
2.1.4 Riemannian Manifolds

Denition 2.1.6 Let M be a manifold. A Riemannian metric on M is

a dierentiable assignment of a positive denite inner product in each
tangent space T
p
M to the manifold at each point p M.
If the inner product is non-degenerate but not positive denite, then it is
a pseudo-Riemannian metric.
A Riemannian manifold is a pair (M, g) of a manifold with a Rieman-
nian metric on it.
Let p M be a point in M and (U, x

) be a local coordinate system about p.

Let
i
be the coordinate basis in T
p
M and g

i j
= (

i
,

j
) be the components
of the metric tensor in the coordinate system x

. Let (U

, x

) be another
coordinate system containing p. Then the components of the metric tensor
transform as
g

i j
=
n

k,l=1
x
k

x
i

x
l

x
j

kl
.

Denition 2.1.7 Let (M, g) be a Riemannian manifold and f : M R

be a smooth function. Then the gradient of f is a vector eld grad f
associated with the covector eld d f . That is, for any p M and any
v T
p
M
( grad f , v) = d f (v) .
In local coordinates,
( grad f )
i
=
n

j=1
g
i j
f
x
j
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 34
32 CHAPTER 2. TENSORS
2.1.5 Curves of Steepest Ascent
Let (M, g) be a Riemannian manifold.
Let p M be a point in M. For positive-denite inner product there is the
Schwartz inequality: for any v, w T
p
M,
(v, w) v w .
Let u T
p
M be a unit vector. Then for any f C

(M)
u( f ) = ( grad f , u) .
Therefore,
u( f ) = ( grad f , u) grad f .
Thus, f has a maximum rate of change in the direction of the gradient.

Denition 2.1.8 Let a R be a real number. Then the level set of

f : M R is the subset of M dened by
S = f
1
(a) = p M f (p) = a .
Let f : M R be a smooth function, a R and S = f
1
(a) be the level set
of f . Let p
0
S be a point in the level set S and let p = p(t), t (, ), be
a curve in S so that p(0) = p
0
, f (p(t)) = a and p(0) T
p
0
S . Then
d
dt
f (p(t)) = ( grad f , p) = d f ( p) = 0 .
Thus, the gradient of f is orthogonal to the level set of f .
The ow
dp
dt
=
grad f
grad f
dened by the gradient of a smooth function f is called the Morse defor-
mation. It has the property that
d f
dt
= 1
and, therefore, in time t it maps the level set f
1
(a) into the level set f
1
(a+
t).
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 35
2.2. TANGENT BUNDLE 33
2.2 Tangent Bundle
2.2.1 Fiber Bundles
Let M and E be smooth manifolds and : E M be a smooth map. Then
the triple (E, , M) is called a bundle.
The manifold M is called the base manifold of the bundle and the manifold
E is called the bundle space of the bundle (or the bundle space manifold).
The map is called the projection.
The inverse image
1
(p) of a point p M is called the ber over p.
The projection map is supposed to be surjective, that is, the dierential

has the maximal rank equal to dim M.

Let U

A
be an atlas of local charts covering the base manifold M and let
U

= U

, U

= U

etc.
A ber bundle is a bundle all bers of which,
1
(p), p M, are dieo-
morphic to a common manifold F called the typical ber of the bundle (or
just the ber).
For a ber bundle, the inverse images
1
(U

) are dieomorphic to U

F.
That is, there are dieomorhisms
h

: U

F
1
(U

) ,
such that for any p U

M, F
(h

(p, )) = p .
The dieomorphisms

= h
1

: U

F U

F
are called the transition functions of the bundle.
The transition functions are dened by, p U

M, F,

(p, ) = (p, (R

(p))()) .
That is, for all p U

there are dieomorphisms R

(p) of the ber

R

(p) : F F .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 36
34 CHAPTER 2. TENSORS
It is required that the set of all transformations R

(p) G for all , and

p U

M forms a group G. This group is called the structure group of

the bundle.
Thus, the transition functions

determine smooth maps

R

: U

G,
that assign to each point p U

an element R

(p) G of the structure

group.
Of course, from the denition of these maps we immediately obtain the
consistency conditions (or compatibility conditions)
R

(p) = (R

(p))
1
, p U

,
R

(p)R

(p)R

(p) = Id
M
, p U

.
A principal bundle is a ber bundle (E, , M) whose ber F coincides with
the structure group, that is, F = G.
A ber bundle with any ber F is fully determined by the transition func-
tions satisfying the consistency conditions. The ber F does not play much
role in this construction.
Let F be a manifold and Di(F) be the set of all dieomorphisms F F.
Let G be a group and e G be the identity element of G. Then a map
T : G Di(F) such that
T(e) = Id
F
,
T(R
1
) = (T(R))
1
, R G,
T(R
1
R
2
) = T(R
1
) T(R
2
) , R
1
, R
2
G,
is called a representation of the group G.
Given a ber bundle (E, , M) with a ber F and a structure group G one
can construct another ber bundle (E

, M) with a ber F

and the same

structure group G as follows. One takes a representation of the structure
group T : G Di(F

) on the ber F

and simply replaces the transition

functions R

by T(R

). Such a ber bundle is called a bundle associated

with the original bundle.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 37
2.2. TANGENT BUNDLE 35
Thus, every ber bundle is an associated bundle with some principal bun-
dle. So, all bundles can be constructed as associated bundles from principal
bundles. All we need is the structure group. The ber is not important.
A vector bundle is a ber bundle whose ber is a vector space.
A section of a bundle (E, , M) is a map s : M E such that the image of
each point p M is in the ber
1
(p) over this point, that is, s(p)
1
(p),
or
s = Id
M
.
2.2.2 Tangent Bundle

Denition 2.2.1 Let M be a smooth manifold. The tangent bundle

T M to M is the collection of all tangent vectors at all points of M.
T M = (p, v) p M, v T
p
M
Let dim M = n.
Let p M be a point in the manifold M, (U, x) be a local chart and (x
i
) be
the local coordinates of the point p.
Let
i
= /x
i
be the coordinate basis for T
p
M.
Let v =
_
n
i=1
v
i

i
T
p
M. Then the local coordinates of the point (p, v)
T M are
(x
1
, . . . , x
n
, v
1
, . . . , v
n
) .
Remarks.
The coordinates (x
i
) are local; they are restricted to the local chart U, that
is, (x
i
) U R
n
.
The coordinates v
i
are not restricted, that is, (v
i
) R
n
, they take any values
in R
n
.
The open set U R
n
R
2n
is a local chart in the tangent bundle T M.
Let (U

, x

) and (U

, x

) be two local charts containing the point p.

digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 38
36 CHAPTER 2. TENSORS
Then the local coordinates of the point (p, v) in overlapping local charts are
related by
x
i

= x
i

(x

)
v
i

=
n

j=1
x
i

x
j

v
j

This is a local dieomorphism.

Thus, the tangent bundle T M is a manifold of dimension 2 dim M.
A map : T M M dened by
(p, v) = p
is called the projection map. It assigns to a vector tangent to M the point
in M at which the vector sits.
Locally, if p has coordinates (x
1
, . . . , x
n
) and v has components (v
1
, . . . , v
n
)
in the coordinate basis, then
(x
1
, . . . , x
n
, v
1
, . . . , v
n
) = (x
1
, . . . , x
n
) .
Let p M be a point in M. The set
1
(p) T M is called the ber of the
tangent bundle.
The ber of the tangent bundle

1
(p) = T
p
M
is the tangent space at p.
Remarks.
There is no global projection map

: T M R
n
dened by

(p, v) = v.
In general, T M M R
n
.
For any chart U M

1
(U) = U R
n
.
Thus, locally the tangent bundle is a product manifold.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 39
2.2. TANGENT BUNDLE 37
A vector eld is a map
v : M T M,
such that
v = Id : M M.
A vector eld is a cross section of the tangent bundle.
The image of the manifold under a vector eld is a n-dimensional subman-
ifold of the tangent bundle T M.
The zero vector eld denes the zero section of the tangent bundle.

Denition 2.2.2 Let (M, g) be an n-dimensional Riemannian mani-

fold. The unite tangent bundle of M is the set T
0
M of all unit vectors
to M,
T
0
M = (p, v) p M, v T
p
M, v = 1 ,
where, locally, v
2
=
_
n
i, j=1
g
i j
(p)v
i
v
j
.
The unit tangent bundle is a (2n1)-dimensional submanifold of the tangent
bundle T M.

Theorem 2.2.1 Let S

2
be the unit 2-sphere embedded in R
3
. The unit
tangent bundle T
0
S
2
is homeomorphic to the real projective space RP
3
and to the special orthogonal group S O(3)
T
0
S
2
RP
3
S O(3) .
Proof :
1.

digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 40

38 CHAPTER 2. TENSORS
2.3 The Cotangent Bundle

Denition 2.3.1 Let M be a smooth manifold. The cotangent bundle

T

M to M is the collection of all covectors at all points of M

T

M = (p, ) p M, T

p
M
Let dim M = n.
Let p M be a point in the manifold M, (U, x) be a local chart and (x
i
) be
the local coordinates of the point p.
Let dx
i
be the coordinate basis for T

p
M.
Let =
_
n
i=1

i
dx
i
T

p
M. Then the local coordinates of the point (p, )
T

M are
(x
1
, . . . , x
n
,
1
, . . . ,
n
) .
Remarks.
The open set U R
n
R
2n
is a local chart in the cotangent bundle T

M.
Let (U

, x

) and (U

, x

) be two local charts containing the point p.

Then the local coordinates of the point (p, ) in overlapping local charts are
related by
x
i

= x
i

(x

i
=
n

j=1
x
j

x
i

j
.
This is a local dieomorphism.
Thus, the cotangent bundle T

M is a manifold of dimension 2n.

The projection map : T

M M is dened by (p, ) = p.
A covector eld (or a 1-form)is a map
: M T

M,
such that
= Id : M M.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 41
2.3. THE COTANGENT BUNDLE 39
A covector eld is a section of the cotangent bundle.
2.3.1 Pull-Back of a Covector
Let M and N be two smooth manifolds and n = dim M and m = dimN.
Let : M N be a smooth map.
The dierential

: T
p
M T
(p)
N
is the linear transformation of the tangent spaces.
Let x
i
be a local coordinate system in a local chart about p M and y

be a
local coordinate system in a local chart about (p) N and
i
and

be the
coordinate bases for T
p
M and T
(p)
N.
Then the action of the dierential

is dened by

_

x
j
_
=
m

=1
y

x
j

.
Let v =
_
n
i=1
v
i

i
. Then
[

(v)]

=
n

j=1
y

x
j
v
j
.

Denition 2.3.2 The pullback

is the linear transformation of the

cotangent spaces

: T

(p)
N T

p
M
taking covectors at (p) N to covectors at p M, dened as follows.
If T

(p)
N, then

() T

p
M so that

() =

: T
p
M R
where : T
(p)
N R. That is, for any vector v T
p
M
(

()) (v) = (

(v)) .
Diagram.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 42
40 CHAPTER 2. TENSORS
In local coordinates,
[

(dy

)]
j
=
m

=1
y

x
j
dx
j
.
Let =
_
m
=1

dy

. Then

() =
n

j=1
m

=1

x
j
dx
j
,
that is, in components,
[

()]
j
=
m

=1

x
j
.
Remark.
In general, for a map : M N, the following linear transformations
are well dened: the dierential

: T
p
M T
(p)
N and the pullback

: T

(p)
N T

p
M.
The maps T

p
M T

(p)
N and T
(p)
N T
p
M are not well dened, in
general.
If dim M = dimN and : M N is a dieomorphism, then all these maps
are well dened.
Explain.
2.3.2 Phase Space
Let M be a conguration space of a dynamical system with local general-
ized coordinates q
1
, . . . , q
n
. Then q
i
=
dq
i
dt
are the generalized velocities.
Under a change of local coordinates
q
i

= q
i

(q

)
the velocities transform as components of a vector
q
j

=
n

i=1
q
j

q
i

q
i

.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 43
2.3. THE COTANGENT BUNDLE 41
Therefore, (q
1
, . . . , q
n
, q
1
, . . . , q
n
) give local coordinates for the tangent bun-
dle T M.
Let L : T M R be a map. Then L(q, q) is called the Lagrangian.
The generalized momenta p
i
are dened by
p
i
=
L
q
i
.
The momenta are functions on T M, that is, p : T M R.
Under a change of local coordinates q

= q

(q

) the momenta transform as

components of a covector
p

j
=
n

i=1
q
i

q
j

i
,
The matrix
1
ik
(q, q) =

2
L
q
i
q
k
is called the Hessian.
Suppose that the Hessian is non-degerate
det 1
ik
0 .
Then the velocities can be expressed in terms of momenta
q
i
= q
i
(q, p) ,
that is, there is a map q : T

M R. More generally, there is a map

T M T

M.
Thus, (q
1
, . . . , q
n
, p
1
, . . . , p
n
) give local coordinates for the cotangent bundle
T

M.
The cotangent bundle is called the phase space in dynamics.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 44
42 CHAPTER 2. TENSORS
The Hamiltonian is a smooth function on the cotangent bundle H : T

M
R dened by
H(q, p) =
n

i=1
L
q
i
q
i
L(q, q) .
Example.
One of the most important examples is the Lagrangian quadratic in veloci-
ties
L(q, q) =
1
2
n

i, j=1
g
i j
(q) q
i
q
j
V(q) ,
where g
i j
is a Riemannian metric on M and V is a smooth function on M.
Then the Hessian is
g
ik
=

2
L
q
i
q
k
and, therefore, nondegenerate.
The relation between momenta and the velocities is
p
i
=
n

j=1
g
i j
(q) q
j
, q
i
=
n

j=1
g
i j
(q)p
j
.
The Hamiltonian is given by
H(q, p) =
1
2
n

i, j=1
g
i j
(q)p
i
p
j
+ V(q) ,
2.3.3 The Poincar e 1-Form
The Poincar e 1-form is a 1-form on the cotangent bundle T

M dened
in local coordinates (q, p) on T

M by
=
n

i=1
p
i
dq
i
.
Remarks.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 45
2.3. THE COTANGENT BUNDLE 43
The coordinates p are not functions on M.
The Poincar e form is not a 1-form on M.
A general 1-form on T

M is
=
n

i=1

i
(q, p)dq
i
+
n

i=1
v
i
(q, p)dp
i
.

Theorem 2.3.1 The Poincar e 1-form is well dened globally on the

cotangent bundle of any manifold.
Proof :
1. Let (q

, p

) and (q

, p

) be two overlapping coordinate patches of

T

M.
2. Then
dq
i

=
n

j=1
q
i

q
j

dq
j

and
n

i=1
p

i
dq
i

=
n

j=1
p

j
dq
j

We give now an intrinsic denition of the Poincar e form.

Let (q, p) T

M be a point in T

M. We want to dene a 1-form

T

(q,p)
(T

M) at this point (q, p) T

M.
Let : T

M M be the projection dened for any q M, p T

q
M by
(q, p) = q.
Then the pullback is the map

: T

q
M T

(q,p)
(T

M). For each 1-form

p T

q
M it denes a 1-form

(p) T

(q,p)
(T

M). This is precisely the

Poincar e 1-form , that is,
=

(p) .
Of course, in local coordinates

(p) =
n

i=1
p
i
dq
i
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 46
44 CHAPTER 2. TENSORS
2.4 Tensors
2.4.1 Covariant Tensors
Let E be a vector space and E

be its dual space.

Let e
i
be a basis for E and
i
be the dual basis for E

.
A covariant tensor of rank p (or a tensor of type (0, p)) is a multi-linear
real-valued functional
Q : E E
.,,.
p
R
Remarks.
The function Q(v
1
, . . . , v
p
) is linear in each argument.
The functional Q is independent of any basis.
A covariant vector (covector) is a covariant tensor of rank 1.
A metric tensor is a covariant tensor of rank 2.
The components of the tensor Q with respect to the basis e
i
are dened
by
Q
i
1
...i
p
= Q(e
i
1
, . . . , e
i
p
) .
Then for any vectors
v
a
=
n

j=1
v
j
a
e
j
,
where a = 1, . . . , p, we have
Q(v
1
, . . . , v
p
) =
n

j
1
,..., j
p
=1
Q
j
1
... j
p
v
j
1
1
v
j
p
p
.
The collection of all covariant tensors of rank p forms a vector space de-
noted by
T
p
= E

.,,.
p
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 47
2.4. TENSORS 45
The dimension of the vector space T
p
is
dimT
p
= n
p
.
The tensor product of two covectors , E

is a covariant tensor
E

of rank 2 dened by: v, w E

( )(v, w) = (v)(w) .
The components of the tensor product are
( )
i j
=
i

j
.
The tensor product of a covariant tensor Q of rank p and a covariant ten-
sor T of rank q is a covariant tensor Q T of rank (p + q) dened by:
v
1
, . . . , v
p
, w
1
, . . . , w
q
E
(Q T)(v
1
, . . . , v
p
, w
1
, . . . , w
q
) = Q(v
1
, . . . , v
p
)T(w
1
, . . . , w
q
) .
The components of the tensor product Q T are
(Q T)
i
1
...i
p
j
1
... j
q
= Q
i
1
...i
p
T
j
1
... j
q
.
Thus,
: T
p
T
q
T
p+q
.
Tensor product is associative.
The basis in the space T
p
is

i
1

i
p
,
where 1 i
1
, . . . , i
p
n.
A covariant tensor Q of rank p has the form
Q =
n

i
1
,...,i
p
=1
Q
i
1
...i
p

i
1

i
p
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 48
46 CHAPTER 2. TENSORS
2.4.2 Contravariant Tensors
A contravariant vector can be considered as a linear real-valued functional
v : E

R.
A contravariant tensor of rank p (or a tensor of type (p, 0)) is a multi-
linear real-valued functional
T : E

.,,.
p
R
Remarks.
The function T(
1
, ,
p
) is linear in each argument.
The functional T is independent of any basis.
A contravariant vector (covector) is a contravariant tensor of rank 1.
The components of the tensor T with respect to the basis
i
are dened
by
T
i
1
...i
p
= T(
i
1
, . . . ,
i
p
) .
Then for any covectors

(a)
=
n

j=1

(a) j

j
,
where a = 1, . . . , p, we have
T(
(1)
, . . . ,
(p)
) =
n

j
1
,..., j
p
=1
T
j
1
... j
p

(1) j
1

(p) j
p
.
The inverse matrix of the components of a metric tensor denes a con-
travariant tensor g
1
of rank 2 by
g
1
(, ) =
n

i, j=1
g
i j

j
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 49
2.4. TENSORS 47
The collection of all contravariant tensors of rank p forms a vector space
denoted by
T
p
= E E
.,,.
p
.
The dimension of the vector space T
p
is
dimT
p
= n
p
.
The tensor product of a contravariant tensor Q of rank p and a contravari-
ant tensor T of rank q is a contravariant tensor QT of rank (p +q) dened
by:
1
, . . . ,
p
,
1
, . . . ,
q
E

(Q T)(
1
, . . . ,
p
,
1
, . . . ,
q
) = Q(
1
, . . . ,
p
)T(
1
, . . . ,
q
) .
The components of the tensor product Q T are
(Q T)
i
1
...i
p
j
1
... j
q
= Q
i
1
...i
p
T
j
1
... j
q
.
Thus,
: T
p
T
q
T
p+q
.
Tensor product is associative.
The basis in the space T
p
is
e
i
1
e
i
p
,
where 1 i
1
, . . . , i
p
n.
A contravariant tensor T of rank p has the form
T =
n

i
1
,...,i
p
=1
T
i
1
...i
p
e
i
1
e
i
p
.
The set of all tensors of type (p, 0) forms a vector space T
p
of dimension n
p
dimT
p
= n
p
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 50
48 CHAPTER 2. TENSORS
2.4.3 General Tensors of Type (p, q)
A tensor of type (p, q) is a multi-linear real-valued functional
T : E

.,,.
p
E E
.,,.
q
R
The components of the tensor T with respect to the basis e
i
,
i
are dened
by
T
i
1
...i
p
j
1
... j
q
= T(
i
1
, . . . ,
i
p
, e
j
1
, . . . , e
j
q
) .
Then for any covectors

(a)
=
n

j=1

(a) j

j
,
where a = 1, . . . , p, and any vectors
v
b
=
n

j=1
v
k
b
e
k
,
where b = 1, . . . , q, we have
T(
(1)
, . . . ,
(p)
, v
1
, . . . , v
q
) =
n

k
1
,...,k
q
=1
n

j
1
,..., j
p
=1
T
j
1
... j
p
k
1
...k
q

(1) j
1

(p) j
p
v
k
1
v
k
q
.
The inverse matrix of the components of a metric tensor denes a con-
travariant tensor g
1
of rank 2 by
g
1
(, ) =
n

i, j=1
g
i j

j
.
The collection of all tensors of type (p, q) forms a vector space denoted by
T
p
q
= E E
.,,.
p
E

.,,.
q
.
The dimension of the vector space T
p
is
dimT
p
q
= n
p+q
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 51
2.4. TENSORS 49
The tensor product of a tensor Q of type (p, q) and a tensor T of type (r, s)
is a tensor QT of type (p+r, q+s) dened by:
1
, . . . ,
p
,
1
, . . . ,
r
E

,
v
1
, . . . , v
q
, w
1
, . . . , w
s
E
(Q T)(
1
, . . . ,
p
,
1
, . . . ,
r
, v
1
, . . . , v
q
, w
1
, . . . , w
s
)
= Q(
1
, . . . ,
p
, v
1
, . . . , v
q
)T(
1
, . . . ,
r
, w
1
, . . . , w
s
) .
The components of the tensor product Q T are
(Q T)
i
1
...i
p
j
1
... j
r
k
1
...k
q
l
1
...l
s
= Q
i
1
...i
p
k
1
...k
q
T
j
1
... j
r
l
1
...l
s
.
Thus,
: T
p
q
T
r
s
T
p+r
q+s
.
We stress once again that the tensor product is associative.
The basis in the space T
p
q
is
e
i
1
e
i
p

j
1

j
q
,
where 1 i
1
, . . . , i
p
, j
1
, . . . , j
q
n.
A tensor T of type (p, q) has the form
T =
n

j
1
,..., j
q
=1
n

i
1
,...,i
p
=1
T
i
1
...i
p
j
1
... j
q
e
i
1
e
i
p

j
1

j
q
.
Let p, q 1 and 1 r p, 1 s q. The (r, s)-contraction of tensors of
type (p, q) is the map
tr
r
s
: T
p
q
T
p1
q1
dened by
(tr
r
s
T)
i
1
...i
p1
j
1
... j
q1
=
n

k=1
T
i
1
...i
r1
ki
r
...i
p1
j
1
... j
s1
k j
s
... j
q
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 52
50 CHAPTER 2. TENSORS
2.4.4 Linear Transformations and Tensors
Let A : E E be a linear transformation.
Then we can dene a tensor

A of type (1, 1) by E

, v E

A(, v) = (Av) .
Let (A
i
j
) be the matrix of the linear transformation A, that is,
Ae
j
=
n

i=1
A
i
j
e
i
.
Then the components of the tensor

A are

A
i
j
=

A(
i
, e
j
) =
i
(Ae
j
) = A
i
j
.
Thus, one can identify tensors of type (1, 1) and linear transformations on
E (and, similarly on E

as well).
Then,
A =
n

i, j=1
A
i
j
e
i

j
.
The identity linear transformation I has the matrix
I
i
j
=
i
j
and denes the tensor of type (1, 1)
I =
n

i=1
e
i

i
.
To summarize, a (1, 1) tensor

A : E

E R is identied with the linear

transformation A : E E.
The covariant tensor A
i j
, the contravariant tensor A
i j
and the tensor A
i
j
of
type (1, 1) are related by
A
i j
=
n

k=1
g
ik
A
k
j
, A
i j
=
n

k=1
A
i
k
g
k j
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 53
2.4. TENSORS 51
2.4.5 Tensor Fields

Denition 2.4.1 A tensor eld on a manifold M is a smooth assign-

ment of a tensor at each point of M.
Let x
i

= x
i

(x

) be a local dieomorphism.
Then
dx
i

=
n

j=1
x
i

x
j

dx
j

and

x
i

=
n

j=1
x
j

x
i

x
j

Let T be a tensor of type (p, q). Then

T
()
i
1
...i
p
j
1
... j
q
=
n

k
1
,...,k
p
=1
n

l
1
,...,l
q
=1
x
i
1

x
k
1

x
i
p

x
k
p

x
l
1

x
l
q

x
j
1

x
j
q

T
()
k
1
...k
p
l
1
...l
q
2.4.6 Tensor Bundles

Denition 2.4.2 Let M be a smooth manifold. The tensor bundle of

type (p, q) T
p
q
M is the collection of all tensors of type (p, q) at all points
of M
T
p
q
M = (p, T) p M, T T
p
q, (x)
M
The tensor bundle T
p
q
M is the tensor product of the tangent and cotangent
bundles
T
p
q
M = T M T M
.,,.
p
T

M T

M
.,,.
q
.
Let dim M = n.
Let x M be a point in the manifold M, (U, x) be a local chart and (x
i
) be
the local coordinates of the point p.
Let
i
and dx
i
be the coordinate basis for T
x
M and T

x
M.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 54
52 CHAPTER 2. TENSORS
Let T be a tensor of type (p, q) and T
i
1
...i
p
j
1
... j
q
be the components of the tensor T
in the coordinate basis. Then the local coordinates of the point (p, T) T
p
q
M
are
(x
i
, T
i
1
...i
p
j
1
... j
q
) ,
where 1 i, i
1
, . . . , i
p
, j
1
, . . . , j
q
n.
Remarks.
The open set U R
n
p+q
R
n+n
p+q
is a local chart in the tensor bundle T
p
q
M.
The bundle T
p
q
M is a manifold of dimension n + n
p+q
.
The projection map : T
p
q
M M is dened by (x, T) = x.
A tensor eld of type (p, q) is a map
T : M T
p
q
M,
such that
T = Id : M M.
A tensor eld of type (p, q) is a section of the tensor bundle T
p
q
M.
2.4.7 Examples
Riemannian metric g

.
Energy-momentum tensor T

.
Stress tensor
i j
.
Riemann curvature tensor R

.
Ricci curvature tensor R

.
Scalar density of weight 1: g =
_
det g
i j
.
Axial vectors (vector product) in R
3
.
Strength of the electromagnetic eld F

.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 55
2.4. TENSORS 53

Theorem 2.4.1 Let

A =
n

i=1
A
i
dx
i
be a covector eld (1-form). Let
F
i j
=
i
A
j

j
A
i
.
Then
F =
n

i, j=1
F
i j
dx
i
dx
j
is a tensor of type (0, 2).
Proof :
1. Check the transformation law.

A tensor is called isotropic if it is a tensor product of g, g

1
and I.
The components of an isotropic tensor are the products of g
i j
, g
i j
and
i
j
.
Every isotropic tensor of type (p, q) has an even rank p + q.
For example, the most general isotropic tensor of type (2, 2) has the form
A
i j
kl
= ag
i j
g
kl
+ b
i
k

j
l
+ c
i
l

j
k
,
where a, b, c are scalars.
2.4.8 Einstein Summation Convention
In any expression there are two types of indices: free indices and repeated
indices.
Free indices appear only once in an expression; they are assumed to take all
possible values from 1 to n.
The position of all free indices in all terms in an equation must be the same.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 56
54 CHAPTER 2. TENSORS
Repeated indices appear twice in an expression. It is assumed that there is a
summation over each repeated pair of indices from 1 to n. The summation
over a pair of repeated indices in an expression is called the contraction.
Repeated indices are dummy indices: they can be replaced by any other
letter (not already used in the expression) without changing the meaning of
the expression.
Indices cannot be repeated on the same level. That is, in a pair of repeated
indices one index is in upper position and another is in the lower position.
There cannot be indices occuring three or more times in any expression.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 57
Chapter 3
Dierential Forms
3.1 Exterior Algebra
3.1.1 Permutation Group
A group is a set G with an associative binary operation, : GG G with
identity, called the multiplication, such that each element has an inverse.
That is, the following conditions are satised
1. for any three elements g, h, k G, the associativity law holds: (gh)k =
g(hk);
2. there exists an identity element e G such that for any g G, ge =
eg = g;
3. each element g G has an inverse g
1
, such that g g
1
= g
1
g = e
Let X be a set. A transformation of the set X is a bijective map g : X X.
The set of all transformations of a set X forms a group Aut(X), with com-
position of maps as group multiplication.
Any subgroup of Aut(X) is a transformation group of the set X.
The transformations of a nite set X are called permutations.
The group S
p
of permutations of the set Z
n
= 1, . . . , p is called the sym-
metric group of order p.
55
56 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
Theorem 3.1.1 The order of the symmetric group S
p
is
S
p
= p! .
Any subgroup of S
p
is called a permutation group.
A permutation : Z
p
Z
p
can be represented by
_
1 . . . p
(1) . . . (p)
_
The identity permutation is
_
1 . . . p
1 . . . p
_
The inverse permutation
1
: Z
p
Z
p
is represented by
_
(1) . . . (p)
1 . . . p
_
The product of permutations is then dened in an obvious manner.
An elementary permutation is a permutation that exchanges the order of
only two elements.
Every permutation can be realized as a product of elementary permutations.
A permutation that can be realized by an even number of elementary per-
mutations is called an even permutation.
A permutation that can be realized by an odd number of elementary permu-
tations is called an odd permutation.
Proposition 3.1.1 The parity of a permutation does not depend on the
representation of a permutation by a product of the elementary ones.
That is, each representation of an even permutation has even number of
elementary permutations, and similarly for odd permutations.
The sign of a permutation , denoted by sign() (or simply (1)

), is
dened by
sign() = (1)

=
_
+1, if is even,
1, if is odd
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 58
3.1. EXTERIOR ALGEBRA 57
3.1.2 Permutations of Tensors
Let S
p
be the symmetric group of order p. Then every permutation S
p
denes a map
: T
p
T
p
,
which assigns to every tensor T of type (0, p) a new tensor (T), called a
permutation of the tensor T, of type (0, p) by: v
1
, . . . , v
p
(T)(v
1
, . . . , v
p
) = T(v
(1)
, . . . , v
(p)
) .
Let (i
1
, . . . , i
p
) be a p-tuple of integers. Then a permutation : Z
p
Z
p
denes an action
(i
1
, . . . , i
p
) = (i
(1)
, . . . , i
(p)
) .
The components of the tensor (T) are obtained by the action of the permu-
tation on the indices of the tensor T
(T)
i
1
...i
p
= T
i
(1)
...i
(p)
.
The symmetrization of the tensor T of the type (0, p) is dened by
Sym(T) =
1
p!

S
p
(T) .
The symmetrization is also denoted by parenthesis. The components of the
symmetrized tensor Sym(T) are given by
T
(i
1
...i
p
)
=
1
p!

S
p
T
i
(1)
...i
(p)
.
The anti-symmetrization of the tensor T of the type (0, p) is dened by
Alt(T) =
1
p!

S
p
sign ()(T) .
The anti-symmetrization is also denoted by square brackets. The compo-
nents of the anti-symmetrized tensor Alt(T) are given by
T
[i
1
...i
p
]
=
1
p!

S
p
sign ()T
i
(1)
...i
(p)
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 59
58 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
Examples.
A tensor T of type (0, p) is called symmetric if for any permutation S
p
(T) = T .
A tensor T of type (0, p) is called anti-symmetric if for any permutation
S
p
(T) = sign ()T .
An anti-symmetric tensor of type (0, p) is called a p-form.
Remarks.
Permutation, symmetrization, anti-symmetrization of tensors of type (p, 0).
Completely symmetric and completely anti-symmetric tensors of type (p, 0).
An anti-symmetric tensor of type (p, 0) is called a p-vector.
Partial permutation.
Examples.
Notation.
3.1.3 Alternating Tensors
Let (i
1
, . . . , i
p
) and ( j
1
, . . . , j
p
) be two p-tuples of integers 1 i
1
, . . . , i
p
, j
1
, . . . , j
p

n. The generalized Kronecker symbol is dened by

i
1
... i
p
j
1
... j
p
=
_

_
1 if (i
1
, . . . , i
p
) is an even permutation of ( j
1
, . . . , j
p
)
1 if (i
1
, . . . , i
p
) is an odd permutation of ( j
1
, . . . , j
p
)
0 otherwise
One can easily check that

i
1
... i
p
j
1
... j
p
= det
_

i
1
j
1
. . .
i
1
j
p
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

i
p
j
1
. . .
i
p
j
p
_

_
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 60
3.1. EXTERIOR ALGEBRA 59
Also, there holds

i
1
... i
p
j
1
... j
p
= p!
i
1
[ j
1

i
p
j
p
]
.
Thus, the Kronecker symbols
i
1
... i
p
j
1
... j
p
are the components of the tensors
p!Alt(I I
.,,.
p
)
of type (p, p), which are anti-symmetric separately in upper indices and the
lower indices.
Thus, the anti-symmetrization can also be written as
T
[i
1
...i
p
]
=
1
p!

j
1
... j
p
i
1
...i
p
T
j
1
... j
p
.
Notation.
Obviously, the Kronecker symbols vanish for p > n

i
1
...i
p
j
1
... j
p
= 0 if p > n .
The contraction of Kronecker symbols gives Kronecker symbols with lower
indices, more precisely, we have the theorem.

Theorem 3.1.2 For any p, q N, 1 p, q n, there holds

i
1
... i
p
l
1
...l
q
j
1
... j
p
l
1
...l
q
=
(n p)!
(n q)!

i
1
... i
p
j
1
... j
p
.
Proof :
1.

Corollary 3.1.1
For any q N, 1 q n we have

i
1
...i
q
i
1
...i
q
=
n!
(n q)!
.
In particular,

i
1
...i
n
i
1
...i
n
= n! .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 61
60 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIAL FORMS

Lemma 3.1.1 There holds

i
1
...i
p
j
1
... j
r
l
1
...l
p
m
1
...m
r

k
1
...k
r
j
1
... j
r
= r!
i
1
...i
p
k
1
...k
r
l
1
...l
p
m
1
...m
r
Proof :
1.

In general, let A be a p-form (an antisymmetric tensor of type (0, p)) and B
be a p-vector (an anti-symmetric tensor of type (p, 0)). Then
A
i
1
...i
p

i
1
...i
p
j
1
... j
p
= p!A
j
1
... j
p
,
B
i
1
...i
p

j
1
... j
p
i
1
... i
p
= p!B
j
1
... j
p
.
Let (i
1
, . . . , i
n
) be an n-tuple of integers 1 i
1
, . . . , i
n
n. The completely
anti-symmetric (alternating) Levi-Civita symbols are dened by

i
1
...i
n
=
1 ... n
i
1
...i
n
,
i
1
...i
n
=
i
1
...i
n
1 ... n
,
so that

i
1
...i
n
=
i
1
...i
n
=
_

_
1 if (i
1
, . . . , i
n
) is an even permutation of (1, . . . , n)
1 if (i
1
, . . . , i
n
) is an odd permutation of (1, . . . , n)
0 otherwise
Theorem 3.1.3 There holds the identity

i
1
...i
n

j
1
... j
n
=

S
n
sign()
i
1
j
(1)

i
n
j
(n)
= n!
i
1
[ j
1

i
n
j
n
]
=
i
1
...i
n
j
1
... j
n
.
The contraction of this identity over k indices gives

i
1
...i
nk
m
1
...m
k

j
1
... j
nk
m
1
...m
k
= k!(n k)!
i
1
[ j
1

i
nk
j
nk
]
= k!
i
1
...i
nk
j
1
... j
nk
.
In particular,

m
1
...m
n

m
1
...m
n
= n! .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 62
3.1. EXTERIOR ALGEBRA 61
It is easy to see that there holds also

i
1
...i
np
l
1
...l
np

j
1
... j
p
l
1
...l
np
= (n p)!
j
1
... j
p
i
1
...i
np
The set of all n n real matrices is denoted by Mat(n, R).
The determinant is a map det : Mat(n, R) R that assigns to each matrix
A = (A
i
j
) a real number det A dened by
det A =

S
n
sign ()A
1
(1)
A
n
(n)
,
The most important properties of the determinant are listed below:
Theorem 3.1.4 1. The determinant of the product of matrices is equal to
the product of the determinants:
det(AB) = det Adet B.
2. The determinants of a matrix A and of its transpose A
T
are equal:
det A = det A
T
.
3. The determinant of the inverse A
1
of an invertible matrix A is equal
to the inverse of the determinant of A:
det A
1
= (det A)
1
4. A matrix is invertible if and only if its determinant is non-zero.
The determinant of a matrix A = (A
i
j
) can be written as
det A =
i
1
...i
n
A
1
i
1
. . . A
n
i
n
=
j
1
... j
n
A
j
1
1
. . . A
j
n
n
=
1
n!

i
1
...i
n

j
1
... j
n
A
j
1
i
1
. . . A
j
n
i
n
.
Here, as usual, a summation over all repeated indices is assumed from 1 to
n.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 63
62 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
3.1.4 Exterior p-forms
An exterior p-form (or simply a p-form) is an anti-symmetric covariant
tensor T
p
of type (0, p).
The collection of all p-forms forms a vector space
p
, which is a vector
subspace of T
p

p
T
p
.
In particular,

0
= R and
1
= T
1
= E

.
In other words, a 0-form is a smooth function, and a 1-form is a covector
eld.
Let
p
be a p-form.
Let e
i
be a basis in E and
i
be the dual basis in E

.
The components of the p-form are

i
1
...i
p
= (e
i
1
, . . . e
i
p
) .
The components are completely anti-symmetric in all indices, that is,

i
1
...i
p
= sign ()
i
(1)
...i
(p)
.
In particular, under a permutation of any two indices the form changes sign

... i ... j ...

=
... j ... i ...
,
which means that the components vanish if any two indices are equal

... i ... i ...

= 0 (no summation!) .
Thus, all non-vanishing components have dierent indices.
Therefore, the values of all components
i
1
...i
p
are completely determined by
the values of the components with the indices i
1
, . . . , i
p
reordered in strictly
increasing order
1 i
1
< < i
p
n .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 64
3.1. EXTERIOR ALGEBRA 63
Notation.
To deal with forms it is convenient to introduce multi-indices. We will
denote a p-tuple of integers from 1 to n by a capital letter
I = (i
1
, . . . , i
p
) ,
where 1 i
1
, . . . , i
p
n. For a p-tuple of the same integers ordered in an
increasing order we dene

I = (i
1
, . . . , i
p
) .
where 1 i
1
< i
2
< < i
p
n. We call

I an increasing p-tuple associated
with I.
Therefore, a collection of p-forms
p!Alt
_

i
1

i
p
_
,
where 1 i
1
< i
2
< < i
p
n, forms a basis in the space
p
.
Thus, every p-form
p
has the form
=

1i
1
<<i
p
n

i
1
i
p
p!Alt
_

i
1

i
p
_
.
Therefore, the dimension of the space
p
is equal to the number of distinct
increasing p-tuples of integers from 1 to n.

Theorem 3.1.5 The dimension of the space

p
of p-forms is
dim
p
=
_
n
p
_
=
n!
p!(n p)!
.
Proof :
1.

In particular,
dim
0
= dim
n
= 1 ,
dim
1
= dim
n1
= n ,
etc.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 65
64 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
There are no p-forms with p > n.
Similarly to the norm of vectors and covectors we dene the inner product
of exterior p-forms and in a Riemannian manifold by
(, ) =
1
p!
g
i
1
j
1
g
i
1
j
p

i
1
...i
p

j
1
... j
p
.
This enables one to dene also the norm of an exterior p-form by
=
_
(, )
3.1.5 Exterior Product
Since the tensor product of two skew-symmetric tensors is not a skew-
symmetric tensor to dene the algebra of antisymmetric tensors we need to
dene the anti-symmetric tensor product called the exterior (or wedge)
product.
If is an p-form and is an q-form then the exterior product of and is
an (p + q)-form dened by
=
(p + q)!
p!q!
Alt ( ) .
In components
( )
i
1
...i
p+q
=
(p + q)!
p!q!

[i
1
...i
p

i
p+1
...i
p+q
]
.
Let
p
be a p-form. Then
p = deg()
is called the degree (or rank) of .

Theorem 3.1.6 The exterior product has the following properties

( ) = ( ) (associativity)
= (1)
deg()deg()
(anticommutativity)
( + ) = + (distributivity) .
Proof :
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 66
3.1. EXTERIOR ALGEBRA 65
1.

The exterior square of any p-form of odd degree p (in particular, for any
1-form) vanishes
= 0 .
The exterior algebra (or Grassmann algebra) is the set of all forms of
all degrees, that is,
=
0

n
.
The dimension of the exterior algebra is
dim =
n

p=0
_
n
p
_
= 2
n
.
A basis of the space
p
is

i
1

i
p
, (1 i
1
< < i
p
n) .
An p-form can be represented in one of the following ways
=
i
1
...i
p

i
1

i
p
=
1
p!

i
1
...i
p

i
1

i
p
=

i
1
<<i
p

i
1
...i
p

i
1

i
p
.
The exterior product of a p-form and a q-form can be represented as
=
1
p!q!

[i
1
...i
p

i
p+1
...i
p+q
]

i
1

i
p+q
.

Theorem 3.1.7 Let

j

1
, 1 j n, and
j

1
, 1 j n, be
two collections of n 1-forms related by a linear transformation

j
=
n

i=1
A
j
i

i
, 1 j n ,
Then

1

n
= det A
i
j

1

n
.
Proof :
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 67
66 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
1.

Theorem 3.1.8 Let

j

1
= E

, 1 j p, be a collections of p
1-forms and v
i
E, 1 i p, be a collection of p vectors. Let
A
j
i
=
j
(v
i
) , 1 i, j p .
Then
_

1

p
_
(v
1
, . . . , v
p
) = det A
i
j
.
Proof :
1.

Theorem 3.1.9 A collections of p 1-forms

j

1
= E

, 1 j p,
is linearly dependent if and only if

1

p
= 0 .

Corollary 3.1.2 Let x

i
= x
i
(x

), i = 1, . . . , n, be a local dieomor-
phism. Then
dx
1
dx
n
= det
_
x
l
x
m
_
dx
1
dx
n
.
3.1.6 Interior Product
The interior product of a vector v and a p-form is a (p 1)-form i
v

dened by, for any v

1
, . . . , v
p1
,
i
v
(v
1
, . . . , v
p1
) = (v, v
1
, . . . , v
p1
) .
In particular, if p = 1, then i
v
is a scalar
i
v
= (v)
and if p = 0, then by denition
i
v
= 0 .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 68
3.1. EXTERIOR ALGEBRA 67
In components,
(i
v
)
i
1
...i
p1
= v
j

ji
1
...i
p1
.
The interior product is a map
i
v
:
p

p1
,
or
i
v
: .
A map L : is called an derivation if for any
p
,
q
,
L( ) = (L) + L .
A map L : is called an anti-derivation if for any
p
,
q
,
L( ) = (L) + (1)
p
L .

Theorem 3.1.10 Let v E be a vector. The interior product i

v
:
is an anti-derivation.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 69
68 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
3.2 Orientation and the Volume Form
3.2.1 Orientation of a Vector Space
Let E be a vector space. Let e
i
= e
1
, . . . , e
n
and e

j
= e

1
, . . . , e

n
be two
dierent bases in E related by
e
i
=
j
i
e

j
,
where = (
i
j
) is a transformation matrix.
Note that the transformation matrix is non-degenerate
det 0 .
Since the transformation matrix is invertible, then the determinant det
is either positive or negative.
If det > 0 then we say that the bases e
i
and e

i
have the same orien-
tation, and if det < 0 then we say that the bases e
i
and e

i
have the
opposite orientation.
If the basis e
i
is continuously deformed into the basis e

j
, then both bases
have the same orientation.
Since det I = 1 > 0 and the function det : GL(n, R) R is continuous, then
a one-parameter continuous transformation matrix (t) such that (0) = I
preserves the orientation.
This denes an equivalence relation on the set of all bases on E called the
orientation of the vector space E.
This equivalence relation divides the set of all bases in two equivalence
classes, called the positively oriented and negatively oriented bases.
A vector space together with a choice of what equivalence class is positively
oriented is called an oriented vector space.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 70
3.2. ORIENTATION AND THE VOLUME FORM 69
3.2.2 Orientation of a Manifold
Let M be a manifold and let T
p
M be the tangent space at a point p M.
Let (U, x) be a local coordinate patch about a point p M.
Then the vectors

x
i
, i = 1, . . . , n
form a basis in T
p
M.
Let (U

, x

) be another local coordinate system about a point p, that is, there

is a local dieomorphism x
i
= x
i
(x

).
Then the vectors

x
i
=
x
j
x
i

x
j
form another basis in T
p
M.
The orientation of the bases
i
and

j
is the same (or consistent) if
det
_
x
i
x
j
_
> 0 .
If it is possible to choose an orientation of all tangent spaces T
p
M at all
points in a continuous fashion, then the orientation of all tangent spaces is
consistent.
A manifold M is called orientable if there is an atlas such that the ori-
entation of all charts of this atlas can be chosen consistently, that is, the
Jacobians of all transition functions have positive determinant.
Each connected orientable manifold has exactly two possible orientations.
One orientation can be declared positive, then the other orientation is neg-
ative.
An orientable manifold with a chosen orientation is called oriented.
Remarks.
If a manifold can be covered by a single coordinate chart then it is ori-
entable.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 71
70 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
Not all manifolds are orientable.
Transport of the orientation.
Let p, q M be two points in a manifold M and C(t) be a curve in M
connecting p and q, i.e.
C(0) = p, C(1) = q .
Let e
i
(t) be a basis in T
C(t)
M that continuously depends on t [0, 1].
Then the orientation of the basis e
i
(1) is uniquely determined by the orien-
tation of the basis e
i
(0).
Thus, the orientation is transported along a curve in a unique way.
Note that the transportation of the basis is not unique, in general. Only the
transportation of the orientation is!
Given a point p and another point q, the orientation at the point q does, in
general, depend on the curve C(t) connecting the points p and q.
If a manifold is orientable, then the transportation of the orientation from
one point to another does not depend on the curve connecting the points.

Corollary 3.2.1 Let M be a manifold. If there exist two points p and

q in M and two curves C
1
(t) and C
2
(t) joining the points p and q such
that the orientation at q transported from p along the curves C
1
and C
2
are dierent, then M is nonorientable.
That is, if there exists a closed curve C(t) in M such that the transport
of the orientation along C leads to a reversal of orientation, then M is
nonorientable.
Example. M obius Band.
3.2.3 Hypersurfaces in Orientable Manifolds
Let V W be a submanifold of a manifold W.
A vector eld N on W is transverse to V if N is nowhere tangent to V.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 72
3.2. ORIENTATION AND THE VOLUME FORM 71
That is, N is transverse to V if for any point p V, N
p
T
p
V.
If N is transverse to V, then N 0 on V.
Let W be an n-diemsnional manifold. An (n 1)-diemsnional submanifold
M of W is called a hypersurface in W.
A hypersurface M in W is two-sided in W if there is a continuous vector N
in W transverse to M.
Examples. Normals to surfaces in R
3
.

Theorem 3.2.1 A two-sided hypersurface in an orientable manifold is

orientable.
Remarks.
Orientability of a manifold is an intrinsic property of a manifold.
Two-sidedness of a manifold depends on the embedding of the manifold as
a hypersurface in a higher-dimensional manifold.
Example.
Every manifold (even a nonorientable one) M is a two-sided hypersurface
in a manifold M R.
3.2.4 Projective Spaces
The real projective space RP
2
is the sphere S
2
with antipodal points identi-
ed.
The sphere S
2
is two-sided in R
3
, so it is orientable.
Let e
1
, e
2
be a basis in T
p
S
2
and N be an outward pointing normal vector to
S
2
.
Then N, e
1
, e
2
is a basis in R
3
.
We say that the basis e
1
, e
2
is positively oriented in S
2
if the basis N, e
1
, e
2

is positive in R
3
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 73
72 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
Let
r : R
3
R
3
be the reection map dened by
r(x) = x .
Let
a : S
2
S
2
be the antipodal map in S
2
dened as the restriction of the reection map to
S
2
a = r

S
2
The reection map reverses the orientation of the basis in R
3
!
Let p S
2
be a point on S
2
and N, e
1
, e
2
T
p
S
2
be a positively oriented
basis. Then e
2
, e
1
, N is negatively oriented at T
a
(p)S
2
, where a(p) is
the antipodal point.
The vector N is the outward normal at the antipodal point a(p).
Thus the basis e
1
, e
2
is negatively oriented at a(p).
Thus, if the basis e
1
, e
2
at p S
2
is transported along a curve C on S
2
to
a(p), then the orientation of the transported basis e

1
, e

2
is the opposite of
the orientation of the basis e
1
, e
2
at a(p).
Thus, the antipodal map reverses the orientation on S
2
.
In RP
2
the basis e
1
, e
2
at a(p) represents the same basis e
1
, e
2
at p.
Thus, the curve C on S
2
is a closed curve C

on RP
2
going through p.
Thus, the transportation of the basis along the closed curve C

in RP
2
re-
verses the orientation.
Thus, RP
2
is not orientable!
More generally, the even-dimensional projective spaces RP
2n
are not ori-
entable.
The odd-dimensional projective spaces RP
2n
are orientable.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 74
3.2. ORIENTATION AND THE VOLUME FORM 73
3.2.5 Pseudotensors and Tensor Densities
Let E be an oriented vector space and J be the set of all bases on E. Then
the orientation is a function
o : J R
dened by
o(e
i
) =
_

_
+1 if e
i
is positively oriented
1 if e
i
is negatively oriented
A pseudo-tensor T on a vector space E assigns, for each orientation o of
E a tensor T
o
such that when the orientation is reversed the tensor changes
sign, i.e.
T
o
= T
o
.
That is, a pseudo-tensor is a collection of two tensors T
+
and T

, one for
each orientation.
A pseudo-tensor eld on a manifold is a smooth assignment of a pseudo-
tensor to each point of the manifold.
Let x
i

= x
i

(x

) be a local dieomorphism and

J(x

) = det
_

_
x
i

x
j

_
.
Since this transformation is a dieomorphism J 0. Thus, there are two
cases J > 0 and J < 0.
A pseudo-tensor of type (p, q) is a geometric object T whose components
T
i
1
...i
p
j
1
... j
q
in the coordinate basis
i
and dx
i
transform according to
T
()
i
1
...i
p
j
1
... j
q
(x

) = sign (J)
n

k
1
,...,k
p
=1
n

l
1
,...,l
q
=1
x
i
1

x
k
1

x
i
p

x
k
p

x
l
1

x
l
q

x
j
1

x
j
q

T
()
k
1
...k
p
l
1
...l
q
(x

)
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 75
74 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
A tensor density of weight w of type (p, q) is a geometric object T whose
components T
i
1
...i
p
j
1
... j
q
in the coordinate basis
i
and dx
i
transform under a dif-
feomorphism x
i

= x
i

(x

) with J > 0 according to

T
()
i
1
...i
p
j
1
... j
q
(x

) = J
w
(x

)
n

k
1
,...,k
p
=1
n

l
1
,...,l
q
=1
x
i
1

x
k
1

x
i
p

x
k
p

x
l
1

x
l
q

x
j
1

x
j
q

T
()
k
1
...k
p
l
1
...l
q
(x

Theorem 3.2.2 Let g = (g

i j
) be a Riemannian metric and
g = det(g
i j
) .
Then
_
g is a scalar density of weight 1.
Proof :
1. Let x = x(x

) be a local dieomorphism.
2. Then
g

i j
=
x
k
x
i
x
l
x
j
g
kl
,
3. Then
g

= det
_
x
x

_
2
g .
4. Thus
_
g

= det
_
x
x

_
_
g .
5. Therefore,
_
g is a scalar density of weight 1.

The Levi-civita symbol are not tensors!

digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 76
3.2. ORIENTATION AND THE VOLUME FORM 75

Theorem 3.2.3 Let g

i j
be the components of a Riemannian metric, g =
det(g
i j
), and
i
1
...i
n
and
i
1
...i
n
be the Levi-Civita symbols and E
i
1
...i
n
and
E
i
1
...i
n
be dened by
E
i
1
...i
n
=
_
g
i
1
...i
n
, E
i
1
...i
n
=
1
_
g

i
1
...i
n
Then
1.
i
1
...i
n
represents the components of a pseudo-n-form (that is, a
pseudo-tensor density of type (0, n)) of weight (1).
2.
i
1
...i
n
represents the components of a pseudo-n-vector (that is, a
pseudo-tensor density of type (n, 0)) of weight 1.
3. E
i
1
...i
n
represents the components of a pseudo-n-form.
4. E
i
1
...i
n
represents the components of a pseudo-n-vector.
Proof :
1. Check the transformation law.

3.2.6 Volume Form

Let v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n)
be an ordered n-tuple of vectors. The volume of the par-
allelepiped spanned by the vectors v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n)
is a real number dened
by
vol (v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n)
) =
_
det((v
(i)
, v
( j)
)) .
If the vectors v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n)
are orthonormal, then
vol (v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n)
) = 1 .
If the vectors v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n)
are linearly dependent, then
vol (v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n)
) = 0 .
The volume vol (v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n)
) does not depend on the orientation of vec-
tors.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 77
76 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
The signed volume of the parallelepiped spanned by an ordered n-tuple of
vectors v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n)
is
vol (v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n)
) = sign(v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n)
) vol (v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n)
) ,
where the sign of the signed volume is dened by
sign(v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n)
) =
_

_
+1, if v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n)
is positively oriented
1, if v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n)
is negatively oriented

Theorem 3.2.4 Let e

i
be a basis in a vector space E,
i
be the dual ba-
sis of 1-forms in E

, g = (g
i j
) be a Riemannian metric and v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n)

be a set of n vectors. Let v

i
( j)
=
i
(v
( j)
) be the contravariant components
of the vectors v
( j)
and v
i ( j)
= (e
i
, v
( j)
) = g
ik
v
k
( j)
be the covariant compo-
nents of these vectors. Then:
vol (v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n)
) =
_
g det(v
i
( j)
))
= E
i
1
...i
n
v
i
1
(1)
v
i
n
(n)
and
vol (v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n)
) =
1
_
g
det(v
i ( j)
)
= E
i
1
...i
n
v
i
1
(1)
v
i
n
(n)
In particular,
vol (e
1
, . . . , e
n
) = o(e
i
)
_
g ,
where o(e
i
) is equal to +1 or 1 for positively oriented and negatively
oriented basis e
i
.
The n-form
vol =
_
g
1

n
is called the Riemannian volume element (or volume form).
We have
_

i
1

i
p
_
(e
j
1
, . . . , e
j
p
) =
i
1
...i
p
j
1
j
p
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 78
3.2. ORIENTATION AND THE VOLUME FORM 77
The components of the volume form are
vol (e
i
1
, . . . , e
i
n
) =
_
g
i
1
...i
n
= E
i
1
...i
n
.
3.2.7 Star Operator and Duality
The volume form allows one to dene the duality of p-forms and (n p)-
vectors.
For each p-form A
i
1
...i
p
one assigns the dual (n p)-vector by

A
j
1
... j
np
=
1
p!
E
j
1
... j
np
i
1
...i
p
A
i
1
...i
p
.
Similarly, for each p-vector A
i
1
...i
p
one assigns the dual (n p)-form by

A
j
1
... j
np
=
1
p!
E
j
1
... j
np
i
1
...i
p
A
i
1
...i
p
.
By lowering and raising the indices of the dual forms we can dene the
duality of forms and poly-vectors separately.
The Hodge star operator
:
p

np
maps any p-form to a (n p)-form dual to dened as follows.
For each p-form the form is the unique (n p)-form such that
= (, )vol .
In particular,
1 = vol , vol = 1 .
In components, this means that
()
i
p+1
... i
n
=
1
p!

i
1
... i
p
i
p+1
...i
n
_
gg
i
1
j
1
g
i
p
j
p

j
1
... j
p
=
1
p!
1
_
g
g
i
p+1
j
p+1
g
i
n
j
n

j
1
... j
p
j
p+1
... j
n

j
1
... j
p
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 79
78 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIAL FORMS

Theorem 3.2.5 For any p-form there holds

2
= (1)
p(np)
.
In particular, if n is odd, then for any p

2
= Id .

Theorem 3.2.6 Let be a 1-form and v be the corresponding vector,

that is, v
i
= g
i j

j
. Then
= i
v
vol .
A collection
(1)
, . . . ,
(n1)
of (n 1) 1-forms denes a 1-form by
=
_

(1)

(n1)
_
.
Then
= (1)
n1

(1)

(n1)
and

(1)

(n1)
= (, )vol .
In components,

j
= g
jk
E
i
1
...i
n1
k

i
1
(1)

i
n1
(n1)
.
If the 1-forms
(1)
, . . . ,
(n1)
are linearly dependent, then = 0.
If the collection of 1-forms
(1)
, . . . ,
(n1)
is linearly independent, then

(1)
, . . . ,
(n1)
, are linearly independent and form a basis in E

Theorem 3.2.7 Let

1
, . . . ,
n
be an orthonormal basis of 1-forms.
Then

j
= (1)
nj

1

j1

j+1

n
_
,
In particular,

n
= [
1

n1
] .
Similarly, a collection v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n1)
of (n 1) vectors denes a covector
by: for any vector v
(v) = vol (v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n1)
, v)
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 80
3.2. ORIENTATION AND THE VOLUME FORM 79
or, in components,

j
= E
i
1
...i
n1
j
v
i
1
(1)
v
i
n1
(n1)
.

Theorem 3.2.8 Let v

(1)
, . . . , v
(n1)
be an ordered (n 1)-tuple of lin-
early independent vectors and
(1)
, . . . ,
(n1)
be the corresponding
1-forms. Let be 1-form dened by
=
_

(1)

(n1)
_
,
and N be the corresponding vector, that is,
N
i
= g
ik
_
g
i
1
...i
n1
k
v
i
1
(1)
v
i
n1
(n1)
Then:
1. The vector N is orthogonal to all vectors v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n1)
, that is,
(N, v
( j)
) = g
ik
N
i
v
k
( j)
= 0 , ( j = 1, . . . , n 1) .
2. The n-tuple v
1
, . . . , v
n1
, N forms a positively oriented basis.
3. The volume of the parallelepiped spanned by the vectors
v
(1)
, . . . , v
(n1)
, N is determined by the norm of N
vol (v
1
, . . . , v
n1
, N) = (N, N) .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 81
80 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
3.3 Exterior Derivative
From now on, if not specied otherwise, we will denote the derivatives by

i
=

x
i
.
The exterior derivative of a 0-form (that is, a function) f is a 1-form d f
dened by: for any vector v
(d f )(v) = v( f ) .
In local cordinates
d f =
j
f dx
j
.
The exterior derivative of a 1-form (that is, a covector) A is a 2-form dA
dened by: for any vectors v, w
(dA)(v, w) = v(A(w)) w(A(v)) A([v, w]) .
In local cordinates
dA =
1
2
_

i
A
j

j
A
i
_
dx
i
dx
j
.
Let be a p-form
=
1
p!

i
1
...i
p
dx
i
1
dx
i
p
.
The exterior derivative of is a (p + 1)-form d dened by
d =
1
p!
d
i
1
...i
p
dx
i
1
dx
i
p
=
1
p!

i
1

i
2
...i
p+1
dx
i
1
dx
i
2
dx
i
p+1
.
In components
(d)
i
1
i
2
...i
p+1
= (p + 1)
[i
1

i
2
...i
p+1
]
=
p+1

k=1
(1)
k1

i
k

i
1
...i
k1
i
k+1
...i
p+1
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 82
3.3. EXTERIOR DERIVATIVE 81

Theorem 3.3.1 The exterior derivative is a linear map

d :
p

p+1
.
Proof : Show that d is a form whose value does not depend on the coordi-
nate system.

Theorem 3.3.2 Let

p
be a p-form and v
1
, . . . , v
p+1
be a collec-
tion of (p + 1) vectors. Then
(d)(v
1
, . . . , v
p+1
) =
p+1

k=1
(1)
k1
v
k
((v
1
, . . . , v
k1
, v
k+1
, . . . , v
p+1
))

p+1

k=1
k1

i=1
(1)
i+k1
([v
i
, v
k
], v
1
, . . . , v
i
, v
i+1
, . . . , v
k1
, v
k+1
, . . . , v
p+1
))
Proof : Calculation.

Remark. This formula can be taken as the intrinsic denition of the exterior
derivative.

Theorem 3.3.3 For any p-form

d
2
= 0 .
Proof : Easy.

Theorem 3.3.4 The exterior derivative d : is an anti-

derivation on the exterior algebra.
That is, for any p-form
p
and any q-form
q
there holds
d( ) = (d) + (1)
p
(d) .
Proof : Calculation.

Examples.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 83
82 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
3.3.1 Coderivative
Given a Riemannian metric g

we also dene the co-derivative of p-forms.

The coderivative is a linear map
:
p

p1
dened by
=
1
d = (1)
(np+1)(p1)
d
That is the coderivative of a p-form is the (p 1)-form dened by
()
i
1
...i
p1
=
1
(n p + 1)!

i
1
...i
p1
i
p
...i
n
_
gg
ji
p
g
j
p+1
i
p+1
g
j
n
i
n
(n p + 1)
j
_
1
p!

j
1
... j
p
j
p+1
... j
n
_
gg
j
1
k
1
g
j
p
k
p

k
1
...k
p
_

Theorem 3.3.5 For any p-form

2
= 0 .
Proof : Follows from
2
= 1 and d
2
= 0.

From this denition, we can also see that, for any 0-form f (a function) f
is an n-form and, therefore, d f = 0, i.e. a coderivative of any 0-form is
zero
f = 0 .
For a 1-form , is a 0-form
=
1
_
g

i
_ _
gg
i j

j
_
.
More generally, one can prove that for a p-form
()
i
1
...i
p1
= g
i
1
j
1
. . . g
i
p1
j
p1
1
_
g

j
_ _
gg
jk
g
j
1
k
1
g
j
p1
k
p1

kk
1
...k
p1
_
.
Examples.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 84
3.4. PULLBACK OF FORMS 83
3.4 Pullback of Forms
Let M be a n-dimensional manifold and W be a r-dimensional manifold.
Let F : M W be a smooth map of a manifold M to a manifold W.
Let p M be a point in M and q = F(p) W be the image of p in W.
Let x
i
, (i = 1, . . . , n), be a local coordinate system about p and y

, ( =
1, . . . , r), be a local coordinate system about q so that
y

= y

(x) .
Let f : W R be a smooth function on W.
The pullback of f to M is a function F

f : M R on M dened by
F

f = f F ,
that is, for any x
(F

f )(x) = f (y(x)) .
Suppose that n = r and the map F is bijective.
Let h : M R be a smooth function on M.
The pushforward of h to W is a function F

h : W R on W dened by
F

h = h F
1
,
that is, for any y
(F

h)(y) = h(x(y)) .
Remarks. The pullback is well dened for an arbitrary map F.
The pushforward is only dened for bijections!
The pullback is the map
F

:
p
W
p
M
dened as follows.
Let
p
W be a p-form on W. The pullback of is a p-form F

on M
dened by: for any vectors v
1
, . . . , v
p
(F

)(v
1
, . . . , v
p
) = (F

v
1
, . . . , F

v
p
) .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 85
84 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
In local cordinates
F

=
1
p!

1
...
p
(y(x))dy

1
dy

p
=
1
p!
y

1
x
i
1

y

p
x
i
p

1
...
p
(y(x))dx
i
1
dx
i
p
In components
(F

)
i
1
...i
p
=
y

1
x
i
1

y

p
x
i
p

1
...
p
(y(x))
Remark. The pullback is well-dened only for covariant tensors and the
pushforward is well dened only for contravariant tensors.

Theorem 3.4.1 Let F : M W. The pullback F

:
p
W
p
M
has the properties:
1. F

is linear.
2. For any two forms and
F

( ) = (F

) (F

)
3. F

commutes with exterior derivative. That is, for any p-form

F

(d) = d(F

) .
Proof : Direct calculation.

digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 86

3.5. VECTOR ANALYSIS IN R
3
85
3.5 Vector Analysis in R
3
3.5.1 Vector Algebra in R
3
In the case of three-dimensional Euclidean space the metric in Cartesian
coordinates is g
i j
=
i j
.
The bases of p-forms are:
1, dx, dy, dz, dx dy, dx dz, dy dz, dx dy dz .
The star operator acts on this forms by
1 = dx dy dz,
dx = dy dz, dy = dx dz, dz = dx dy,
(dx dy) = dz, (dy dz) = dx, (dx dz) = dy,
(dx dy dz) = 1 .
So, any 2-form
=
12
dx dy +
13
dx dz +
23
dy dz
is represented by the dual 1-form
=
12
dz
13
dy +
23
dx ,
That is
()
i
=
1
2

i jk

jk
()
1
=
23
, ()
2
=
31
, ()
3
=
12
,
Any 3-form
=
123
dx dy dz
is represented by the dual 0-form
=
1
3!

i jk

i jk
=
123
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 87
86 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
Now, let and be two 1-forms
=
1
dx +
2
dy +
3
dz , =
1
dx +
2
dy +
3
dz .
Then
=
1
dy dz +
2
dz dx +
3
dx dz
and
= (
1

1
)dx dy +(
1

1
)dx dz +(
2

2
)dy dz ,
() = (
1

1
+
2

2
+
3

3
)dx dy dz .
Therefore,
( ) = (
1

2

2

1
)dz (
1

3

3

1
)dy + (
2

3

3

2
)dx ,
[ ()] =
1

1
+
2

2
+
3

3
,
or
( ) = ,
[ ()] = .
3.5.2 Vector Analysis in R
3
Zero-Forms.
For a 0-form f we have
(d f )
i
=
i
f ,
so that
d f = grad f .
One-Forms.
For a 1-form
=
1
dx +
2
dy +
3
dz
we have
(d)
i j
=
i

j

j

i
that is,
d = (
1

2

2

1
)dx dy + (
2

3

3

2
)dy dz + (
3

1

1

3
)dz dx .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 88
3.5. VECTOR ANALYSIS IN R
3
87
Therefore
(d)
i
=
i jk

k
,
so that
d = (
2

3

3

2
)dx + (
3

1

1

3
)dy + (
1

2

2

1
)dz .
We see that
d = curl .
Two-Forms.
For a 2-form there holds
(d)
i jk
=
i

jk
+
j

ki
+
k

i j
,
or
d = (
1

23
+
2

31
+
3

12
)dx dy dz .
Hence,
d =
1
2

i jk

jk
=
1

23
+
2

31
+
3

12
.
Now let be a 1-form
=
1
dx +
2
dy +
3
dz .
Then
=
1
dy dz
2
dx dz +
3
dx dy ,
and
d = (
1

1
+
2

2
+
3

3
)dx dy dz ,
or
d =
1

1
+
2

2
+
3

3
.
So,
d = div .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 89
88 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 90
Chapter 4
Integration of Dierential Forms
4.1 Integration over a Parametrized Subset
4.1.1 Integration of n-Forms in R
n
Let U R
n
be a closed ball in R
n
and u
i
, i = 1, . . . , n be the Cartesian
coordinates in R
n
.
Let f : U R be a continuous real-valued function on U.
Then the integral of f over U is the multiple integral
_
U
f =
_
U
f (u) du
1
du
n
.
Let o be an orientation of U so that o(u) = +1 if the coordinate basis of cov-
ectors (du
1
, . . . , du
n
) has the same orientation as o and o(u) = 1 otherwise.
Let
= f (u) du
1
du
n
be an n-form.
Then the integral of over U is dened by
_
U
= o(u)
_
U
f (u) du
1
. . . du
n
.
The integral of the form over U reverses sign if the orientation of U is
reversed.
89
90 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION OF DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
4.1.2 Integration over Parametrized Subsets
Let M be an n-dimensional manifold with local coordinates x
i
, i = 1, . . . , n.
Let 0 p n and U be an oriented region in R
p
with orientation o and
coordinates u

, = 1, . . . , p.
Let F : U M be a smooth map given locally by
x
i
= F
i
(u) .
Then the image F(U) M of the set U is called a p-subset of M and the
collection (U, o, F) is called an oriented parametrized p-subset of M.
A parametrized 1-subset is called a curve in M.
A parametrized 2-subset is called a surface in M.
Remarks.
A p-subset is not a submanifold, in general.
A p-subset could have dierent dimensions at dierent points.
Usually, the dierential F

has rank p (that is, F(U) is a submanifold) al-

most everywhere.
Let
p
be a p-form on M
=
1
p!

i
1
...i
p
dx
i
1
dx
i
p
.
The integral of over an oriented parametrized p-subset F(U) is dened
by
_
F(U)
=
_
U
F

.
In more detail,
_
F(U)
= o(u)
_
U
(F

)
_

u
1
, . . . ,

u
p
_
du
1
du
p
= o(u)
_
U

_
F

u
1
, . . . , F

u
p
_
du
1
du
p
=
1
p!
o(u)
_
U

i
1
...i
p
(x(u))
x
i
1
u
1

x
i
p
u
p
du
1
du
p
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 91
4.1. INTEGRATION OVER A PARAMETRIZED SUBSET 91
4.1.3 Line Integrals
Let U = [a, b] R be an interval.
Then a map F : U M denes an oriented curve C = F(U) in M
x
i
= F
i
(t) .
Let be a 1-form in M
=
i
(x) dx
i
.
Then the integral of over C is called the line integral.
In more detail
_
C
=
_
b
a

_
F

_
d
dt
__
=
_
b
a

i
(x(t))
dx
i
dt
dt .
4.1.4 Surface Integrals
Let U R
2
be an oriented region in the plane, for example, U = [a, b]
[c, d].
Then a map F : U M denes an oriented parametrized surface S = F(U)
in M
x
i
= F
i
(u
1
, u
2
) .
Let be a 2-form in M
=
1
2

i j
(x) dx
i
dx
j
.
Then the integral of over C is called the surface integral.
In more detail
_
S
=
_
U

_
F

_
d
du
1
_
, F

_
d
du
2
__
du
1
du
2
=
_
U
1
2

i j
(x(u))
dx
i
du
1
dx
j
du
2
du
1
du
2
.
Example in R
3
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 92
92 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION OF DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
4.1.5 Independence of Parametrization
Let U, V R
p
be regions in R
p
with coordinates u

, = 1, . . . , p, and v

,
= 1, . . . , p, respectively.
Let H : U V be an dieomorphism so that V = H(U) dened by
v

= H

(u) .
Then for any function f : V R there holds a formula for the change of
variables in multiple integrals
_
V
f (v) dv
1
. . . dv
p
=
_
U
f [v(u)]

(v
1
, . . . , v
p
)
(u
1
, . . . , u
p
)

du
1
. . . du
p
Let M be an n-dimensional manifold with n p.
Let U and V be oriented regions, u

and v

be positively-oriented coordi-
nates on U and V, and the dieomorphism H be orientation-preserving, that
is, the Jacobian
(v
1
, . . . , v
p
)
(u
1
, . . . , u
p
)
> 0
is positive.
Let F : U M and G : V M be a smooth maps so that
F = G H .
Then F(U) is an oriented parametrized p-subset of M and G is a reparametriza-
tion of this subset
x
i
= F
i
(u) = G
i
(H(u)) .
Let
p
be a p-form on M
=
1
p!

i
1
...i
p
(x) dx
i
1
dx
i
p
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 93
4.1. INTEGRATION OVER A PARAMETRIZED SUBSET 93
Then
_
G(V)
=
_
V
G

=
1
p!
_
V

i
1
...i
p
(G(v))
x
i
1
v
1

x
i
p
v
p
dv
1
dv
p
=
1
p!
_
U

i
1
...i
p
(G(H(u)))
x
i
1
v
1

x
i
p
v
p
(v
1
, . . . , v
p
)
(u
1
, . . . , u
p
)
du
1
du
p
=
1
p!
_
U

i
1
...i
p
(F(u))
x
i
1
u
1

x
i
p
u
p
du
1
du
p
=
_
U

Thus, the integral is independent of the parametrization of a p-subset.

4.1.6 Integrals and Pullbacks
Let M be an n-dimensional manifold and W be an r-dimensional manifold.
Let : M W be a smooth map.
Let U R
p
be an oriented region in R
n
and F : U M be an oriented
parametrized p-subset of M.
Then = F : U W is an oriented parametrized p-subset of W.
Let
p
W be a p-form on W.
Then
_
(U)
=
_
U

=
_
U
(F

) =
_
U
F

) =
_
F(U)

Let S = F(U) be an oriented subset of M. Then (U) = (F(U)) = (S ) is

an oriented subset of W.
The general pullback formula takes the form
_
(S )
=
_
S

.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 94
94 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION OF DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
Remarks.
We have only dened integrals of forms over subsets of M covered by a
single coordinate chart.
We need to dene the integrals over general submanifolds, covered by mul-
tiple charts.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 95
4.2. INTEGRATION OVER MANIFOLDS 95
4.2 Integration over Manifolds
4.2.1 Partition of Unity
Let M be a manifold, p
0
M be a point in M and (U, x) be a local coordinate
chart about p
0
.
Let x
i
= x
i
(p) be the local coordinates of the point p and x
i
0
= x
i
(p
0
) be the
local coordinates of the point p
0
.
Let
x x
0
=

_
n

i=1
(x
i
x
i
0
)
2
A neighborhood of p
0
is a subset of M dened by
B

(p
0
) = p M x x
0
< .
Every neighborhood of a point in M is an open set in M.
Let A M be a subset of M. A point p M is called an accumulation
point (or a limit point) of A if every neighborhood of p contains at least
one point in A other than p.
A subset of M is closed if and only if it contains all of its limit points.
A closure of A, denoted by

A, is a set obtained by adding to A all its
accumulation points.
A closure of any set is a closed set.
A function f : M R is continuous if the inverse image of every open set
in R is open in M.
Obviously, the set R \ 0 of non-zero real numbers is open.
Thus, the subset of M where f is not equal to zero, that is, the set f
1
(R\0),
is open.
The support of f is the closure of the set f
1
(R \ 0),
supp f = f
1
(R \ 0) .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 96
96 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION OF DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
Thus, f vanishes outside its support supp f .
There could be points in supp f where f vanishes.
A bump function is a smooth function

: R R such that
0

(t) 1 t R
and

(t) =
_

_
1, if t <

4
0, if t >

2
Similarly, we dene support of any tensor eld.
For example, an n-form
n
on M dened by
=

(x x
0
) dx
1
dx
n
has a support inside the neighborhood B

(p
0
),
supp B

(p
0
) .
Such an n-form is called a bump form.
Let U

N
=1
be a (nite) atlas for the manifold M.
A partition of unity is a set

N
=1
of functions

: M R with the
properties
0

(p) 1 , p M
supp

=1

= 1
Notice that for any , supp

is closed and

vanishes outside U

.
A general theorem from analysis says that every manifold has a partition of
unity.
Example.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 97
4.2. INTEGRATION OVER MANIFOLDS 97
4.2.2 Integration over Submanifolds
A manifold M is compact if every open cover of M has a nite subcover.
Thus, very compact manifold has a nite atlas.
A subset of R
n
is compact if it is closed and bounded.
Let V be a p-dimensional compact oriented manifold.
Let U

N
=1
be a nite atlas of V.
Let each U

be positively oriented.
Let

be a partition of unity on V.
Let be a p-form over V.
The integral of over V is dened by
_
V
=
N

=1
_
U

This integral does not depend on the atlas and the partition of unity.
Now, let V be a p-dimensional compact oriented submanifold of an n-
dimensional manifold M described by the inclusion map
i : V M.
Let
p
M be a p-form on M.
The integral of a p-form on M over V M is dened by
_
V
=
_
V
i

.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 98
98 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION OF DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
4.2.3 Manifolds with boundary
Recall that an open ball in R
n
is the set
B

(x
0
) = x R
n
x x
0
<
Let us consider also sets
H

(x
0
) = x R
n
x x
0
< , x
n
x
n
0
0 .
Such sets are called half-open.
A n-dimensional manifold with boundary consists of the the interior M
o
and the boundary M.
The interior M
o
is a genuine n-dimensional manifold such that all its points
have neighborhoods dieomorphic to open balls in R
n
.
The boundary M is a subset of M such that all its points have neighbor-
hoods dieomorphic to half-open sets.
Usually, the boundary M is itself an (n 1)-dimensional submanifold of
M (without boundary).
Boundary may be disconnected. It can also be not smooth.
Local coordinates (x
1
, . . . , x
n1
, x
n
) in M in the neighborhoods of points on
the boundary can always be chosen in such a way that (x
1
, . . . , x
n1
) are the
coordinates along the boundary and 0 x
n
< with some .
A compact manifold is a manifold which is closed and bounded (say, as a
submanifold of some R
N
).
A closed manifold is a manifold which is compact and does not have a
boundary.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 99
4.3. STOKESS THEOREM 99
4.3 Stokess Theorem
4.3.1 Orientation of the Boundary
Let M be an n-dimensional orientable manifold with boundary M, which
is an (n 1)-dimensional manifold without boundary.
Let M be oriented.
Then an orientation on M naturally induces an orientation on M.
Let p M and e
2
, . . . , e
n
be a basis in T
p
M.
Let N T
p
M be a tangent vector at p that is transverse to M and points
out of M.
Then N, e
2
, . . . , e
n
forms a basis in T
p
M.
Then, by denition, the basis e
2
, . . . , e
n
has the same orientation as the
basis N, e
2
, . . . , e
n
. That is, e
2
, . . . , e
n
is positively oriented in M if
N, e
2
, . . . , e
n
is positively oriented in M.
4.3.2 Stokes Theorem

Theorem 4.3.1 Let M be an n-dimensional manifold and V be a p-

dimensional compact oriented submanifold with boundary V in M. Let

p1
M be a smooth (p 1)-form in M. Then
_
V
d =
_
V
.
Proof :
1. Let
i : V M
be the inclusion map of the submanifold V.
2. Then
_
V
d =
_
V
i

(d) =
_
d(i

)
and
_
V
=
_
V
i

digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 100

100 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION OF DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
3. Let
= i

4. Then we need to show

_
V
d =
_
V
.
5. Let V

be a nite cover of V and

be the corresponding partition

of unity.
6. We have
_
V
d =

_
V

d(

)
and
_
V
=

_
V

.
7. Thus, we need to show that
_
V

d(

) =
_
V

.
8. The charts V

can be of two dierent kinds: I) those that are fully in

the interior of V, that is, V

V = , which are dieomorphic to the

open balls in R
p
, and II) those which contain points of the boundary,
which are dieomorphic to half-open balls in R
p
.
9. Case I. Let V

be open sets in V fully in the interior of V.

10. Let U

R
p
be the open sets in R
p
such that f

: U

be the
local coordinate dieomorphisms.
11. Then
_
V

d(

) =
_
U

(d(

)) =
_
U

d( f

))
12. Let

= f

) .
13. Then

=
p

i=1
(1)
i1

,i
dx
1


dx
i
dx
p
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 101
4.3. STOKESS THEOREM 101
and
d

=
p

i=1

,i
x
i
dx
1
dx
p
14. Therefore,
_
U

=
p

i=1
_
U

,i
x
i
dx
1
dx
p
=
p

i=1
_
R
p

,i
x
i
dx
1
dx
p
= 0 .
15. Hence
_
V

d(

) = 0 .
16. Also, since U

is disjoint from the boundary

_
V

= 0 .
17. Thus, for each chart disjoint from the boundary
_
V

d(

) =
_
V

= 0 .
18. Case II. Now, let us consider the half-open charts V

at the boundary.
19. Let U

R
p
be the half-open sets in R
p
such that f

: U

be the
local coordinate dieomorphisms.
20. Let
W

= V

V
and
Y

= f
1

(W

) .
21. Notice that for any point on Y

, x
p
= 0.
22. Then
_
V

d(

) =
p

i=1
_
R
p

,i
x
i
dx
1
dx
p
23. We have
_

,i
x
i
dx
i
= 0
for any i p, and
_

0

, p
x
p
dx
p
=
, p

x
p
=0
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 102
102 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION OF DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
24. Therefore,
_
V

d(

) =
_
R
p1

, p
(x
1
, . . . , x
p1
, 0) dx
1
dx
p
25. Further,
_
V

=
_
W

=
_
Y

) =
_
Y

26. Since on Y

, x
p
= 0, then dx
p
= 0. Therefore,
_
Y

= (1)
p1

, p
(x
1
, . . . , x
p1
, 0)dx
1
dx
p1
27. We have that
1
, . . . ,
p
is positively oriented on V and
p
is the
outward normal to V.
28. Thus,
1
, . . . ,
p1
has orientation (1)
p
on V.
29. Thus
_
V

=
_
Y

, p
(x
1
, . . . , x
p1
, 0)dx
1
dx
p1
30. So,
_
V

d(

) =
_
V

which establishes the theorem.

Examples.
Newton formula. Let C be an oriented curve, C = Q P be its boundary
and f be a smooth real-valued function. Then
_
C
d f =
_
C
f = f (Q) f (P)
Green formula. Let S be an oriented surface in a 2-dimensional manifold
M with parameters (u
1
, u
2
) and S be its boundary with the induced ori-
entation. Let U be the preimage of S on the plane R
2
with the boundary
U = [a, b]. Let A be a one-form in M. Then
_
U
_
A
2
x
1

A
1
x
2
_
(x
1
, x
2
)
(u
1
, u
2
)
du
1
du
2
=
_
b
a
_
A
1
dx
1
dt
+ A
2
dx
2
dt
_
dt
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 103
4.3. STOKESS THEOREM 103
Gauss formula. Let D be a region in a 3-dimensional manifold M and U
be the parameter preimage of D in R
3
. Let D be the boundary of D and U
be the boundary of U. Let F be a 2-form in M. Then
_
U
_
F
12
x
3
+
F
23
x
1
+
F
31
x
2
_
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
)
(u
1
, u
2
, u
3
)
du
1
du
2
du
3
=
_
U
_
F
12
(x
1
, x
2
)
(z
1
, z
2
)
+ F
23
(x
2
, x
3
)
(z
1
, z
2
)
+ F
31
(x
3
, x
1
)
(z
1
, z
2
)
_
dz
1
dz
2
Stokes formula. Let S be a surface in a 3-dimensional manifold M and
S be its boundary. Let U be the preimage of S in the parameter plane R
2
and U = [a, b] be its boundary. Let A be a 1-form in M. Then
_
U
_
_
A
2
x
1

A
1
x
2
_
(x
1
, x
2
)
(u
1
, u
2
)
+
_
A
3
x
1

A
1
x
3
_
(x
1
, x
3
)
(u
1
, u
2
)
+
_
A
3
x
2

A
2
x
3
_
(x
2
, x
3
)
(u
1
, u
2
)
_
du
1
du
2
=
_
b
a
_
A
1
dx
1
dt
+ A
2
dx
2
dt
+ A
3
dx
3
dt
_
dt
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 104
104 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION OF DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
4.4 Poincar e Lemma

Denition 4.4.1 Let M be a manifold.

A p-form on M is called closed if d = 0.
A p-form on M is called exact if there is a (p 1)-form such that
= d. The form is called a potential of .

Theorem 4.4.1
1. Every exact form is closed (Poincar e Lemma).
That is, if = d, then d = 0.
2. The exterior product of closed forms is closed.
That is, if d = 0 and d = 0, then d( ) = 0.
3. The exterior product of a closed form and an exact form is exact.
That is, if d = 0 and = d, then there is such that = d.
4. Let M be an n-dimensional orientable compact manifold without
boundary and be an exact n-form on M, that is, = d for
some (n 1)-form . Then
_
M
= 0 .
5. Let M be an n-dimensional oriented compact manifold with
boundary M and be a closed (n1)-formon M, that is, d = 0.
Then
_
M
= 0 .
Proof : Use Stokes theorem.

Denition 4.4.2 Let M be a manifold. Suppose that for every closed

oriented smooth curve C there is a smooth oriented 2-dimensional sur-
face S and a map F : S M such that F(V) = C, that is, the curve C
is the boundary of the surface S . Then the manifold M is said to have
rst Betti number equal to zero.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 105
4.4. POINCAR

E LEMMA 105

Theorem 4.4.2 Let M be a manifold with rst Betti number equal to

zero. Then every closed 1-form on M is exact. That is, if is a 1-form
such that d = 0, then there is a function f such that = d f .
Proof :
1. Let be a closed form on M.
2. Let x and y be two points in M and C
xy
be an oriented curve with the
initial point y and the nal point x.
3. Let f be dened by
f (x) =
_
C
xy
.
4. Then f is independent on the curve C
xy
and so is well dened.
5. Finally, we show that
d f = .

Theorem 4.4.3 Let be a closed p-form in R

n
. Then there is
(p 1)-form in R
n
such that = d.
That is, every closed form in R
n
is exact.
Proof :
1. Let be a closed p-form in R
n
.
2. We dene a (p 1)-form by

i
1
...i
p1
(x) =
_
1
0
d
p1
x
j

ji
1
...i
p1
(x)
3. We can show that
d = .

Corollary 4.4.1 Let M be a manifold and be a closed p-form on

M. Then for every point x in M there is a neighborhood U of x and a
(p 1)-form on M such that = d in U.
Proof :
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 106
106 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION OF DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
1. Use the fact that a suciently small neighborhood of a point in M is
dieomorphic to an open ball in R
n
.
2. Pullback the form from M to R
n
by the pullback F

of the dieo-
morphism F : V U, where U M and V R
n
.
3. Use the previous theorem.

digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 107

Chapter 5
Lie Derivative
5.1 Lie Derivative of a Vector Field
5.1.1 Lie Bracket
Let M be a manifold.
Let X be a vector eld on M.
Let
t
: M M be the ow generated by X.
Let x M. Then
t
(x) is the point on the integral curve of the vector eld
X going through x and such that

0
(x) = x
and
d
t
(x)
dt
= X

t
(x)
.
Let
t
: T
x
M T

t
(x)
M be the dierential of the dieomorphism
t
.
Notice that

0
= Id
is the identity and

t
= (
t
)
1
is the inverse transformation.
107
108 CHAPTER 5. LIE DERIVATIVE
In local coordinates for small t we have

i
t
(x) = x
i
+ tX
i
(x) + O(t
2
) ,
so that
(
t
)
i
j
=

i
t
(x)
x
j
=
i
j
+ t
X
i
(x)
x
j
+ O(t
2
)
Thus
_
d
dt

t
_
i
j

t=0
=
X
i
(x)
x
j
.
Let f be a smooth function on M.
The ow
t
naturally denes a new function
(
t
f )(x) = ( f
t
)(x) = f (
t
(x)) .
Then for small t
f = f + tX( f ) + O(t
2
) .
Thus
d
dt
( f
t
)

t=0
= X( f ) .
Let Y be another vector eld on M.
Then
d
dt
Y(( f
t
))

t=0
= Y(X( f )) .
Then at the point
t
(x) we have two dierent well dened vectors, Y

t
(x)
and

t
Y
x
.
Diagram.

Denition 5.1.1 A vector eld Y is invariant under the ow

t
gener-
ated by a vector eld X if
Y

t
(x)
=
t
Y
x
.
An invariant vector eld Y is also called a Jacobi eld.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 108
5.1. LIE DERIVATIVE OF A VECTOR FIELD 109

Denition 5.1.2 The Lie derivative of the vector eld Y with respect
to the vector eld X is the vector eld L
X
Y dened at a point x by
(L
X
Y)
x
= lim
t0
1
t
_
Y

t
(x)

t
Y
x
_
Remark. Notice that this can also be written as
(L
X
Y)
x
= lim
t0
1
t
_

t
Y

t
(x)
Y
x
_
or
(L
X
Y)
x
=
d
dt
_

t
Y

t
(x)
_

t=0
.

Proposition 5.1.1
L
X
Y = [X, Y] .
Proof :
1. We compute in local coordinates
(L
X
Y)
i
=
d
dt
_

t
Y

t
(x)
_
i

t=0
=
d
dt
_
(
t
))
i
j
Y
j
(
t
(x))
_

t=0
=
d
dt
(
t
))
i
j

t=0
Y
j
(x) +
i
j
d
dt
Y
j
(
t
(x))

t=0
=
X
i
x
j
Y
j
(x) +
Y
i
x
j
X
j
(x)
= [X, Y]
i
.

Denition 5.1.3 The Lie bracket of two vector elds X and Y is a

vector eld [X, Y] such that for any smooth function f on M
[X, Y] = X(Y( f )) Y(X( f )) .
Notice that
[X, Y] = [Y, X] .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 109
110 CHAPTER 5. LIE DERIVATIVE
In particular,
L
X
X = 0 .
In local coordinates the Lie bracket is given by
[X, Y]
i
= X
j

j
Y
i
Y
j

j
X
i
.
The linear ordinary dierential equation
[X, Y]
i
=
dY
i
(t)
dt
(
j
X
i
)(
t
(x))Y
j
(t) = 0
for Y
i
(t) is called the Jacobi equation. For a given vector eld X and given
initial conditions for Y
i
it denes a unique Jacobi eld along the ow
t
.
In particular,
L

j
= 0 .
5.1.2 Flow generated by the Lie Bracket

Theorem 5.1.1 Let M be a manifold. Let X and Y be vector elds on

M and
X
t
and
Y
t
be the ows generated by X and Y respectively. Let

t
: M M be a dieomorphism dened by

t
=
Y
t

X
t

Y
t

X
t
.
Let f be a smooth function on M. Then
[X, Y]
x
( f ) = lim
t0
1
t
2
_
f (
t
(x)) f (x)
_
=
d
dt
f (

t
)

t=0
.
which means
[X, Y] =
d
dt

t=0
.
Proof :
1. Diagram.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 110
5.1. LIE DERIVATIVE OF A VECTOR FIELD 111
2. Use Taylor expansion in local coordinates.

Corollary 5.1.1 Let M be a manifold and W be a submanifold of M.

Let X and Y be vector elds on M tangent to W. Then the Lie bracket
[X, Y] is also tangent to W.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 111
112 CHAPTER 5. LIE DERIVATIVE
5.2 Lie Derivative of Forms and Tensors
Let X be a vector eld on a manifold M.
Let
t
: M M be the ow generated by X and

t
: T

t
(x)
M T
x
M be
the corresponding pullback.

Denition 5.2.1 Let f be a function (0-form) on M. Then the Lie

derivative of f with respect to X is a function L
X
f dened by
(L
X
f )
x
=
d
dt
(

t
f )
x

t=0
=
d
dt
f (
t
(x))

t=0
.

Proposition 5.2.1 The Lie derivative of a function f with respect to a

vector eld X is equal to
L
X
f = X( f ) .
In local coordinates
L
X
f = X
i

i
f .

Denition 5.2.2 Let be a 1-form on M. The Lie derivative of with

respect to X is a 1-form L
X
dened by
(L
X
)
x
= lim
t0
1
t
_

t
(x)

x
_
=
d
dt
_

_
x

t=0
We can immediately generalize this to p-forms.

Denition 5.2.3 Let be a p-form on M. The Lie derivative of with

respect to X is a p-form L
X
dened by
(L
X
)
x
= lim
t0
1
t
_

t
(x)

x
_
=
d
dt
_

_
x

t=0
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 112
5.2. LIE DERIVATIVE OF FORMS AND TENSORS 113

Proposition 5.2.2 The Lie derivative of a p-form with respect to a

vector eld X is given by
(L
X
)
i
1
...i
p
= X
j

i
1
...i
p
+
ji
2
...i
p

i
1
X
j
+ +
i
1
...i
p1
j

i
p
X
j
Proof :
1. Use that
(

t
)
i
1
...i
p
(x) =

j
1
t
(x)
x
i
1


j
p
t
(x)
x
i
p

j
1
... j
p
(
t
(x))

In particular, for a 1-form we have

(L
X
)
i
= X
j

i
+
j

i
X
j
.
More generally, since the ow
t
: M M is a dieomorphism it naturally
acts on general tensor bundles of type (p, q), that is,

t
: (T
p
q
)

t
(x)
M (T
p
q
)
x
M
For a general tensor eld T of type (p, q) on M,

t
T is a tensor eld of
type (p, q) dened by
(

t
T)
k
1
...k
p
i
1
...i
q
(x) =

j
1
t
(x)
x
i
1


j
q
t
(x)
x
i
q
x
k
1

m
1
t
(x)

x
k
p

m
p
t
(x)
T
m
1
...m
p
j
1
... j
q
(
t
(x))

Denition 5.2.4 Let T be a tensor eld of type (p, q) on M. The Lie

derivative of T with respect to X is a tensor eld L
X
T of type (p, q)
dened by
(L
X
T)
x
= lim
t0
1
t
_

t
T

t
(x)
T
x
_
=
d
dt
_

t
T
_
x

t=0

Proposition 5.2.3 The Lie derivative of a tensor eld T of type (p, q)

with respect to a vector eld X is given in local coordinates by
(L
X
T)
k
1
...k
p
i
1
...i
q
= X
j

j
T
k
1
...k
p
i
1
...i
q
+ T
k
1
...k
p
ji
2
...i
q

i
1
X
j
+ + T
k
1
...k
p
i
1
...i
q1
j

i
q
X
j
T
jk
2
...k
p
i
1
i
2
...i
q

j
X
k
1
T
k
1
...k
p1
j
i
1
...i
q

j
X
k
p
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 113
114 CHAPTER 5. LIE DERIVATIVE
Proof :
1. Use the denition of the action

t
.

In particular, for a tensor g

i j
of type (0, 2) we obtain
(L
X
g)
i j
= X
k

k
g
i j
+ g
ik

j
X
k
+ g
k j

i
X
k
.
If g
i j
is a Riemannian metric, then this tensor is called the strain tensor.
5.2.1 Properties of Lie Derivative

Theorem 5.2.1 For any two tensors T and R and a vector eld X the
Leibnitz rule holds
L
X
(T R) = (L
X
T) R + T (L
X
R)
Proof :
1. Use the Leibnitz rule for
d
dt
_

t
(T R)
_
=
d
dt
_
(

t
T) (

t
R)
_

Theorem 5.2.2 Let be a p-form, be a q-form and X be a vector

eld on M. Then the Leibnitz rule holds
L
X
( ) = (L
X
) + (L
X
)
Proof :
1. Follows from the previous theorem and the denition of the wedge
product.

Theorem 5.2.3 For any 1-form and vector elds X and Y the Leib-
nitz rule holds
L
X
((Y)) = (L
X
)(Y) + (L
X
Y)
Proof :
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 114
5.2. LIE DERIVATIVE OF FORMS AND TENSORS 115
1. Computation in local coordinates.

The Lie derivative of a 1-form with respect to a vector eld X can be

dened in an intrinsic way. L
X
is a 1-form whose value on any vector eld
Y is
(L
X
)(Y) = X((Y)) ([X, Y]) .
More generally, we have
Theorem 5.2.4 Let X and Y
1
, . . . , Y
p
be vector elds on a manifold
M and
p
be a p-form. Then
L
X
_
(Y
1
, . . . , Y
p
)
_
= (L
X
)(Y
1
, . . . , Y
p
)
+
p

i=1
(Y
1
, . . . , L
X
Y
i
, . . . , Y
p
) .
Proof : By induction or direct calculation.

Remark. This can be used as an intrinsic denition of L

X
.

Theorem 5.2.5 Let X and Y be any two vector elds and c R. Then
1. L
X+Y
= L
X
+ L
Y
,
2. L
cX
= cL
X
,
3. L
X
Y = L
Y
X,
4. [L
X
, L
Y
] = L
[X,Y]
.
Proof :
1.

digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 115

116 CHAPTER 5. LIE DERIVATIVE

Theorem 5.2.6 Let g

i j
be a Riemannian metric on an n-dimensional
manifold M and
vol =
_
gdx
1
dx
n
be the Riemannian volume form. Let X be a vector eld on M. Then
L
X
vol = ( div X)vol ,
where div X is a scalar function dened by
div X = L
X
vol =
1
_
g

i
_ _
gX
i
_
.
Proof :
1. Direct calculation. Use L
X
g
i j
.

The scalar div X is called the divergence of the vector eld X.

Remark. Let Y
1
, . . . , Y
n
be vector elds invariant under the vector eld X.
Then
div X =
(L
X
vol )(Y
1
, . . . , Y
n
)
vol (Y
1
, . . . , Y
n
)
=
d
dt
log vol (Y
1
, . . . , Y
n
)

t=0
.
Thus, div X is the logarithmic rate of change of the volume along the ow.
Remark. Let
n1
be an (n 1)-form dened by
= i
X
vol .
In components

i
1
...i
n1
= X
j
_
g
ji
1
...i
n1
Then
d = ( div X)vol .
To prove this compute in local coordinates
(d)
i
1
...i
n
= n
[i
1
_
X
j
_
g
ji
2
...i
n
_
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 116
5.2. LIE DERIVATIVE OF FORMS AND TENSORS 117
Recall that a linear map
A :
p

p+r
is a derivation if r is even and for any
p
and
q
A( ) = (A) + A .
and an anti-derivation if r is odd and
A( ) = (A) + (1)
p
A .
Examples.
The Lie derivative L
X

p

p
is a derivation.
The exterior derivative d :
p

p+1
and the interior product i
X
:
p

p1
are anti-derivations.
Recall the following theorem about exterior derivative
Theorem 5.2.7 Let Y
1
, . . . , Y
p+1
be vector elds on a manifold M and

p
be a p-form. Then
(d)(Y
1
, . . . , Y
p+1
) =
p+1

i=1
(1)
i+1
Y
i
_
(Y
1
, . . . ,

Y
i
, . . . , Y
p+1
)
_
+

1i<jp+1
(1)
i+j
([Y
i
, Y
j
], . . . ,

Y
i
, . . . ,

Y
j
, . . . , Y
p+1
) .
In particular, for p = 1 this takes the form
Theorem 5.2.8 Let X and Y be vector elds on a manifold M and

1
be a 1-form. Then
(d)(X, Y) = X((Y)) Y((X)) ([X, Y]) .

Theorem 5.2.9 The Lie derivative commutes with the exterior deriva-
tive, that is,
L
X
d = dL
X
.
In other words, for any p-form and a vector eld X there holds
L
X
d = dL
X

Proof :
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 117
118 CHAPTER 5. LIE DERIVATIVE
1. Check for p = 0 and p = 1 explicitly.
2. Generalize for p > 1.

Theorem 5.2.10 (Cartan Formula) Let X be a vector eld on a mani-

fold M and
p
be a p-form. Then
L
X
= i
X
d + di
X
.
That is,
L
X
= i
X
d + di
X
Proof :
1. Verify it for p = 0 and p = 1.

Theorem 5.2.11 Let X and Y be vector elds on a manifold M and

p
be a p-form. Then
[L
X
, i
Y
] = L
X
i
Y
i
Y
L
X
= i
[X,Y]
.
That is,
[L
X
, i
Y
] = i
[X,Y]
.
Proof : Exercise (Use Cartan formula).

Theorem 5.2.12 Let M be a n-dimensional manifold, X be a vector

eld on M and
t
: M M be the corresponding ow of X. Let W be
a p-dimensional oriented compact submanifold of M and W
t
=
t
W be
the image of W under the ow
t
. Let be a p-form on M. Then
d
dt
_
W
t
=
_
W
t
L
X

digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 118

5.3. FROBENIUS THEOREM 119
5.3 Frobenius Theorem
5.3.1 Distributions

Denition 5.3.1 Let M be a n-dimensional manifold. A k-dimensional

distribution (or a tangent subbundle) : M
x
T
x
M is a smooth
assignment to each point x M a k dimensional subspace
x
of the
tangent space T
x
M.
An submanifold V of M that is everywhere tangent to the distribution is
called an integral manifold of the distribution.
A k-didmensional distribution is called integrable if at each point
x M there is a k-dimensional integral submanifold of .
In other words, the distribution is integrable if everywhere in M there
exist local coordinates (x
1
, . . . , x
k
, y
1
, . . . , y
nk
) such that the coordinate
surfaces y
a
= c
a
, a = 1, . . . , n k, c
a
being some constants, are integral
manifolds of the distribution . Such a coordinate system is called a
Frobenius chart.
Examples in R
3
.
A one-dimensional distribution in R
3
is a family of lines at every point in
R
3
(that is, a vector eld). It is always integrable. Integral manifolds of the
distribution are families of integral curves of the vector eld.
A two-dimensional distribution is a smooth family of planes at every point
in R
3
. It is integrable if there exist nonintersecting surfaces that are every-
where tangent to the planes (and ll up a region in R
3
). Not every two-
dimensional distribution is integrable!
Let be a 1-form in R
3
=
i
(x)dx
i
,
where i = 1, 2, 3. A two-dimensional distribution can be described by
= 0 .
It is integrable if there exists a dieomorphism x
i
= x
i
(t, u), u = (u

), =
1, 2, such that for a xed t, x
i
= x
i
(t, u) describes a smooth one-parameter
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 119
120 CHAPTER 5. LIE DERIVATIVE
family of surfaces S
t
and
(F

=
i
(x(t, u))
x
i
u

= 0
and for xed u = (u
1
, u
2
), x
i
= x
i
(t, u) describes a smooth two-parameter
family of curves C
u
transversal to the surfaces S
t
.
Let t = t(x) and u

= u

(x) be the inverse dieomorphism. Then the level

surfaces t(x) = C are the integral surfaces S
t
of the distribution, so that the
coordinate system (t, u
1
, u
2
) is the Frobenius chart.
Therefore, we have
=
i
x
i
u

du

+
i
x
i
t
dt
=
i
x
i
t
dt
= f dt ,
where
f =
i
x
i
t
.
Therefore,
d = d f dt .
and
d = 0 .
Thus the distribution is integrable if
d = 0 .
This is called the Eulers integrability condition.
In local coordinates

[i

k]
= 0 .
In R
3
this means
curl = 0 .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 120
5.3. FROBENIUS THEOREM 121

Denition 5.3.2 Let be a distribution on M. It is said to be in

involution if it is closed under Lie brackets, that is, for any two vector
eld X and Y in the Lie bracket [X, Y] is also in the distribution, or
[, ] .
Let be an integrable distribution. Let X and Y be two vector elds in .
Then X and Y are tangent to the integral manifold of . Therefore, the Lie
bracket [X, Y] is also tangent to the integral manifold and is in .
Proposition 5.3.1 Every integral distribution is in involution.

Denition 5.3.3 Let be a 1-form on M. Let x M be a point such

that
x
0. The null space of the form at x is the (n1)-dimensional
subspace of T
x
M spanned by the vectors X T
x
M such that
(X) = 0 .
Remark. A 1-form is also called a Pfaan.
Let
1
, . . . ,
nk
be (n k) linearly independent 1-forms such that

1

nk
0
Let N
1
, . . . N
nk
be their null spaces. Then the intersection of the null spaces
forms a k-dimensional distribution
=
nk
_
=1
N

.
Locally this distribution is described by (n k) Pfaan equations

1
= =
nk
= 0 .
Remarks.
Let be in involution. Then d

= 0, = 1, . . . , (n k), that is, for any

X, Y
(d

)(X, Y) = 0 .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 121
122 CHAPTER 5. LIE DERIVATIVE
Now, suppose that d

= 0, = 1, . . . , (n k). Then the distribution is

in involution.

Theorem 5.3.1 Let M be a n-dimensional manifold and

1
, . . . ,
nk
be (n k) one-forms and be a (n k)-form dened by
=
1

nk
.
Suppose that the forms
1
, . . . ,
nk
are linearly independent and 0.
Let be the k-dimensional distribution dened by the intersection of the
null spaces of the 1-forms
1
, . . . ,
nk
. Then the following conditions
are locally equivalent
1. the distribution is in involution,
2. d

= 0, that is, for any X, Y

(d

)(X, Y) = 0 .
3. d

= 0,
4. there exist 1-forms

such that
d

=
nk

=1

.
Proof :
1. (1) (2). Use the formula
d(X, Y) = X((Y)) Y((X)) ([X, Y]) .
2. (4) = (2) and (4) = (3). Trivial.
3. (2) = (4). Suppose d

= 0.
4. Let
1
, . . . ,
k
be 1-forms such that
1
, . . . ,
nk
,
1
, . . . ,
k
is a basis in
T

x
M.
5. Let e
1
, . . . e
nk
, v
1
, . . . , v
k
be the dual basis in T
x
M.
6. Then for = 1, . . . , (n k), i = 1, . . . , k

(v
i
) = 0 .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 122
5.3. FROBENIUS THEOREM 123
Thus, span v
i
= .
7. We have
d

<
C

i,
A
i

i<j
B
i j

i

j
=

i<j
B
i j

i

j
.
8. Thus,
B
i j
= (d

)(v
i
, v
j
) = 0 .
9. (3) = (4). Suppose that d

= 0.
10. Then we have
0 = d

i<j
B
i j

i

j
.
=

i<j
B
i j

i

j

1

nk
.
11. Thus, B
i j
= 0.

Remarks.
A k-dimensional distribution can be described locally by either k linearly
independent vector elds that span or by (n k) linearly independent
1-forms whose common null space is .
If d

=
_
nk
=1

for some 1-forms

, then we write
d

= 0 (mod ) .
5.3.2 Frobenius Theorem

Denition 5.3.4 Let M be an n-dimensional manifold, W be a k-

dimensional manifold and F : W M be a smooth map.
Then F is an immersion if for each x W the dierential F

: T
x
W
T
F(x)
M is injective, that is, Ker F

= 0.
The image F(W) of the manifold W is called an immersed submani-
fold.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 123
124 CHAPTER 5. LIE DERIVATIVE
Let M be an n-dimensional manifold.
Let be a k-dimensional distribution on M.
Let X
1
, . . . , X
k
be vector elds that span and
1
t
, . . . ,
k
t
be the correspond-
ing ows.
Let x M be a point in M.
Let B R
k
be a suciently small open ball in R
k
around the origin.
We dene
F : B M
for any t = (t
1
, . . . , t
k
) B by
F(t) =
_

k
t
k

1
t
1
_
(x) .
Note that F(0) = x.
Then for the dierential at the origin
F

T
0
B = R
k
T
x
M
we have
F

t=0
= X

x
,
where = 1, . . . , k.
Thus,
F

T
0
B =
x
.
So, F

is injective at the origin and, hence, in some neighborhood of the

origin.
Therefore, F(B) is tangent to at the single point x.
Thus, F(B) is an immersed submanifold of M.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 124
5.3. FROBENIUS THEOREM 125

Theorem 5.3.2 Frobenius Theorem. Let M be an n-dimensional man-

ifold, be a k-dimensional distribution in involution on M, X
1
, . . . , X
k
be vector elds that span and
1
t
, . . . ,
k
t
be the corresponding ows.
Let x M, B be a suciently small ball around the origin in R
k
and
F : B M be dened by
F(t) =
_

k
t
k

1
t
1
_
(x) .
Then:
1. F(B) is an immersed submanifold of M,
2. F(B) is an integral manifold of ,
3. the distribution is integrable.
Proof :
1. (I) done earlier.
2. (II). We need to show that is tangent to F(B) at each point of F(B).
3. We have for = 1, . . . , k
F

=
_

k
t
k

_
X

__

k1
t
k1

1
t
1
_
(x)
_
,
4. Thus, the tangent space T
F(t)
F(B) has a basis
_

k
t
k

2
t
2

_
X
1
_

1
t
1
(x)
_
_

k
t
k

3
t
3

_
X
2
__

2
t
2

1
t
1
_
(x)
_
. . .

k
t
k

X
k1
__

k1
t
k1

1
t
1
_
(x)
_
X
k
__

k
t
k

1
t
1
_
(x)
_
.
5. Therefore, we need to show that for each = 1, . . . , k, the dierentials

t
map the distribution into itself, that is,

t
() .
6. Claim: This follows from the fact that is in involution.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 125
126 CHAPTER 5. LIE DERIVATIVE
7. Let y F(B) and Y
y
.
8. Let Y
t
=

t
Y, = 1, . . . , k.
9. We will show that Y
t

t
(y)
for = 1, . . . , k.
10. Let be dened by the 1-forms

1
= =
nk
= 0 .
11. The vector eld Y
t
is invariant under the ow of X

, so along the
orbits

t
(y) we have
L
X

Y
t
= 0 .
12. Let f

1
, . . . , f

nk
be real valued functions dened by
f

i
(t) =
i
(Y
t
) , (i = 1, . . . , n k) .
13. Then at t = 0 we have the initial conditions
f
i
(0) =
i
(Y) = 0 .
14. Further,
d
dt
f

i
(t) = i
Y
t
i
X

d
i
.
15. Since is in involution, by using d
i
=
_
k

ik

k
, we obtain
d
dt
f

i
(t) =
nk

j=1

i j
(X

) f

j
(t) .
16. Thus, the above system of the dierential equations has the unique
solution
f

i
(t) = 0 .
17. Thus, Y
t
is in for all t and is tangent to the immersed ball F(B)
at each point of F(B).
18. (III). By constructing Frobenius chart.
19. That is, we construct coordinates x
1
, . . . , x
k
, y
1
, . . . , y
nk
so that the im-
mersed balls F(B) are described locally by
y
1
= c
1
, . . . , y
nk
= c
nk
,
where c
i
are constants.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 126
5.3. FROBENIUS THEOREM 127
20. We dene a transversal to F(B) (n k)-dimensional submanifold W
with local coordinates y
1
, . . . , y
nk
.
21. If the integral balls are suciently small, then for dierent points of
W the integral balls at those points are disjoint.

5.3.3 Foliations
Let M be an n-dimensional manifold and be a k-dimensional distribution
on M.
Let be in involution, and, therefore, integrable.
Then, at each point x of M there exists an integral manifold of .
The integral manifold may return to the Frobenius coordinate patch around
the point x innitely many times.

Denition 5.3.5 The integral manifolds of an integrable distribution

dene a foliation of M.
Each connected integral manifold is called a leaf of the foliation.
A leaf that is not properly contained in another leaf is called a maximal
leaf.
A maximal leaf is not necessarily an embedded submanifold.
An immersed submanifold does not have to be an embedded submanifold.

Theorem 5.3.3 A maximal leaf of a foliated manifold is an immersed

submanifold.
More precisely, for each maximal leaf V there is an injective immersion
F : V M that realizes V globally.
Examples.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 127
128 CHAPTER 5. LIE DERIVATIVE
5.4 Degree of a Map
5.4.1 Gauss-Bonnet Theorem
Let us consider a compact oriented two-dimensional manifold M (a surface
embedded in R
3
).
Let x
i
, i = 1, 2, 3, be the Cartesian coordinates in R
3
and u

, = 1, 2, be the
local coordinates on M.
Let F : M R
3
be the embedding map dened locally by
x
i
= F
i
(u) .
The dierential of the map F is given by the matrix
(F

)
i

=
x
i
u

.
We assume that F

is onto, that is, rank F

= 2.
The tangent space T
x
M is spanned by the vectors e

, = 1, 2, with compo-
nents
e
i

=
x
i
u

.
Let
i j
be the Euclidean metric in R
3
.
Then the induced metric on M is dened by
g

= (e

, e

) =
i j
e
i

e
j

.
This matrix is also called the rst fundamental form. It describes the
intrinsic geometry of the surface.
Let N be the vector in R
3
N = e
1
e
2
with components
N
i
=
i jk
e
j
1
e
k
2
=
i jk
x
j
u
1
x
k
u
2
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 128
5.4. DEGREE OF A MAP 129
Then N is a vector eld that is everywhere normal to M.
Notice that the norm of the normal vector is
N
2
= e
1

2
e
2

2
(e
1
, e
2
)
2
.
The second fundamental form, or the extrinsic curvature is dened by
the matrix
b

=
1
N
_
e

, N
_
=
1
N

2
x
i
u

N
i
.
The second fundamental form describes the extrinsic geometry of the sur-
face M.
The mean curvature of M is dened by
H = g

.
The Gauss curvature of M is dened by
K =
det b

det g

.
Gauss has shown that the K is an intrinsic invariant. In fact,
K = R
12
12
=
1
2
R,
where R
12
12
is the only non-vanishing components of the Riemann curvature
of the metric g and R is the scalar curvature. This will be discussed later.
The Gauss map is the map : M S
2
from M to S
2
dened by
(x) =
N(x)
N(x)
,
that is, it associates to every point x in M the unit normal vector at that
point.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 129
130 CHAPTER 5. LIE DERIVATIVE

Theorem 5.4.1 Let M be a closed (compact without boundary) ori-

ented 2-dimensional surface embedded in R
3
. Let g

be the induced
Riemannian metric, dvol =
_
gdx be the Riemannian volume element
on M, K be the Gaussian curvature of M and : M S
2
be the Gauss
normal map. Then
1
4
_
M
dvol K = deg()
is an integer that does not depend on the metric and does not change
under smooth deformations of the surface.
Proof : Later.
Remark. For a 2-surface of genus g (with g holes)
deg() = 1 g .
The Euler characteristic of the surface M is a topological invariant equal
to
= 1 g .
5.4.2 Laplacian
Let g
i j
be a Riemannian metric on a manifold V. Let h be a function and X
be its gradient vector eld dened by
X
i
= g
i j

j
h .
The Laplacian operator on the scalar function h is dened by
h = div X.
In local coordinates
h = g
1/2

i
(g
1/2
g
i j

j
h) ,
where g = det g
i j
.
The operator () : C

(V) C

(V) acting on smooth functions on a

compact manifold V without boundary can be extended to a self-adjoint
operator on the Hilbert space L
2
(V).
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 130
5.4. DEGREE OF A MAP 131
It has a discrete non-negative real spectrum

k=0
bounded from below by
zero
0 =
0

1

2

with nite multiplicities.
The eigenfunctions h
k

k=0
form an orthonormal basis in L
2
(V), that is,
(h
k
, h
l
) =
_
V
dvol h
k
h
l
=
kl
.
For each f L
2
(V) there is a Fourier series
f =

k=0
a
k
h
k
,
where
a
k
= (h
k
, f ) =
_
V
f h
k
.
The lowest eigenvalue is 0. It is simple (has multiplicity 1). The corre-
sponding eigenfunction is the constant h
0
= [vol (V)]
1/2
.

Lemma 5.4.1 Let f be a function on a closed manifold M such that

_
M
f = 0. Let
k
, h
k

k=1
be the spectral resolution of the operator ().
Then the equation
h = f
has a unique solution given by the Fourier series
h =

k=1
1

k
a
k
h
k
,
where
a
k
= (h
k
, f ) =
_
M
f h
k
.
Proof :
1.

digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 131

132 CHAPTER 5. LIE DERIVATIVE

Lemma 5.4.2 Let V be a closed (compact without boundary) oriented

n-dimensional manifold and be an n-form on V. Then is exact if
and only if
_
V
= 0 .
Proof :
1. (I). If is exact, then = d for some (n 1)-form .
2. Then by Stokes theorem
_
V
= 0 .
3. (II). Suppose that
_
V
= 0 .
4. Let us x a Riemannian metric on V and let vol be a Riemannian
volume element.
5. Then
= f vol
for some function f which satises
_
V
f = 0 .
6. Let h be the solution of the equation
h = f .
7. Let X be the gradient of the function h.
8. We dene an (n 1)-form by
= i
X
vol .
9. Then
d = .

digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 132

5.4. DEGREE OF A MAP 133
5.4.3 Brouwer Degree
Let M and V be two closed (compact without boundary) oriented n-dimensional
manifolds.
Let : M V be a smooth map.
Let
n
V be an n-form on V.
Suppose that
_
V
0 .
Then we can normalize it so that
_
V
= 1 .
Then we can consider the quantity
_
M

_
V

,
which can also be written as
_
(M)

_
V

.
This quantity counts how many times the image of M wraps around V.

Corollary 5.4.1 Let M and V be n-dimensional manifolds and :

M V be a smooth map. Let and be n-forms on V such that
_
V
0 and
_
V
0. Then
_
M

_
V

=
_
M

_
V

.
Proof :
1. Let
=
_

_
V

_
V

_

_
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 133
134 CHAPTER 5. LIE DERIVATIVE
2. We have
_
V
= 0 .
3. Therefore, the form is exact.
4. Hence, the form

is exact.
5. Thus,
_
M

= 0 .

The quantity
deg() =
_
M

_
V

does not depend on the choice of the form but only on the map . It is
called the Brouwer degree of the map .
Example.
In the case of one-dimensional manifolds the degree of the map : M S
1
is called the winding number.
Picture.

Theorem 5.4.2 Let V and M be n-dimensional compact oriented man-

ifolds without boundary. Let : M V be a smooth map. Let y V
be a regular value of so that the dierential

: T
x
M T
y
V at any
point x
1
(y) is bijective (isomorphism). Then
deg() =

x
1
(y)
sign ((x)) ,
where
sign ((x)) = sign (det(

)) .
Proof :
1. (I). Claim: the preimage
1
(y) of a regular value is a nite set, that is,

1
(y) = x
i
M (x
i
) = y, i = 1, 2, . . . , N .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 134
5.4. DEGREE OF A MAP 135
2. Suppose
1
(y) is innite.
3. Then by compactness argument
1
(y) has a limit point x
0
M, which
is a regular point.
Indeed, every sequence has a convergent subsequence. Thus, there is a
sequence (x
k
), such that x
k

1
(y), converging to some x
0
, x
k
x
0
,
so that (x
0
) = y. Thus x
0
is a regular point of M.
4. Since

: T
x
0
M T
y
V is bijective at x
0
, the map : M V is a
dieomorphism in a neighborhood of x
0
.
That is, det

x
0
0.
5. This contradicts the fact that there is sequence of points x
k
x
0
such
that (x
k
) = y.
Since, otherwise there exist innitely many points x
k
M such that
(x
k
) = (x
0
) = y contradicting the fact that is bijective.
6. (II). Claim: The point y V has a neighborhood whose inverse image
is a disjoint union of neighborhoods of the preimages of y, each of
which is dieomorphic to V
y
.
7. Let W
i
be disjoint neighborhoods of x
i
M such that : W
i
V
i
=
(W
i
) are dieomorphisms.
8. Let S = (M
N
i=1
W
i
).
9. Since M
N
i=1
W
i
is compact, then S is compact (and closed in V).
10. Let O = V S .
11. Then O is open and is a neighborhood of y.
12. Now, we dene
V
y
= O
N
i=1
V
i
.
13. Then
V
y
O, V
y
V
i
.
14. Let
U
i
=
1
(O) W
i
.
15. Then
U
i
W
i
M.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 135
136 CHAPTER 5. LIE DERIVATIVE
16. Then

1
(V
y
) =
N
i=1
U
i
,
and : U
i
V
y
are dieomorphisms.
17. (III). Let be an n-form on V with support in V
y
such that
_
V
= 1.
18. Let y
i
, i = 1, . . . , n, be local coordinates in V
y
.
19. Since each : U
i
V
y
are dieomorphisms, one can use y
i
as local
coordinates on U
i
.
20. In such coordinates the dieomorphism : U
i
V
y
is the identity
map.
21. We notice that the orientation of U
i
is described by sign (x
i
).
22. Thus
deg() =
_
M

=
N

i=1
_
U
i

=
N

i=1
_
(U
i
)

=
N

i=1
sign (x
i
)
_
V
y
=
N

i=1
sign ((x
i
)) .

Corollary 5.4.2
1. The Brouwer degree deg() of any map : M V is an integer.
2. The sum

x
1
(y)
sign ((x))
is independent on the regular value y V.
3. The Brouwer degree deg() remains constant under continuous
deformations of the map .
Problem. Let be the volume form on S
n
in R
n+1
given by
=
n+1

k=1
(1)
k
dx
1


dx
k
dx
n+1
.
Show that the antipodal map : S
n
S
n
has degree deg() = (1)
n+1
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 136
5.4. DEGREE OF A MAP 137
Problem. Let M be a closed oriented n-dimensional manifold and : M
S
n
be a smooth map. We identify (x) with a unit vector eld v on S
n
in
R
n+1
. Let vol be the volume (n+1)-form in R
n+1
. Let vol (S
n
) be the volume
of the unit sphere S
n
. Let u

, = 1, . . . , n, be local coordinates on M. Show

that
deg() =
1
vol (S
n
)
_
M
vol
_
v,
v
u
1
, ,
v
u
n
_
du
1
du
n
5.4.4 Index of a Vector Field
Let M be a closed (compact without boundary) n-dimensional submanifold
of R
n+1
that is a boundary of a compact region U R
n+1
, that is,
M = U .
Let N be an outward-pointing normal to M.
Then N induces an orientation on M.
Let v be a unit vector eld on M.
Let S
n
be the unit n-sphere embedded in R
n
centered at the origin.
We identify the unit vectors in R
n+1
with points in S
n
.
Let : M S
n
be a map dened for every x M by
(x) = v(x) .
The Kronecker index of the vector eld v on M is dened as the degree of
the map :
Index(v) = deg() .
In general, if v is a nonvanishing vector eld on M, then its index is dened
as the Kronecker index of the unit vector eld v/v.
Example. M = S
1
in R
2
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 137
138 CHAPTER 5. LIE DERIVATIVE
Problem. Let M = U, where U R
n+1
is a compact region as above.
Show that if a vector eld v on M can be extended to a nonvanishing vector
eld on all of the interior region U, then Index(v) = 0.
In other words, a vector eld on M with a non-zero index has a singularity
(that is, it vanishes) at least at one point inside M.
Problem. Suppose that a unit vector eld v in R
n+1
is such that it is smooth
in U except for a nite number of points x
a
, a = 1, . . . , N. Let B
a
be suf-
ciently small balls around the points x
a
so that they are in U. Then v is
non-vanishing in U \
N
a=1
B
a
. Then B
a
are small spheres with outward-
poiting normals. Let Index(v
B
a
) be the indices of v on B
a
. Show that
Index(v) =
N

a=1
Index(v
B
a
) .
That is, the index of a vector eld on a closed manifold M is equal to the
sum of indices inside M.

Theorem 5.4.3 Let v

t
, t [0, 1], be a smooth family of non-vanishing
vector eld on a closed manifold M. Then
Index(v
0
) = Index(v
1
) .
Proof :
1. Follows from the fact that the index is an integer.

Problem. Show that if a vector eld v on a sphere S

n
in R
n+1
never points
to the origin, then
Index(v) = 1 .
Corollary. The index of every non-vanishing vector eld tangent to S
n
is
equal to
Index(v) = 1 .

Theorem 5.4.4 Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem. Let B be a closed

unit ball in R
n+1
centered at the origin. Let : B B be a smooth
map. Then has a xed point.
Proof :
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 138
5.4. DEGREE OF A MAP 139
1. Let v be a vector eld in R
n+1
dened by
v(x) = (x) x .
2. Then v never points to the origin. So, Index(v) = 1, and, therefore,
has a xed point in B.
3. Alternatively, suppose that does not have a xed point.
4. Then v is non-vanishing.
5. Let : B B = S
n
be a map dened as follows. The point (x) is
the point on the sphere S
n
where the line from the (x) to the point x
intersects S
n
.
6. Then (x) = x for any x S
n
.
7. Let be an n-form on S
n
normalized by
_
S
n
= 1.
8. Since is an identity map on S
n
, the form

is an n-form on B
whose restriction to S
n
is equal to .
9. Since also S
n
= B and d = 0, we have
1 =
_
S
n
=
_
B

=
_
B
d(

) = 0 ,
which is a contradiction.

Problem. Let M be a closed n-dimensional submanifold of R

n+1
Let v be
a unit vector eld on M. Let vol be the volume (n + 1)-form in R
n+1
. Let
vol (S
n
) be the volume of the unit sphere S
n
. Let u

, = 1, . . . , n, be local
coordinates on M. Show that
Index(v) =
1
vol (S
n
)
_
M
vol
_
v,
v
u
1
, ,
v
u
n
_
du
1
du
n
Problem. If v is a non-vanishing vector eld, not necessarily unit, then
Index(v) =
1
vol (S
n
)
_
M
1
v
n+1
vol
_
v,
v
u
1
, ,
v
u
n
_
du
1
du
n
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 139
140 CHAPTER 5. LIE DERIVATIVE

Corollary 5.4.3 Let M be a closed n-dimensional submanifold of R

n+1
such that M is the boundary of a compact region U R
n+1
. Let f
i
,
i = 1, . . . , (n + 1), be smooth functions on U. Let
f
2
=
n+1

i=1
f
i

2
.
Suppose the functions f
i
do not have common zeros on M, that is, f
0 on M. Let u

, = 1, . . . , n, be local coordinates on M. Let

det( f , d f ) =
i
1
i
2
...i
n
i
n+1
f
i
1
f
i
2
u
1

f
i
n+1
u
n
= det
_

_
f
1
f
1
u
1

f
1
u
n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
f
n
f
n
u
1

f
n
u
n
_

_
Suppose that
_
M
1
f
n+1
det( f , d f )du
1
du
n
0 .
Then the functions f
i
have a common zero in U, that is, the system of
(n + 1) equations
f
1
= = f
n+1
= 0
has a solution in U.
Proof : Follows from above.

5.4.5 Linking Number

Let C

: S
1
R
3
, = 1, 2, be two nonintersecting smooth closed curves
(loops) in R
3
described by
x = x
1
(
1
) , x = x
2
(
2
) .
Let T
2
= S
1
S
1
be the torus with the local coordinates
1
,
2
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 140
5.4. DEGREE OF A MAP 141
Let : T S
2
be a smooth map dened by
() =
x
1
(
1
) x
2
(
2
)
x
1
(
1
) x
2
(
2
)
.
The Gauss linking number of the loops C
1
and C
2
is dened by
Link(C
1
, C
2
) = deg() .
Problem. Let
x
12
= x
2
x
1
.
Show that
Link(C
1
, C
2
) =
1
4
_
C
1
__
C
2
1
x
12

3
x
12
dx
12
_
dx
1
=
1
4
_
2
0
_
2
0
d
1
d
2
[x
2
(
2
) x
1
(
1
)] x
2
(
2
) x
1
(
1
)
x
2
(
2
) x
1
(
1
)
3
Let V be an orientable surface in R
3
such that V = C
1
.
Let N be the normal vector to V consistent with the orientation of C
1
.
Let the curve C
2
intersect V transversally.
The intersection number V C
2
of the curve C
2
and the surface V is the
signed number of intersections of C
2
and V, with an intersection being pos-
itive if the tangent vector to C
2
at the point of the intersection has the same
direction as N, that is,
V C
2
=

x
i
V
sign (N, x)

x
i
,
where the sum goes over all intersection points x
i
.
Problem. Show that
Link(C
1
, C
2
) = V C
2
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 141
142 CHAPTER 5. LIE DERIVATIVE
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 142
Chapter 6
Connection and Curvature
6.1 Ane Connection
6.1.1 Covariant Derivative

Denition 6.1.1 Let M be an n-dimensional manifold. An ane con-

nection is an operator
: C

(T M) C

(T M) C

(T M)
that assigns to two vector elds X and Y a new vector eld
X
Y, that
is linear in both variables, that is, for any a, b R and any vector elds
X, Y and Z,

X
(aY + bZ) = a
X
Y + b
X
Z

aX+bY
Z = a
X
Z + b
Y
Z
and satises the Leibnitz rule, that is, for any smooth function f
C

(M) and any two vector elds X and Y,

X
( f Y) = X( f )Y + f
X
Y
= (d f )(X)Y + f
X
Y
Let x

, = 1, . . . , n, be local coordinates and

be the basis of vector elds.

It will be called a coordinate frame for the tangent bundle.
A basis of vector elds e
i
= e

, i = 1, . . . , n, for the tangent bundle T M is

143
144 CHAPTER 6. CONNECTION AND CURVATURE
called a frame.
We will denote partial derivatives by

i
f = f
,i
and the action of frame vector elds on functions by
e
i
( f ) = e

= f
i
.
For any frame the commutator of the frame vector elds denes the com-
mutation coecients
[e
i
, e
j
] = C
k
i j
e
k
.
The commutation coecients are scalar functions, in general.

Theorem 6.1.1 A frame e

i
is a coordinate frame if and only if for any
i, j = 1, . . . , n,
[e
i
, e
j
] = 0 .
Proof :
1. Need to show that there is a local coordinate system x
i
such that e
i
=

i
.
2. Use the dual basis of 1-forms to prove that they are exact.

Denition 6.1.2 Let e

i
be a frame of vector elds and
j
be the dual
frame of 1-forms. The symbols
i
jk
dened by

i
k j
=
i
(
e
j
e
k
)
are called the coecients of the ane connection.
We denote

i
=
e
i
.
Then

i
e
j
=
k
ji
e
k
,
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 143
6.1. AFFINE CONNECTION 145
Then, if X = X
i
e
i
is a vector eld, then

X
= X
i

i
.
If Y = Y
j
e
j
is another vector eld then

X
Y = X
i
_
e
i
(Y
k
) +
k
ji
Y
j
_
e
k
=
__
dY
k
+
k
ji
Y
j

i
_
(X)
_
e
k
.
That is,

X
Y = X
i
(
i
Y)
k
e
k
where
(
i
Y)
k
= e
i
(Y
k
) +
k
ji
Y
j
We will often write simply
i
Y
k
meaning (
e
i
Y)
k
. This should not be con-
fused with the covariant derivative of the scalar functions Y
k
.
The tensor eld Y of type (1, 1) with components
i
Y
k
, that is,
Y =
i

i
Y =
i
Y
k

i
e
k
.
is called the covariant derivative of the vector eld Y.
The components of the covariant derivative are also denoted by Y
k
;i
, in con-
trast to partial derivatives
i
Y
k
, which are also denoted by Y
k
,i
.
In the coordinate frame e
i
=
i
the covariant derivative takes the form

i
Y
k
=
i
Y
k
+
k
ji
Y
j
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 144
146 CHAPTER 6. CONNECTION AND CURVATURE
6.1.2 Curvature, Torsion and Levi-Civita Connection

Denition 6.1.3 Let X and Y be vector elds on a manifold M. Then

the vector eld
7(X, Y) =
X
Y
Y
X [X, Y]
denes a tensor eld T of type (1, 2), called the torsion, so that for any
1-form
T(, X, Y) = (7(X, Y)) .
The ane connection is called torsion-free (or symmetric) if the tor-
sion vanishes, that is, for any X, Y,

X
Y
Y
X = [X, Y]
The components of the torsion tensor are dened by
T
i
jk
=
i
(7(e
j
, e
k
)) .
In the coordinate frame the components of the torsion tensor are given by
T
i
jk
=
i
k j

i
jk
.

Denition 6.1.4 Let X, Y and Z be vector elds on a manifold M.

Then the vector eld
F(X, Y)Z =
_
[
X
,
Y
]
[X,Y]
_
Z
denes a tensor eld R of type (1, 3), called the Riemann curvature, so
that for any 1-form
R(, Z, X, Y) = (F(X, Y)Z) .
The ane connection is called at if the curvature vanishes, that is, for
any X, Y, Z,
[
X
,
Y
]Z =
[X,Y]
Z.
The components of the curvature tensor are dened by
R
i
jkl
=
i
(F(e
k
, e
l
)e
j
)) .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 145
6.1. AFFINE CONNECTION 147

Theorem 6.1.2 The components of the curvature tensor have the form
R
i
jkl
=
i
jlk

i
jkl
+
i
mk

m
jl

i
ml

m
jk
C
m
kl

i
jm
.
Proof :
1.

In the coordinate frame the components of the curvature tensor are given by
R
i
jkl
=
k

i
jl

l

i
jk
+
i
mk

m
jl

i
ml

m
jk
.
For a Riemannian manifold (M, g) the metric tensor g has the components
g
i j
= g(e
i
, e
j
) = g

i
e

j
.
This metric is used to lower and raise the frame indices.

Denition 6.1.5 Let (M, g) be a Riemannian manifold and be an

ane connection on M. Then the connection is called compatible
with the metric g if for any vector elds X, Y and Z it satises the
condition
Z(g(X, Y)) = g(
Z
X, Y) + g(X,
Z
Y) .
An ane connection that is torsion-free and compatible with the metric
is called the Levi-Civita connection.
Wed dene

i jk
= g
im

m
jk
C
i jk
= g
im
C
m
jk
.
The coecients of the Levi-Civita connection satisfy the equation
g
i jk
=
i jk
+
jik
.

Theorem 6.1.3 Then

i jk
=
1
2
_
g
i jk
+ g
ik j
g
jki
+ C
ki j
+ C
jik
C
i jk
_
.
Proof :
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 146
148 CHAPTER 6. CONNECTION AND CURVATURE
1. Direct calculation.

The coecients of the Levi-Civita connection in a coordinate frame are

called Christoel symbols and denoted by
i
jk
.

Corollary 6.1.1 The coecients of the Levi-Civita connection in a

coordinate frame (Christoel symbols) have the form

i
jk
=
1
2
g
im
_

j
g
mk
+
k
g
jm

m
g
jk
_
.
Christoel symbols have the following symmetry property

i
jk
=
i
k j
.
Proof :
1. Direct calculation.

Corollary 6.1.2 The coecients of the Levi-Civita connection in an

orthonormal frame have the form

i jk
=
1
2
_
C
ki j
+ C
jik
C
i jk
_
.
They have the following symmetry properties

i jk
=
jik
.
Proof :
1. Direct calculation.

Theorem 6.1.4 Each Riemannian manifold has a unique Levi-Civita

connection.
Proof :
1. By construction.

digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 147

6.1. AFFINE CONNECTION 149
6.1.3 Parallel Transport
Let x
0
and x
1
be two points on a manifold M and C be a smooth curve
connecting these points described locally by x
i
= x
i
(t), where t [0, 1] and
x(0) = x
0
and x(1) = x
1
. The tangent vector to C is dened by
X = x(t),
where the dot denotes the derivative with respect to t.
Let Y be a vector eld on M. We say that Y is parallel transported along C
if

X
Y = 0 .
The vector eld Y is parallel transported along C if its components satisfy
the linear ordinary dierential equation
d
dt
Y
i
(x(t)) +
i
jk
(x(t)) x
k
(t)Y
j
(x(t)) = 0 .
Problem. Solve the equation of parallel transport in terms of a Taylor series
up to terms qubic in the connection coecients.
A curve C such that the tangent vector to C is trasported parallel along C,
that is,

x
x = 0,
is called the geodesics.
The coordinates of the geodesics x = x(t) satisfy the non-linear second-
order ordinary dierential equation
x
i
+
i
jk
(x(t)) x
k
x
j
= 0 .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 148
150 CHAPTER 6. CONNECTION AND CURVATURE
6.2 Tensor Analysis
6.2.1 Covariant Derivative of Tensors
We extend the denition of the ane connection from the tangent bundle
T M to arbitrary tensor bundles T
p
q
M =
p
T M
q
T

M.
The ane connection on a tensor bundle T
p
q
M is an operator
: C

(T M) C

(T
p
q
M) C

(T
p
q
M)
that assigns to a vector eld X and a tensor eld T of type (p, q) a new
tensor eld
X
T of type (p, q).
The covariant derivative of a tensor eld T of type (p, q) is a linear opera-
tor
: C

(T
p
q
M) C

(T
p
q+1
M)
that assigns to a tensor eld T of type (p, q) a new tensor eld T of type
(p, q + 1).
First of all, the covariant derivative of a 1-form on a manifold M is a
tensor of type (0, 2) such that for any two vector elds X and Y
()(X, Y) = (
X
)(Y) = X[(Y)] (
X
Y) .
Then the covariant derivative of a tensor T of type (p, q) is a tensor T
of type (p, q + 1) such that for any vector elds X, Y
1
, . . . , Y
q
and 1-forms

1
,
p
(T)(X, Y
1
, . . . , Y
q
,
1
, . . . ,
p
) = (
X
T)(X, Y
1
, . . . , Y
q
,
1
, . . . ,
p
)
= X[T(Y
1
, . . . , Y
q
,
1
, . . . ,
p
)]

i=1
T(Y
1
, . . . ,
X
Y
i
, . . . Y
q
,
1
, . . . ,
p
)

j=1
T(Y
1
, . . . , Y
q
,
1
, . . . ,
X

j
, . . . ,
p
) .
Let e
i
be a basis of vector elds and
i
be the dual basis of 1-forms.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 149
6.2. TENSOR ANALYSIS 151
The covariant derivative of a 1-form has the form
(
i
)
k
= e
i
(
k
)
l
ki

l
In the coordinate frame this simplies to
(
i
)
k
=
i

k

l
ki

l
.
The covariant derivative of a tensor of type (p, q) in a coordinate basis has
the form

i
T
j
1
... j
p
k
1
...k
q
=
i
T
j
1
... j
p
k
1
...k
q
+
p

m=1

j
m
li
T
j
1
... j
m1
l j
m+1
... j
p
k
1
...k
q

q

n=1

l
k
n
i
T
j
1
... j
p
k
1
...k
n1
lk
n
k
q
The parallel transport of tensor elds is dened similarly to vector elds.
Let C be a smooth curve on a manifold M described locally by x
i
= x
i
(t),
where t [0, 1], with the tangent vector X = x(t).
Let T be a tensor eld on M. We say that T is parallel transported along
C if

X
T = 0 .
6.2.2 Ricci Identities
The commutators of covariant derivatives of tensors are expressed in terms
of the curvature and the torsion.
In a coordinate basis for a torsion-free connection we have the following
identities (called the Ricci identities):
[
i
,
j
]Y
k
= R
k
li j
Y
l
[
i
,
j
]
k
= R
l
ki j

l
[
i
,
j
]T
j
1
... j
p
k
1
...k
q
=
p

m=1
R
j
m
li j
T
j
1
... j
m1
l j
m+1
... j
p
k
1
...k
q

q

n=1
R
l
k
n
i j
T
j
1
... j
p
k
1
...k
n1
lk
n
k
q
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 150
152 CHAPTER 6. CONNECTION AND CURVATURE
6.2.3 Normal Coordinates
Let (M, g) be a Riemannian manifold and
i
jk
be the Christoel coecients
dening the Levi-Civita connection in a coordinate basis.
Let x
0
be a point in M and x
i
be a local coordinate system in a coordinate
patch about x
0
.
We expand the metric in a Taylor series at the point x
0
g
i j
(x) = g
i j
(x
0
)+[
k
g
i j
](x
0
)(x
k
x
k
0
)+
1
2
[
k

l
g
i j
](x
0
)(x
k
x
k
0
)(x
l
x
l
0
)+O((xx
0
)
3
)
The matrix g
i j
(x
0
) is a constant real symmetric matrix with real eigenvalues.

Theorem 6.2.1 There exists a coordinate system such that

g
i j
(x
0
) =
i j
, [
k
g
i j
](x
0
) = 0 ,
so that the Taylor series has the form
g
i j
(x) =
i j
+
1
2
[
k

l
g
i j
](x
0
)(x
k
x
k
0
)(x
l
x
l
0
) + O((x x
0
)
3
) .
Such coordinates are called Riemann normal coordinates.
Proof :
1.

Corollary 6.2.1 In Riemann normal coordinates the Christoel sym-

bols vanish at x
0

i
jk
(x
0
) = 0
and the curvature of the Levi-Civita connection at x
0
is expressed in
terms of second derivatives of the metric at x
0
,
R
i jkl
(x
0
) =
1
2
_

j
g
il

l

j
g
ik

i

l
g
k j
+
k

i
g
jl
_

x
0
,
so that the Taylor series of the metric at x
0
has the form
g
i j
(x) =
i j

1
3
R
ik jl
(x
0
)(x
k
x
k
0
)(x
l
x
l
0
) + O((x x
0
)
3
) .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 151
6.2. TENSOR ANALYSIS 153
Proof :
1.

6.2.4 Properties of the Curvature Tensor

Let (M, g) be an n-dimensional Riemannian manifold. We will restrict our-
selves to the Levi-Civita connection below. We dene some new curvature
tensors.
The Ricci tensor
R
i j
= R
k
ik j
.
The scalar curvature
R = g
i j
R
i j
= g
i j
R
k
ik j
.
The Einstein tensor
G
i j
= R
i j

1
2
g
i j
R.
The trace-free Ricci tensor
E
i j
= R
i j

1
n
g
i j
R.
The Weyl tensor (for n > 2)
C
i j
kl
= R
i j
kl

4
n 2
R
[i
[k

j]
l]
+
2
(n 1)(n 2)
R
[i
[k

j]
l]
= R
i j
kl

4
n 2
E
[i
[k

j]
l]

2
n(n 1)
R
[i
[k

j]
l]
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 152
154 CHAPTER 6. CONNECTION AND CURVATURE

Theorem 6.2.2 The Riemann curvature tensor of the Levi-Civita con-

nection has the following symmetry properties
1. R
i jkl
= R
i jlk
2. R
i jkl
= R
jikl
3. R
i jkl
= R
kli j
4. R
i
[ jkl]
= R
i
jkl
+ R
i
kl j
+ R
i
l jk
= 0
5. R
i j
= R
ji
Proof :
1.

Theorem 6.2.3 The Weyl tensor has the same symmetry properties as
the Riemann tensor and all its contractions vanish, that is,
C
i
jik
= 0 .
Proof :
1.

Theorem 6.2.4 The number of algebraically independent components

of the Riemann tensor of the Levi-Civita connection is equal to
n
2
(n
2
1)
12
.
Proof :
1.

digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 153

6.2. TENSOR ANALYSIS 155

Corollary 6.2.2 In dimension n = 2 the Riemann tensor has only one

independent component determined by the scalar curvature
R
12
12
=
1
2
R.
The trace-free Ricci tensor E
i j
vanishes, that is
R
i j
kl
= R
[i
[k

j]
l]
R
i j
=
1
2
Rg
i j
.
Proof :
1.

Corollary 6.2.3 In dimension n = 3 the Riemann tensor has six in-

dependent components determined by the Ricci tensor R
i j
. The Weyl
tensor C
i jkl
vanishes, that is,
R
i j
kl
= 4R
[i
[k

j]
l]
+ R
[i
[k

j]
l]
.
Proof :
1.

6.2.5 Bianci Identities

Let (M, g) be an n-dimensional Riemannian manifold. We will restrict our-
selves to the Levi-Civita connection below.

Theorem 6.2.5 The Riemann tensor satises the following identities

[m
R
i j
kl]
=
m
R
i j
kl
+
k
R
i j
lm
+
l
R
i j
mk
= 0 .
These identities are called the Bianci identities.
Proof :
1.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 154
156 CHAPTER 6. CONNECTION AND CURVATURE

Corollary 6.2.4 The divergences of the Riemann tensor and the Ricci
tensor have the form

i
R
i j
kl
=
k
R
j
l

l
R
j
k
,

i
R
i
j
=
1
2

j
R.
The divergence of the Einstein tensor vanishes

i
G
i
j
= 0 .
Proof :
1.

Problem. By using the Bianci identities simplify the Laplacian of the Rie-
mann tensor, R
i j
kl
=
m

m
R
i j
kl
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 155
6.3. CARTANS STRUCTURAL EQUATIONS 157
6.3 Cartans Structural Equations
Let

be a coordinate basis for the tangent bundle T M and e

i
= e

be an
orthonormal frame of vector elds.
Then
g
i j
= g(e
i
, e
k
) = g

i
e

j
=
i j
.
We use this metric to lower and raise the frame indices.
Let dx

be a coordinate basis for the cotangent bundle T M and

i
=
i

dx

be an orthonormal frame of 1-forms dual to e

i
.
Then

i
(e
j
) =
i

j
=
i
j
and
g

=
i j

i
=

.
The commutators of the frame vector elds dene the commutation coe-
cients C
i
jk
by
[e
i
, e
j
] = C
k
i j
e
k
,
or, in components,
e

ji
e

i j
= e

j
e

i
= C
k
i j
e

k
.
That is,
C
k
i j
=
k
([e
i
, e
j
])
or
C
k
i j
=
k

_
e

j
e

i
_
.

Proposition 6.3.1 There holds

d
i
=
1
2
C
i
jk

j

k
.
or
(d
i
)(e
j
, e
k
) =
1
2
C
i
jk
.
Proof :
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 156
158 CHAPTER 6. CONNECTION AND CURVATURE
1. Direct calculation using the duality condition.

Let
i
jk
be the coecients of the Levi-Civita connection in the orthonormal
frame.
Then

i
e
j
=
k
ji
e
k
and

j
=
j
ki

k
,
where
i
=
e
i
.
This can also be written as

k
ji
=
k

i
e

j;
=
k
;
e

i
e

j
.
Thus

k
ji

k
i j
=
_

k
;

k
;
_
e

i
e

j
=
_

k
,

k
,
_
e

i
e

j
= (d
k
)(e
j
, e
i
) .

Proposition 6.3.2 There holds

d
i
=
i
jk

j

k
.
Proof :
1. Follows from above.

Since the torsion of the Levi-Civita connection is zero, we have

i
e
j

j
e
i
= [e
i
, e
j
] .
Therefore,

k
ji

k
i j
= C
k
i j
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 157
6.3. CARTANS STRUCTURAL EQUATIONS 159
Since the Levi-Civita connection is compatible with the metric, we have
0 =
i
g(e
j
, e
k
) = g(
i
e
j
, e
k
) + g(e
j
,
i
e
k
) .
Thus,

k ji
+
jki
= 0 .
Finally, we obtain,

Proposition 6.3.3 The coecients of the Levi-Civita connection in an

orthonormal frame are given in terms of the commutation coecients
by

i jk
=
1
2
_
C
ki j
+ C
jik
C
i jk
_
.
Proof :
1. Use the equations

ki j
+
ik j
= 0

i jk
+
jik
= 0

jki
+
k ji
= 0
and

k
ji

k
i j
= C
k
i j
.

Now we dene the connection 1-forms

7
i
j
=
i
jk

k
and the curvature 2-forms
/
i
j
=
1
2
R
i
jkl

k

l
.
Then the equation
d
i
=
i
jk

j

k
can be written as
d
i
+ 7
i
j

j
= 0 .
This is called Cartans rst structural equation.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 158
160 CHAPTER 6. CONNECTION AND CURVATURE
The curvature 2-forms are obtained from the connection 1-forms by Car-
tans second structural equation
/
i
j
= d7
i
j
+ 7
i
k
7
k
j
.
This equation is equivalent to the expression for the curvature components
and can be obtained from that.
Cartans third structural equation
d/
i
j
+ 7
i
k
/
k
j
/
i
k
7
k
j
= 0 .
is equivalent to Bianci identities.
Cartan structural equations can be written in a very compact way by in-
troducing the covariant exterior derivative acting on vector valued and
matrix valued forms.
Let be a p-form valued in a vector space V (in our case V = R
n
). Such
a form is called a twisted form. Let
i
be the components of this form in
a xed basis in V. That is,
i
is a p-form for each i = 1, . . . , n. Then the
covariant exterior derivative
1 :
p
V
p+1
V
is dened by
(1)
i
= d
i
+ 7
i
j

j
or, in matrix form,
1 = d + 7
with obvious notation.
Let V

be the dual vector space to V (in our case it is again R

n
). We consider
p-forms valued in V

(covectors) and naturally extend the operator 1 to

such forms
1 :
p
V

p+1
V

by
(1)
i
= d
i
(1)
p

j
7
j
i
or, in matrix form,
1 = d (1)
p
7.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 159
6.3. CARTANS STRUCTURAL EQUATIONS 161
Finally, we consider matrix-valued p-forms valued in V V

and extend the

operator 1to such forms
1 :
p
V V

p+1
V V

by
(1)
i
j
= d
i
j
+ 7
i
k

k
j
(1)
p

i
k
7
k
j
or, in matrix form,
1 = d + 7 (1)
p
7.
Now, let = (
i
), / = (/
i
j
) and = (
i
) be an arbitrary vector-valued
1-form. Then
1 = 0
1
2
= /
1/ = 0 .
Problem. Let the dimension n = 2k of the manifold M be even. We dene
the following 2l-forms

(l)
= tr / /
.,,.
l
and the n-form
=
i
1
...i
2k
/
i
1
i
2
/
i
2k1
i
2k
1. Prove that these forms are independent of the orthonormal basis and
are closed, that is,
d
(l)
= d = 0 .
2. Find the expressions in local coordinates for these forms.
These forms dene so called characteristic classes, which are closed in-
variant forms whose integrals over the manifold do not depend on the metric
and, therefore, are topological invariants of the manifold.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 160
162 CHAPTER 6. CONNECTION AND CURVATURE
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 161
Chapter 7
Homology Theory
7.1 Algebraic Preliminaries
7.1.1 Groups
Agroup is a set G with a binary operation, , called the group multiplication,
that is,
1. associative,
2. has an identity element,
3. every element has an inverse.
A group is Abelian if the group operation is commutative.
For an Abelian group the group operation is called addition and is denoted
by +. The identity element is called zero and denoted by 0. The inverse
element of an element g G is denoted by (g).
Let G and E be Abelian groups. A map F : G E is called a homomor-
phism if for any g, g

G,
F(g +
G
g

) = F(g) +
E
F(g

) ,
where +
G
and +
E
are the group operations in G and E respectively.
In particular,
F(0
G
) = 0
E
, and F(g) = F(g) .
163
164 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY
Let F : G E be a homomorphism of an Abelian group G into an Abelian
group E. The set of elements of G mapped to the identity element of E is
denoted by
Ker F = g G F(g) = 0
E
,
where 0
E
is the identity element of E, and called the kernel of the homo-
morphism F.
The image of the homomorphism F : G E is the set
ImF = h E h = F(g) for some g G .
A homomorphism F : G E of a group G into a group E is called an
isomorphism if it is a bijection.
A subset H of a group G is called a subgroup of G if it contains the identity
element and is closed under the group operation.
For any homomorphism F : G E the kernel Ker F is a subgroup of G.
Let G be an Abelian group and H be a subgroup of G. We say that two
elements of G are equivalent if they dier by an element of H.
Let g G be an element of G. Then the set of all elements of G equivalent
to g, denoted by [g] = g + H, is an equivalence class of g called a coset.
The set of cosets is denoted by G/H.
An element g used to describe a coset [g] is called a representative.
The set of cosets G/H is an Abelian group, called the quotient group, with
the addition dened by
[g] + [g

] = [g + g

] .
The projection map : G G/H dened by
(g) = [g]
is a homomorphism.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 162
7.1. ALGEBRAIC PRELIMINARIES 165

Theorem 7.1.1 Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphisms. Let G

and F be groups. Let F : G F be a homomorphism. Then
G/Ker F ImF .
Proof :
1. Since
F(g + Ker F) = F(g) .

Theorem 7.1.2 Let G and E be Abelian groups, and H G and N E

be their subgroups so that G/H and E/N are the quotient groups. Let
F : G E be a homomorphism such that the image of the subgroup H
of G is the subgroup N of E, that is,
F(H) = N .
Then the homomorphism F induces a homomorphism of the quotient
groups
F

: G/H E/N .
Proof :
1. Let
: E E/N
be the projection homomorphism dened by, for any x E
(x) = [x] = x + N .
2. Then
F

= F : G/H E/N
is a homomorphism.

Aeld is a set K with two binary operations, addition, +, and multiplication,

, that satisfy the following conditions:
1. both addition and multiplication are associative,
2. both addition and multiplication are commutative,
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 163
166 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY
3. both addition and multiplication have identity elements, the additive
identity 0 and the multiplicative identity 1, such that 0 1,
4. the multiplication is distributive with respect to addition,
5. every element has an additive inverse,
6. every nonzero element has a multiplicative inverse.
In particular, any eld is an Abelian group with respect to addition.
A vector space over a eld K consists of a set E, whose elements are called
vectors, and the eld K, whose elements are called scalars, with two oper-
ations: vector addition, + : E E E, and multiplication by scalars,
: K E E, that satisfy the following conditions:
1. the vector addition is associative and commutative,
2. there is an additive identity, called the zero vector,
3. every vector has an additive inverse, called the opposite vector,
4. for any v E, a, b K,
(a) a(bv) = (ab)v,
(b) (a + b)v = av + bv,
(c) a(u + v) = au + av,
(d) 1 v = v .
Let E be a vector space and F be a vector subspace of E. Then E/F is a
vector space.
Let E be an inner product vector space and F be its subspace. Then
E/F = F

is the orthogonal complement of F in E, and

: E F

is the orthogonal projection to F

.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 164
7.1. ALGEBRAIC PRELIMINARIES 167
7.1.2 Finitely Generated and Free Abelian Groups
Let G be an Abelian group. Let g
1
, . . . , g
r
G be some elements of G and
H =
_

_
r

k=1
n
k
g
k
g
k
G, n
k
Z
_

_
be a set of linear combinations of g
k
.
Then H is a subgroup of G. The elements g
k
are called the generators of H
and H is said to be generated by g
k
.
If a group G is generated by nitely many elements of G, then G is called a
nitely generated group.
The elements g
1
, . . . , g
r
are linearly independent if for any integer coe-
cients n
1
, . . . , n
r
the linear combination
r

k=1
n
k
g
k
0
is not equal to zero.
A nitely generated group G is called a free Abelian group of rank r if it
is generated by r linearly independent elements.
7.1.3 Cyclic Groups
An Abelian group generated by one element is called a cyclic group.
Innite cyclic groups.
Finite cyclic group.

Theorem 7.1.3 Fundamental Theorem of Finitely Generated

Abelian Groups. Let G be a nitely generated Abelian group with m
generators. Then G is isomorphic to the direct sum of cyclic groups,
G Z Z
.,,.
r
Z
k
1
Z
k
p
,
where m = r + p. The number r is called the rank of G.
Proof :
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 165
168 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY
1.

digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 166

7.2. SINGULAR CHAINS 169
7.2 Singular Chains
The standard Euclidean p-simplex in R
p
is the convex set
p
R
p
gener-
ated by an ordered (p + 1)-tuple (P
0
, P
1
, . . . , P
p
) of points in R
p
P
0
= (0, . . . , 0), P
i
= (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0), i = 1, . . . , p ,
all of whose components are 0 except for the i-th component, which is equal
to 1.
We use the following notation

p
= (P
0
, P
1
, . . . , P
p
) .
Let M be an n-dimensional manifold. A singular p-simplex in M is a
dierentiable map

p
:
p
M.
By slightly abusing notation we denote the image
p
(
p
) of
p
in M under
the map
p
just by
p
.
Let be a p-form on M and
p
be a p-simplex in M. We dene the integral
of over
p
by
_

p
=
_

p
.
The k-th face of a standard p-simplex
p
= (P
0
, P
1
, . . . , P
p
) (a face opposite
to to the vertex P
k
) is the convex set in R
p
generated by an ordered p-tuple
of points in R
p

(k)
p1
= (P
0
, . . . ,

P
k
, . . . , P
p
)
where the k-th point P
k
is omitted.
Since this points lie in R
p
and R
p1
a face is not a standard (p 1)-simplex.
It can be rather described as a singular simplex in R
p
dened by the unique
ane map
f
k
:
p1

p
whose image in R
p
is exactly
(k)
p
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 167
170 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY
Such a map is uniquely dened as follows. Let
p1
= (Q
0
, . . . , Q
p1
),
where Q
i
R
p1
, be the standard (p1)-simplex in R
p1
and
p
= (P
0
, . . . , P
p
),
where P
i
R
p
, be the standard p-simplex in R
p
. Then
f
k
(Q
i
) = P
i
for i = 0, . . . , k 1
and
f
k
(Q
i
) = P
i+1
for i = k, . . . , p 1 .
If Q is a point in R
p1
with coordinates (x
i
) = (x
1
, . . . , x
p1
), then P = f
k
(Q)
is the point in R
p
with coordinates (y

) = (y
1
, . . . , y
p
), where
y

= A

(k) j
x
j
+ b

(k)
.
The above requirements x the matrix A
(k)
and the vector b
(k)
uniquely.
Problem. Find the maps f
k
.
Let M and V be manifolds and : V M be a dierentiable map. Let

p
:
p
V be a singular p-simplex in V.
Then the composition map

p
:
p
M
denes a singular p-simplex in M.
Thus, the composition

p
f
k
:
p1
M
denes a singular (p1)-simplex in M, which is the k-th face of the singular
p-simplex
p
in M.
The boundary
p
of the standard p-simplex
p
is dened as follows. For
p > 0, we dene
(P
0
, P
1
, . . . , P
p
) =
p

k=0
(1)
k
(P
0
, . . . ,

P
k
, . . . , P
p
) ,
that is, the boundary is the formal sum

p
=
p

k=0
(1)
k

(k)
p1
.
For p = 0, we dene

0
= 0 .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 168
7.2. SINGULAR CHAINS 171
Examples.
The boundary of a standard simplex is not a simplex, but an integer (p1)-
chain.
Let G be an Abelian group. A singular p-chain on M with coecients in
G is a nite formal sum
c
p
=
r

k=1
g
k

k
p
of singular simplexes
k
p
:
p
M with coecients g
k
which are elements
of the group G.
Examples.
Let S
p
(M) be the set of all singular p-simplexes in M. Then, a p-chain is a
function
c
p
: S
p
(M) G,
such that its value is not equal to zero only for nitely many simplexes.
These simplexes are exactly
k
p
listed in the formal sum, and the values of
the function c
p
are exactly the coecients of the formal sum, that is
c
p
(
k
p
) = g
k
.
Alternatively, a p-chain can be thought of as a nite subset of S
p
(M) G,
that is, a nite set of ordered pairs
c
p
= (
k
p
, g
k
)
r
k=1
The notation of a p-chain as a sum, or as a function, is useful since we can
dene the addition of p-chains simply as addition of corresponding func-
tions. If two p-chains c
p
and c

p
have the same p-simplex
p
in both of
them, then in the sum c
p
+ c

p
we add the corresponding group elements g
and g

. That is, if
c
p
= g
p
+ . . . , and c

p
= g

p
+ . . . ,
then
c
p
+ c

p
= (g + g

)
p
+ . . . .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 169
172 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY
We denote the identity element of G by 0 and dene the zero p-chain simply
by
0
p
= 0 .
Then the set of all singular p-chains on M with coecients in G forms an
Abelian group, called the singular p-chain group of M with coecients in
G and denoted by C
p
(M; G).
A chain with integer coecients, when G = Z, is called an integer chain.
The standard p-simplex
p
is an integer p-chain in R
p
with only one term:
c
p
= 1
p
. That is, it is an element of C
p
(R
p
; Z).
The boundary of the standard p-simplex in R
p
,

p
=
p

k=0
(1)
k

(k)
p1
is an integer (p 1)-chain in R
p
, that is, an element of C
p1
(R
p
; Z).
Let M and V be closed manifolds. Let F : M V be a map of M into
V and
p
:
p
M be a singular p-simplex in M. Then the composition
F
p
:
p
V is a singular p-simplex in V. We denote it by
F

p
= F
p
.
The induced chain homomorphism
F

: C
p
(M; G) C
p
(V; G)
is dened by: for any g
k
G and
k
p
S
p
(M),
F

_
r

k=1
g
k

k
p
_

_
=
r

k=1
g
k
F

k
p
Let F : M V and E : V W be two maps of manifolds and F

:
C
p
(M; G) C
p
(V; G) and E

: C
p
(V; G) C
p
(W; G) be the correspond-
ing induced chain homomorphisms. Then
(E F)

= E

.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 170
7.2. SINGULAR CHAINS 173
Let
p
:
p
M be a singular p-simplex in M. Then its boundary
p
is
the integer (p 1)-chain in M dened by

p
=
p
(
p
) .
In more detail

p
=
p
(
p
)
=
p

k=0
(1)
k

p
(
(k)
p1
) =
p

k=0
(1)
k
(
p
f
k
) .
Recall that
p
(
(k)
p1
) = (
p
f
k
) is the k-th face of the singular p-simplex

p
.
That is, the boundary of the image of
p
is the image of the boundary of
p
.
The boundary of any singular p-chain with coecients in G is dened by,
for any g
k
G,
k
p
S
p
(M),

_
r

k=1
g
k

k
p
_

_
=
r

k=1
g
k

k
p
.
This leads to the boundary homomorphism
: C
p
(M; G) C
p1
(M; G) .
Let F : M V be a map,
p
be a singular p-simplex in M and F

p
be the
induced singular p-simplex in V. Then
(F

p
) = (F
p
)
= (F
p
)

(
p
)
= (F

p
)(
p
)
= F

[
p
(
p
)]
= F

(
p
)
More generally, let
c
p
=
r

k=1
g
k

k
p
be a p-chain on M and F

c
p
be the induced p-chain on V.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 171
174 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY
Then
(F

c
p
) = F

(c
p
) .
Therefore,
F

= F

,
in other words, the boundary of an image is the image of the boundary.
Thus, we obtain a commutative diagram
F

C
p
(M; G) C
p
(V; G)

C
p1
(M; G) C
p1
(V; G)
F

which is a fancy way to say that for any p-chain c

p
C
p
(M; G) on M we
have
F

(c
p
) = (F

c
p
) .

Theorem 7.2.1 The boundary of a boundary is zero, that is,

2
= 0 .
Proof :
1. For a standrad p-simplex
p
we have

p
=
p

k=0
(1)
k

(k)
p
=
p

k=0
(1)
k
(P
0
, . . . ,

P
k
, . . . , P
p
)
=
p

k=0
(1)
k
k1

j=0
(P
0
, . . . ,

P
j
, . . . ,

P
k
, . . . , P
p
)
+
p

k=0
(1)
k
p

j=k+1
(P
0
, . . . ,

P
k
, . . . ,

P
j
, . . . , P
p
)
= 0
because of the pairwise cancellation.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 172
7.2. SINGULAR CHAINS 175
2. Then, for a singular p-simplex
p

p
= [
p
(
p
)] =
p
(
p
) =

(0) = 0

7.2.1 Examples
Cylinder.
M obius Band.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 173
176 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY
7.3 Singular Homology Groups
7.3.1 Cycles, Boundaries and Homology Groups
We can dene the singular p-chains with coecients in a eld K.
Furthermore, we can dene the multiplication of p-chains by elements of
the eld K, called the scalars by, for any a, b
i
K,
a
_

_
r

i=1
b
i

i
p
_

_
=
r

i=1
ab
i

i
p
.
The chain groups C
p
(M, K) with coecients in a eld K become innite-
dimensional vector spaces.
In this case the boundary homomorphism becomes a linear transformation
(operator) in a vector space.
Let M be a manifold and G an Abelian group. A singular p-chain z
p
in M
whose boundary is 0 is called a singular p-cycle.
The set of all p-cycles in M
Z
p
(M; G) = z
p
C
p
(M; G) z
p
= 0
is a subgroup of the chain group C
p
(M; G) called the p-cycle group.
Obviously the p-cycle group is the kernel of the boundary homomorphism
Z
p
(M; G) = Ker
p
,
where

p
: C
p
(M; G) C
p1
(M; G) .
In the case, when G = K is a eld, then Z
p
(M; K) is a vector subspace of
the vector space C
p
(M; K).
A singular p-chain b
p
in M that is the boundary of a singular (p + 1)-chain
is called a p-boundary.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 174
7.3. SINGULAR HOMOLOGY GROUPS 177
The set of all p-boundaries in M
B
p
(M; G) = b
p
C
p
(M; G) b
p
= c
p+1
for some c
p+1
C
p+1
(M; G)
is a subgroup of the chain group C
p
(M; G) called the p-boundary group.
Obviously the p-boundary group is the image of the boundary homomor-
phism
B
p
(M; G) = Im
p+1
.
Since every p-boundary is a p-cycle (because of
2
= 0) the group B
p
(M; G)
is a subgroup of Z
p
(M; G).
In the case, when G = K is a eld, then B
p
(M; K) is a vector subspace of
the vector space Z
p
(M; K).
Let M be a manifold and G be an Abelain group. We say that two p-cycles
are homologous if they dier by a boundary.
The set of equivalence classes of p-cycles homologous to each other, that
is, the quotient group
H
p
(M; G) = Z
p
(M; G)/B
p
(M; G) ,
is called the p-th homology group.
In the case when the coecient group G is a eld G = K, all the groups, Z
p
,
B
p
and H
p
are vector spaces.
7.3.2 Simplicial Homology
The important fact is that if M is a compact manifold, then the vector space
H
p
(M; K) is nite dimensional. (This can be proved but we will not do that).
Let M be a compact n-dimensional manifold. Then there is a triangulation
of M by nitely many n-simplexes dieomorphic to the standard n-simplex

n
.
Thus, M is a union of nitely many n-simplexes, which are either disjoint
of intersect along common r-simplexes with r = 0, 1, . . . , n 1.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 175
178 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY
The set of all these simplexes form a nite simplicial complex with some
coecient group G.
All the simplicial chain groups

C
p
(M; G),

Z
p
(M; G) and

B
p
(M; G) are nitely
generated Abelian groups.
Therefore, the homology group

H
p
(M; G) is a nitely generated group.
Since any simplicial cycle can be described as a singular cycle, there are
homomorphisms

Z
p
Z
p
,

B
p
B
p
and the induced homomorphism

H
p
H
p
.

Theorem 7.3.1 Let M be a compact manifold and G be an Abelian

group. Then the singular homology groups are isomorphic to the sim-
plicial homology groups

H
p
(M; G) = H
p
(M; G)
and are nitely generated Abelian groups.
Proof : Nontrivial.

Corollary 7.3.1 Let M be a compact manifold and K be eld. Then

the homology groups H
p
(M; K) are nite-dimensional vector spaces.
Proof : Follows from above theorem.

7.3.3 Betti Numbers and Topological Invariants

Let M be a compact manifold. The dimensions of the real homology groups
H
p
(M; R) are called the Betti numbers, that is,
B
p
(M) = dimH
p
(M; R) .
The Betti number B
p
is the maximal number of linearly independent p-
cycles modulo a boundary.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 176
7.3. SINGULAR HOMOLOGY GROUPS 179
Let M and V be manifolds, G be a n Abelain group, F : M V be a map
and F

: C
p
(M; G) C
p
(V; G) be the induced homomorphism of chain
groups.
Since the induced homomorphism F

commutes with the boundary homo-

morphism , the groups Z
p
(M; G) and B
p
(M; G) are closed under F

.
Therefore, the homomorphism F

naturally acts on the homology groups

F

: H
p
(M; G) H
p
(V; G) .
If F : M V is a homeomorphism, then there is the inverse homeomor-
phism F
1
: V M and the inverse induced homomorphism
F
1

: H
p
(V; G) H
p
(M; G) .
In this case, the induced homomorphism F

is an isomorphism.

Theorem 7.3.2 Let M and V be compact homeomorphic manifolds

and G be an Abelian group. Then their homology groups are isomor-
phic, that is, for any p
H
p
(M; K) H
p
(V; G) .
Proof : Follows from above.

Thus, homology groups are topological invariants.

Corollary 7.3.2 Let M and V be compact manifolds. If there is an

Abelian group G and an integer p such that their homology groups are
not isomorphic, that is,
H
p
(M; K) H
p
(V; G) ,
then the manifolds M and V are not homeomorphic to each other.
Remark. The converse is not true.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 177
180 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY
7.3.4 Some Theorems from Algebraic Topology
A manifold M is path-connected (or just connected) if every two points in
M can be connected by a piecewise-smooth curve.
Let M be a manifold and G be an Abelian group.
A point p in a manifold M is a 0-chain. Since p = 0, then each point is a
0-cycle (by denition).
A smooth map C : [0, 1] M denes a singular 1-simplex and
C = C(1) C(0)
is a 0-chain.
More generally, for any g G, then gC is a singular 1-simplex and
(gC) = gC(1) gC(0) .
A piecewise-smooth map C : [0, 1] M denes a 1-chain (as a formal sum
c
1
=
r

k=1
gC
k
of smooth pieces with the same coecient) and
c
1
= gC(1) gC(0)
is a 0-chain.

Theorem 7.3.3 Let M be a compact connected manifold and G be an

Abelian group. Then
H
0
(M; G) = Gp = gp g G, p M .
Proof :
1. In a connected manifold any two 0-simplexes with the same coecient
are homologous.
2. Moreover, for any point p M, g 0, and any element g G, there
is no 1-chain c
1
such that c
1
= gp.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 178
7.3. SINGULAR HOMOLOGY GROUPS 181
3. Therefore, a multiple gp of a single point is not a boundary for any
g 0.
4. Thus, any point p M is a 0-cycle that is not a boundary.
5. Moreover, for any g G and any p M the 0-chain gp is a 0-cycle
that is not a boundary.

In particular,
H
0
(M; Z) = 0, p, 2p, . . .
and
H
0
(M; R) = R
is a one-dimensional vector space.

Corollary 7.3.3 Let M be a compact connected manifold. Then the

zero Betti number is equal to
B
0
(M) = 1 .
Proof : Follows from above.

Theorem 7.3.4 Let M be a compact manifold consisting of k con-

nected pieces M
1
, . . . M
k
. Then
H
0
(M; R) = Rp
1
+ + Rp
k
,
where p
i
M
i
, i = 1, . . . , k, meaning
Rp
1
+ + Rp
k
=
_

_
k

i=1
a
i
p
i

a
i
R, p
i
M
i
, i = 1, . . . , k
_

_
.
Proof :

In this case
H
0
(M; R) = R
k
is a k-dimensional vector space.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 179
182 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY

Corollary 7.3.4 Let M be a compact manifold consisting of k con-

nected pieces. Then the zero Betti number is equal to
B
0
(M) = k .
Proof : Follows from above.

Let V be a p-dimensional oriented closed (compact without boundary) man-

ifold.
Then a triangulation of V denes an integer p-cycle, denoted by [V] so that
[V] = 0 .
This does not work for non-orientable closed manifolds. A triangulation of
a non-orientable closed manifold V gives an integer p-chain, which is not a
p-cycle since
[V] 0 .
Example. Klein bottle.
By changing the coecient group G sometimes one can get a p-cycle even
for non-orientable manifolds.

Theorem 7.3.5 Let M be an n-dimensional compact manifold and V

be a closed oriented p-dimensional submanifold of M. Let G be an
Abelian group and g be an element of G. Consider a triangulation of V
in p-triangles and assign to each p-triangle in this triangulation of V
the same coecient g G. Then g[V] denes a p-cycle z
p
in H
p
(M; G).
Proof : Without proof.

Remark. A p-cycle is a generalization of the concept of a closed oriented

submanifold.
In the case of real homology groups, when G = R, the following theorem is
true.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 180
7.3. SINGULAR HOMOLOGY GROUPS 183

Theorem 7.3.6 Let M be an n-dimensional compact manifold. Every

real p-cycle z
p
in H
p
(M; R) is homologous to a nite formal sum
z
p

r

k=1
a
k
V
k
of closed oriented p-dimensional submanifolds V
k
of M with real coef-
cients a
k
.
Proof : Nontrivial.

Theorem 7.3.7 Let M be an n-dimensional manifold and G be an

Abelian group. Let z
p
and z

p
be two cycles in H
p
(M; G) that can be
deformed into each other. Then they are homologous to each other
z
p
z

p
.
Proof :
1. Since the deformation denes a deformation chain c
p+1
such that
c
p+1
= z

p
z
p
.

Proposition 7.3.1 Let M be an n-dimensional closed manifold and G

be an Abelian group. Then for p > n the singular homology groups
H
p
(M; G) are trivial
H
p
(M; G) = 0 .
Proof :
1. Singular homology groups are isomorphic to the simplicial homology
groups.
2. Since there are no simplicial complexes of dimension p > n then all
simplicial homology groups are trivial for p > n.

digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 181

184 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY
7.3.5 Examples.
Sphere S
n
.
From the facts that S
n
is connected, orientable and closed it follows that
H
0
(S
n
; G) = H
n
(S
n
; G) = G,
H
p
(S
n
; G) = 0 , for p 0, n ,
B
0
(S
n
) = B
n
(S
n
) = 1 ,
B
p
(S
n
) = 0 , for p 0, n .
Torus T
2
.
H
0
(T
2
; G) = H
2
(T
2
; G) = G,
H
1
(T
2
; G) = GA + GB,
B
0
(T
2
) = 1, B
1
(T
2
) = 2, B
2
(T
2
) = 1,
where A and B are the basic 1-cycles.
Klein Bottle K
2
.
Since K
2
is connected closed non-orientable it follows that
H
0
(K
2
; Z) = Z,
H
2
(K
2
, Z) = 0 ,
H
1
(K
2
; Z) = ZA + Z
2
B,
where A and B are the basic 1-cycles, and
H
0
(K
2
; R) = R,
H
2
(K
2
, R) = 0 ,
H
1
(K
2
; R) = RA,
B
0
(K
2
) = 1, B
1
(K
2
) = 1, B
2
(K
2
) = 0 .
Real Projective Plane RP
2
.
RP
2
is connected closed non-orientable.
H
0
(RP
2
; Z) = Z,
H
2
(RP
2
, Z) = 0 ,
H
1
(RP
2
; Z) = Z
2
A,
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 182
7.3. SINGULAR HOMOLOGY GROUPS 185
where A is the basic 1-cycle, and
H
0
(RP
2
; R) = R,
H
2
(RP
2
, R) = 0 ,
H
1
(RP
2
; R) = 0 ,
B
0
(RP
2
) = 1, B
1
(RP
2
) = 0, B
2
(RP
2
) = 0 .
Torus T
3
.
T
3
is a connected closed orientable manifold.
H
0
(T
3
; Z) = H
3
(T
3
, Z) = Z,
H
1
(T
3
; Z) = ZA + ZB + ZC ,
H
2
(T
3
; Z) = ZD + ZE + ZF ,
where A, B and C are basic 1-cycles, and D, E and F are basic 2-cyles,
B
0
(T
3
) = 1, B
1
(T
3
) = B
2
(T
3
) = 3, B
2
(T
3
) = 1 .
Real Projective Space RP
3
.
RP
3
is connected closed orientable.
H
0
(RP
3
; R) = H
3
(RP
3
, R) = R,
H
1
(RP
3
; R) = H
2
(RP
3
; R) = 0 ,
B
0
(RP
3
) = B
3
(RP
3
) = 1, B
1
(RP
3
) = B
2
(RP
3
) = 0 .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 183
186 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY
7.4 de Rham Cohomology Groups
Let M be a manifold and G = R be the coecient group.
Then C
p
(M; R), Z
p
(M; R), B
p
(M; R) and H
p
(M; R) are vector spaces.
For simplicity we will denote them in this section simply by C
p
(M), Z
p
(M),
B
p
(M) and H
p
(M).
Let C
p
(M) = C

(
p
(M)) be the space of smooth p-forms on M.
We will call the closed p-form p-cocyles and the space
Z
p
(M) =
p
C
p
(M) d
p
= 0
of all closed p-forms on M, the cocycle group.
The exact p-forms on M are called the p-coboundaries and the space
B
p
(M) =
p
Z
p
(M)
p
= d
p+1
for some
p+1
C
p+1
(M)
of all exact p-forms on M is called the coboundary group.
Both Z
p
(M) and B
p
(M) are vector spaces with real coecients.
Recall that the exterior derivative is a map
d
p
: C
p
(M) C
p+1
(M)
such that
Ker d
p
= Z
p
(M)
and
Imd
p1
= B
p
(M) .
Two closed forms are said to be equivalent (or cohomologous) if they dier
by an exact form.
The collection of all equivalence classes of closed forms is the quotient
vector space
H
p
(M) = Z
p
(M)/B
p
(M)
called the p-th de Rham cohomology group.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 184
7.4. DE RHAM COHOMOLOGY GROUPS 187
de Rham cohomology groups are vector spaces.
Let
c
p
=
r

k=1
a
k

k
p
be a real p-chain in M, and be a p-form on M.
We dene the integral of over c
p
by
_
, c
p
_
=
_
c
p
=
r

k=1
a
k
_

k
p
.
Thus every p-form on M denes a linear functional on C
p
(M)
: C
p
(M) R,
by
c
p

_
, c
p
_
.
The space of all p-forms can be naturally identied with the dual space
C

p
(M)
C
p
(M) C

p
(M) .
Furthermore, by Stokes theorem we have for a (p 1)-form
_
d, c
p
_
=
_
, c
p
_
.
Thus, for every p-cycle z
p
, that is, if z
p
= 0,
_
d, z
p
_
= 0 ,
and for every closed form , that is, if d = 0,
_
, c
p
_
= 0 .
More generally, let
p
Z
p
(M) be a closed p-form,
p+1
C
p+1
(M) be a
(p+1)-form, z
p
Z
p
(M) be a p-cycle and c
p+1
C
p+1
(M) be a (p+1)-chain.
Then
_
+ d, z
p
+ c
p
_
=
_
, z
p
_
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 185
188 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY
Therefore, for every equivalence class [
p
] H
p
(M) of closed forms we
can dene a linear functional H
p
(M) R on the space of homology groups
by, for any [z
p
] H
p
(M),
_
[
p
], [z
p
]
_
=
_

p
, z
p
_
.
This is well dened since the right hand side does not depend on the choice
of representatives in the equivalence classes.
This naturally identies the space of cycles with the space of cocycles
Z
p
(M) Z

p
(M) .
For a closed p-form
p
and a p-cycle z
p
the value of the functional
_
, z
p
_
=
_
z
p

p
is called the period of the form
p
on the cycle z
p
.
We conjecture that
H
p
(M) H

p
(M) .

Proposition 7.4.1 . Let M be a closed manifold. Then for any linear

functional : H
p
(M) R on homology groups there is a closed p-form

p
such that
(z
p
) =
_

p
, z
p
_
.
Proof : Dicult.

Corollary 7.4.1 . Let M be a closed manifold. Let k = B

p
(M) be the p-
th Betti number. Let z
(1)
p
, . . . , z
(k)
p
, be a basis of p-cycles in the homology
groups H
p
(M) and
1
, . . . ,
k
be arbitrary real numbers. Then there is
a closed p-form
p
such that
_

p
, z
(i)
p
_
=
i
, i = 1, 2, . . . , k .
Proof :

digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 186

7.4. DE RHAM COHOMOLOGY GROUPS 189

Proposition 7.4.2 . Let M be a closed manifold. Let

p
Z
p
(M) be a
closed p-form on M such that for any p-cycle z
p
Z
p
(M)
_

p
, z
p
_
= 0 .
Then the p-form
p
is exact.
Proof : Dicult.

Theorem 7.4.1 de Rham Theorem. Let M be a closed manifold. Then

the map
H
p
(M) H

p
(M) ,
that associates to each equivalence class [
p
] of closed p-forms a linear
functional H
p
(M) R on the homology group H
p
(M) dened by
[z
p
]
[
p
]

p
, z
p
_
,
is an isomorphism.
Proof :

7.4.1 Examples
Torus T
2
.
Closed Surfaces in R
2
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 187
190 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY
7.5 Harmonic Forms
Let (M, g) be a closed oriented n-dimensional Riemannian manifold with a
Riemannian metric g and the Riemannian volume n-form vol .
Let
p
(M) be the bundle of p-forms.
Recall that there is a natural ber inner product on
p
dened by
(, ) =
1
p!
g
i
1
j
1
g
i
p
j
p

i
1
...i
p

j
1
... j
p
,
and the corresponding ber norm
=
_
(, ) .
Also, there is a duality between p-forms and (n p)-forms dened by the
Hodge star operator
:
p

np
,
that maps any p-form to a (n p)-form dual to dened as follows.
For each p-form the form is the unique (n p)-form such that for any
p-form
= (, ) vol .
In components, this means that
()
i
p+1
... i
n
=
1
p!

i
1
... i
p
i
p+1
...i
n
_
gg
i
1
j
1
g
i
p
j
p

j
1
... j
p
=
1
p!
1
_
g
g
i
p+1
j
p+1
g
i
n
j
n

j
1
... j
p
j
p+1
... j
n

j
1
... j
p
.
Recall that the Hodge star maps forms to pseudo-forms and vice-versa.
Recall also that for any p-form ,

2
= (1)
p(np)
,
meaning that

1
= (1)
p(np)
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 188
7.5. HARMONIC FORMS 191
The coderivative is a linear map
:
p

p1
dened by
=
1
d = (1)
(np+1)(p1)
d .
The exterior derivative and the coderivative satisfy the important conditions
d
2
=
2
= 0 .
Problem. Show that in local coordinates the coderivative of a p-form is
the (p 1)-form with components
()
i
1
...i
p1
= g
i
1
j
2
g
i
p1
j
p
1
_
g

j
_ _
gg
jk
1
g
j
2
k
2
g
j
p
k
p

k
1
k
2
...k
p
_
Now we dene the L
2
-inner product of p-forms by
(, )
L
2 =
_
M
=
_
M
(, ) vol ,
and the L
2
-norm

L
2 =
_
(, )
L
2 .
This makes the space C

(
p
(M)) of smooth p-forms an inner-product vec-
tor space.
The completion of C

(
p
(M)) in the L
2
-norm gives the Hilbert space
L
2
(
p
(M)) of square-integrable p-forms.
Let A : H H be an operator on a Hilbert space H. The adjoint of the
operator A with respect to the inner product of the space H is the operator
A

: H H dened by, for any , H,

(A, ) = (, A

) .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 189
192 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY

Theorem 7.5.1 Let M be a closed orientable Riemannian manifold.

Then the adjoint of the exterior derivative is the negative coderivative
d

= .
That is, for any p-form and any (p + 1)-form ,
(d, ) = (, ) .
Proof :
1.

Theorem 7.5.2 Let M be a compact orientable Riemannian manifold

with boundary. Then for any p-form and any (p + 1)-form ,
(d, ) + (, ) =
_
M
.
Proof :
1. Direct calculation.

Notice that in case of a manifold with boundary the coderivative is the neg-
ative adjoint of the exterior derivative only on the forms that satisfy one of
the two types of boundary conditions:

M
= 0 or
M
= 0 .
Let g be the Riemannian metric and be the corresponding Levi-Civita
connection. It denes a natural connection on the bundle of p-forms. The
Laplacian on p-forms is the operator
: C

(
p
(M)) C

(
p
(M))
dened by
= g
i j

j
.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 190
7.5. HARMONIC FORMS 193
The Hodge Laplacian on p-forms is the operator
L : C

(
p
(M)) C

(
p
(M))
dened by
L = d + d = (d + )
2
.
The operators d and commute with the Hodge Laplacian, i.e.
dL = Ld , L = L .

Theorem 7.5.3 For any p there holds

L = + W ,
where W :
p

p
is an endomorphism on the bundle of p-forms
called the Weitzenb ock endomorphism.
Proof :
1.

Weitzenb ock endomorphism is a linear combination of Riemann curvature

tensor, that is, when acting on p-forms W has the form
W
i
1
...i
p
j
1
... j
p
= F
mni
1
...i
p
kl j
1
... j
p
R
kl
mn
,
where F
mni
1
...i
p
kl j
1
... j
p
is constructed only from the Kronecker symbol
i
j
and
the metric g
i j
and g
i j
.
Problem. Obtain the expression for the Weitzenb ock endomorphism for
p-forms. Hint: replace partial derivatives by covariant derivatives and use
the denition of the curvature.
A p-form is called harmonic if
L = 0 .

digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 191

194 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY

Theorem 7.5.4 Let M be a closed Riemannian manifold. Then a p-

form is harmonic if and only if it is closed and coclosed, that is,
d = = 0 .
Proof :
1. Use
0 = (L, ) = d
2
+
2
.

On a closed Riemannian manifold the Laplacian and the Hodge Laplacian

are self-adjoint elliptic operators.

Theorem 7.5.5 Hodge Theorem. Let M be a closed Riemannian

manifold. Then:
1. The vector space 1
p
of harmonic p-forms is nite-dimensional.
2. The equation
L =
has a solution if and only if is orthogonal to 1
p
.
Proof :
1.

Theorem 7.5.6 Let M be a closed Riemannian manifold. Then any p-

form is a sum of an exact form d, a coexact form and a harmonic
form h, that is,
= d + + h .
In other words, there is an orthogonal decomposition (called the Hodge
decomposition)

p
= Im d
p1
+ Im
p+1
+ 1
p
.
Proof :
1.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 192
7.5. HARMONIC FORMS 195

Corollary 7.5.1 Let M be a closed Riemannian manifold. Then any

closed p-form is a sum of an exact form d and a harmonic form h,
that is,
= d + h .
Proof :
1.

Corollary 7.5.2 Let M be a closed Riemannian manifold. Then each

de Rham class of cohomologous closed p-forms has a harmonic repre-
sentative.
Let k = B
p
(M) be the p-th Betti number. Let z
(1)
p
, . . . , z
(k)
p
, be a basis of
real p-cycles in the real homology groups H
p
(M) and
1
, . . . ,
k
be ar-
bitrary real numbers. Then there is a unique harmonic p-form h
p
such
that
_
h
p
, z
(i)
p
_
=
i
, i = 1, 2, . . . , k .
Proof :
1.

The metric g is said to have positive Ricci curvature if its Ricci tensor is
positive-denite.

Corollary 7.5.3 Bochner Theorem Let M be a closed Riemannian

manifold with positive Ricci curvature. Then the rst Betti number van-
ishes, i.e.
B
1
(M) = 0 .
That is there are no harmonic 1-forms on M.
Proof :
1. Let h be a harmonic 1-form. Then
0 =
1
2
_
M
(h, h) vol =
_
M
R
i j
h
i
h
j
vol +
j
h
i

2
0 .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 193
196 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY
2. Thus h = 0.

Remark. The elements of the rst homology group H

1
(M, G) are equiva-
lence classes of 1-cycles.
The 1-cycles are closed oriented curves (loops) on M.
If a closed curve can be deformed to a point, then it is a boundary of a
surface (a 2-simplex).
That is, a closed curve that can be contracted to a point is a trivial 1-cycle.

Corollary 7.5.4 For any simply connected manifold M and any Abelian
group G,
H
1
(M, G) = 0 .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 194
7.6. RELATIVE HOMOLOGY AND MORSE THEORY 197
7.6 Relative Homology and Morse Theory
7.6.1 Relative Homology
Let M be a compact Riemannian n-dimensional manifold with smooth bound-
ary M and
i : M M
be the inclusion map.
Let x
i
, i = 1, . . . , (n 1), be the local coordinates on the boundary M and
x

, = 1, . . . , n, be the local coordinates on M in a patch U close to the

boundary. Then the inclusion map is dened locally by
x

= x

( x) .
Close to the boundary there exists a systemof local coordinates (x

) = ( x
i
, r)
so that the boundary is described by the equation
r = 0 .
The coordinate r can be chosen to be the normal geodesic distance from the
boundary so that the vector
r
is normal to the boundary.
The inclusion map in this case is given by
x
i
= x
i
, r = 0 .
Therefore,
x
k
x
j
=
k
j
,
r
x
j
= 0 .
A p-form on M is called normal to M if
i

= 0 ,
that is,
x

1
x
j
1

x

p
x
j
p

1
...
p
(x( x)) = 0 .
This just means that a normal p-form vanishes on tangent vectors to the
boundary.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 195
198 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY
In other words, a p-form is normal to the boundary if
(v
1
, . . . , v
p
)

M
= 0
for any tangent vectors v
1
, . . . , v
p
.
In the special coordinate system ( x
i
, r) this means that a p-form is normal if
all purely tangential components vanish on the boundary

j
1
... j
p

M
= 0 .
Obviously,
i

dr = 0 .
Therefore, a p-form is normal if there is a (p 1)-form such that
= dr .
A p-form is called tangent to the boundary if the (n p)-form is
normal, that is,
i

= 0 .
In other words, a p-form is tangent to the boundary if
(v
1
, . . . , v
p1
, N)

M
= 0
for any tangent vectors v
1
, . . . , v
p1
and a normal vector N, meaning that the
interior product with a normal vector vanishes
i
N

M
= 0 .
In local coordinates, this condition becomes

1
...
np

1
...
p
x

1
x
j
1

x

np
x
j
np
g

1
g

1
...
p

M
= 0 .
In the special coordinate system ( x
i
, r) this just means that the components
with at least one index along the normal direction vanish

j
1
... j
p1
r

M
= 0 .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 196
7.6. RELATIVE HOMOLOGY AND MORSE THEORY 199

Proposition 7.6.1 Let M be a compact Riemannian manifold with

smooth boundary. Let and be two p-forms on M, which are either
both normal to the boundary or both tangent to the boundary. Then
(d, ) = (, ) .
That is, on normal or tangent p-forms
d

= .
Proof : Obvious.

Theorem 7.6.1 Let M be a compact Riemannian manifold with

smooth boundary. Let k = B
p
(M) be the p-th Betti number. Let
z
(1)
p
, . . . , z
(k)
p
, be a basis of real p-cycles in the real homology groups
H
p
(M) and
1
, . . . ,
k
be arbitrary real numbers. Then there is a unique
tangent harmonic p-form h
p
such that
dh = h = 0
and
_
h
p
, z
(i)
p
_
=
i
, i = 1, 2, . . . , k .
Proof :
1.

More generally,
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 197
200 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY

Theorem 7.6.2 Let M be a compact Riemannian manifold with

smooth boundary. Let k = B
p
(M) be the p-th Betti number. Let
z
(1)
p
, . . . , z
(k)
p
, be a basis of real p-cycles in the real homology groups
H
p
(M) and
1
, . . . ,
k
be arbitrary real numbers. Let be a closed
(n p)-form on M such that for every (n p)-cycle y
np
on M that is
a boundary of a (n p + 1)-chain c
np+1
in M, that is,
i

= c
np+1
,
the value of the integral of over y
p
vanishes,
_
, y
p
_
M
=
_
M
= 0 .
Then there is a unique harmonic p-form h
p
such that
dh = h = 0 ,
i

h = h
M
= ,
_
h
p
, z
(i)
p
_
=
i
, i = 1, 2, . . . , k .
Proof :
1.

Let M be a compact manifold with boundary. A relative p-cycle (mod M)

is a p-chain on M whose boundary lies on M.
A p-cycle with no boundary is called an absolute p-cycle.
From the point of view of relative homology any p-chain that lies on M is
neglected.
Example.
Two relative p-cycles are homologous (mod M) if they dier by a true
boundary and a p-chain that lies on M,
c

p
c
p
= u
p+1
+ v
p
, v M.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 198
7.6. RELATIVE HOMOLOGY AND MORSE THEORY 201
A relative boundary (mod M) is a sum of an absolute boundary and a
chain that lies on M.
Example.
The relative homology group is the quotient group of relative cycles mod-
ulo the relative boundaries
H
p
(M, M; G) = Z
p
(M, M; G)/B
p
(M, M; G) .

Theorem 7.6.3 Let M be a compact Riemannian manifold with

smooth boundary. Let k = B
p
(M) be the p-th Betti number. Let
z
(1)
p
, . . . , z
(k)
p
, be a basis of real relative p-cycles of M (mod M) in the
real homology groups H
p
(M, M; R), that is,
H
p
(M, M; R) =
k

i=1
Rc
i
.
Let
1
, . . . ,
k
be arbitrary real numbers. Then there is a unique normal
harmonic p-form h
p
on M such that
dh = h = 0 ,
and
_
h
p
, z
(i)
p
_
=
i
, i = 1, 2, . . . , k .
Proof :
1.

7.6.2 Morse Theory

Let M be a closed manifold and f : M R be a smooth function on M.
Example.
A point x
0
M is called a critical point of the function f if
d f

x
0
= 0 ,
f
x
i

x
0
= 0 .
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 199
202 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY
A real number a R is called a critical value of f if the inverse image
f
1
(a) M contains at least one critical point.
A critical point is called inessential if it can be removed by a small defor-
mation of the function f .
A critical point x
0
is called non-degenerate if the Hessian
H
i j
=

2
f
x
i
x
j
is non-degenerate, that is,
det H
i j

x
0
0 .
The Hessian denes a linear operator on the tangent space
H : T
x
M T
x
M
with the matrix
H
i
j
= g
ik
H
k j
.
For a non-degenerate critical point the Hessian operator has non-zero real
eigenvalues.
The number of the negative eigenvalues (counted with multiplicities), that
is the dimension of the subspace of the tangent space on which the Hessian
is negative-denite, is called the Morse index of the critical point.

Lemma 7.6.1 Morse Lemma. Let M be a closed manifold and f :

M R be a smooth real-valued function on M. Let x
0
be a nondegen-
erate critical point of f with Morse index p. Then in a neighborhood of
x
0
there exist local coordinates (x
1
, . . . , x
p
, y
1
, . . . , y
np
) such that
f (x, y) = f (x
0
) (x
1
)
2
(x
p
)
2
+ (y
1
)
2
+ + (y
np
)
2
.
Proof :
1.

digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 200

7.6. RELATIVE HOMOLOGY AND MORSE THEORY 203
The number of critical points of index p is called the p-th Morse type num-
ber and denoted by M
p
.
Let t be a formal variable. The polynomial
M(t) =
n

p=0
M
p
t
p
is called the Morse polynomial.
For each real number a R we dene
M
a
= x M f (x) a
and
M

a
= x M f (x) < a .
A real number a is called a homotopically critical value of the function f
if some relative homology group H
p
(M
a
, M

a
; G) is non-zero.
It turns out that for non-degenerate critical points a value is homotopically
critical if and only if it is critical.
That is, for non-degenerate critical points the critical values of f are pre-
cisely the values at which new relative cycles appear.
Let B
p
(M) = dimH
p
(M) be the Betti numbers. The polynomial
P(t) =
n

p=0
B
p
t
p
is called the Poincar e polynomial.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 201
204 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY

Theorem 7.6.4 Morse Theorem. Let M be a closed manifold and

f ; M R be a smooth function. Suppose that the function f has only
non-degenerate critical points. Let M
p
be the Morse type numbers, B
p
be the Betti numbers, M(t) be the Morse polynomial and P(t) be the
Poincar e polynomial. Then there is a polynomial
Q(t) =
n1

p=0
q
p
t
p
with non-negative coecients, q
p
0, such that
M(t) P(t) = (1 + t)Q(t) ,
that is,
M
p
B
p
= q
p
+ q
p1
.
Proof :
1.

digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 202

7.6. RELATIVE HOMOLOGY AND MORSE THEORY 205

Corollary 7.6.1 There hold:

1. Weak Morse inequalities
M
p
B
p
,
2. In particular, the total number of critical points is bounded below
by the sum of all Betti numbers
n

p=0
M
p

n

p=0
B
p
.
3. Strong Morse inequalities
M
0
B
0
M
1
M
0
B
1
B
0
. . .
M
n
M
n1
+ + (1)
n
M
0
= B
n
B
n1
+ + (1)
n
B
0
.
4. In particular,
n

p=0
(1)
p
M
p
=
n

p=0
(1)
p
B
p
Proof :
1.

digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 203

206 CHAPTER 7. HOMOLOGY THEORY
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 204
Chapter 8
207
208 CHAPTER 8.
8.1

Theorem 8.1.1
Proof :
1.

1.
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 205
Bibliography
[1] T. Frankel, The Geometry of Physics, An Introduction, Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1997
[2] M. Nakahara, Geometry, Topology and Physics, Institute of Physics, 2003
[3] B. A. Dubrovin, A. T. Fomenko and S. P. Novikov, Modern Geometry
Methods and Applications, Parts I and II, Springer, 1984
[4] B. Schutz, Geometrical Methods of Mathematical Physics, Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1980
[5] H. Flanders, Dierential Forms, Academic Press, 1963
[6] W. M. Boothby, Introduction to Dierentiable Manifolds and Riemannian
Geometry, Academic Press, 2003
209
210 Bibliography
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 206
Notation
Add all common notation
f : X Y mapping (function) from X to Y
f (X) range of f

A
characteristic function of the set A
empty set
N set of natural numbers (positive integers)
Z set of integer numbers
Q set of rational numbers
R set of real numbers
R
+
set of positive real numbers
C set of complex numbers
211
212 Notation
digeom.tex; April 12, 2006; 17:59; p. 207