Copyright 2002 S. K.

Mitra
1
Signals and Signal Processing
Signals and Signal Processing
Signals play an important role in our daily
life
A signal is a function of independent
variables such as time, distance, position,
temperature, and pressure
Some examples of typical signals are shown
next
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
2
Examples of Typical Signals
Examples of Typical Signals
Speech and music signals - Represent air
pressure as a function of time at a point in
space
Waveform of the speech signal I like
digital signal processing is shown below
0 1 2 3
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Time, sec.
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Examples of Typical Signals
Examples of Typical Signals
Electrocardiography (ECG) Signal -
Represents the electrical activity of the
heart
A typical ECG signal is shown below
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
4
Examples of Typical Signals
Examples of Typical Signals
The ECG trace is a periodic waveform
One period of the waveform shown below
represents one cycle of the blood transfer
process from the heart to the arteries
P
R
Q
S
T
M
i
l
l
i
v
o
l
t
s
Seconds
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
5
Examples of Typical Signals
Examples of Typical Signals
Electroencephalogram (EEG) Signals -
Represent the electrical activity caused by
the random firings of billions of neurons in
the brain
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
6
Examples of Typical Signals
Examples of Typical Signals
Seismic Signals - Caused by the movement
of rocks resulting from an earthquake, a
volcanic eruption, or an underground
explosion
The ground movement generates 3 types of
elastic waves that propagate through the
body of the earth in all directions from the
source of movement
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
7
Examples of Typical Signals
Examples of Typical Signals
Typical seismograph record
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
8
Examples of Typical Signals
Examples of Typical Signals
Black-and-white picture - Represents light
intensity as a function of two spatial
coordinates
I(x,y)
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
9
Examples of Typical Signals
Examples of Typical Signals
Video signals - Consists of a sequence of
images, called frames, and is a function of 3
variables: 2 spatial coordinates and time
1 Frame 3 Frame 5 Frame
Video
video the on Click
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
10
Signals and Signal Processing
Signals and Signal Processing
Most signals we encounter are generated
naturally
However, a signal can also be generated
synthetically or by a computer
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
11
Signals and Signal Processing
Signals and Signal Processing
A signal carries information
Objective of signal processing: Extract the
useful information carried by the signal
Method information extraction: Depends on
the type of signal and the nature of the
information being carried by the signal
This course is concerned with the discrete-
time representation of signals and their
discrete-time processing
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
12
Characterization and
Characterization and
Classification of Signals
Classification of Signals
Types of signal: Depends on the nature of
the independent variables and the value of
the function defining the signal
For example, the independent variables can
be continuous or discrete
Likewise, the signal can be a continuous or
discrete function of the independent
variables
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
13
Characterization and
Characterization and
Classification of Signals
Classification of Signals
Moreover, the signal can be either a real-
valued function or a complex-valued
function
A signal generated by a single source is
called a scalar signal
A signal generated by multiple sources is
called a vector signal or a multichannel
signal
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
14
Characterization and
Characterization and
Classification of Signals
Classification of Signals
A one-dimensional (1-D) signal is a
function of a single independent variable
A multidimensional (M-D) signal is a
function of more than one independent
variables
The speech signal is an example of a 1-D
signal where the independent variable is
time
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
15
Characterization and
Characterization and
Classification of Signals
Classification of Signals
An image signal, such as a photograph, is
an example of a 2-D signal where the 2
independent variables are the 2 spatial
variables
A color image signal is composed of three
2-D signals representing the three primary
colors: red, green and blue (RGB)
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
16
Characterization and
Characterization and
Classification of Signals
Classification of Signals
The 3 color components of a color image
are shown below
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Characterization and
Characterization and
Classification of Signals
Classification of Signals
The full color image obtained by displaying
the previous 3 color components is shown
below
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
18
Characterization and
Characterization and
Classification of Signals
Classification of Signals
Each frame of a black-and-white digital
video signal is a 2-D image signal that is a
function of 2 discrete spatial variables, with
each frame occurring at discrete instants of
time
Hence, black-and-white digital video signal
can be considered as an example of a 3-D
signal where the 3 independent variables are
the 2 spatial variables and time
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
19
Characterization and
Characterization and
Classification of Signals
Classification of Signals
A color video signal is a 3-channel signal
composed of three 3-D signals representing
the three primary colors: red, green and blue
(RGB)
For transmission purposes, the RGB
television signal is transformed into another
type of 3-channel signal composed of a
luminance component and 2 chrominance
components
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
20
Characterization and
Characterization and
Classification of Signals
Classification of Signals
For a 1-D signal, the independent variable is
usually labeled as time
If the independent variable is continuous,
the signal is called a continuous-time signal
If the independent variable is discrete, the
signal is called a discrete-time signal
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
21
Characterization and
Characterization and
Classification of Signals
Classification of Signals
A continuous-time signal is defined at every
instant of time
A discrete-time signal is defined at discrete
instants of time, and hence, it is a sequence
of numbers
A continuous-time signal with a continuous
amplitude is usually called an analog signal
A speech signal is an example of an analog
signal
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
22
Characterization and
Characterization and
Classification of Signals
Classification of Signals
A discrete-time signal with discrete-valued
amplitudes represented by a finite number
of digits is referred to as the digital signal
An example of a digital signal is the
digitized music signal stored in a CD-ROM
disk
A discrete-time signal with continuous-
valued amplitudes is called a sampled-data
signal
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
23
Characterization and
Characterization and
Classification of Signals
Classification of Signals
A digital signal is thus a quantized sampled-
data signal
A continuous-time signal with discrete-
value amplitudes is usually called a
quantized boxcar signal
The figure in the next slide illustrates the 4
types of signals
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
24
Characterization and
Characterization and
Classification of Signals
Classification of Signals
signal time - continuous A
signal data - sampled A
signal boxcar quantized A
t Time,
Amplitude
t Time,
Amplitude
t Time,
Amplitude
t Time,
Amplitude
signal digital A
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
25
Characterization and
Characterization and
Classification of Signals
Classification of Signals
The functional dependence of a signal in its
mathematical representation is often
explicitly shown
For a continuous-time 1-D signal, the
continuous independent variable is usually
denoted by t
For example, u(t) represents a continuous-
time 1-D signal
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
26
Characterization and
Characterization and
Classification of Signals
Classification of Signals
For a discrete-time 1-D signal, the discrete
independent variable is usually denoted by
n
For example, {v[n]} represents a discrete-
time 1-D signal
Each member, v[n], of a discrete-time signal
is called a sample
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Characterization and
Characterization and
Classification of Signals
Classification of Signals
In many applications, a discrete-time signal
is generated by sampling a parent
continuous-time signal at uniform intervals
of time
If the discrete instants of time at which a
discrete-time signal is defined are uniformly
spaced, the independent discrete variable n
can be normalized to assume integer values
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
28
Characterization and
Characterization and
Classification of Signals
Classification of Signals
In the case of a continuous-time 2-D signal,
the 2 independent variables are the spatial
coordinates, usually denoted by x and y
For example, the intensity of a black-and-
white image at location (x,y) can be
expressed as u(x,y)
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
29
Characterization and
Characterization and
Classification of Signals
Classification of Signals
On the other hand, a digitized image is a 2-D
discrete-time signal, and its 2 independent
variables are discretized spatial variables,
often denoted by m and n
Thus, a digitized image can be represented as
v[m,n]
A black-and-white video signal is a 3-D
signal and can be represented as u(x,y,t)
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
30
Characterization and
Characterization and
Classification of Signals
Classification of Signals
A color video signal is a vector signal
composed of 3 signals representing the 3
primary colors: red, green, and blue
(
(
(

=
) , , (
) , , (
) , , (
) , , (
t y x b
t y x g
t y x r
t y x u
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
31
Characterization and
Characterization and
Classification of Signals
Classification of Signals
A signal that can be uniquely determined by
a well-defined process, such as a
mathematical expression or rule, or table
look-up, is called a deterministic signal
A signal that is generated in a random
fashion and cannot be predicted ahead of
time is called a random signal
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
32
Typical Signal Processing
Typical Signal Processing
Applications
Applications
Most signal processing operations in the
case of analog signals are carried out in the
time-domain
In the case of discrete-time signals, both
time-domain or frequency-domain
operations are usually employed
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
33
Elementary Time-Domain
Elementary Time-Domain
Operations
Operations
Three most basic time-domain signal
operations are scaling, delay, and addition
Scaling is simply the multiplication of a
signal either by a positive or negative
constant
In the case of analog signals, the operation
is usually called amplification if the
magnitude of the multiplying constant,
called gain, is greater than 1
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
34
Elementary Time-Domain
Elementary Time-Domain
Operations
Operations
If the magnitude of the multiplying constant
is less than 1, the operation is called
attenuation
If x(t) is an analog signal that is scaled by a
constant , then the scaling operation
generates a signal y(t) = x(t)
Two other elementary operations are
integration and differentiation
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
35
Elementary Time-Domain
Elementary Time-Domain
Operations
Operations
The integration of an analog signal x(t)
generates a signal
The differentiation of an analog signal x(t)
generates a signal

=

t
d x t y ) ( ) (
dt
t dx
t w
) (
) ( =
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
36
Elementary Time-Domain
Elementary Time-Domain
Operations
Operations
The delay operation generates a signal that is
a delayed replica of the original signal
For an analog signal x(t),
is the signal obtained by delaying x(t) by the
amount of time which is assumed to be a
positive number
If is negative, then it is an advance
operation
) ( ) (
o
t t x t y =
o
t
o
t
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
37
Elementary Time-Domain
Elementary Time-Domain
Operations
Operations
Many applications require operations
involving two or more signals to generate a
new signal
For example,
is the signal generated by the addition of the
three analog signals, , , and
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
3 2 1
t x t x t x t y + + =
) (
3
t x ) (
1
t x ) (
2
t x
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
38
Elementary Time-Domain
Elementary Time-Domain
Operations
Operations
The product of 2 signals, and ,
generates a signal
The elementary operations discussed so far
are also carried out on discrete-time signals
More complex operations operations are
implemented by combining two or more
elementary operations
) (
1
t x ) (
2
t x
) ( ) ( ) (
2 1
t x t x t y =
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
39
Filtering
Filtering
Filtering is one of the most widely used
complex signal processing operations
The system implementing this operation is
called a filter
A filter passes certain frequency
components without any distortion and
blocks other frequency components
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
40
Filtering
Filtering
The range of frequencies that is allowed to
pass through the filter is called the
passband, and the range of frequencies that
is blocked by the filter is called the
stopband
In most cases, the filtering operation for
analog signals is linear
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Filtering
Filtering
The filtering operation of a linear analog
filter is described by the convolution
integral
where x(t) is the input signal, y(t) is the
output of the filter, and h(t) is the impulse
response of the filter

=


d x t h t y ) ( ) ( ) (
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
42
Filtering
Filtering
A lowpass filter passes all low-frequency
components below a certain specified
frequency , called the cutoff frequency,
and blocks all high-frequency components
above
A highpass filter passes all high-frequency
components a certain cutoff frequency
and blocks all low-frequency components
below
c
f
c
f
c
f
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
43
Filtering
Filtering
A bandpass filter passes all frequency
components between 2 cutoff frequencies,
and , where , and blocks all
frequency components below the frequency
and above the frequency
A bandstop filter blocks all frequency
components between 2 cutoff frequencies,
and , where , and passes all
frequency components below the frequency
and above the frequency
1 c
f
2 c
f
2 1 c c
f f <
1 c
f
2 c
f
2 1 c c
f f <
1 c
f
2 c
f
1 c
f
2 c
f
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Filtering
Filtering
Figures below illustrate the lowpass
filtering of an input signal composed of 3
sinusoidal components of frequencies 50
Hz, 110 Hz, and 210 Hz
0 20 40 60 80 100
-4
-2
0
2
4
Time, msec
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Input signal
0 20 40 60 80 100
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Time, msec
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Lowpass filter output
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Filtering
Filtering
Figures below illustrate highpass and
bandpass filtering of the same input signal
0 20 40 60 80 100
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Time, msec
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Highpass filter output
0 20 40 60 80 100
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Time, msec
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Bandpass filter output
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
46
Filtering
Filtering
There are various other types of filters
A filter blocking a single frequency
component is called a notch filter
A multiband filter has more than one
passband and more than one stopband
A comb filter blocks frequencies that are
integral multiples of a low frequency
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
47
Filtering
Filtering
In many applications the desired signal
occupies a low-frequency band from dc to
some frequency Hz, and gets corrupted
by a high-frequency noise with frequency
components above Hz with
In such cases, the desired signal can be
recovered from the noise-corrupted signal
by passing the latter through a lowpass filter
with a cutoff frequency where
L
f
H
f
L H
f f >
c
f
H c L
f f f < <
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Filtering
Filtering
A common source of noise is power lines
radiating electric and magnetic fields
The noise generated by power lines appears
as a 6-Hz sinusoidal signal corrupting the
desired signal and can be removed by
passing the corrupted signal through a notch
filter with a notch frequency at 60 Hz
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
49
Generation of Complex
Generation of Complex
Signals
Signals
A signal can be real-valued or complex-
valued
For convenience, the former is usually
called a real signal while the latter is called
a complex signal
A complex signal can be generated from a
real signal by employing a Hilbert
transformer
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
50
Generation of Complex
Generation of Complex
Signals
Signals
The impulse response of a Hilbert
transformer is given by
Consider a real signal x(t) with a
continuous-time Fourier transform (CTFT)
X(j) given by
t
t h
HT

=
1
) (

=



dt e t x j X
t j
) ( ) (
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
51
Generation of Complex
Generation of Complex
Signals
Signals
X(j) is called the spectrum of x(t)
The magnitude spectrum of a real signal
exhibits even symmetry with respect to w
while the phase spectrum exhibits odd
symmetry
The spectrum X(j) of a real signal
x(t) contains both positive and negative
frequencies
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
52
Generation of Complex
Generation of Complex
Signals
Signals
Thus we can write
where is the portion of X(j)
occupying the positive frequency range and
is the portion of X(j) occupying
the negative frequency range
) ( ) ( ) ( + = j X j j X j X
n p
) ( j X
p
) ( j X
n
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
53
Generation of Complex
Generation of Complex
Signals
Signals
If x(t) is passed through a Hilbert
transformer, its output y(t) is given by:
The spectrum Y(j) of y(t) is given by the
product of the CTFTs of and x(t)

=


d x t h t y
HT
) ( ) ( ) (
) (t h
HT
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
54
Generation of Complex
Generation of Complex
Signals
Signals
The CTFT of is given by
Therefore
) ( j H
HT
) (t h
HT

<
>
=
0 ,
0 ,
) (
j
j
j H
HT
) ( ) ( ) ( = j X j H j Y
HT
) ( ) ( + = j X j j X j
n p
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
55
Generation of Complex
Generation of Complex
Signals
Signals
As the magnitude and phase of Y(j) are an
even and odd function, respectively, it
follows from
that y(t) is also a real function
Consider the complex signal g(t):
g(t) = x(t) + j y(t)
) ( ) ( ) ( + = j X j j X j j Y
n p
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Generation of Complex
Generation of Complex
Signals
Signals
The CTFT of g(t) is thus given by
In other words, the complex signal g(t),
called an analytic signal, has only positive
frequency components
) ( 2 ) ( ) ( ) ( = + = j X j Y j j X j G
p

) (t x
) (t x
) (t y
Hilbert
r Transforme
part real
part imaginary
) ( ) ( ) ( t y j t x t g + =
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
57
Modulation and Demodulation
Modulation and Demodulation
For efficient transmission of a low-
frequency signal over a channel, it is
necessary to transform the signal to a high-
frequency signal by means of a modulation
operation
At the receiving end, the modulated high-
frequency signal is demodulated to extract
the desired low-frequency signal
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
58
Modulation and Demodulation
Modulation and Demodulation
There are 4 major types of modulation of
analog signals:
(1) Amplitude modulation
(2) Frequency modulation
(3) Phase modulation
(4) Pulse amplitude modulation
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude modulation is conceptually
simple
Here, the amplitude of a high-frequency
sinusoidal signal , called the
carrier signal, is varied by the low-
frequency signal x(t), called the modulating
signal
Process generates a high-frequency signal,
called modulated signal, y(t) given by:
) cos(
o
t A
) cos( ) ( ) (
o
t t Ax t y =
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
60
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
Thus, amplitude modulation can be
implemented by forming the product of the
modulating signal with the carrier signal
To demonstrate the frequency translating
property, let
x(t) =
where
) cos(
1
t
o 1
<<
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
61
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
Then
The CTFT of Y(j) of y(t) is given by
where X(j) is the CTFT of x(t)
) cos( ) cos( ) (
o 1
t t A t y =
( ) ( ) t t
A A
) ( cos ) ( cos
1 o
2
1 o
2
+ =
( ) ( )
) ( ) ( ) (
o
2
o
2
+ + = j X j X j Y
A A
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
62
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
Spectra of the modulating signal x(t) and the
modulated signal y(t) are shown below
) ( j Y

o

m

o
) (
o m
0
2
A
) ( j X

m
0
1
m
+
o
) (
o m
+
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
63
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
As can be seen from the figures on the
previous slide, y(t) is a bandlimited high-
frequency signal with a bandwidth of
centered at
The portion of the amplitude-modulated
signal between and is called
the upper sideband, whereas, the portion of
the amplitude-modulated signal between
and is called the lower sideband
m
2
o

m
+
o
m

o
o

Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra

64
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
Because of the generation of two sidebands
and the absence of a carrier component in
the modulated signal, the process is called
double-sideband suppress carrier (DSB-SC)
modulation
The demodulation of y(t) to recover x(t) is
carried out in two stages
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
65
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
First, y(t) is multiplied with a sinusoidal
signal of the same frequency as the carrier:
The result indicates that r(t) is composed of
x(t) scaled by a factor 1/2 and an amplitide-
modulated signal with a carrier frequency
t t Ax t t y t r
o
2
o
cos ) ( cos ) ( ) ( = =
) 2 cos( ) ( ) (
o
2
2
t t x t x
A
A
+ =
o
2
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
66
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
The spectrum R(j) of r(t) is shown below
) ( j X

m

0
2
A
o
2
o
2
m

o
2 ) 2 (
o m

c

c

Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
67
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
Thus x(t) can be recovered from r(t) by
passing it through a lowpass filter with a
cutoff frequency at satisfying the
relation
The modulation and demodulation schemes
are as shown below:
c

m c m
< <
o
2

) (t x ) (t y
t A
o
cos

Lowpass
Filter
) (t y
) (t r
) (
2
t x
A
t
o
cos
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
68
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
In general, it is difficult to ensure that the
demodulating sinusoidal signal has a
frequency identical to that of the carrier
To get around the above problem, the
modulation process is modified so that the
transmitted signal includes the carrier signal
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
69
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
This is achieved by redefining the
amplitude modulation operation as follows:
where m is a number chosen to ensure that
[1 + m x(t)] is positive for all t
As the carrier is also present in the
modulated signal, the process is called
double-sideband (DSB) modulation
) cos( )] ( 1 [ ) (
o
t t x m A t y + =
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
70
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
Figure below shows the waveforms of a
modulating sinusoidal signal of frequency
20 Hz and the amplitude-modulated carrier
with a carrier frequency 400 Hz obtained
using the DSB modulation scheme and m =
0.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Time, msec
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Modulating signal
0 20 40 60 80 100
-2
-1
0
1
2
Time, msec
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Modulated carrier
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
71
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
In the case of the conventional DSB
amplitude modulation scheme, the
modulated signal has a bandwidth of ,
whereas the bandwidth of the modulating
signal is
To increase the capacity of the transmission
medium, either the upper sideband or the
lower sideband of the modulated signal is
transmitted
m

m
2
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
72
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
The corresponding procedure is called
single-sideband (SSB) modulation, a
possible implentation of which is shown
below
The spectra of pertinent signals in the SSB
modulation scheme are shown in the next
slide
) (t x
) (t y
t A
o
cos

t A
o
sin
Hilbert
r Transforme
) (t u
) (
1
t w
) (
2
t w
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
73
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
) (
2
j W

o
0
2
A
) (
1
j W

o

0
2
A
) ( j Y

o

0
A
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
74
Quadrature
Quadrature
Amplitude
Amplitude
Modulation
Modulation
The DSB amplitude modualtion is half as
efficient as SSB amplitude modulation
The quadrature amplitude modualtion
(QAM) method uses DSB modulation to
modulate two different signals so that they
both occupy the same bandwidth
Hence, QAM takes up as much bandwidth
as the SSB method
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Quadrature
Quadrature
Amplitude
Amplitude
Modulation
Modulation
Consider two bandlimited signals and
with a bandwidth of as indicated
below
) (
1
t x
) (
2
t x
m

) (
1
j X

m
0
) (
2
j X

m
0
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Quadrature
Quadrature
Amplitude
Amplitude
Modulation
Modulation
The two modulating signals are individually
modulated by the two carrier signals
and , respectively,
and are summed, resulting in
The two carrier signals have the same
carrier frequency but have a phase
difference of 90
o
) cos(
o
t A
) sin(
o
t A
) sin( ) ( ) cos( ) ( ) (
o 2 o 1
t t Ax t t Ax t y + =
o

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77
Quadrature
Quadrature
Amplitude
Amplitude
Modulation
Modulation
The carrier is called the in-phase
component and the carrier is
called the quadrature component
The spectrum Y(j) of the composite signal
y(t) is given by
) cos(
o
t A
) sin(
o
t A
( ) ( )} ( ( { ) (
o 1 o 1
2
+ + = j X j X j Y
A
( ) ( )} ( ( {
o 2 o 2
2
+ + j X j X
j
A
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Quadrature
Quadrature
Amplitude
Amplitude
Modulation
Modulation
y(t) is seen to occupy the same bandwidth
as the modulated signal obtained by a DSB
modulation
To recover and , y(t) is multiplied
by both the in-phase and the quadrature
components of the carrier separately,
resulting in
) (
1
t x ) (
2
t x
) cos( ) ( ) (
o 1
t t y t r =
) sin( ) ( ) (
o 2
t t y t r =
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Quadrature
Quadrature
Amplitude
Amplitude
Modulation
Modulation
Substituting the expression for y(t) in both
of the last two equations, we obtain after
some algebra
Lowpass filtering of and by filters
with a cutoff at yields and
) 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) ( ) (
o 2
2
o 1
2
1
2
1
t t x t t x t x t r
A A A
+ + =
) 2 cos( ) ( ) 2 sin( ) ( ) ( ) (
o 2
2
o 1
2
2
2
2
t t x t t x t x t r
A A A
+ =
) (
1
t r
) (
2
t r
m

) (
1
t x ) (
2
t x
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Quadrature
Quadrature
Amplitude
Amplitude
Modulation
Modulation
The QAM modulation and demodulation
schemes are shown below
) (
1
2
t x
A
) (
2
2
t x
A
+
phase 90
o
shifter

) (
1
t x
) (
2
t x
) (t y
) cos(
o
t A
phase 90
o
shifter

Lowpass
filter
Lowpass
filter
) (t y
) cos(
o
t

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81
Multiplexing and
Multiplexing and
Demultiplexing
Demultiplexing
For an efficient utilization of a wideband
transmission channel, many narrow-
bandwidth low-frequency signals are
combined for a composite wideband signal
that is transmitted as a single signal
The process of combining the low-
frequency signals is called multiplexing
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Multiplexing and
Multiplexing and
Demultiplexing
Demultiplexing
Multiplexing is implemented to ensure that
a replica of each of the original narrow-
bandwidth low-frequency signal can be
recovered at the receiving end
The recovery process of the low-frequency
signals is called demultiplexing
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Multiplexing and
Multiplexing and
Demultiplexing
Demultiplexing
One method of combining different voice
signals in a telephone communication
system is the frequency-division
multiplexing (FDM) scheme
Here, each voice signal, typically
bandlimited to a low-frequency band of
width , is frequency-translated into a
higher frequency band using the amplitude
modulation method
m
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Multiplexing and
Multiplexing and
Demultiplexing
Demultiplexing
The carrier frequency of adjacent
amplitude-modulated signals is separated by
, where to ensure that there is
no overlap in the spectra of the individual
modulated signals after they are added to
form the baseband composite signal
The composite signal is then modulated
onto the main carrier developing the FDM
signal and transmitted
o

m
> 2
o
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Multiplexing and
Multiplexing and
Demultiplexing
Demultiplexing
) (
1
j X

m

0
) (
2
j X

m
0
) (
3
j X

3
0
1

) ( j Y
comp

m
0
low the of Spectra signals frequency

signal composite modulated the of Spectra

Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Multiplexing and
Multiplexing and
Demultiplexing
Demultiplexing
At the receiving end, the composite
baseband signal is first recovered from the
FDM signal by demodulation
Then each individual frequency-translated
signal is demultiplexed by passing the
composite signal through a bank of
bandpass filters
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Multiplexing and
Multiplexing and
Demultiplexing
Demultiplexing
The center frequency of each bandpass filter
has a value same as that of its carrier
frequency and bandwidth slightly greater
than
The output of each bandpass filter is then
demodulated to recover a scaled replica of
its corresponding voice signal
m
2
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Advantages of DSP
Advantages of DSP
Absence of drift in the filter characteristics
Processing characteristics are fixed, e.g. by
binary coefficients stored in memories
Thus, they are independent of the external
environment and of parameters such as
temperature
Aging has no effect
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Advantages of DSP
Advantages of DSP
Improved quality level
Quality of processing limited only by economic
considerations
Arbitrarily low degradations achieved with
desired quality by increasing the number of bits
in data/coefficient representation
An increase of 1 bit in the representation results
in a 6 dB improvement in the SNR
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Advantages of DSP
Advantages of DSP
Reproducibility
Component tolerances do not affect system
performance with correct operation
No adjustments necessary during fabrication
No realignment needed over lifetime of
equipment
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
91
Advantages of DSP
Advantages of DSP
Ease of new function development
Easy to develop and implement adaptive filters,
programmable filters and complementary filters
Illustrates flexibility of digital techniques
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Advantages of DSP
Advantages of DSP
Multiplexing
Same equipment can be shared between several
signals, with obvious financial advantages for
each function
Modularity
Uses standard digital circuits for
implementation
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
93
Advantages of DSP
Advantages of DSP
Total single chip implementation using
VLSI technology
No loading effect
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Limitations of DSP
Limitations of DSP
Lesser Reliability
Digital systems are active devices, and thus use
more power and are less reliable
Some compensation is obtained from the
facility for automatic supervision and
monitoring of digital systems
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Limitations of DSP
Limitations of DSP
Limited Frequency Range of Operation
Frequency range technologically limited to
values corresponding to maximum computing
capacities that can be developed and exploited
Additional Complexity in the Processing of
Analog Signals
A/D and D/A converters must be introduced
adding complexity to overall system
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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DSP Application Examples
DSP Application Examples
Cellular Phone
Discrete Multitone Transmission
Digital Camera
Digital Sound Synthesis
Signal Coding & Compression
Signal Enhancement
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
97
DSP Core
S/W
DSP Core
S/W
ARM RISC
Core
S/W
ARM RISC
Core
S/W
SI NGLE CHI P
DI GI TAL BASEBAND
A
S
I
C

B
a
c
k
p
l
a
n
e
User Display
User Display
Keyboard
Keyboard
SIM Card
SIM Card
RF
Interface
RF
Interface
Audio
Interface
Audio
Interface
Speaker
Speaker
Mic
Mic
Op Amps
Op Amps
Switches
Switches
Regulators
Regulators
Receiver
Receiver
Modulator
Modulator
Driver
Driver
RF
SECTI ON
Power
Amp
Power
Amp
Synthesizer
Synthesizer
Touch Screen
Touch Screen
Cellular Phone Block Diagram
Cellular Phone Block Diagram
s Instrument Texas : Courtesy
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
98
100-200 MHz DSP +
MCU
ASIC Logic
Dense Memory
Analog
Cellular Phone Baseband
System on a Chip
s Instrument Texas : Courtesy
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
99
Discrete
Discrete
Multitone
Multitone
Transmission (DMT)
Transmission (DMT)
Core technology in the implementation of
the asymmetric digital subscriber line
(ADSL) and very-high-rate digital
subscriber line (VDSL)
Closely related to: Orthogonal frequency-
division multiplexing (OFDM)
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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ADSL
ADSL
A local transmission system designed to
simultaneously support three services on a
single twisted-wire pair:
Data transmission downstream (toward the
subscriber) at bit rates of upto 9 Mb/s
Data transmission upstream (away from the
subscriber) at bit rates of upto 1 Mb/s
Plain old telephone service (POTS)
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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ADSL
Band-allocations for an FDM-based ADSL
system
power
Transmit
band stream - down
rate - bit High
band
POTS
band
Guard
band
upstream
rate - bit Low
Frequency
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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ADSL
ADSL
Asymmetry in the frequency band
allocation:
to bring movies, television, video catalogs,
remote CD-ROMs, corporate LANs, and the
Internet into homes and small businesses
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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VDSL
VDSL
Optical network emanating from twisted
pair provides data rates of 13 to 26 Mb/s
downstream and 2 to 3 Mb/s upstream over
short distances less than about 1 km
Allows the delivery of digital TV, super-fast
Web surfing and file transfer, and virtual
offices at home
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Discrete
Discrete
Multitone
Multitone
Transmission
Transmission
Advantages in using DMT for ADSL and
VDSL
The ability to maximize the transmitted bit rate
Adaptivity to changing line conditions
Reduced sensitivity to line conditions
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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OFDM
OFDM
Applications:
Wireless communications - an effective
technique to combat multipath fading
Digital audio broadcasting
Uses a fixed number of bits per subchannel
while DMT uses loading for bit allocation
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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OFDM
OFDM
Basic differences with DMT architecture
Signal constellation encoder does not include a
loading algorithm for bit allocation
In the transmitter, an upconverter included after
the D/A converter to translate the transmitted
frequency
In the receiver, a downconverter included
before the A/D converter to undo the frequency
translation
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Digital Camera
Digital Camera
CMOS Imaging Sensor
Increasingly being used in digital cameras
Single chip integration of sensor and other
image processing algorithms needed to generate
final image
Can be manufactured at low cost
Less expensive cameras use single sensor with
individual pixels in the sensor covered with
either a red, a green, or a blue optical filter
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Digital Camera
Digital Camera
Image Processing Algorithms
Bad pixel detection and masking
Color interpolation
Color balancing
Contrast enhancement
False color detection and masking
Image and video compression
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
109
Digital Camera
Digital Camera
Bad Pixel Detection and Masking
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
110
Digital Camera
Digital Camera
Color Interpolation and Balancing
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
111
Digital Sound Synthesis
Digital Sound Synthesis
Four methods for the synthesis of musical
sound:
Wavetable Synthesis
Spectral Synthesis
Nonlinear Synthesis
Synthesis by Physical Modeling
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
112
Digital Sound Synthesis
Digital Sound Synthesis
Wavetable Synthesis
- Recorded or synthesized musical events stored in
internal memory and played back on demand
- Playback tools consists of various techniques for
sound variation during reproduction such as pitch
shifting, looping, enveloping and filtering
- Example: Giga Sampler
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Digital Sound Synthesis
Digital Sound Synthesis
Spectral Synthesis
- Produces sounds from frequency domain models
- Signal represented as a superposition of basis
functions with time-varying amplitudes
- Practical implementation usually consist of a
combination of additive synthesis, subtractive
synthesis and granular synthesis
- Example: Kawaii K500 Demo
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
114
Digital Sound Synthesis
Digital Sound Synthesis
Nonlinear Synthesis
- Frequency modulation method: Time-
dependent phase terms in the sinusoidal basis
functions
- An inexpensive method frequently used in
synthesizers and in sound cards for PC
- Example: Variation modulation index complex
algorithm (Pulsar)
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
115
Digital Sound Synthesis
Digital Sound Synthesis
Physical Modeling
- Models the sound production method
- Physical description of the main vibrating
structures by partial differential equations
- Most methods based on wave equation
describing the wave propagation in solids and in
air
- Examples: (CCRMA, Stanford)
Guitar with nylon strings
Marimba
Tenor saxophone
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
116
Signal Coding & Compression
Signal Coding & Compression
Concerned with efficient digital
representation of audio or visual signal
for storage and transmission to provide
maximum quality to the listener or
viewer
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
117
Signal Compression Example
Signal Compression Example
Original speech
Data size 330,780 bytes
Compressed speech (GSM 6.10)
- Sampled at 22.050 kHz, Data size 16,896 bytes
Compressed speech (Lernout & Hauspie
CELP 4.8kbit/s)
Sampled at 8 kHz, Data size 2,302 bytes
0 1 2 3
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Time, sec.
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
16-bit, sampled at 44.1 kHz rate
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Signal Compression Example
Signal Compression Example
Original music
Audio Format: PCM 16.000 kHz, 16 Bit
(Data size 66206 bytes)
Compressed music
Audio Format: GSM 6.10, 22.05 kHz
(Data size 9295 bytes)
Courtesy: Dr. A. Spanias
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
119
Signal Compression Example
Signal Compression Example
Compressed Image
Average bit rate - 0.5 bits per pixel
Original Lena
8 bits per pixel
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
120
Signal Enhancement
Signal Enhancement
Purpose: To emphasize specific signal
features to provide maximum quality to the
listener or viewer
For speech signals, algorithms include
removal of background noise or interference
For image or video signals, algorithms
include contrast enhancement, sharpening
and noise removal
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Signal Enhancement Example
Signal Enhancement Example
Noisy speech signal
(10% impulse noise)
Noise removed speech
0 1 2 3
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Time, sec.
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Time, sec.
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Signal Enhancement Example
Signal Enhancement Example
EKG corrupted with EKG after filtering with
60 Hz interference a notch filter
0 500 1000 1500 2000
-50
0
50
100
150
time
EKG After Noise Removal
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0 500 1000 1500 2000
-50
0
50
100
150
time
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
EKG Corrupted With 60 Hz Interference
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
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Signal Enhancement Example
Signal Enhancement Example
Original image and its contrast enhanced version
Original Enhanced
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
124
Signal Enhancement Example
Signal Enhancement Example
Original image and its contrast enhanced version
Original Enhanced
Copyright 2002 S. K. Mitra
125
Signal Enhancement Example
Signal Enhancement Example
Noise corrupted image and its noise-removed
version
20% pixels corrupted with
additive impulse noise
Noise-removed version