AI{D F'ItiTEKS

KECTIT'IERS

-
3.1 lntroduction In
' --r ^r^*ant ^f Anv tvoe of an electronic circuit'

ru'v
4:]I";J**'i"o's'deck'rV
"".ii";ffi5:T:',ii;:*xrri:11[nHil;ff
o1partrv:1fi?:ii-::*;*X#1.?";J,il:t:;"*:
c R.which
vV.C.ir. operate
fully or
whichoperate Parrrv"" of the d'c' power
T;'; 5;;;; ;;il"; functioning

soHz
il"$::lifi
:tt;"nff
*;;*u';:l^:i'"{i$i*"#..xi'Ftrii;:fgT;'5
ques'iion
rhen'ihe
il"l*:y*:T:,iffi;' :i "::liliid; ff i"::I:r::1v' ?
circuitsand?evicesget a d'c' Powersupply
the various
is, how ti"tt'o"it
Fig'3'1 shows the block
of various stages'The of
A typical d'c' power "'ppll^-t1l.1sts cilcuitsrhenature
diagram of qa typicar,l;.
dragram ur tlvrssti^tt
,llr1;:#+":il?11{;";;;il 3'1'
ii also shown in the Fig'
voltages at various P

M Primary
Transfo"
Unregulatecl
A.C.
malns
230V,50Hz

a typicald'c' powersupply
Fig' 3'1 Block diagramof
v' 50Hz)is'"T:":',1,:t::*'nX",iii::i:f;f::T:ltil:
(230
rhea.c'volta5e
,,"Jf,ff ;::*X';Ji'"',kli.lli:?t:ii;1Y::*:::::;n:*t::1
r",r" *t" g"ia"rl."Ju"'
circuit
'"to"du'y.,oltage'Therectifier a
.,"*r
Thus,with suita,. A pulsatin*d'c' voltagemeans
into a oli:lt^".t iI';;i;g"' *tt"itipple in it' Thefilter
convertsthis a'c'voltage furg" *7ulyi"e,t*r*"t
voltageiontaining the.pulsating
unidirectionat ru=.1-.ii'r,l*
.i?."if.whicir .Jd.,.u, the ripple contentin ripple' This
I
circuitis used urt"r some
stilt iien the filter outpuicontains
I
I
I
d.c.and tries to -u;1;;;o,*,.r.
(133)
I
I

$
 E.D.c.-f
134
Rectifiers and Filters
-E
fJ,L;,fi,i"$:il:r,rated d.c.voltage.
A circuit
used
arl
keeps
the dc ou,,"i filter is a regulator
*iei*ili;il1'r#il;h.litft
<eeps

rhe
the

ourput
i?ll.Tl':
;:T:41
d."

oru
thed.c.u6,tug"
::;t"::l:lllifi:in,jti:ii:
uoiii
^,,n,...tl-Tlk"t
It keeps
"i,n"1
smoorh,., -,Ii-tle.
",],1;l;H,?ffiffi:i::l;:*::ff:ij:ilHr:i";
inputa.. uortog"
.r"r,"",
'J*-,,'ru'ioijiffiir':T",:;;T,",:,Tfil",1:1:fjlii::i:
Ii::_:.,,*
iT;",r?;:',',";::ttoush
""rr"r" under,,".,-,-],*1r"
:'J;';#l'.".ru,.1
i'ri;',"r'"";::X,lj',;
al:ilJ'I#lf-1^':g:1:'o'i".uir"i;:::;;TITIT*'-"-1'll?"LE,ai""J
u o1r"
days,complete.;d;;;.1iil
complete -'"'" turtqrtrons/
whichther- canbe €
rJgulatorcircuits
l;l'#l\:r?
*rrrrule'- in
'::-:""
ilrho,^*^^_^?ul ."nn".i.d. ,vo,
t;,",',i:il.tilrT.i6H[:
Inthis
In ttrischapter,
chaprer,
we
we sha' "." mtegrated circuit(rc) for
shalrsr'rrr,,^^,.^-:tt'6i"it
study,n"
-- *'**/ 'te v?rlous rectifier
"r-l^.1- circuits and filter
Rectifiers
3.2 Recfifiar. circuits.

A rectifier is a device
_ converts
which
..r,,,-_ a'c'
voltase
ropursating
"'i::;:;ilffi JtT:Jnt'n d.c,vortage,
-' usins
tlu p-n junction
one
*"rr'l5urtt
diode conductsonrrzi- ^^^ r.
brased

fi,:$,j,Txil;
",^ while practi
j:i+:}fi
j:."ii":::r*4X"i#*:{:;*##
;"'',:iT
i:""'.T;:'iytllt'f;t:#[_!u*;i;
nlll;ruilfit":#iTfi j:J
:'*:;l*r" *.i'jtf ,::'1T.."""*:,1
T"':::l;il "'i: * :1",1
l]31",.ttbj:cted ro an a.c. uortug"u-Jtr"r"'
putsating;..:;;;;"
"':H::li
ou unidirectional
s a recrifier ..;;;;;
I'e' d'c' Thus p-n
rng alternating
iunction
\

voltage to a
3'2'1Thermportant
characferisticsof
. Theimportant a Rectifiercircuit
points to be studie,
_^rr" analysingthe
a) Waveform of *" various
va rectifiercircuirs
the load curren, are,
important to , ;"
As ;;;^:,:
rectifier converts-a.c.to pursating
determines,r?nurrr"-,t* ffi;; throu d.c.,it is
ghr*'i'ii'i.'uu'i*u,",,
b) Regur
arionJ ;:'""fi:, lHi"'
changes.Practicalty ff ::Til,
'""iL-." : the load curr,
r;"J {sr'
regu *
^' rJ' ."i#' li:rr.,:XTT;'
li tionistostudy *, u*".i'o?d.i
::*;T' :;
c) "
power,^.o..i :Itsisni
Rectifier effic.
rie'-nli,l
|.',1 "i#:T;: :;H ::';:*:iT
d) Peak value of
' rnuput,:*1.1,
".
circuir ft: maximum
,"fl*;i,T:,'j:,1111li'1,ll;..ffi'l':rcircuii'Thisdecides
tnu .uiir-,g
or
e) peakvarueortt" "r"ir"ri,"i;#;Tr::tiifier
(PIv) : when ,Illtl.g". acrossthe
acros
s,n" .,.il "##x#:i1ili; rhe.revers
edirection
voltase
i.".iri ru,ing
ofa
-'- or :,!T."#J1
"".f,'";i;r;;';:".:;:tlXt""rt"T
diode. ?If,j[:
 :w

E.D.C.-l 135 Rectifiersand Filters

t Ripple factor : The output of the rectifier is of pulsating d.c. type. The amount
of a.c. content in the output can be mathematically expressed by a factor called
rip-rplefactor.
Using one or more diodes following rectifier circuits can be designed.
1. Half wave rectifier
2. Full wave rectifier
3. Bridge rectifier
Let us discussthe various rectifier circuits in detail.

3.3 Half Wave Rectifier

,' In h.a[wa.r4erpctifier, rectifying element c-ondrictsonly during positiv_ehalf cycle of

iniut a.c._supply-The negative half cylles of a.c. supply are eliminited from ihe output.
(This rectifier circuit consists of
resistive load, rectifying element,
\ i.e. p-n junction diode, and the
sorlrce of a.c. voltage, all connected
in series); The circuit diagram is
shown in Fi9.3.2. Usually, the
rectifier circuits are operated from
ac mains supp$ To obtain the
desired d.c.voltage across the load,
Fig. 3.2 Halfwave rectifier
the a.c. voltage is applied to rectifier
circuit using suitable step-up or
step-down transformer, mostly a step-down one, with necessaryturns ratio.
The input voltage to the half-wave rectifier circuit shown in Fig. 3.2 is a sinusoidal
a.c.voltage, having a frequency which is the supply frequency, 50 Hz.
,,Thetransformer decides the peak value of the secondary voltage. If the N, are
primary number of turns and N, are secondary number of turns and E",., is the peak
value of the primary voltage theri;
i'", tr,,,
=
!r Eo-
where E.- is the peak value of the secondary a.c. voltage.
As the nature of E,. is sinusoidal the instantaneous value will be,
' €9 = E'- sin ot
I
tw=Znf
I
f = supply frequency
I
1
t
 E.D.C.-t 136 Rectifiersand Filters E.D.

Let R1represents the forward resistance of the diode. Assume that, under relerse \
biased condition, the diode acts almost as open circuit, conducting no current.

3.3.1Operation of the Circuit

*/ During the positive half cycle of secondary a.c voltage, terminal (A) becomes
positive with respect to terminal (B). The diode is forward biased and the current florr's
in the circuit in the clockwise direction, as shown in Fig. 3.2. The current will flors for
almost full positive half cycle. This current is also flowing through load resistance R,
hence denoted as ir, the load current. As nc
During negative half cycle when terminal (A) is negative with respect to ternunal o:t=2
(B), diode becomesreverse biased. Hence no current flows in the circuit. Thus the circuit
current, which is also the load current, is in the form of half sinusoidal pulses.
The load voltage, being the product of load current and load resistance,rtill al-cobe
in the form of half sinusoidal pulses. The different waveforms are illustrated in Fig. 3 3.

e" = E.rsin ot

\ Appl
z

l"u = loc
'olt
wl
shoul

9.3.3
Iti

Subst
Fig.3.3 Loadcurrentand loadvoltagewaveformsfor halfwaverectifier
The d.c. output waveform is expected to be a straight line but the half n'ave rectitier Th
gives output in the form of positive sinusoidal pulses. Hence the output r-scalled comP
pulsating d.c. It is discontinuous in nature. Hence it is necessaryto calculate the average
value of load current and average value of output voltage.

3.3.2AverageDC Load Current( Inc )

The average or dc vafue of alternating current is obtained by integration. Bu
to1.ft
For finding out the average value of an alternating waveform, we have to determine
the area under the curve over one complete cycle i.e. from 0 to 2nand then dividing it by
the basei.e.2r
 E.D.C.-l
137 Rectifiers and Filters
Mathematically, current waveform
can be described as,
i, = I_sin alt for 0 s 0* < ,r
ir=0 for n< c* < 2n
where I. = peak value of load
current

rnc = ,rd(art)=
*'f
o''o *'[r^sin(rrrt)d(ort)
tfto
As no current flows negative half cycle of ac input
.d":i"g
cot= 2 4 we change the voltage, i.e. between cot= n to
limits oI integrati,on.

Ioc =
*f t," sin(rrrt)d(cot)
tfr.

I
= =-]t
f [-.o'(rot)]j *fO-cos(0)l
= -*t-t-11=+
-I
loc = -rL = average value

Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law

we can write,

I_ = -- l-r*__
R 1+ R 1 + R ,

,n"ilfiT*di::"iiff.:ffi;#ary windins
ortransrormer.
rr'\ is notsivenit
3.3;3AverageDC Load Voltage(Eoc)
It is the product of average D.C.
load current and the road resistance
R,.
Enc = IncRl
Substituting value of lpq,
Eoc= t^ RL= RL
E;+i RJ,T
resistanceR. and forward diode resistance
..-l*":t:qg Rl are practically very small

.o'"oaredto R1,(Rr+ R )/RLis neglisibly

," ,.t#::$:l smaucompared
#*'#,|t
E
lsm
Eoc =
G
 E.D.C.-l
138 Rectifiers and
3.3.4R.M.S.Value of Load Current
(Inrus)
The R.M.S mear
R.M.s.
uur,,.of
il:ilHlll;_;j,lf,,li"T::: andthenfindingsquare
root.

Invs = d(rot)
*jU^sinr,r92
-,.0

r
r,,td(,0)
/+l(t-'sin2
-
t
'm.il- lt f [-cos(2rot)]d(art)
Utnb z
i f rot sin(Z,rt))n
T
-m
2"17- 4 _-J,
-rmI F7A as sin(2n) = sin (0) = Q
! 2"1,)
-I*
=.
'2
-I
5"r=*
lnl . L

Note : studentsmust remember

that this R-M.s.value'-
is 'vr
for .i
half wave rectifiedwavefo
henceit is I,n/2. For full sinewave
lr Iriit O.
3.3.5D.C.PowerOutput(pnc)
Thed.c.porveroutput canbe
obtainedas,
Poc = Eocloc=l3cR.

D.C.Poweroutput = I6cR. =
E*lto, - -r*2
LTrJ i_ol
12
Poc =
*nt
fr-

where I- - E'o'
Rr+R.+R.

.rr
nC
E"- 2R,
n'[Rr +R, +R, ]2
 E.D.C.-l
139 Rqcllifiersand Filters
3.3.6A.C. power Input (pac)
input taken from the secondary
,"_^1n,"O.ower of transform,
:$:":::ilH:"U*"*:';'J';: " R,. the,r*t*"1 J"'i"i#T,1"i#
"'i:,:x:
Pac = tflr r lR,,+I{ r +R.]
but ,r R M s = I *
for half wave,
;
r2
P n c=
?[R.+R,+R,J
3.3.7RectifierEfficiency(4)
The rectifier efficiency is
defined as the ratio of output
!or\'er. d.c. power to input a.c.

_ D.C. f ttplrt powet, p,.,.

-:_--
- - ur

A.C.inputpower a*
t l

1* R,
''
= -
---''-r-'L n2 (l / n2\R,
t: (\ RI, + R
- ' L, ' +
" sR
l -)
*
[Rir-R1 +R. l

h -
0.406

r*i&*,\ )
) (Rr.
me'tionedearlier,we getthemaximum
hrUlrf":?"-.*lrr."1*,rs rheorerical
efficiency
of
t o/ot1^u^=
0.406x100= 4A.6,,h,
; fhus in half wave rectifier,
maximum 40.6oh
inihe,""1^,ljl"e{ri5i1ncr
oirectirier
is,40,/n
a..,
,il"'J#!:ii,:",,,:ltf:":ff"r#;
power'It is presentintermsof ripples
i" ti"'n.,tput which is fluctuating
output'Tliusmorethe rectifie.ufiiciercy, component
tTtil;il'n" iess are tn" ,;pprucontentsin
J.3.8RippteFacror(y)
It is seen that the output of
half wave rectifier is not pure d.c. but a pulsating
Theoutput contain.pulsatingt:flp:Tll" d.c.
ripples in the rectifier outpu"t.The called ripp.les.r.i""ilyir-,".lltrouta not be a'y
measureof such ,rp_ples pr"i",.,, ir.'ti.,"ortp.rt is with
the help of a factor calledripple
factor a-.,ot",rii r,.ti t"tt, no*
smaller the ripple factor .tore, is ,*oott. is the output.
the.outp;i;; ;;".e d.c. The
how much successfulthe circr.ritis ripple ractor expresses
in obtuii;; ili d.c.from a.c.
input.
Mathematicallyripple factor is
defined as the ratio of R.Iv{.s.
componentto the averageor d.c.component. varue of the a.c.

-_\...
E.D.C.-l 140 Rectifiers and Filters E-I).c
R.M.S.valueofa.c.component
Ripple factor y -
Averageor d.c.component

Now the output current is composed of a.c. component as well as d.c. component. T
Let Iu. = r.m.s.value of a. c. component present ri-n
in output I
Ioc = d.c. component present in output
6c3
Inus = R.M.S. value of total output current
The
Inus = frr;E :rF i
rePr
Iu. =

Now Ripplefactor = ,lut as per definition i-ri

loc .{-

33

drn
rde
voI

This is the general expression can be used for anv rectifier

circuit.
Now for a half wave circuit,
I rat
I""s = I ^ while Ir D c -_- - m
2 3-

y = 1.271
This indicates that the ripple contents in the output are 1..2'1.1. times the d.c.
component i.e. 12L.1% of d.c. component. The ripple factor for half wave is ven'high
which indicates that the half wave circuit is a poor converter of a.c. to d.c. The ripple
factor is minimised using filter circuits along with rectifiers.

3.3.9Load Current
The load current i, which is composed of a.c. and d.c. components can be erpressed
using Fourier seriesas,
 ;ffi

and Filters
E.D.C.-l 141 Rectifiersand Filters
-l
t-
I-" ' L
E* 1sir ,r t- 3cos2r ot- 2 cos4r ot
.. .
n 2 3n 1Sn I
ponent,
This expression shows that the current may be considered to be the sum of an
sent infinite number of current components, according to Fourier series.
The first term of the series is the average or d.c. value of the load current. The second
term iq a varying componont having frequercy Jglle as that of a.c. r@
IsEu"a f.rndu*"ntul-.otr.;;t";toftt.e?F;*t*uing-Ga gfr;;t.n6;;fu.-
The thitd t"tt" ir a v@e,i[ilcy t*ice *te rteq"etrc/or
supply voltage.This"gain
is calledsecondhut^o"i. .o*po."""t€imilarly ' all- the other terms
-
repieient the a.c.componenlsand areffi
Thus ripple in the output is due to the fundamental component alongwith the
various harmonic components.And the averagevalue of the total pulsating d.c. is the
d.c.value of the load current,given by the constantterm in the series,I./ n

1,3.t0PeakInverseVoltage(PIV)
The Peak Inverse Voltage is the peak voltage acrgss the diode in the reverse
direction i.e. when lhg {iq{elr_s leyerse bia.sed.In half wave rectifier, the load current is
ideally zero when the diode is reverse biased and hence the maximum value of the
voltage that can exist acrossthe diode is nothing but 8.n,.

:ectifier PIV of diode = Er- = Maximum value of secondary voltage

=- , ! Lr F
D-C^ Il I D C = 0

This is called PIV rating of a diode. So diode must be selected based on this PIV
rating and the circuit specifications.

3.3.11TransformerUtilizationFactor (T.U.F.)
-
The factor which indicates how much is the utilization of the transformer in the
circuit is called Transformer Utilization Factor (T.U.F.)
The T.U.F. is defined as the ratio of d.c. power delivered to the load to the a.c power
rating of the transformer. While calculating the a.c. power rating, it is necessary to
consider r.m.s. value of a.c. voltage and current.
The T.U.F. for half wave rectifier can be obtained as,
l.c.
T
- ;.th
'''5^.
A.C. power rating of transformer = Epy5lpyg
e iPle - Errn.I* - Er* Irn
Jt 2 2J,
Remember that the secondary voltage is purely sinusoidal hence its r.m.s. value is
p::SSed 1/J2 times maximum while the current is half sinusoidal hence its r.m.s. value is 1,/2 of
the maximum, as derived earlier.
D.C. power delivered to the load = Iil Rt
 ...E-

E.D.C.-l Rectifiers and Filters

/ |^m ',2
-- i -- l r\l
r:
| I
\n/
D.C. Powerdeliveredto the load
T.U.F. =
A.C. Powerratingof the transformer
lr \2
l:g, ln,
- \n/
/_ , \
Enir" I
I
l, 2"'Z )
Neglecting the drop acrossR, and R, we can write,

E.* = I-R,

i
; tl
.L.r
!
I_ 2 R, .zJl
n2 I*'R,

= ?j4
n2
= 0.287
The vaiue of T'U.F' is lorv which sholvs ihat in half wave circuit, the transformer is
not fuily utiUzed.

3.3.12Disadvantages
of Half WaveRectifierCircuit
.-,L. The ripp_lefactor of half r,va'e rectifier circuit is 1.21,w.hich is quite h*lh.
The
ouiput containslot of varying components.
2. The maximum theoretical rectification efficiency is found to be 40%. The
practical vaiue will be less than tiris. Tiris indicates that iralf wave rectifier
circuit is quite inefficient.
a
The circuit has low transforrner
- -- - utilization factor, showing that the transformer
is not fully utilized.
A
a. The dc current is flowing through the secondary rvinding of the transformer
which may cause dc sattiration of the core of the transformer. To minimize the
saturatton, transformer size have to be increased accordingly. This increasesthe
cost.
Because'of all these disadvantages,the half-wave rectific.rcircuit is normally not
used as a power rectifier circuit.

Ex. 31 : A lmlf wauerectificrcir*it is suppliedfrarn a 230 V, 50 Hz supply with a stepdou,n

rntio af 3 :7 to a resistiueload of 10 ld>.Thc ,l.iode
'l() forward resistanceis 75 tt tuhile
trsnsfortnersecandaryresistance is et.CnlculatcmarifilLntr,auerlge, KMS aalueso!
clffrent, D.C. output 'toltage,efficienq af rectificationnnd riltple
factor.
 ismntlFtfT'*

E.D.C.-l 143 Rectifiersand Filters

Sol. : The circuit is shown in the Fig. 3.4

es Output

N n :N 2i s 3 : 1

Fig.3.4
The given values are,
R r = 7 5 O , R l = 1 . 0k O , R , = 1 0 C )
The given supply voltages are always r.m.s. values.
3. Nt 1
Ep(RMS)= z3av, *= -l.e.i_=-
N2 1Nr3
N2 E"(RMS)
-
\ Fn(RMS)

1 _ ES(RMS)
3 230
ES(RMS) = 76.667V
This is r.m.s.value of the transformer secondary voltage.
tr t'- =Jlx76667
= lSri;r.lYt
tr
"sm
I.. = _T
R. +R'. + R,
108.423
Im=
10+i5+10><1d
10.75mA
r ln 7tr
Iuu = T -'m
rDC_ -
-Lv'tJ

lL )L

3.422m4
rI
^*
I^ _R M S - for half wave
2
r0.75
= 5.375mA
 E.D.C.-l 144 Rectifiersand Filters ED.

EDc = d.c output voltage= Ioc Rr_ 5oL

= 3.422x10-3x 10x 103 trf a
terII
= 34.22Y
PDC = d.c.output power = EocIoc
= 34.22x3.422x
10-3
= 0.1171W
This also can be obtained as,
r2
Poc = 4R,
'L

- (ro'zs"roj)' x 10x 103

n2
= 0.11,71W
Pec = a.c.input power
= I S u s [ R+, R r + R L ]

= (s.azs,ro4)2[ro+75+1ox103] 3.4
= 4.2913W
o/o11= t* too =
o'1171
,1oo
Poc " 0.2913
= 40.19"/o
The ripple factor is constant for half wave rectifier and is 1.21.
1f - 1.21,
Ex.3.2| a) Assumingidealdiode,calculatethed.c.outputaoltage the netutorkshownin
for
Fig.3.5.
U Repeat part (a)if theidealdiodeis replaced
bya silicondiode,haainga cut-in aoltage
of 0.7 V. Neglectdiodeforward-resistance.

rfu
VRc
T
F
R1=1kO trans

3.{.
c
and t
Fig.3.5
Filters E.D.C.-l 145 Rectifiersand Filtere

Sol. : In the circuit of Fig. 3.5, the diode will be forward biased during negative half cycle
of a.c. input voltage, and d.c. output voltage will be negative w.r.t. common ground
terminal, as shown.

a) For an ideal diode, cut-in voltage Vy = 0, Rr = 0

- Maximum value of a.c. input voltage
D.C.output voltage =
'!

= -15

= -4.77V
Negativesign indicatesthat voltageis negativew.r.t. ground.
b) For a silicondiode,Y,r= 0.7V, R1 is assumedto be zero.
- [ MaximumA'c' voltage- v' ]
D.c. output voltage =
It
- n 5- 0 . 7 1
=
fr

= -4.55V

3.4FullWaveRectifier
The full wave rectifier
D1
@ + conductsduring both positive
| | Fr.
+rdl
+ and negative half cycles of
| | t
Fl
l.
l< input a.c. supply. In order to
trDc l. RL
le. rectify both the half cycles of
rl t
3._t_ ; a.c.input, two diodesare used
ir in this circuit. The diodes feed
a common load R, with the
r*'':- '.tl ii @
+lac
N-r--
help of a center tap
transformer. The a.c. voltage
D2 is applied through a suitable
t- . :":.-c
power transformer with
Fig. 3.6 Full wave rectifier proper turns ratio.
The full wave rectifier circuit is shown in the Fig.3.6.
For the proper operation of the circuit, a center-tap on the secondary winding of the
transformer is essential.

3.4.1Operation of the Circuit

Consider the positive half cycle of ac input voltage in which terminal (A) is positive
and terminal (B) negative. The diode D, will be forward biased and hence will conducl
E.D.C.-l 146 Rectifiersand Filters EJ).C

while diode D, will be reverse biased and will act as open circuit and will not conduct.
This is illustrated inFig.3.7.

Dl
@
i-t l+
I
l-r.
-------> ld.l

I Arr
gll
AC.suppry
JI
>l
2t
-
V
iL RL

| ?ll
l___l
Fig.3.7Currentflow duringpositivehalfcycle
The diode D, supplies the load current, i.e. i, = i6' .This current is flowing through
upper half of secondary winding while the lower half of secondary winding of the
transformer carries no current since diode D, is reverse biased and acts as open circuit.
In the next half cycle of ac voltage, polarity reverses and terminal (A) becomes
negative and (B) positive. The diode D, conducts, being forward biased, while D, does
not, being reverse biased. This is shown in Fig. 3.8.

Th
orcult
:eed,r--l

3.d2 l

Fig.3.8Currentflow during negativehalf cycle

The diode D, supplies the load current, i.e. i, = iaz Now the lower half of the
secondary winding carries the current but the upper half does not.
It is noted that the load current flows in both half cycles of ac voltage and in the
same direction through the load resistance. Hence we get rectified output across the
load. The load current is sum of individual diode currents flowing in corresponding half
cycles. It is also noted that the two diodes do not conduct simultaneously but in
alternate half cycles.The individual diode currents and the load current are shown in
Fig.3.9
rnd Filters E.D.C.-l 147 Rectifiersand Filters

t :onduct.

Secondary F ;
-sm
voltage
(one half)
\: i/
0
ior

: tirough
r: of the
;::cuit. -I
rav - rDC
I

be'comes ort

: D. does Load voltage e,

Em
E"u = EDc
ort

Fig.3.9 Loadcurrentand voltagewaveformsfull waverectifier

Thus the full wave rectifier circuit essentially consists of two half-wave rectifier
circuits working independently (working in alternate half cycles of a c) of each other but
feeding a common load. The output load current is still pulsating d.c. and not pure d.c.

3.4.2Maximum Load Current

Let Rf = forward resistanceof diodes
R. winding resistanceof each half of secondary
RL load resistance
l.: : the
es instantaneous a.c. voltage acrosseach
half of secondary
d in the
.-
-- ::
rL^
tl tg e^ Ern..sin
ot
i- : half (D 2nf
: -.i in
E.- maximum value of a.c.input voltage
: '..nin
acrosseach half of secondary winding
 looking
Hence we can write the expression for the maximum value of load current,
at equivalent circuit shown in Fig 3.10.

Dl
Rf

Lowerhalf
of secondary
Upperhalf RL E"t
of secondary Rs
E"t
'-/

{a) Fis.3.l0 (b)

'r' Er.
=
[laPrl[,
where I. = maximum value of load current iL

3.4.3AverageDC Load Current (Ips)

Consider one cycle of load current it
from 0 to 2n to obtain the average value
which is d.c. value of load current.
il=I-sinrot O(alt(n
But for nto 2n, the current i1 is again
positive while sin ort term is negative
during nto2n. Hence in the region rto2n
the positive iL can be rePresented as
Fig.3.11
negative of In..sin (olt).
tL= -l-sinrot n< al < 2n
t- t+. -
I

./l
Ioc=i Iira1rtl
zn'o

= +J-,. ,*'' d('t)"J

sinotd(cut)
*[i',
-J'i''''' o('')]
d(<oo
*[J,*'t
- (-cos'01'
]
l? [t-.*'t)fi
and Filters 149 Rectifiersandllllglg
E.D.C.-l

[*.otn+ coso+ cos2n-cosr]

:nt, looking =
f
but cosTr - -1

= l*t<r)+1+1-(-1)1=*

IDc = for full waverectifier

*-, +
of two half wave
For half wave it is I*/n and full wave rectifier is the combination
obviously the d'c' value for
circuits acting urt"rn"1"i'y in two half cyclesof input. Hence
full wave circuit is 2l^/rt

3.4.4 Average DC Load Voltage (Eoc)

The d.c.load voltageis,
E D c= I o c R r = +

Substitutingvalue of I,,,,
2 Esm RL
EDc =
n[Rp +Rr+Rr]

I current it
eragevalue
=;['+gl 2 Er,n

:1'.t.
*ta* *'
' Rhence
But as Rl and & << Rr- L t
"
t : is again
Li negative 2E.t
Ep6 = -;
F,".n ;r to 2 rc
e-nted as
3.4.5RMS Load Current ( Inus)
:
The R.M.S.value of current, IsMs,is obtalnectas follovrs
l,2n
I n v s= , l * l i 2 t a l r o q
Y-ru0

can write,
Cl,:) since two half wave rectifier are similar in operation we
rIRMS
- -
*i o," sinortl2d(cot)

=r,ffiassin2<ot
 Rectifiersand Filters E.D.
E.D.C.-l 150

L - cos 2<ot

3.4.

= Im assin(2n)=sin(0)=g

Im
Invs =
"t,
?A.6DCPowerOutput(Poc) But
D.C.PoweroutPut = Encloc= I3c Rl
/.r \2
poc =['?J *'
I3.R,
Poc 4t1*,
n-

Substituting value of I* we get,

ti* 3.4
P o c= 7 ,r"*,
*t (R, + R, + Rr)z
:\P
Note : Instead of remembering this formula students can use the expression EoaIoa
or t2o.n, to calculate Po6 while solving the problems'

3"4.7LC Power Input (Pac)

'
Thea.c.powerinput is givenbY,
Pec = I3-r(R, +R, +Rr)
/t \2
= (Rr+R'+R')
[tJ
^pA.U
^ _ tl(nr+R,+nr)
2

Substituting value of I- we get,

Pnc =
E3*
(Rr +R. +Rr)2 "1*(Rr+R,+Rr)
 151 Rectifiersand Filters
E.D.C.-l
ilters
-2
tr rtt!-
D
rAC
2(Rr +R,+Rt)

3.4.8Rectifier EfficiencY(r)
Poa output
n= Pos inPut

2 , 1 n+, n
rk +R r)
--L'',
:s_\:L--:l-
2
8 Rr-
n=- n t ( R r + R r + R t )
it from denominator
But if Rp+ R. (( R1, neglecting
8Rr _8
n2(RL) Tt'

o/or1,,'u*= 100= 812%

ix
efficiency of full wave rectifier'
This is the maximum theoretical

3.4.9RiPPleFactor (Y) is given by a general

wave rectifier the ripple factor
As clerived earlier in caseof half
expression,

Ripple factot' =

-- \ lJ2 and Ioc=21^ln so'

For full wave Iws

substitutingin the aboveequation'

Ripple factor

RiPPlefactor= T=0'48
Thisindicatesthattheripplecontentsintheoutputare43%ofthed.c.component
wave circuit'
,tf',i.frlt t""ch lessthan that for half
E.D.C.-l 152 Rectifiersand Filters

3.4.10Load Current (i1)

the series for
The fourier series for the load current is obtained by taking the sum of
half cycles, i'e' there
the individual rectifier current. The two diodes conduct in alternate
is a phase difference of nradians between two diode currents' Hence,

tdt - ,, -
+l sinrot
[ fr*tatt'..]
ficos?tnt-
t

and io, = ia, with <,rt replaced bY (<ot+ n) I

io, - t, + sin(rot + - 'o' a@t+r)"']
* *)- 3.os2(cot I
[i ] "1 fr
- t, - rn.t - cos(zax +aT
+ zn)- cos(+ot )"']
[| ] fr fr
= t. - lsinot- L cos?t'tt-t*nt'"']
fl fr
Then the fourier seriesfor the load current is,
L
io, * ia,
= t^n- +-"os- .ora't"']
zotfi
the
The first term in the above series representsthe average or dc value' while
of the ripple is 2f, i.e' twice
remaining terms "ripple". It is seenthat the lowest frequency
load current of the
the supplj, fruquur,Cyof ac supply. The lowest ripple frequencyin the
full-wiveconnection, is double than that in ihe half-wave connection'
. As seen from Fig. 31 and,Fig 3.8 the individual diode currents are flowing in
Hence the net
opposite directions ihrougt the haro-halvesof the secondarywinding'
s,econdarycurrent will be differenceof individual diode currents.
Thus, ir". = iot - io,
series of
The fourier series of ir.. is obtained by the difference between the
individual diode currents.Using aboverelationswe can write,
i""t = I*sinrot
No d'c'
Hence under ideal conditions,the secondarycurrent is purely sinusoidal'
saturation' This
component flows through the secondaryhence there is no danger of
circuit' Thus the
reduces the transfor*"i lorrus and overall size and cost of the
transformergetsutilised effectively.

3.4.11 Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

biased
It can be observedfrom the circuit diagram that when the diode is reversed
it' The drop across
then full transformer secondary voltage gets impressed across
voltage which
to
conducting diode is assumedzero. ThuJthe peak val-u9of the inverse
diode gets"subjectedis voltage acrossboth the parts of the transformer secondary'
Filters E.D.e.-l 153 Rectifiersand Filterc

pIV of diode = 2 Er*

n e si o r =_ r, rF! *D^Cl l t D C _ 6 (
| :rere
where Esm=maXimum value of a.c.voltage acrosshalf the transformer secondary.

3.4.12TransformerUtilizationFactor(T.U.F.)
In full wave rectifier, the secondarycurrent flows through each half separatelyin
every half cycle. Wtrite the primary of transformer carries current continuously. Hence
T.U.F is calculatedfor primary and secondarywindings separatelyand then the average
llr T.U.F.is determined.
DC power to load
SecondarvT.U.F =
AC power rating of secondary

= IfuR, =
ERMS I,,,,,

Neglecting forward resistance \ of diode, Er,',- [^R .

ile the
SecondaryT.U.F. = 3"^'o'- ,
[-'R, n2
, :''\'ice
2
c: the
= 0.812
L i lrt The primary of the transformer is feeding two half-wave rectifiers separately.These
l'.e r.et two half-wave rectifiers work independently of eachother but feed a common load. We
havealreadyderived the T.U.F.for half wave circuit to be equalto 0.287. Hence
T.U.F.for primary winding = 2x T.U.F.of half wave circuit
les of = 2x0.287
-- 0.574.
The averageT.U.Ffor fullwave circuit will be
AverageT.Ll.F.for T.U.F of primary+ T.U.F of secondary
=
- -:.ls 2
full wave rectifier circuit
t-* :.".g
0.574+0.812
2
= 0.693
l:a-d
.'.AverageT.U.F.for full-wave rectifier= 0.693
A::-TSS
ir'::.h Thus in full-wave circuit transformer gets utilized more than the half wave rectifier
circuit.
 154 Rectifiers and Filters
E.D.G.I

3.4.13Voltage Regulation
with- respect to the load current' The
The secondary voltage should not change
the chutge in d'c' output voltage as
voltage regulation i, inl iu.tor which tells us"about
toaa Inanfes from no load to full load condition'
If (Vot)r'rr'= D'C' voltageon no load
(V6.)rr- = D'C' voltageon full load

then voltage regulation is defined as

(va')NL - (va')rr' ...(3.1)
Voltageregulation =
1V6.)nr_
circuit'
,:l.essthe value of voltageregulation,betteris the performanceof rectifier
For a full wave circuit,
=
(V6.)Nr- ...( 3.2)
+
(V6r)rr- = Inc Rt-
...(3.3)
and
as'
The regulationcanbe exPressed
2E'- -IocRr-
%R = tr xL00
IocRr-
Er^
Now Im=
R, +Rt +R,

Er,,. = I - ( R r + R t + R . )
)l
T-
and IDC
;
-^*
)l
[Rr+ R ,+
- nrl-?n'
n x 100
%R=
fi

R6+R1 +R, -Rt x 100

RL

R tj n t
= ,.100
RL
canbe expressedas'
Neglectingwinding resistanceR' the regulation
ntrroo
%R =

where Rf = forward resistanceof the diode'

 ry-

ters E.D.C.-l 155 Rectifiersand Filters

3.4.14Comparisonof Full Wave and Half f{vl Circuit

l:e For comparison, we assume that the full-wave and half-wave circuits use identical
E. :i diodes, identical load resistancesand the voltage across half the secondary winding of
transformer used in full-wave circuit is the same as the voltage across the secondary
winding of the transformer used in half-wave circuit'
1. The d.c. load current in case of full wave circuit is twice to that in half wave
circuit; similarly the D.C. load voltage in full wave circuit is twice that in half
wave circuit.
2. The lowest ripple frequency in full wave circuit is twice that in half wave
circuit. Now to remove ripple the additional circuits called filter circuits are
used along with rectifier circuits. But as the frequency is more in full-wave, the
capacitor values required in capacitance filter are much less hence smaller
elements are sufficient in filter circuits used with full wave circuit to reduce
ripple.
3. Becausethere is no net d.c. current through windings of the transformer used in
full wave circuit, the lossesare less as compared to lossesin transformer used in
half wave circuit.
4. The full wave connection gives dc Power output four times as large, when
compared with half wave connection.
5 . The efficiency of rectification in a full wave connection is twice that for half
wave connection.
6. The ripple-factoris lessfor full-wave, i.e. rectificationis more nearly complete
for full wave as comparedto half-wave'
Ex.3.3: Afull-waaerectifiercircuitisfedfroma transformer haainga center-tapped secondary
winding.Thermsaoltage from eitherendof secondary to centertapis 30V. thediode
lf
forward resistance is 2 Clandthato! thehalfsecondnry is 8 {2,for a loadof
'1.ldl,
calculate
s) Powerdeliaered to load,
b) % Regulatiort atfull load,
c) EfficiencY of rectification,
il TUF of secondarY.
S o 1 . :G i v e n : E . : 3 0 V , R - r = 2 0 , R , : 8 f ) , R L : l k Q
\r Es = ERl,ts= 30 V
Er,,, = E, ,[2 : 30J1 volt=42'426Y
E rn, za ft-
T
rm- -_ 2 + "1" 0
4 00+8
Rf+RL+Rs

= 42mA
 ..-i
--.--

E.D.C.-l 156 Rectifiersand Filters

-)
Ioc = I,o=26.74mA
n
a) Power delivered to load
= I r o " R , : ( 2 6 . - ' tx4 l o - 3 ) 2 ( t t < o )
= 0.71.5W

b) V p 6 , n o l o a d= 3 r . . =?r30Ji

= 27V
Vo., full load = Ioc Rr, = (26.74mA) (1 16))
= 26.74V
VNl, - Vpt-
% Regulation = 1gg
vrl "

-
_ 27 26.74x 100
26.74
= 0.97%
D.C.output
c) Efficiencyof rectification _
A.C.input
8 - 8x l-
r * (2+8)
n2 *R. n2
,-Rf
t,- l , -

RL 1000
= 0.802i.e. 80.2%
d) Transformersecondaryrating
= Enus Inus
= r3ou E='Al
LJZI
= 0.89W
D'c' PoweroutPut
T.U.F. =
A.C. rating

= 07L5
0.89
= 0.802

Ex.3.4\ For thefull-waaerectifiercircuitshownin theFig.3.1.2V is a sinusoidalaoltage.lf the

maximumallowableaaerage d.c,currentin eachdiodeis 1.A, calculatethemaximum
allowablepeak-to-peak aalueof V. Assumelwo diodesto beidmtical,andneglectdiode
resistance in forwarddirection.
 ]tH;Ew!'6t!r'*

E.D.C.-l 157 Rectifiersand Filters

s

Fig.3.12
=
Sol.: Given: F.W. rectifier with R1 100O, A.C. input voltage is V

Let V- is maximum value or amplitude of sinusoidal voltage, across each half of the
secondary winding.
Maximum lp"for each diode = 1A
A full-wave rectifier essentially consists of two independent half-wave rectifiers
feeding a common load.
The averageIo" per H.W. rectifier diode
rv
=l I- =-1 --q u,'hglgltn _vm
fiKl RL

vm
1A=l
fr RL

Vm = nRr=nx100
= 314.16
V
Vpeak ro pear = Vru, t 2
"
= 628.32V

3.5BridgeRectifier
The bridge rectifier circuits are mainly used as,
a) a power rectifier circuit for converting ac Power to dc power, and
b) a rectifying systemin rectifier type ac meters,.suchas ac voltmeter, in which the
ic voltage under measurementis first converted into dc and measured with
conventional meter. In this system, the rectifying elements are either coPPer
9|ide tYPeor seleniumtYPe.
The basicbridge rectifiercircuit is shown in Fig. 3.13.

[Lr
E.D.C.-l 158 Rectifiersand Filters

Jrr
ACSupp'v E
-DC

l-,["

Fig.3.13Bridgerectifiercircuit
The bridge rectifier circuit is essentially a full-wave rectifier circuit, using four
diodes, forming the four arms of an electrical bridge. To one diagonal of the bridge, the
ac voltage is applied through a transformer if necessary,and the rectified dc voltage is
taken frop the other diagonal of the bridge. The main advantage of this circuit is that it
does not require a center tap on the secondary winding of the transformer. Hence
wherever possible, ac voltage can be directly applied to the bridge-

3.5.1Operation of the Circuit

Considerthe positivehalf of ac input voltage.The point A of secondary
becomes
positive. The diodes D, and D, will be forward biased, while D, and Dn reverse biased.
The two diodes D, and Dr conduct in series with the load and the current flows as
shown in Fig. 3.14.

Fig. 3.14Currentflow during positivehalf cycle

In the next half cycle, when the polarity of ac voltage reverses hence point B
becomes positive diodes D, and Dn are forward biased, while D, and D, reverse biased.
Now the diodes D, and D. conduct is series r,r'ith the load and the current flows as
shown in Fig.3.1.4.
lt is seen that in both cvcles of ac, the load current is flowing in the same direction
hence, we get a full-wave rectified output"
 159 Rectifiersand Fj!!9q9
E.D.C.-l

exactly same as shown before for

The rt'aveforms of load current and voltage remain
full- wave rectifier.

;-l

Fig. 3.15Currentflow during negativehalf cycle

for VariousParameters
3.5.2Expressions
full-wave rectifier circuit; all the
The bridge rectifier circuit, being basically a
circuit using two diodes, are the
characteristicdiscussedpreviously for a full-wave
of a bridge rectifiercircuit'
characteristic
load current and Ioa ' Ip"5 remains
The relation between I* the maximum value of
circuit'
same as derived earlier for the full wave rectifier
3- ur't4 torr,=
Ipc =
3
This will be clear from the equivalent
The exPression for I- will change slightly.
circuit shown in the F i 9 . 3 . 1 6 .

I
r

Rs
i
II
= F-sm

x
X,. ,".

Fig.3.16
 E.D.C.l 160 Rectifiersand Filters

each half cycle two diodes conduct simultaneously.Hence maximum value of

. l"
load currentis,
E't
I- =
R, +2R, + R,
So the only modification is that instead of R6, which is forward resistance
- of each
diode, the term 2 Rl appears in the denominator.
The remaining expressions are identical to those derived for two diode full
wave
rectifier and reproduced for the convenience of the reader.
itr
Eoc = I*Ra =-"Sm

t4
Poc = I3c Rr.= *r31 nI-
n'
Pac = Ii',r(R. +2R, +Rr)

_ t l ( z n ,+ R ,+ R r )
2
8Rr
n-
n ' ( R , + 2 R ' "+ R r )
Torl-u,. = 81.2%
y= 0.48
The E"* is the maximum value of a.c. voltage across full secondary winding
of the
transformer used.
As the current flows through the entire secondary of the transformer for all the
time,
the transformer utilization factor is 0.8L2. This is more than the T.U.F for
full wave
rectifier circuit.
The basic voltage regulation expression remains same as,
(va.)Nr.-(va.)er
%R = ,too
(Va.)rI.
Approximately it can be expressedas'
.ro
%R - "'f x100
RL

3.5.3Advantages
of BridgeRectilierCircuit
,-t) The current in both the pri and of the transformer flows
for the entire cycle and bente_fal ut, r tra
small size arJdlesscostmay be used.
 E.D.C.-| i6i RectillerrandFi]len

2) -l!q-slt"r-tgp is-lequired in the lransfgrmersqqqldary.Hence,wherever

", possible,aqtqqllqg_e
cql dilectly beappliedto thebridge.
pe-@ of the triuufqrmeriq-rneppositedireqrionin two
"3) half cycles.Hencer€! e!.c..gomponertlfefgllgj!
-- ----------s- rglg *hi.b_eedrees_&"=brq",
and danger of saturath

,A) Due to pure a-lternating

cr{r91t_1qr-9ec9ry!gy
of transformer,.
the transls,lmer
gets utilised effectively and henceth_ecirqu.itii zuiEble
lble fgl
fq!_qpp!&egqnswhere
large powers are reqlired.
5) As two diodesconductin seriesin eachhalf cyg!g,1nv_e1s_e_vq!lage appearing
gqloqr {tg4e€eIgr11ea. ff;nce ttre .ir.,rit-'."r, b9 _uted_forhigh voltage
:ppltsglbsqtuch a peakreJ/er:eyoltageappearingacrossdiode is c1Ue4peit
i$rersevoItage;a gng_(B[!) gf_diode.
3.5.4 Disadvantagesof Bridge Rectifier
The only disadvantage
of bridge rectifieris the useof four diodesgEgomparedto
two diodes in normal fgll_lgave-Eetrfier.
t"9i."ted bu r"r^ 2 ",
E t
y_9!taee.
Ex.3.5: A 5 Kl loadisfedfromabridgerectifierconnected acrossa tranformer
secondarywhose
primaryis connected to 460V, 50Hz supply.Theratioofnumberofprimaryturnsto
secondary turnsis 2:1.
Calculate d'c.Ioad current, d.c.Ioad ooltage,
rippleaoltage andP.LV.ratingofdioite.
S o l :. R , = 5 1 6 . ! 5
= x 1 0 3C ) ,N r : N 2i s 2 : 1

Ep = 460Vn.u.svalue
-
E " N r 1- . 3 = -
=
EPNI 2
1
E. = =230V
;tEp
Er,n = {f r E, =230x J1=j25.269y. Qs.Ew

now IDc = wheret^= R1.

+ eneglecting
2Et,,. -2x325'269
I.,r- =
trRt- nx 5 x l0l3
= 41.41mA
D.C.loadvoltageEDc =' Ipc * Rr = 41.41x10-3x$x 103
= 207.072Y
Ripplevoltage = Ripplefactorr Vnc