C2.1.

Objectives
Explain the role of Physical layer protocols and services in supporting communication across data networks. Describe the role of signals used to represent bits as a frame as the frame is transported across the local media Describe the purpose of Physical layer signaling and encoding as they are used in networks Identify the basic characteristics of copper, fiber and wireless network media Describe common uses of copper, fiber and wireless network media

Physical Layer

The role of Physical Layer

The roles of the OSI physical layer:
To encode the binary digits that represent data link layer frames into signals. To transmit and receive these signals across the physical media.

Physical Layer Protocols & Services

Distinguish who establishes and maintains standards for the Physical layers compared to those for the other layers of the network

There are various types of physical media and they carry different types of signals.
Copper cable electrical voltage. Fiber optic light pulses. Wireless electromagnetic waves.

Physical layer will encode the binary data in a frame to the proper type of signal depending on the physical media used. The technologies include four areas of the physical layer standards:
Physical and electrical properties of the media. Mechanical properties (materials, dimensions, pinouts) of the connectors. Bit representation by the signals (encoding). Definition of control information signals.
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Physical Layer Protocols & Services

Three fundamental functions of the physical layer:
Data encoding Signaling The physical components

Physical Layer Encoding and Signaling

Encoding refers to the method of converting a stream of data bits into a predefined code.
Codes are groupings of bits used to provide a predictable pattern that can be recognized by both the sender and the receiver. Encoding is also used for control information such as identifying the beginning and end of a frame. This is normally represented using specific patters of 0s and 1s.

Signaling refers to the process of converting the encoded bit streams into signals.
The signals generated is dependent on the physical media. The method of representing the bits is called the signaling method.

The processes of encoding and signaling complete the preparation of data for transmission over the physical media. The physical layer sends these bits out one at a time onto the medium as a signal and those signals get picked up and decoded at the receiving end.
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Binary encoding data

4B/5B encoding used in 100 Mbps Ethernet LAN) 4 bits of data are turned into 5-bit code symbols. (Example: data bits 0011 can be represented by the code bits 10101). These 5-bit code symbols may represent data or control information such as symbols that indicate beginning / end of transmission.

Signaling bits for the media

Bits are represented on the medium by changing one or more of the following signal characteristics:
Amplitude Frequency Phase

To make sure that the receiver reads the signals at the right time, the timing for both senders and receivers needs to be synchronized.
Done by the use of a clock signal. This ensures that they both have the same bit time (the time that the signal for one bit stays on the media).

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Types of physical media

The physical layer defines the standards for the physical components of a network (copper, fiber cables) and the connectors used on them. The standards vary depending on the type of physical media used and its applications. In general, there are three types of media:
Copper media Fiber media Wireless media

Cooper media
There are various types of copper media:
Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable Coaxial cable Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable

For each type, there are standards that specify the following characteristics:
Bandwidth of the communication Type of connecters to be used Pinout and color codes of connection to the media Maximum distance of the media

The voltage is quite low and easily distorted by outside interference and signal attenuation.
Interference (also known as noise): unwanted signals that can distort or corrupt data signals. Attenuation: the loss of energy in the signal as it travels longer distance.

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Coaxial Cable
Consists of a single, coated copper wire center and an outer metal mesh.
The outer metal mesh acts as both a grounding circuit and an electromagnetic shield to reduce interference.

UTP cable
UTP is the cheapest and the most common type of copper media used. Consists of eight wires twisted into four color-coded pairs.
The colors are used to identify wires for proper connection at the terminals. These four pair of wires are then bundled together into a cable jacket.

Applications of coaxial cable:

Used in older Ethernet LAN standards such as 10Base2 and 10Base5. Used in wireless implementations to connect antenna to wireless devices. Used to carry TV signals (cable TV).

Applications of UTP cable:

Telephone network Local area network (LAN)

UTP cable categories:

Category 5 (Cat 5) Used in 100 Mbps Ethernet LAN Category 5e (Cat 5e) Used in 1 Gbps Ethernet LAN

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UTP Cable
There are two standards that specify the cable pinout (the order of wires in the connector):
TIA/EIA 568A TIA/EIA 568B

STP cable
Consists of four pairs of wires that are wrapped in an overall metallic braid or foil. The entire bundle of wires as well as the individual wire are shielded within the cable.
STP provides better noise protection than UTP cabling, however at a significantly higher price.

There are three types of UTP cable, each with different pinout configuration.
Straight-through cable Crossover cable Rollover cable

STP is still useful in installations where electromagnetic interference is an issue.

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Fiber media
Identify several primary characteristics of fiber cabling and its main advantages over other media

Fiber optic cable

In fiber optic cable, data bits are encoded as light pulses generated using either laser or LED. The cable consists of glass or plastic fibers that can guide light pulses.
Uses a property of glass called total internal reflection where the light rays get reflected back and forth along the medium. Occurs when a ray of light strikes the boundary of a medium that has a higher index of refraction at an angle larger than the critical angle.

On the receiving end, a device called photodiode interprets the light signal and decode it to bits.

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Fiber optic cable

Advantages of fiber optic cable (as compared to copper cables):
Much greater capacity (bandwidth). Lower attenuation can run for longer distance. Immunity to electromagnetic interference. Cable has smaller size and weight.

Characteristics & Uses of Network Media

Identify several media characteristics defined by Physical layer standards.

Disadvantages of fiber optic cable:

More expensive. More easily damaged.

Fiber optic cable is normally used in backbone connections to connect between floors, buildings or remote sites.

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C2.2. Objectives
Explain the role of Data Link layer protocols in data transmission. Describe how the Data Link layer prepares data for transmission on network media. Describe the different types of media access control methods. Identify several common logical network topologies and describe how the logical topology determines the media access control method for that network. Explain the purpose of encapsulating packets into frames to facilitate media access. Describe the Layer 2 frame structure and identify generic fields. Explain the role of key frame header and trailer fields including addressing, QoS, type of protocol and Frame Check Sequence.
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Data Link Layer

Data link layer performs two basic services:
Allows the upper layers to access the media using techniques such as framing. Framing is the process of taking a packet (network-layer PDU), and adding an appropriate header and trailer to create a data link layer PDU (frame).

Controls how data is placed onto the media and is received from the media using techniques such as media access control (MAC) and error detection. Given a particular physical network, the data link layer is responsible for the transmission of data between source and destination devices connected to this network.

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Data Link Layer Accessing the Media

Data link layer is implemented by all the hosts and intermediary devices (routers and switches). At each hop along the path, a router processes the frame as follows:
Accept the frame from physical media Perform data link-layer processes such as error checking Decapsulate the frame into packet Construct a new frame appropriate for the next media Forward the packet inside the new frame across the next segment of the physical network

Data Link Layer Accessing the Media

There are two basic MAC methods for shared media.
Controlled: Each node has its own time to use the medium. Contention-based: All nodes compete for the use of the medium.

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Data Link Layer Accessing the Media

Identify several sources for the protocols and standards used by the Data Link layer

Media Access Control Techniques

Explain the necessity for controlling access to the media

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Media Access Control Techniques

Define Full Duplex and Half Duplex as it relates to Media Access Control for non-shared media

Media access control addressing and framing data

Ethernet frame fields:
Preamble: Used for time synchronization. Destination address: 48-bit MAC address of the destination node. Source address: 48-bit MAC address of the source node. Type: A value to indicate the upper-layer protocol that will receive the data. Data or payload: The network layer PDU, typically an IPv4 packet. Frame check sequence (FCS): Contains the CRC code used for error detection.

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CRC - Cyclic Redundancy Check

Each bit in the message is a coefficient in the polynomial MSG=10011010 M(x) = x7 + x4 + x3 + x1. Select a divisor polynomial C(x) with degree k C(x) = x3+ x2 + 1. Calculate xk M(x) xk M(x) / C(x) = Q(x) + R(x) Transmit M(x) i R(x).

CRC sender

CRC receiver

Receive (M(x), R(x)) Calculate: xk M(x) (xk M(x) + R(x)) / C(x) = Q(x) + R(x) If R(x) = 0, then is exactly divisible by C(x), so either
No errors (R(x) = 0), or There are errors, but happened to be divisible by C(x)
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STP Spanning Tree Protocol

Common CRC codes

The Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is a network protocol that ensures a loop-free topology for any bridged Ethernet local area network. Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is standardized as IEEE 802.1D. Protocol operation:
Select a root bridge. The root bridge of the spanning tree is the bridge with the smallest (lowest) bridge ID Determine the least cost paths to the root bridge. The port connecting to that path becomes the root port (RP) of the bridge. The port connecting this bridge to the network segment is then the designated port (DP) for the segment. Disable all other root paths. Any active port that is not a root port or a designated port is a blocked port (BP).

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Example:
B-Root: 19 B-C-D-Root: 42 B-C-D-E-B-Root: 176 C-B-Root: 38 C-D-Root: 23 C-D-E-B-Root: 157 D-Root: 4 D-C-B-Root: 57 D-E-B-Root: 138 E-B-Root: 119 E-D-Root: 23 E-D-C-B-Root: 76

Collision and Broadcast domain

A collision domain is a section of a network where data packets can collide with one another when being sent on a shared medium or through repeaters, in particular, when using early versions of Ethernet. A network collision occurs when more than one device attempts to send a packet on a network segment at the same time. A broadcast domain is a logical division of a computer network, in which all nodes can reach each other by broadcast at the data link layer.

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Collision and Broadcast domain

A switch creates a collision domain and no broadcast. A hub neither creates collision domain nor broadcast. A broadcast domain can be within the same LAN segment. Router breaks the network in 2 broadcast domain.

5-4-3 rule
The 5-4-3 rule is a design guideline for Ethernet computer networks covering the number of repeaters and segments on shared-access Ethernet backbones in a tree topology. It means that in a collision domain there should be at most 5 segments tied together with 4 repeaters, with 3 segments containing active senders.

Any computer connected to the same Ethernet repeater or switch is a member of the same broadcast domain.

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