Chapter Two Fundamental Parameters of Antennas

By: Amare Kassaw

Lecture Outlines Radiation Pattern Radiation Power Density and Radiation Intensity Beamwidth and Directivity Gain and Radiation Efficiency Input Impedance and Equivalent Areas Antenna Measurements (Project Assignments ) Summary
2

Antenna Radiation Pattern It is a mathematical function or a graphical representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as a function of spacial coordinates (See the convenient coordinates in the figure) Mostly determine in the far field region and is represented as a function of the directional coordinates. Even if the radiation properties include: Power flux density, Radiation intensity Field strength Directivity, Phase or polarization.
3

the most important radiation property is the two/ three dimensional spatial distribution of radiated energy as a function of the observers position along a path or surface of constant radius. Amplitude Field Pattern: A graph of the received electric (magnetic) field at a constant radius. The field pattern( in linear scale): represents a plot of the magnitude of the electric(magnetic) field as a function of the angular space.

Amplitude Power Pattern: A graph of the spatial variation of the power density along a constant radius. Mostly the field and power patterns are normalized with respect to their maximum value to give normalized field and power patterns. The power pattern is usually plotted on a logarithmic scale or more commonly in decibels (dB). The power pattern( in linear scale): represents a plot of the square of the magnitude of the electric (magnetic field) as a function of the angular space. The power pattern( in dB): represents the magnitude of the electric or magnetic field in decibels as a function of the angular space.
5

Figure : Coordinate system for antenna analysis.

6

Example: Figures in next slide show a two-dimensional normalized field pattern (plotted in linear scale), power pattern( plotted in linear scale), and power pattern (plotted on a logarithmic (dB) scale ) of a 10-element linear antenna array of isotropic sources, with a spacing of d = 0.25 between the elements. The pattern achieves its half-power (-3 dB points) relative to its maximum value when : The field pattern is at 0.707 value of its maximum. The power pattern (in linear scale) is at 0.5 value of its maximum The power pattern (in dB) is at 3 dB value of its maximum
7

All three patterns yield the same angular separation between the two half-power points(38.64)on their respective patterns, this angle is termed as HPBW. The three-dimensional pattern is measured and recorded in a series of two-dimensional patterns. But for most practical applications, a few plots of the pattern as a function of for some particular values of , plus a few plots as a function of for some particular values of , give most of the useful information.

Lobes of the Radiation Pattern Radiation lobe: is a portion of the radiation pattern bounded by regions of relatively weak radiation intensity. Figure below demonstrates a symmetrical three dimensional polar pattern with a number of radiation lobes.

10

The linear two dimensional (one plane of the above figure) part is shown below where the same pattern characteristics are indicated.

11

Major/Main Lobe: is the radiation lobe containing the direction of maximum radiation. In the above figure, the major lobe is pointing in the = 0 direction. Minor Lobe: is any lobe except a major lobe. In the above figure, all the lobes except the major lob are classified as minor lobes. Side Lobe: is a radiation lobe in any direction other than the intended lobe. Usually a side lobe is adjacent to the main lobe and occupies the hemisphere in the direction of the main beam. Back Lobe: is a radiation lobe whose axis makes an angle of approximately 180 with respect to the beam of an antenna. Usually it refers to a minor lobe that occupies the hemisphere in a direction opposite to that of the major lobe.
12

Minor lobes: usually represent radiation in undesired directions, and they should be minimized. Side lobes are normally the largest of the minor lobes. The level of minor lobes is usually expressed as a ratio of the power density of the lobe in question to that of the major lobe. This ratio is often termed as the side lobe ratio/ side lobe level.

Side lobe levels of 20 dB or smaller are usually not desirable in most applications. In most radar systems, low side lobe ratios are very important to minimize false target indications through the side lobes.
13

Directional Patterns of an Antenna Isotropic, Directional, and Omni directional Patterns

Isotropic radiator: is a hypothetical lossless antenna having equal radiation in all directions. It exists only in theory. It radiates equally in all directions, horizontally and vertically. It's radiation pattern would be a sphere surrounding the antenna. It has a gain of 1 dB (unity). Even if it is not physically realizable, it is used as a reference for expressing the directive properties of real world antennas.

14

Directional antenna : is one having the property of radiating or receiving electromagnetic waves more effectively in some directions than in others. This term is usually applied to an antenna whose maximum directivity is significantly greater than that of a half-wave dipole. The most common types are the Yagi-Uda antenna, the logperiodic antenna, and the corner reflector antenna.

15

Omnidirectional Antenna: is a real world antennas that radiate equally well in all horizontal directions. This antenna is generally dipole antennas orientated vertically. These include actual dipole, ground plane and various end-fed 1/2 waves antennas. Many gain measurements are made in reference to a dipole (dBd) rather than to an isotropic, although some manufacturers reference is isotropic because of its better gain.

16

Field Regions of the Antenna

The space surrounding an antenna is usually subdivided into three regions: reactive near-field radiating near-field (Fresnel) and far-field (Fraunhofer) regions These regions are designated to identify the field structure in each region. Although no abrupt changes in the field configurations as the boundaries are crossed, there are distinct differences among them.
17

Figure: Field regions of an antenna.

18

Reactive near-field region: is the portion of the near-field region immediately surrounding the antenna wherein the reactive field predominates. The outer boundary of this region is at a distance from the

antenna surface, where is the wavelength and D is the largest dimension of the antenna. In this region, the relationship between the strengths of the E and H fields is often too complex to predict. Either field components (E or H) may dominate at one point, and the opposite relationship dominate at a short distance away. This makes finding the true power density in this region very difficult.
19

Radiating near field (Fresnel) region: is the region of the field between the reactive near field region and the far field region. Here radiated fields are predominate and the angular field distribution is dependent upon the distance from the antenna. The over all boundary of this region is taken as

In this region, the field pattern is a function of the radial distance and the radial field component may be appreciable.

20

Far-field (Fraunhofer) region: is the region of the field of an antenna where the angular field distribution is essentially independent of the distance from the antenna. The far-field region is commonly taken to exist at distances greater than 2D2/ from the antenna. In this region, the field components are essentially transverse and the angular distribution is independent of the radial distance where the measurements are made.

21

Note that As the observation distance is varied from the reactive near field to the far field, the amplitude pattern of an antenna changes in shape because of variations of the fields both in magnitude and phase. In the reactive near field region, the pattern is more spread out and nearly uniform with slight variations. As the observation is moved to the radiating near-field region, the pattern begins to smooth and form lobes. In the far-field region, the pattern is well formed usually consisting of few minor lobes and one or more major lobes.
22

Radian and Steradian Measures

The measure of a plane angle is a radian. One radian is the plane angle with its vertex at the centre of a circle of radius r that is subtended by an arc whose length is r.

Since the circumference of a circle of radius r is C = 2r, there are 2 rad (2r/r) in a full circle.
23

The measure of a solid angle is a steradian. One steradian is the solid angle with its vertex at the centre of a sphere of radius r that is subtended by a spherical surface area equal to that of a square with each side of length r.

Since the area of a sphere of radius r is A = 4r2, there are 4 sr (4r2/r2) in a closed sphere.
24

The infinitesimal area dA on the surface of a sphere of radius r is given by

Therefore, the element of solid angle d of a sphere can be written as

Example (See handout)

25

Radiation Power Density and Radiation Intensity Radiation Power Density (W)
Electromagnetic waves are used to transport information from one point to another through a wireless medium or a guiding structure. Hence power and energy are associated with electromagnetic fields. The power associated with an electromagnetic wave is described by the instantaneous Poynting vector ( Power density )

26

Hence, the total power crossing a closed surface is given by

If the fields are time-harmonic as

The power density is given by

27

Now the time average poynting vector ( real power density) is

Question: If the real part of (E H)/2 represents the average (real) power density, what does the imaginary part of the same quantity represent? The imaginary part represents the reactive (stored) power density associated with the electromagnetic fields. More predominant in the reactive near field region

28

Using this power density, the average(real) power radiated by the antenna is

For isotropic radiator, the Poynting vector will not be a function of the spherical coordinate angles and , and it will have only a radial component.

29

Hence, the total radiated power by isotropic radiator is

Thus the power density by isotropic radiator is

Which is uniformly distributed over the surface of the sphere.

Example (See Handout)

30

Radiation Intensity (U) It is the power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle (Power density in a particular solid angle). It used to determine the rate of emitted energy from unit surface area through unit solid angle. It is a far-field parameter, and can be given by

With respect to the far field parameter of the antenna

31

Thus, the power pattern is also the measure of the radiation intensity. So, the total radiated power of an antenna is given by

For an isotropic radiator, U is independent of and , hence

Example( See Handout)

32

Beamwidth and Directivity

Beamwidth (BW)
It is as the angular separation between two identical points on opposite side of the pattern maximum. It is generally associated with the pattern of an antenna . We have two basic types of beamwidth: HPBW: the angle between the two directions in which the radiation intensity is one-half value of the beam at the peak. FNBW: is the angular separation between the first nulls of the pattern.
33

The beamwidth of an antenna is a very important figure of merit: It is used as a trade-off between it and the side lobe level. As the BW decreases, the side lobe increases and vice versa. It is also used to describe the resolution capabilities of the antenna to distinguish between two adjacent radiating sources or radar targets. The resolution capability of an antenna to distinguish between two sources is equal to (FNBW)/2. Hence two sources separated by an angular distance of FNBW/2 HPBW of an antenna with a uniform distribution can be resolved. Example(See Handout)

34

Directivity(D): It is the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions. Where the average radiation intensity is

Hence , the directivity of a non isotropic source is equal to the ratio of its radiation intensity in a given direction over that of an isotropic source as (Unit less quantity)

35

If the direction is not specified, it shows the direction of maximum radiation intensity (directivity) as

For an isotropic source, U= Uo =Umax, hence D=1. For antennas with orthogonal polarization components, the partial directivity of an antenna is given by the part of the radiation intensity corresponding to a given polarization divided by the total radiation intensity averaged over all directions. Here the total directivity is the sum of the partial directivities for any two orthogonal polarizations.
36

Example : for a spherical coordinate system, the total maximum directivity, D0 for the orthogonal and components of an antenna is given by

Example (See Handout)

37

The directivity is a figure of merit describing how well the radiator directs energy in a certain direction. It gives an indication of the directional properties of the antenna as compared with those of an isotropic source. Generally the directivity is bounded by

Example (See Handout)

38

Three-dimensional radiation intensity patterns for

39

Two and three dimensional directivity patterns of a /2 dipole. The graph shows the directivity of the dipole and the isotropic antenna

40

General Expression of Directivity

Here, we include sources with radiation patterns that may be a function of both spherical coordinate angles( and ). Let the radiation intensity of an antenna has the form

The maximum value of U is given by

And the total radiated power is thus

41

Now the general expression of the directivity and maximum directivity is

(1)

42

The beam solid angle is the solid angle through which all the power of the antenna would flow if its radiation intensity is constant and equal to the maximum value of U for all angles within But this equation is very difficult to evaluate for real time design procedures. Under this condition, we use the approximate analysis to evaluate the radiation intensity of antennas.

43

Approximate Analysis of Directivity ( Kraus, Tai & Pereira Equations) A. Kraus Approximation
For design purposes the previous formula is difficult to evaluate. Hence, for antennas with one narrow major lob and very negligible minor lobes, the beam solid angle is approximately equal to the product of the HPBW in to the perpendicular planes.

Beam solid angles for non symmetrical and symmetrical radiation patterns.

44

For a rotationally symmetric pattern, the HPBW in any two perpendicular planes are the same. Under this condition the beam solid angle is approximated

And then the directivity Kraus Approximation

If the beamwidths are given in degrees

Example(see Handout)

45

Radiation intensity pattern of the form U = cos in the upper hemisphere (for previous example)

46

B. Tai & Pereiras Approximation Here the maximum directivity is approximated by

and are the HPBW in radians of the E and H planes respectively. Rearranging the above equation , we get
Tai & Pereira Approximation
47

Example : Comparative Analysis

Consider the radiation intensity equation

where n=1-10, 11.28, 15 & 20 are taken as shown in the table below.

48

Analysis : From the table, it is evident that the error due to Tai & Pereiras formula is always negative. Hence, it predicts lower values of maximum directivity than the exact ones and monotonically decreases as n increases (the pattern becomes more narrow). However, the error due to Kraus formula is negative for small values of n and positive for large values of n.

49

For small values of n, the error due to Kraus formula is negative and positive for large values of n. The error is zero when n = 5.5 (HPBW of 56.35). In addition , for symmetrically rotational patterns the absolute error due to the two approximate formulas is identical when n = 11.28, which corresponds to a HPBW of 39.77. From these observations, we conclude that Kraus formula is more accurate for small values of n (broader patterns) while Tai & Pereiras is more accurate for large values of n (narrower patterns).
50

Based on absolute error and symmetrically rotational patterns, Kraus formula leads to smaller error for n < 11.28 (HPBW greater than 39 .77) while Tai & Pereiras leads to smaller error for n > 11.28 ( HPBW smaller than 39 .77).

Figure: Comparison of exact and approximate values of directivity for directional power patterns.

51

Directivity of Omnidirectional Patterns Some antennas (such as dipoles, loops, broadside arrays) exhibit omnidirectional patterns as shown below. In this case, the Omnidirectional pattern is given by ( n here is both positive and negative) the equation

Figure: Omnidirectional patterns with and without minor lobes.

52

The directivity of antennas with patterns represented by previous equation can be expressed by : Using the exact analysis Approximate analysis as McDonald approximation: based on the array factor of broad side array( we will see in chapter 4) Pozar approximation: based on curve fitting

More accurate for omnidirectional patterns with very small( or no) minor lobes.
53

Figure: Comparison of exact and approximate values of directivity for omnidirectional power patterns.
54

These curves can be used for design purposes as follows: Specify the desired directivity and determine the value of n and half-power beamwidth of the omnidirectional antenna pattern or Specify the desired value of n or half-power beamwidth and determine the directivity of the omnidirectional antenna pattern.

Example(see Handout)

55

Gain and Antenna Efficiency

Antenna Efficiency An antenna has different types of efficiencies. The total antenna efficiency is used to take into account losses at the input terminals and within the structure of the antenna. The losses in antenna may be due: Reflections because of the mismatch between the transmission line and the antenna I 2R losses (conduction and dielectric)

56

Reference terminals and losses of an antenna

57

The overall efficiency of the antenna is given by

In general Where
antenna radiation efficiency, which is used to

relate the gain and directivity.

58

Antenna Gain
It is the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction to the radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power accepted by the antenna were radiated isotropically. It is a measure that takes into account the efficiency of the antenna as well as its directional capabilities.

This gain does not include losses arising from impedance mismatches (reflection losses) and polarization mismatches (losses)
59

The relative gain with respect to a reference antenna ( dipole, horn, or lossless isotropic) is given by the ratio of the power gain in a given direction to the power gain of a reference antenna in its referenced direction. The power input must be the same for both antennas

The total radiated power (Prad) is related to the total input power (Pin ) by

60

While

does take into account the losses of the antenna

element itself, it does not take into account the losses when the antenna element is connected to a transmission line These connection losses are usually referred to as reflections (mismatch) losses, and they are taken into account by introducing a reflection(mismatch) efficiency which is related to the reflection coefficient by: Thus, we can introduce an absolute gain that takes into account the reflection/mismatch losses (due to the connection of the antenna element to the transmission line) as
61

The partial gain of an antenna for a given polarization in a given direction is that part of the radiation intensity corresponding to a given polarization divided by the total radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power accepted by the antenna were radiated isotropically. In this case the total gain is the sum of the partial gains for any two orthogonal polarizations. For a spherical coordinate system, the total maximum gain G0 for the orthogonal and components of an antenna can be

62

For many practical antennas an approximate formula for the gain for the approximate value of directivity is

63

Beam Efficiency It is used to judge the quality of transmitting and receiving antennas

Where 1 is the half-angle of the cone within which the percentage of the total power is to be found. If 1 is chosen as the angle where the first null or minimum occurs, then the beam efficiency will indicate the amount of power in the major lobe compared to the total power.
64

A very high beam efficiency (between the nulls or minimums), usually in the high 90s, is necessary for antennas used in radiometry, astronomy, radar, and other applications where received signals through the minor lobes must be minimized.

65

Input impedance and Equivalent Areas Input Impedance

The impedance presented by an antenna at its terminals The ratio of the voltage to current at a pair of terminals or The ratio of the appropriate components of the electric to magnetic fields at a point For the equivalent circuit of antennas in transmitting mode(next slide), the input impedance at terminal a-b is given by

66

67

Where part of the impedance of the antenna is

Now for a generator impedance of Zg = Rg + jXg , the power radiated and dissipated by the antenna is given by

68

The remaining power is dissipated as heat on the internal resistance Rg of the generator is given by

Maximum power is transferred to the antenna when we have conjugate matching (Rr + RL = Rg and XA = Xg), for this case

69

From the above equation we get

Of the power that is generated by the generator: Half is dissipated as heat in the internal resistance (Rg) of the generator and the other half is delivered to the antenna. Of the power that is delivered to the antenna, if the antenna is lossless and matched to the transmission line(eo = 1): Half of the total power supplied by the generator is radiated by the antenna during conjugate matching And the other half is dissipated as heat in the generator.
70

Equivalent Areas An antenna in the receiving mode is used to capture (collect) electromagnetic waves and to extract power from them For each antenna, an equivalent length and a number of equivalent areas can be defined. These equivalent quantities are used to describe the receiving characteristics of an antenna when a wave is incident upon the antenna.

71

Equivalent circuit of an antenna in receiving mode

72

The equivalent areas describe the power capturing characteristics of the antenna when a wave impinges on it. Effective area (aperture): is the ratio of the available power at the terminals of a receiving antenna to the power flux density of a plane wave incident on the antenna from that direction. If the direction is not specified, the direction of maximum radiation intensity is implied. In equation form it is written as

73

The effective aperture is the area which when multiplied by the incident power density gives the power delivered to the load. Using the previous circuit, we get

Under conjugate matching (Rr + RL = RT & XA = XT)

All of the power that is intercepted, collected, or captured by an antenna is not delivered to the load. In fact, under conjugate matching only half of the captured power is delivered to the load; the other half is scattered and dissipated as heat.
74

Therefore to account for the scattered and dissipated power we need to define the scattering, loss and capture equivalent areas. The scattering area: is the equivalent area when multiplied by the incident power density is equal to the scattered or reradiated power

The loss area: is the equivalent area, which when multiplied by the incident power density leads to the power dissipated as heat through RL The capture area: is the equivalent area which when multiplied by the incident power density leads to the total power captured, collected, or intercepted by the antenna.
75

In general: Capture Area = Effective Area + Scattering Area + Loss Area

Finally based on the equivalent areas , the aperture efficiency is given by

Example : See Handout

76

Maximum Effective Areas Which is related to the maximum directivity of the antenna Let us consider figure below

Figure : Two antennas separated by a distance R

77

Let the effective areas and directivities of each be At, Ar & Dt, Dr. If antenna one is a transmitter Antenna two is a transmitter
With similar analysis for linear , passive and isotropic medium

78

Now from the above equation

79

Hence if the transmitter is an isotropic antenna and the receiver is an infinitesimal dipole(l<<), the maximum effective aperture (Aem) of any antenna is related to its maximum directivity (D0) by

When this is multiplied by the power density of the incident wave it gives the maximum power that can be delivered to the load. This is based on the assumption that there are no conduction-dielectric losses (radiation efficiency ecd is unity), the antenna is matched to the load (reflection efficiency, er is unity), and the polarization of the impinging wave matches that of the antenna (polarization loss factor PLF and polarization efficiency pe are unity).
80

If there are losses associated with an antenna, its maximum effective aperture must be modified to account for conductiondielectric losses (radiation efficiency) as

If reflection and polarization losses are also included, then the maximum effective area is given by

Example : See Handout

81

Antenna Measurements: Project Assignments Range and pattern measurements (group 1) Directivity and Gain measurements (group 2) Polarization measurements (group 3) Input characteristic measurements ( group4)

82

Summery The fundamental parameters of antennas that are used for antenna design purposes are frequency, directivity, gain, bandwidth, impedance, and polarization. The radiation pattern: defines the variation of the power radiated by an antenna as a function of the direction away from the antenna. This power variation as a function of the arrival angle is observed in the antenna's far field. The fields surrounding an antenna are divided into 3 principle regions: Reactive near field, radiating near field and far field.

83

Directivity is a fundamental antenna parameter. It is a measure of how 'directional' an antenna's radiation pattern is. An antenna that radiates equally in all directions would have effectively zero directionality, and the directivity of this type of antenna would be 1 (or 0 dB). The efficiency of an antenna relates the power delivered to the antenna and the power radiated or dissipated within the antenna. A high efficiency antenna has most of the power present at the antenna's input radiated away. A low efficiency antenna has most of the power absorbed as losses within the antenna, or reflected away due to impedance mismatch.
84

The main beam of antenna is the region around the direction of maximum radiation (usually the region that is within 3 dB of the peak of the main beam). The sidelobes are smaller beams that are away from the main beam. These sidelobes are usually radiation in undesired directions which can never be completely eliminated. The Half Power Beamwidth (HPBW) is the angular separation in which the magnitude of the radiation pattern decrease by 50% (or 3 dB) from the peak of the main beam

85

The antenna gain describes how much power is transmitted in the direction of peak radiation to that of an isotropic source. Antenna gain is more commonly quoted in a real antenna's specification sheet because it takes into account the actual losses that occur. An antenna with a gain of 3 dB means that the power received far from the antenna will be 3 dB higher (twice as much) than what would be received from a lossless isotropic antenna with the same input power. Antenna impedance relates the voltage to the current at the input terminals of the antenna
86

The effective aperture describes how much power is captured from a given plane wave. Effective aperture or effective area can be measured on actual antennas by comparison with a known antenna with a given effective aperture

87

The polarization of an antenna is the polarization of the radiated fields produced by an antenna, evaluated in the far field. Hence, antennas are often classified as "Linearly Polarized" or a "Right Hand Circularly Polarized Antenna". This simple concept is important for antenna to antenna communication. First, a horizontally polarized antenna will not communicate with a vertically polarized antenna. Due to the reciprocity theorem, antennas transmit and receive in exactly the same manner. Hence, a vertically polarized antenna transmits and receives vertically polarized fields. Consequently, if a horizontally polarized antenna is trying to communicate with a vertically polarized antenna, there will be no reception.

88