GEL104: PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Dr. Nitin K. Goel Department of Electrical Engineering IIT Ropar Room No. - 228 Email: [email protected] Web: http://nkgoel.tech.officelive.com

DC CIRCUITS

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Electrical Circuits
Electrical circuits can get quite complex. But at the simplest level, you always have the source of electricity (a battery, etc.), a load (a light bulb, motor, etc.), and two wires to carry electricity between the battery and the load. Electrons move from the source, through the load and back to the source.

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DC Circuits
An Ideal DC circuit (Direct Current Circuit) is an electrical circuit that consists of any combination of constant voltage sources, constant current sources, and resistors. In this case, the circuit voltages and currents are constant, i.e., independent of time.

More technically, a DC circuit has no memory. That is, a particular circuit voltage or current does not depend on the past value of any circuit voltage or current. This implies that the system of equations that represent a DC circuit do not involve integrals or derivatives (no time dependency).
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DC Circuits
If a capacitor and/or inductor is added to a DC circuit, the resulting circuit is not, strictly speaking, a DC circuit. However, most such circuits have a DC solution. This solution gives the circuit voltages and currents when the circuit is in DC steady state. More technically, such a circuit is represented by a system of differential equations. The solution to these equations usually contain a time varying or transient part as well as constant or steady state part. It is this steady state part that is the DC solution. There are some circuits that do not have a DC solution. Two simple examples are a constant current source connected to a capacitor and a constant voltage source connected to an inductor.
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DC Circuits

In electronics, it is common to refer to a circuit that is powered by a DC voltage source such as a battery or the output of a DC power supply as a DC circuit even though what is meant is that the circuit is DC powered.

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CIRCUIT PRINCIPLES
Interconnection of several Circuit Elements Electrical Circuit Circuits of Considerable Complexities Networks Network Theorems: Circuit Principles that are capable of general applications in electrical networks.
Linear Networks Combination of components represented by Ideal R, L and C and Ideal energy sources V and I Branch: Part of a circuit with two terminals for connection. Node: Merging point of two or more branches Loop: A closed path formed by connecting branches

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KCL and KVL

Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL) are the fundamental laws of circuit analysis. KCL is the basis of nodal analysis in which the unknowns are the voltages at each of the nodes of the circuit. KVL is the basis of mesh analysis in which the unknowns are the currents flowing in each of the meshes of the circuit.

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KIRCHOFF CURRENT LAW

This fundamental law results from the conservation of charge. It applies to a junction or node in a circuit -- a point in the circuit where charge has several possible paths to travel. IA is the only current flowing into the node. However, there are three paths for current to leave the node, and these current are represented by IB, IC, and ID. Once charge has entered into the node, it has no place to go except to leave (this is known as conservation of charge). The total charge flowing into a node must be the same as the the total charge flowing out of the node. So, IB + IC + ID = I A Bringing everything to the left side of the above equation, we get (IB + IC + ID) - IA = 0 Then, the sum of all the currents is zero.
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KIRCHOFF CURRENT LAW

The algebraic sum of all currents entering a node is zero, or

i
j =1

=0

The sum of currents entering node is equal to sum of currents leaving node. Note the convention we have chosen in previous slide: Current flowing into the node are taken to be negative, Currents flowing out of the node are positive. It should not really matter which you choose to be the positive or negative current, as long as you stay consistent.
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KIRCHOFF VOLTAGE LAW

- It states that the algebraic sum of the voltages around a closed loop must be zero at any instant.
n

v
j =1

=0

Here the total voltage around loop 1 should sum to zero, as does the total voltage in loop2. Furthermore, the outer loop of the circuit (the path ABCD) should also sum to zero. We can adopt the convention that potential gains (i.e. going from lower to higher potential, such as with an EMF source) is taken to be positive. Potential losses (such as across a resistor) will then be negative. However, as long as you are consistent in doing your problems, you should be able to choose whichever convention you like.
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NETWORK THEOREMS AND ANALYSIS

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LINEAR CIRCUIT
A linear circuit consists of linear elements. The passive elements, the dependent sources and the independent sources used in a linear circuit are linear.

Linearity of Elements
Voltage across a resistor varies proportionally with its current.

Linearity is between the flux linkage and the current

Linearity is between the charge stored and the capacitor voltage

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SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
The superposition theorem is a method of solving circuits, often used in Linear circuits with more than one EMF source. It uses Kirchhoff's Voltage Law. Limitations: Applied only to linear effects such as the current response

The strategy used in the Superposition Theorem is to eliminate all but one source of power within a network at a time, using series/parallel analysis to determine voltage drops (and/or currents) within the modified network for each power source separately. Once voltage drops and/or currents have been determined for each power source working separately, the values are all superimposed on top of each other (added algebraically) to find the actual voltage drops/currents with all sources active.

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SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
This theorem states that the linear responses in a circuit with multiple sources can be obtained as the algebraic sum of responses, due to each of the independent sources acting alone.
There are two guiding properties Linearity (Proportionality)- Effect (y) is directly proportional to the cause (x) y=f(x) Additivity If f is linear f(x+dx)=f(x)+f(dx) y+dy

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Example of Superposition Theorem

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SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

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EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
An equivalent circuit refers to the simplest form of a circuit that retains all of the electrical characteristics of the original (and more complex) circuit. In its most common form, an equivalent circuit is made up of linear, passive elements. Two circuits are equivalent if they present the same V-I characteristics.

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PARALLEL DC CIRCUIT

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SERIES-PARALLEL DC CIRCUIT

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Thevenins Theorem

Any black box containing only voltage sources, current sources, and other resistors can be converted to a Thvenin equivalent circuit, comprising exactly one voltage source and one resistor.

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Thvenin's Theorem
In circuit theory, Thvenin's theorem for linear electrical networks states that any combination of voltage sources, current sources, and resistors with two terminals is electrically equivalent to a single voltage source V and a single series resistor R. For single frequency AC systems the theorem can also be applied to general impedances, not just resistors. The theorem was first discovered by German scientist Hermann von Helmholtz in 1853[1], but was then rediscovered in 1883 by French telegraph engineer Lon Charles Thvenin (18571926).

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Calculating the Thvenin equivalent

To calculate the equivalent circuit, the resistance and voltage are needed, so two equations are required. These two equations are usually obtained by using the following steps:

Calculate the output voltage, VAB, when in open circuit condition (no load resistormeaning infinite resistance). This is VTh. Calculate the output current, IAB, when the output terminals are short circuited (load resistance is 0). RTh equals VTh divided by this IAB. The equivalent circuit is a voltage source with voltage VTh in series with a resistance RTh.
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Example

Step 0: The original circuit

Step 1: Calculating the equivalent output voltage

Step 2: Calculating the equivalent resistance

Step 3: The equivalent circuit

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Example (Contd.)
In the example, calculating the equivalent voltage

(notice that R1 is not taken into consideration, as above calculations are done in an open circuit condition between A and B, therefore no current flows through this part which means there is no current through R1 and therefore no voltage drop along this part) Calculating equivalent resistance:

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