iSeries

ILE Concepts
Version 5
SC41-5606-05

iSeries

ILE Concepts
Version 5
SC41-5606-05

Note Before using this information and the product it supports, be sure to read the information in Appendix D. Notices on page 195.

Sixth Edition (May 2001) This edition applies to version 5, release 1, modification 0 of the Licensed program IBM Operating System/400 (Program 5722-SS1) and to all subsequent releases and modifications until otherwise indicated in new editions. This edition applies only to reduced instruction set computer (RISC) systems. This edition replaces SC41-5606-04. Copyright International Business Machines Corporation 1997, 2001. All rights reserved. US Government Users Restricted Rights Use, duplication or disclosure restricted by GSA ADP Schedule Contract with IBM Corp.

Contents
About ILE Concepts (SC41-5606) . . . vii
Who should read this book . . . . . . . . . vii Prerequisite and related information . . . . . . vii Operations Navigator. . . . . . . . . . viii How to send your comments . . . . . . . . viii Error Handling . . . . . . . . . . . Job Message Queues . . . . . . . . Exception Messages and How They Are Sent How Exception Messages Are Handled . . Exception Recovery. . . . . . . . . Default Actions for Unhandled Exceptions . Types of Exception Handlers . . . . . ILE Conditions . . . . . . . . . . Data Management Scoping Rules . . . . . Call-Level Scoping . . . . . . . . . Activation-Group-Level Scoping . . . . Job-Level Scoping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 38 39 40 40 40 42 44 45 45 46 47

Chapter 1. Integrated Language Environment Introduction . . . . . . 1

What Is ILE? . . . . . . . . . . . . What Are the Benefits of ILE? . . . . . . Binding . . . . . . . . . . . . . Modularity . . . . . . . . . . . . Reusable Components . . . . . . . . Common Run-Time Services . . . . . . Coexistence with Existing Applications . . Source Debugger . . . . . . . . . . Better Control over Resources. . . . . . Better Control over Language Interactions . Better Code Optimization . . . . . . . Better Environment for C . . . . . . . Foundation for the Future . . . . . . . What Is the History of ILE? . . . . . . . Original Program Model Description . . . Extended Program Model Description . . . Integrated Language Environment Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 6 6 6 6 6 8 8

Chapter 4. Teraspace and single-level store . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Teraspace characteristics . . . . . . . . . Enabling your programs for teraspace . . . . Choosing a program storage model . . . . . Specifying the teraspace storage model . . . Selecting a compatible activation group . . . How the storage models interact . . . . . Converting your service program to inherit a storage model . . . . . . . . . . . Changing and updating your programs: teraspace considerations . . . . . . . . Taking advantage of 8-byte pointers in your C and C++ code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pointer support in C and C++ compilers . . Pointer conversions. . . . . . . . . . Using the teraspace storage model. . . . . . Using teraspace: best practices . . . . . . OS/400 interfaces and teraspace . . . . . Potential problems that can arise when you use teraspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . Teraspace usage tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 49 50 50 51 52

. 53 . 53 . . . . . . 53 54 55 56 56 57

Chapter 2. ILE Basic Concepts . . . . 11

Structure of an ILE Program . . . Procedure . . . . . . . . . Module Object . . . . . . . ILE Program . . . . . . . . Service Program . . . . . . . Binding Directory . . . . . . Binder Functions . . . . . . Calls to Programs and Procedures . Dynamic Program Calls . . . Static Procedure Calls . . . . Activation . . . . . . . . . Error Handling . . . . . . . Optimizing Translator . . . . . Debugger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 11 12 13 15 18 19 21 21 22 23 24 25 26

. 58 . 59

Chapter 5. Program Creation Concepts

Create Program and Create Service Program Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . Use Adopted Authority (QUSEADPAUT) . Using optimization parameters . . . . . Symbol Resolution . . . . . . . . . . Resolved and Unresolved Imports . . . . Binding by Copy . . . . . . . . . Binding by Reference . . . . . . . . Binding Large Numbers of Modules . . . Importance of the Order of Exports . . . Program Access . . . . . . . . . . . Program Entry Procedure Module Parameter the CRTPGM Command . . . . . . . Export Parameter on the CRTSRVPGM Command . . . . . . . . . . . . Import and Export Concepts. . . . . . . Binder Language . . . . . . . . . . Signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61
61 62 63 63 63 64 64 64 65 70

Chapter 3. ILE Advanced Concepts . . 27

Program Activation . . . . . . . . . . . Program Activation Creation . . . . . . Activation Group . . . . . . . . . . . Activation Group Creation . . . . . . . Default Activation Groups . . . . . . . ILE Activation Group Deletion . . . . . . Service Program Activation . . . . . . . . Control Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . Control Boundaries for ILE Activation Groups. Control Boundaries for the OPM Default Activation Group . . . . . . . . . . Control Boundary Use . . . . . . . . .
Copyright IBM Corp. 1997, 2001

. . . . . . . . .

27 28 29 30 31 32 34 36 36

. 70 . . . . 71 72 74 75

. 37 . 37

iii

Start Program Export and End Program Export Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . Export Symbol Command . . . . . . . Binder Language Examples . . . . . . . Program Updates . . . . . . . . . . . Parameters on the UPDPGM and UPDSRVPGM Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . Module Replaced by a Module with Fewer Imports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Module Replaced by a Module with More Imports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Module Replaced by a Module with Fewer Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Module Replaced by a Module with More Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tips for Creating Modules, Programs, and Service Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .

76 77 78 87

. 89 . 89 . 89 . 90 . 90 . 90

How to Promote a Message . . . . . Default Actions for Unhandled Exceptions. . Nested Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . Condition Handling . . . . . . . . . How Conditions Are Represented . . . Condition Token Testing. . . . . . . Relationship of ILE Conditions to OS/400 Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . OS/400 Messages and the Bindable API Feedback Code . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

118 118 119 120 120 121

. 122 . 122

Chapter 10. Debugging Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . 125

Debug Mode . . . . . . . . . . Debug Environment . . . . . . . Addition of Programs to Debug Mode . How Observability and Optimization Affect Debugging . . . . . . . . . . . Observability . . . . . . . . . Optimization Levels . . . . . . . Debug Data Creation and Removal . . Module Views . . . . . . . . . Debugging across Jobs . . . . . . OPM and ILE Debugger Support . . . Watch Support . . . . . . . . . Unmonitored Exceptions . . . . . . Globalization Restriction for Debugging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 . 125 . 125 . . . . . . . . . . 126 126 126 127 127 127 128 128 128 128

Chapter 6. Activation Group Management . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Multiple Applications Running in the Same Job . . Reclaim Resources Command . . . . . . . . Reclaim Resources Command for OPM Programs Reclaim Resources Command for ILE Programs Reclaim Activation Group Command . . . . . Service Programs and Activation Groups . . . . 93 94 96 96 96 96

Chapter 7. Calls to Procedures and Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Call Stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Call Stack Example . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Calls to Programs and Calls to Procedures . . . 100 Static Procedure Calls . . . . . . . . . 101 Procedure Pointer Calls . . . . . . . . . 101 Passing Arguments to ILE Procedures . . . . 101 Dynamic Program Calls . . . . . . . . . 103 Passing Arguments on a Dynamic Program Call 104 Interlanguage Data Compatibility . . . . . . 104 Syntax for Passing Arguments in Mixed-Language Applications . . . . . . . 104 Operational Descriptors . . . . . . . . . 104 Support for OPM and ILE APIs . . . . . . . 105

Chapter 11. Data Management Scoping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Common Data Management Resources . . . . . Commitment Control Scoping . . . . . . . . Commitment Definitions and Activation Groups Ending Commitment Control . . . . . . . Commitment Control during Activation Group End . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 130 131 132 132

Chapter 12. ILE Bindable Application Programming Interfaces . . . . . . . 135

ILE Bindable APIs Available . . . . . Dynamic Screen Manager Bindable APIs . . . . . . 135 . 138

Chapter 8. Storage Management . . . 109

Single-Level Store Heap . . . . . . . . . . 109 Heap Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . 109 Default Heap . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 User-Created Heaps . . . . . . . . . . 110 Single-Heap Support . . . . . . . . . . 111 Heap Allocation Strategy . . . . . . . . 111 Single-Level Store Heap Interfaces . . . . . 112 ILE C Heap Support . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Chapter 13. Advanced Optimization Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Program Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . How to Profile a Program . . . . . . . . Managing Programs Enabled to Collect Profiling Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Managing Programs with Profiling Data Applied to Them . . . . . . . . . . . How to Tell if a Program or Module is Profiled or Enabled for Collection . . . . . . . . Interprocedural analysis (IPA) . . . . . . . . How to optimize your programs with IPA. . . IPA control file syntax . . . . . . . . . IPA usage notes . . . . . . . . . . . IPA restrictions and limitations . . . . . . Partitions created by IPA . . . . . . . . 139 139 140 143 144 144 145 147 148 150 150 151

Chapter 9. Exception and Condition Management . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Handle Cursors and Resume Cursors Exception Handler Actions . . . . How to Resume Processing . . . How to Percolate a Message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 116 117 117

iv

iSeries ILE Concepts V5R1

Licensed Internal Code Options . . . Currently Defined Options . . . . Application . . . . . . . . . Restrictions . . . . . . . . . Syntax. . . . . . . . . . . Release Compatibility . . . . . Displaying Module and ILE Program Internal Code Options . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Licensed . . .

. . . . . .

152 152 154 154 154 155

. 155

Chapter 14. Shared Storage Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . 157

Shared Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shared Storage Pitfalls . . . . . . . . . . Shared Storage Access Ordering . . . . . . . Example Problem 1: One Writer, Many Readers Storage Synchronizing Actions . . . . . . . Example Problem 2: Two Contending Writers or Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 157 158 158 159 160

Export Block Not Started, STRPGMEXP Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Export Blocks Cannot Be Nested, ENDPGMEXP Missing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exports Must Exist inside Export Blocks . . . Identical Signatures for Dissimilar Export Blocks, Must Change Exports . . . . . . . Multiple Wildcard Matches . . . . . . . . No Current Export Block . . . . . . . . No Wildcard Matches . . . . . . . . . Previous Export Block Is Empty . . . . . . Signature Contains Variant Characters . . . . SIGNATURE(*GEN) Required with LVLCHK(*NO) . . . . . . . . . . . . Signature Syntax Not Valid . . . . . . . . Symbol Name Required . . . . . . . . . Symbol Not Allowed as Service Program Export Symbol Not Defined . . . . . . . . . . Syntax Not Valid . . . . . . . . . . .

179 179 180 180 181 181 182 183 183 184 184 185 185 186 187

Appendix A. Output Listing from CRTPGM, CRTSRVPGM, UPDPGM, or UPDSRVPGM Command. . . . . . . 163
Binder Listing . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basic Listing. . . . . . . . . . . . . Extended Listing . . . . . . . . . . . Full Listing . . . . . . . . . . . . . IPA Listing Components. . . . . . . . . Listing for Example Service Program . . . . Binder Language Errors . . . . . . . . . . Signature Padded . . . . . . . . . . . Signature Truncated . . . . . . . . . . Current Export Block Limits Interface . . . . Duplicate Export Block . . . . . . . . . Duplicate Symbol on Previous Export . . . . Level Checking Cannot Be Disabled More than Once, Ignored . . . . . . . . . . . . Multiple Current Export Blocks Not Allowed, Previous Assumed. . . . . . . . . . . Current Export Block Is Empty . . . . . . Export Block Not Completed, End-of-File Found before ENDPGMEXP . . . . . . . . . . 163 163 165 167 169 171 172 173 173 174 175 175 176 177 177 178

Appendix B. Exceptions in Optimized Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Appendix C. CL Commands Used with ILE Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
CL Commands Used with Modules . . . . . CL Commands Used with Program Objects . . CL Commands Used with Service Programs . . CL Commands Used with Binding Directories . CL Command Used with Structured Query Language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . CL Commands Used with Source Debugger . . CL Commands Used to Edit the Binder Language Source File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 191 192 192

. 192 . 193 . 193

Appendix D. Notices . . . . . . . . 195

Programming Interface Information . Trademarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 . 196

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

Contents

vi

iSeries ILE Concepts V5R1

About ILE Concepts (SC41-5606)

This book describes concepts and terminology pertaining to the Integrated Language Environment (ILE) architecture of the OS/400 licensed program. Topics covered include module creation, binding, the running and debugging of programs, and exception handling. The concepts described in this book pertain to all ILE languages. Each ILE language may implement the ILE architecture somewhat differently. To determine exactly how each language enables the concepts described here, refer to the programmers guide for that specific ILE language. This book also describes OS/400 functions that directly pertain to all ILE languages. In particular, common information on binding, message handling, and debugging are explained. This book does not describe migration from an existing OS/400 language to an ILE language. That information is contained in each ILE high-level language (HLL) programmers guide.

Who should read this book

You should read this book if: v You are a software vendor developing applications or software tools v You are experienced in developing mixed-language applications on the iSeries servers. v You are not familiar with the iSeries servers but have application programming experience on other systems v Your programs share common procedures, and when you update or enhance those procedures, you have to re-create the programs that use them If you are an OS/400 application programmer who writes primarily in one language, you should read the first four chapters of this book for a general understanding of ILE and its benefits. The programmers guide for that ILE language can then be sufficient for application development.

Prerequisite and related information

Use the iSeries Information Center as your starting point for looking up iSeries and AS/400e technical information. You can access the Information Center two ways: v From the following Web site:
http://www.ibm.com/eserver/iseries/infocenter

v From CD-ROMs that ship with your Operating System/400 order: iSeries Information Center, SK3T-4091-00. This package also includes the PDF versions of iSeries manuals, iSeries Information Center: Supplemental Manuals, SK3T-4092-00, which replaces the Softcopy Library CD-ROM. The iSeries Information Center contains advisors and important topics such as CL commands, system application programming interfaces (APIs), logical partitions, clustering, Java, TCP/IP, Web serving, and secured networks. It also includes

Copyright IBM Corp. 1997, 2001

vii

links to related IBM Redbooks and Internet links to other IBM Web sites such as the Technical Studio and the IBM home page. With every new hardware order, you receive the following CD-ROM information: v iSeries 400 Installation and Service Library, SK3T-4096-00. This CD-ROM contains PDF manuals needed for installation and system maintenance of an IBM ~ iSeries 400 server. v iSeries 400 Setup and Operations CD-ROM, SK3T-4098-00. This CD-ROM contains IBM iSeries Client Access Express for Windows and the EZ-Setup wizard. Client Access Express offers a powerful set of client and server capabilities for connecting PCs to iSeries servers. The EZ-Setup wizard automates many of the iSeries setup tasks. For related information, see the Bibliography on page 199.

Operations Navigator
IBM iSeries Operations Navigator is a powerful graphical interface for managing your iSeries and AS/400e servers. Operations Navigator functionality includes system navigation, configuration, planning capabilities, and online help to guide you through your tasks. Operations Navigator makes operation and administration of the server easier and more productive and is the only user interface to the new, advanced features of the OS/400 operating system. It also includes Management Central for managing multiple servers from a central server. For more information on Operations Navigator, see the iSeries Information Center.

How to send your comments

Your feedback is important in helping to provide the most accurate and high-quality information. If you have any comments about this book or any other iSeries documentation, fill out the readers comment form at the back of this book. v If you prefer to send comments by mail, use the readers comment form with the address that is printed on the back. If you are mailing a readers comment form from a country other than the United States, you can give the form to the local IBM branch office or IBM representative for postage-paid mailing. v If you prefer to send comments by FAX, use either of the following numbers: United States, Canada, and Puerto Rico: 1-800-937-3430 Other countries: 1-507-253-5192 v If you prefer to send comments electronically, use one of these e-mail addresses: Comments on books: [email protected] Comments on the iSeries Information Center: [email protected] Be sure to include the following: v The name of the book or iSeries Information Center topic. v The publication number of a book. v The page number or topic of a book to which your comment applies.

viii

iSeries ILE Concepts V5R1

Chapter 1. Integrated Language Environment Introduction

This chapter defines the Integrated Language Environment (ILE) model, describes the benefits of ILE, and explains how ILE evolved from previous program models. Wherever possible, information is presented from the perspective of an RPG or COBOL programmer and is described in terms of existing iSeries server features.

What Is ILE?
ILE is a set of tools and associated system support designed to enhance program development on the AS/400 system. The capabilities of this new model can be exploited only by programs produced by the new ILE family of compilers. That family includes ILE RPG, ILE COBOL, ILE C, and ILE CL.

What Are the Benefits of ILE?

ILE offers numerous benefits over previous program models. Those benefits include binding, modularity, reusable components, common run-time services, coexistence, and a source debugger. They also include better control over resources, better control over language interactions, better code optimization, a better environment for C, and a foundation for the future.

Binding
The benefit of binding is that it helps reduce the overhead associated with calling programs. Binding the modules together speeds up the call. The previous call mechanism is still available, but there is also a faster alternative. To differentiate between the two types of calls, the previous method is referred to as a dynamic or external program call, and the ILE method is referred to as a static or bound procedure call. The binding capability, together with the resulting improvement in call performance, makes it far more practical to develop applications in a highly modular fashion. An ILE compiler does not produce a program that can be run. Rather, it produces a module object (*MODULE) that can be combined (bound) with other modules to form a single runnable unit; that is, a program object (*PGM). Just as you can call an RPG program from a COBOL program, ILE allows you to bind modules written in different languages. Therefore, it is possible to create a single runnable program that consists of modules written separately in RPG, COBOL, C, and CL.

Modularity
The benefits from using a modular approach to application programming include the following: v Faster compile time The smaller the piece of code we compile, the faster the compiler can process it. This benefit is particularly important during maintenance, because often only a
Copyright IBM Corp. 1997, 2001

line or two needs to be changed. When we change two lines, we may have to recompile 2000 lines. That is hardly an efficient use of resources. If we modularize the code and take advantage of the binding capabilities of ILE, we may need to recompile only 100 or 200 lines. Even with the binding step included, this process is considerably faster. v Simplified maintenance When updating a very large program, it is very difficult to understand exactly what is going on. This is particularly true if the original programmer wrote in a different style from your own. A smaller piece of code tends to represent a single function, and it is far easier to grasp its inner workings. Therefore, the logical flow becomes more obvious, and when you make changes, you are far less likely to introduce unwanted side effects. v Simplified testing Smaller compilation units encourage you to test functions in isolation. This isolation helps to ensure that test coverage is complete; that is, that all possible inputs and logic paths are tested. v Better use of programming resources Modularity lends itself to greater division of labor. When you write large programs, it is difficult (if not impossible) to subdivide the work. Coding all parts of a program may stretch the talents of a junior programmer or waste the skills of a senior programmer. v Easier migrating of code from other platforms Programs written on other platforms, such as UNIX, are often modular. Those modules can be migrated to OS/400 and incorporated into an ILE program.

Reusable Components
ILE allows you to select packages of routines that can be blended into your own programs. Routines written in any ILE language can be used by all iSeries ILE compiler users. The fact that programmers can write in the language of their choice ensures you the widest possible selection of routines. The same mechanisms that IBM and other vendors use to deliver these packages to you are available for you to use in your own applications. Your installation can develop its own set of standard routines, and do so in any language it chooses. Not only can you use off-the-shelf routines in your own applications. You can also develop routines in the ILE language of your choice and market them to users of any ILE language.

Common Run-Time Services

A selection of off-the-shelf components (bindable APIs) is supplied as part of ILE, ready to be incorporated into your applications. These APIs provide services such as: Date and time manipulation Message handling Math routines Greater control over screen handling Dynamic storage allocation Over time, additional routines will be added to this set and others will be available from third-party vendors.

iSeries ILE Concepts V5R1

IBM has online information that provides further details of the APIs supplied with ILE. Refer to the CL and APIs section that is found in the Programming category of the iSeries Information Center.

Coexistence with Existing Applications

ILE programs can coexist with existing OPM programs. ILE programs can call OPM programs and other ILE programs. Similarly, OPM programs can call ILE programs and other OPM programs. Therefore, with careful planning, it is possible to make a gradual transition to ILE.

Source Debugger
The source debugger allows you to debug ILE programs and service programs. For information about the source debugger, see Chapter 10. Debugging Considerations on page 125.

Better Control over Resources

Before the introduction of ILE, resources (for example, open files) used by a program could be scoped to (that is, owned by) only: The program that allocated the resources The job In many cases, this restriction forces the application designer to make tradeoffs. ILE offers a third alternative. A portion of the job can own the resource. This alternative is achieved through the use of an ILE construct, the activation group. Under ILE, a resource can be scoped to any of the following: A program An activation group The job

Shared Open Data PathScenario

Shared open data paths (ODPs) are an example of resources you can better control with ILEs new level of scoping. To improve the performance of an application on the iSeries server, a programmer decided to use a shared ODP for the customer master file. That file is used by both the Order Entry and the Billing applications. Because a shared ODP is scoped to the job, it is quite possible for one of the applications to inadvertently cause problems for the other. In fact, avoiding such problems requires careful coordination among the developers of the applications. If the applications were purchased from different suppliers, avoiding problems may not even be possible. What kind of problems can arise? Consider the following scenario: 1. The customer master file is keyed on account number and contains records for account numbers A1, A2, B1, C1, C2, D1, D2, and so on. 2. An operator is reviewing the master file records, updating each as required, before requesting the next record. The record currently displayed is for account B1. 3. The telephone rings. Customer D1 wants to place an order.

Chapter 1. Integrated Language Environment Introduction

4. The operator presses the Go to Order Entry function key, processes the order for customer D1, and returns to the master file display. 5. The program still correctly displays the record for B1, but when the operator requests the next record, which record is displayed? If you said D2, you are correct. When the Order Entry application read record D1, the current file position changed because the shared ODP was scoped to the job. Therefore, the request for the next record means the next record after D1. Under ILE, this problem could be prevented by running the master file maintenance in an activation group dedicated to Billing. Likewise, the Order Entry application would run in its own activation group. Each application would still gain the benefits of a shared ODP, but each would have its own shared ODP, owned by the relevant activation group. This level of scoping prevents the kind of interference described in this example. Scoping resources to an activation group allows programmers the freedom to develop an application that runs independently from any other applications running in the job. It also reduces the coordination effort required and enhances the ability to write drop-in extensions to existing application packages.

Commitment ControlScenario
The ability to scope a shared open data path (ODP) to the application is useful in the area of commitment control. Assume that you want to use a file under commitment control but that you also need it to use a shared ODP. Without ILE, if one program opens the file under commitment control, all programs in the job have to do so. This is true even if the commitment capability is needed for only one or two programs. One potential problem with this situation is that, if any program in the job issues a commit operation, all updates are committed. The updates are committed even if logically they are not part of the application in question. These problems can be avoided by running each part of the application that requires commitment control in a separate activation group.

Better Control over Language Interactions

Without ILE, the way a program runs on an iSeries server depends on a combination of the following: The language standard (for example, the ANSI standards for COBOL and C) The developer of the compiler This combination can cause problems when you mix languages.

Mixed LanguagesScenario
Without activation groups, which are introduced by ILE, interactions among OPM languages are difficult to predict. ILE activation groups can solve that difficulty. For example, consider the problems caused by mixing COBOL with other languages. The COBOL language standard includes a concept known as a run unit. A run unit groups programs together so that under certain circumstances they behave as a single entity. This can be a very useful feature.

iSeries ILE Concepts V5R1

Assume that three ILE COBOL programs (PRGA, PRGB, and PRGC) form a small application in which PRGA calls PRGB, which in turn calls PRGC (see Figure 1). Under the rules of ILE COBOL, these three programs are in the same run unit. As a result, if any of them ends, all three programs should be ended and control should return to the caller of PRGA.
ILE COBOL/400 Run Unit PRGA PRGB PRGC
RV3W027-1

Figure 1. Three ILE COBOL Programs in a Run Unit

Suppose that we now introduce an RPG program (RPG1) into the application and that RPG1 is also called by the COBOL program PRGB (see Figure 2). An RPG program expects that its variables, files, and other resources remain intact until the program returns with the last-record (LR) indicator on.
ILE COBOL/400 Run Unit PRGA PRGB PRGC

RPG1
RV3W028-1

Figure 2. Three ILE COBOL Programs and One ILE RPG Program in a Run Unit

However, the fact that program RPG1 is written in RPG does not guarantee that all RPG semantics apply when RPG1 is run as part of the COBOL run unit. If the run unit ends, RPG1 disappears regardless of its LR indicator setting. In many cases, this situation may be exactly what you want. However, if RPG1 is a utility program, perhaps controlling the issue of invoice numbers, this situation is unacceptable. We can prevent this situation by running the RPG program in a separate activation group from the COBOL run unit (see Figure 3). An ILE COBOL run unit itself is an activation group.
ILE COBOL/400 Run Unit Activation Group PRGA PRGB PRGC RPG1

RV3W029-1

Figure 3. ILE RPG Program in a Separate Activation Group

For information about the differences between an OPM run unit and an ILE run unit, see the ILE COBOL for AS/400 Programmers Guide .

Chapter 1. Integrated Language Environment Introduction

Better Code Optimization

The ILE translator does many more types of optimization than the original program model (OPM) translator does. Although each compiler does some optimization, the majority of the optimization on OS/400 is done by the translator. An ILE-enabled compiler does not directly produce a module. First it produces an intermediate form of the module, and then it calls the ILE translator to translate the intermediate code into instructions that can be run.

Better Environment for C

C is a popular language for tool builders. Because of this, a better C language means that more and more of the latest application development tools are migrated to OS/400. For you, this means a greater choice of: CASE tools Fourth-generation languages (4GLs) Additional programming languages Editors Debuggers

Foundation for the Future

The benefits and functions that ILE provides will be even more important in the future. Future ILE compilers will offer significant enhancements. As we move into object-oriented programming languages and visual programming tools, the need for ILE becomes even more apparent. Increasingly, programming methods rely on a highly modularized approach. Applications are built by combining thousands of small reusable components to form the completed application. If these components cannot transfer control among themselves quickly, the resulting application cannot work.

What Is the History of ILE?

ILE is a stage in the evolution of OS/400 program models. Each stage evolved to meet the changing needs of application programmers. The programming environment provided when the AS/400 system was first introduced is called the original program model (OPM). In Version 1 Release 2, the Extended Program Model (EPM) was introduced.

Original Program Model Description

Application developers on the iSeries server enter source code into a source file and compile that source. If the compilation is a success, a program object is created. The set of functions, processes, and rules provided by OS/400 to create and run a program is known as the original program model (OPM). As an OPM compiler generates the program object, it generates additional code. The additional code initializes program variables and provides any necessary code for special processing that is needed by the particular language. The special processing could include processing any input parameters expected by this program. When a program is to start running, the additional compiler-generated code becomes the starting point (entry point) for the program.

iSeries ILE Concepts V5R1

A program is typically activated when the OS/400 encounters a call request. At run time, the call to another program is a dynamic program call. The resources needed for a dynamic program call can be significant. Application developers often design an application to consist of a few large programs that minimize the number of dynamic program calls. Figure 4 illustrates the relationship between OPM and the operating system. As you can see, RPG, COBOL, CL, BASIC, and PL/I all operate in this model. The broken line forming the OPM boundary indicates that OPM is an integral part of OS/400. This integration means that many functions normally provided by the compiler writer are built into the operating system. The resulting standardization of calling conventions allows programs written in one language to freely call those written in another. For example, an application written in RPG typically includes a number of CL programs to issue file overrides, to perform string manipulations, or to send messages.
OS/400 Original Program Model (OPM)

RPG

BASIC

CL

PL/I

COBOL

RV2W976-2

Figure 4. Relationship of OPM to OS/400

Principal Characteristics of OPM

The following list identifies the principal characteristics of OPM: v Good for traditional RPG and COBOL programs OPM is ideal for supporting traditional RPG and COBOL programs, that is, relatively large, multifunction programs. v Dynamic binding When program A wants to call program B, it just does so. This dynamic program call is a simple and powerful capability. At run time, the operating system locates program B and ensures that the user has the right to use it. An OPM program has only a single entry point, whereas, each procedure in an ILE program can be an entry point. v Limited data sharing In OPM, an internal procedure has to share variables with the entire program, whereas, in ILE, each procedure can have its own locally-scoped variables.

Chapter 1. Integrated Language Environment Introduction

Extended Program Model Description

OPM continues to serve a useful purpose. However, OPM does not provide direct support for procedures as defined in languages like C. A procedure is a set of self-contained high-level language (HLL) statements that performs a particular task and then returns to the caller. Individual languages vary in the way that a procedure is defined. In C, a procedure is called a function. To allow languages that define procedure calls between compilation units or that define procedures with local variables to run on an iSeries server, OPM was enhanced. These enhancements are called the Extended Program Model (EPM). Before ILE, EPM served as an interim solution for procedure-based languages like Pascal and C. The iSeries server no longer provides any EPM compilers.

Integrated Language Environment Description

As Figure 5 shows, ILE is tightly integrated into OS/400, just as OPM is. It provides the same type of support for procedure-based languages that EPM does, but it does so far more thoroughly and consistently. Its design provides for the more traditional languages, such as RPG and COBOL, and for future language developments.
OS/400 Original Program Model (OPM)

Extended Program Model (EPM)

Integrated Language Environment (ILE) RPG

RPG

BASIC

Pascal C

CL

PL/I FORTRAN COBOL CL COBOL

RV3W026-1

Figure 5. Relationship of OPM, EPM, and ILE to OS/400

Principal Characteristics of Procedure-Based Languages

Procedure-based languages have the following characteristics: v Locally scoped variables Locally scoped variables are known only within the procedure that defines them. The equivalent of locally scoped variables is the ability to define two variables with the same name that refer to two separate pieces of data. For example, the variable COUNT might have a length of 4 digits in subroutine CALCYR and a length of 6 digits in subroutine CALCDAY. Locally scoped variables provide considerable benefit when you write subroutines that are intended to be copied into several different programs.

iSeries ILE Concepts V5R1

Without locally scoped variables, the programmers must use a scheme such as naming variables based on the name of the subroutine. v Automatic variables Automatic variables are created whenever a procedure is entered. Automatic variables are destroyed when the procedure is exited. v External variables External data is one way of sharing data between programs. If program A declares a data item as external, program A is said to export that data item to other programs that want to share that data. Program D can then import the item without programs B and C being involved at all. For more information about imports and exports, see Module Object on page 12. v Multiple entry points COBOL and RPG programs have only a single entry point. In a COBOL program, it is the start of the PROCEDURE DIVISION. In an RPG program, it is the first-page (1P) output. This is the model that OPM supports. Procedure-based languages, on the other hand, may have multiple entry points. For example, a C program may consist entirely of subroutines to be used by other programs. These procedures can be exported, along with relevant data if required, for other programs to import. In ILE, programs of this type are known as service programs. They can include modules from any of the ILE languages. Service programs are similar in concept to dynamic link libraries (DLLs) in Windows or OS/2. Service programs are discussed in greater detail in Service Program on page 15. v Frequent calls Procedure-based languages are by nature very call intensive. Although EPM provides some functions to minimize the overhead of calls, procedure calls between separately compiled units still have a relatively high overhead. ILE improves this type of call significantly.

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iSeries ILE Concepts V5R1

Chapter 2. ILE Basic Concepts

Table 1 compares and contrasts the original program model (OPM) and the Integrated Language Environment (ILE) model. This chapter briefly explains the similarities and differences listed in the table.
Table 1. Similarities and Differences between OPM and ILE OPM ILE Program Program Service program Compilation results in a runnable program Compilation results in a nonrunnable module object Compile, run Compile, bind, run Run units simulated for each language Activation groups Dynamic program call Dynamic program call Static procedure call Single-language focus Mixed-language focus Language-specific error handling Common error handling Language-specific error handling OPM debuggers Source-level debugger

Structure of an ILE Program

An ILE program contains one or more modules. A module, in turn, contains one or more procedures (see Figure 6).
Program A Module M1
RPG

Module M2

Procedure P1

Procedure P2

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Figure 6. Structure of an ILE Program

Procedure
A procedure is a set of self-contained high-level language statements that performs a particular task and then returns to the caller. For example, an ILE C function is an ILE procedure.

Copyright IBM Corp. 1997, 2001

11

Module Object
A module object is a nonrunnable object that is the output of an ILE compiler. A module object is represented to the system by the symbol *MODULE. A module object is the basic building block for creating runnable ILE objects. This is a significant difference between ILE and OPM. The output of an OPM compiler is a runnable program. A module object can consist of one or more procedures and data item specifications. It is possible to directly access the procedures or data items in one module from another ILE object. See the ILE HLL programmer s guides for details on coding the procedures and data items that can be directly accessed by other ILE objects. ILE RPG, ILE COBOL, and ILE C all have the following common concepts: v Exports An export is the name of a procedure or data item, coded in a module object, that is available for use by other ILE objects. The export is identified by its name and its associated type, either procedure or data. An export can also be called a definition. v Imports An import is the use of or reference to the name of a procedure or data item not defined in the current module object. The import is identified by its name and its associated type, either procedure or data. An import can also be called a reference. A module object is the basic building block of an ILE runnable object. Therefore, when a module object is created, the following may also be generated: v Debug data Debug data is the data necessary for debugging a running ILE object. This data is optional. v Program entry procedure (PEP) A program entry procedure is the compiler-generated code that is the entry point for an ILE program on a dynamic program call. It is similar to the code provided for the entry point in an OPM program. v User entry procedure (UEP) A user entry procedure, written by a programmer, is the target of the dynamic program call. It is the procedure that gets control from the PEP. The main() function of a C program becomes the UEP of that program in ILE. Figure 7 on page 13 shows a conceptual view of a module object. In this example, module object M1 exports two procedures (Draw_Line and Draw_Arc) and a data item (rtn_code). Module object M1 imports a procedure called Draw_Plot. This particular module object has a PEP, a corresponding UEP (the procedure Draw_Arc), and debug data.

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iSeries ILE Concepts V5R1

Module M1 Program Entry Procedure (PEP) User Entry Procedure (UEP): Draw_Arc

Procedure Draw_Line; Dcl rtn_code EXTRN; CallPrc Draw_Plot;

End Draw_Line;

Procedure Draw_Arc; End Draw_Arc;

Export: Draw_Line (Procedure) Draw_Arc (Procedure) rtn_code (Data) Import: Draw_Plot (Procedure) Debug Data for Module M1
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Figure 7. Conceptual View of a Module

Characteristics of a *MODULE object: v A *MODULE object is the output from an ILE compiler. v It is the basic building block for ILE runnable objects. v It is not a runnable object. v It may have a PEP defined. v If a PEP is defined, a UEP is also defined. v It can export procedure and data item names. v It can import procedure and data item names. v It can have debug data defined.

ILE Program
An ILE program shares the following characteristics with an OPM program: v The program gets control through a dynamic program call. v There is only one entry point to the program. v The program is identified to the system by the symbol *PGM. An ILE program has the following characteristics that an OPM program does not have: v An ILE program is created from one or more copied module objects. v One or more of the copied modules can contain a PEP. v You have control over which modules PEP is used as the PEP for the ILE program object.

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When the Create Program (CRTPGM) command is specified, the ENTMOD parameter allows you to select which module containing a PEP is the programs entry point. A PEP that is associated with a module that is not selected as the entry point for the program is ignored. All other procedures and data items of the module are used as specified. Only the PEP is ignored. When a dynamic program call is made to an ILE program, the modules PEP that was selected at program-creation time is given control. The PEP calls the associated UEP. When an ILE program object is created, only those procedures associated with the copied modules containing debug data can be debugged by the ILE debugger. The debug data does not affect the performance of a running ILE program. Figure 8 on page 15 shows a conceptual view of an ILE program object. When the program PGMEXAMP is called, the PEP of the program, which was defined in the copied module object M3, is given control. The copied module M2 also has a PEP defined, but it is ignored and never used by the program. In this program example, only two modules, M1 and M3, have the necessary data for the new ILE debugger. Procedures from modules M2 and M4 cannot be debugged by using the new ILE debugger. The imported procedures print and SIN are resolved to exported procedures from service programs PRINTS and MATHFUNC, respectively.

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*PGM (PGMEXAMP) Program Entry Procedure (Use PEP in module M3) User Entry Procedure: (Use P3 in module M3) Module M1 Procedure P1; DCL D EXTRN; CallPrc print; End P1; Debug Data Module M3 PEP UEP: P3
Procedure P3; CallPrc P2; End P3;

Module M2 PEP UEP: P2 Procedure P2; CallPrc P1; CallPrc P4; End P2; Module M4 Procedure P4; DCL X REAL; D=SIN(X); End P4;

Debug Data Internally resolved imports: P1, P2, P4, D Used PEP: Defined in module M3 UEP: Procedure P3 in module M3 Externally resolved imports: print in *LIBL/PRINTS SIN in MATHLIB/MATHFUNC
RV2W980-5

Figure 8. Conceptual View of an ILE Program

Characteristics of an ILE *PGM object: v One or more modules from any ILE language are copied to make the *PGM object. v The person who creates the program has control over which modules PEP becomes the only PEP for the program. v On a dynamic program call, the modules PEP that was selected as the PEP for the program gets control to run. v The UEP associated with the selected PEP is the user s entry point for the program. v Procedures and data item names cannot be exported from the program. v Procedures or data item names can be imported from modules and service programs but not from program objects. For information on service programs, see Service Program. v Modules can have debug data. v A program is a runnable object.

Service Program
A service program is a collection of runnable procedures and available data items easily and directly accessible by other ILE programs or service programs. In many respects, a service program is similar to a subroutine library or procedure library.
Chapter 2. ILE Basic Concepts

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Service programs provide common services that other ILE objects may need; hence the name service program. An example of a set of service programs provided by OS/400 are the run-time procedures for a language. These run-time procedures often include such items as mathematical procedures and common input/output procedures. The public interface of a service program consists of the names of the exported procedures and data items accessible by other ILE objects. Only those items that are exported from the module objects making up a service program are eligible to be exported from a service program. The programmer can specify which procedures or data items can be known to other ILE objects. Therefore, a service program can have hidden or private procedures and data that are not available to any other ILE object. It is possible to update a service program without having to re-create the other ILE programs or service programs that use the updated service program. The programmer making the changes to the service program controls whether the change is compatible with the existing support. The way that ILE provides for you to control compatible changes is by using the binder language. The binder language allows you to define the list of procedure names and data item names that can be exported. A signature is generated from the names of procedures and data items and from the order in which they are specified in the binder language. To make compatible changes to a service program, new procedure or data item names should be added to the end of the export list. For more information on signatures, the binder language, and protecting your customers investment in your service programs, see Binder Language on page 74. Figure 9 on page 17 shows a conceptual view of a service program. Notice that the modules that make up that service program are the same set of modules that make up ILE program object PGMEXAMP in Figure 8 on page 15. The previous signature, Sigyy, for service program SPGMEXAMP contains the names of procedures P3 and P4. After an upward-compatible change is made to the service program, the current signature, Sigxx, contains not only the names of procedures P3 and P4; it also contains the name of data item D. Other ILE programs or service programs that use procedures P3 or P4 do not have to be re-created. Although the modules in a service program may have PEPs, these PEPs are ignored. The service program itself does not have a PEP. Therefore, unlike a program object, a service program cannot be called dynamically.

16

iSeries ILE Concepts V5R1

Public Interface

*SRVPGM (SPGMEXAMP)

P3 P4 D

Module M1 Procedure P1; DCL D EXTRN; CallPrc print; End P1; Debug Data Module M3 PEP UEP: A3

Module M2 PEP UEP: A2 Procedure P2; CallPrc P1; CallPrc P4; End P2; Module M4 Procedure P4; DCL X REAL; D=SIN(X); End P4;

Procedure P3; CallPrc P2; End P3;

Debug Data

Internally resolved imports: P1, P2, P4, D Current Signature = Sigxx Previous Signature = Sigyy Externally resolved imports: print in *LIBL/PRINTS SIN in MATHLIB/MATHFUNC
RV2W981-8

Figure 9. Conceptual View of an ILE Service Program

Characteristics of an ILE *SRVPGM object: v One or more modules from any ILE language are copied to make the *SRVPGM object. v No PEP is associated with the service program. Because there is no PEP, a dynamic program call to a service program is not valid. A modules PEP is ignored. v Other ILE programs or service programs can use the exports of this service program identified by the public interface. v Signatures are generated from the procedure and data item names that are exported from the service program.
Chapter 2. ILE Basic Concepts

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v Service programs can be replaced without affecting the ILE programs or service programs that use them, as long as previous signatures are still supported. v Modules can have debug data. v A service program is a collection of runnable procedures and data items. v Weak data can be exported only to an activation group. It cannot be made part of the public interface that is exported from the service program. For information about weak data, see Export in Import and Export Concepts on page 72.

Binding Directory
A binding directory contains the names of modules and service programs that you may need when creating an ILE program or service program. Modules or service programs listed in a binding directory are used only if they provide an export that can satisfy any currently unresolved import requests. A binding directory is a system object that is identified to the system by the symbol *BNDDIR. Binding directories are optional. The reasons for using binding directories are convenience and program size. v They offer a convenient method of packaging the modules or service programs that you may need when creating your own ILE program or service program. For example, one binding directory may contain all the modules and service programs that provide math functions. If you want to use some of those functions, you specify only the one binding directory, not each module or service program you use. Note: The more modules or service programs a binding directory contains, the longer it may take to bind the programs. Therefore, you should include only the necessary modules or service programs in your binding directory. v Binding directories can reduce program size because you do not specify modules or service programs that do not get used. Very few restrictions are placed on the entries in a binding directory. The name of a module or service program can be added to a binding directory even if that object does not yet exist. For a list of CL commands used with binding directories, see Appendix C. CL Commands Used with ILE Objects on page 191. Figure 10 on page 19 shows a conceptual view of a binding directory.

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iSeries ILE Concepts V5R1

Binding Directory (ABD) Object Name Object Type QALLOC QMATH QFREE QHFREE *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *MODULE *SRVPGM Object Library *LIBL QSYS *LIBL ABC

. . .

. . .

. . .

RV2W982-0

Figure 10. Conceptual View of a Binding Directory

Characteristics of a *BNDDIR object: v Convenient method of grouping the names of service programs and modules that may be needed to create an ILE program or service program. v Because binding directory entries are just names, the objects listed do not have to exist yet on the system. v The only valid library names are *LIBL or a specific library. v The objects in the list are optional. The named objects are used only if any unresolved imports exist and if the named object provides an export to satisfy the unresolved import request.

Binder Functions
The function of the binder is similar to, but somewhat different from, the function provided by a linkage editor. The binder processes import requests for procedure names and data item names from specified modules. The binder then tries to find matching exports in the specified modules, service programs, and binding directories. In creating an ILE program or service program, the binder performs the following types of binding: v Bind by copy To create the ILE program or service program, the following are copied: The modules specified on the module parameter Any modules selected from the binding directory that provide an export for an unresolved import Physical addresses of the needed procedures and data items used within the copied modules are established when the ILE program or service program is created. For example, in Figure 9 on page 17, procedure P3 in module M3 calls procedure P2 in module M2. The physical address of procedure P2 in module M2 is made known to procedure M3 so that address can be directly accessed. v Bind by reference Symbolic links to the service programs that provide exports for unresolved import requests are saved in the created program or service program. The symbolic links refer to the service programs providing the exports. The links are converted to physical addresses when the program object to which the service program is bound is activated.
Chapter 2. ILE Basic Concepts

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Figure 9 on page 17 shows an example of a symbolic link to SIN in service program *MATHLIB/MATHFUNC. The symbolic link to SIN is converted to a physical address when the program object to which service program SPGMEXAMP is bound is activated. At run time, with physical links established to the procedures and data items being used, there is little performance difference between the following: v Accessing a local procedure or data item v Accessing a procedure or data item in a different module or service program bound to the same program Figure 11 and Figure 12 on page 21 show conceptual views of how the ILE program PGMEXAMP and service program SPGMEXAMP were created. The binder uses modules M1, M2, M3, and M4 and service programs PRINTS and MATHFUNC to create ILE program PGMEXAMP and service program SPGMEXAMP.
Service Programs Module M1 Module M2 Module M3 Module M4 PRINTS MATHFUNC

CRTPGM PGM(PGMEXAMP) MODULE (M1, M2, M3, M4) ENTMOD(*LIBL/M3) + BNDSRVPGM(*LIBL/PRINTS MATHLIB/MATHFUNC)

Binder

Program PGMEXAMP
RV2W983-3

Figure 11. Creation of an ILE Program. The broken line indicates that the service programs are bound by reference instead of being bound by copy.

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iSeries ILE Concepts V5R1

Service Programs Module M1 Module M2 Module M3 Module M4 PRINTS MATHFUNC

CRTSRVPGM SRVPGM(SPGMEXAMP) MODULE (M1, M2, M3, M4) EXPORT(*SRCFILE) + SRCFILE(*LIBL/QSRVSRC) SRCMBR(*SRVPGM) BNDSRVPGM(*LIBL/PRINTS MATHLIB/MATHFUNC)

Binder

Service Program SPGMEXAMP

RV3W030-1

Figure 12. Creation of a Service Program. The broken line indicates that the service programs are bound by reference instead of being bound by copy.

For additional information on creating an ILE program or service program, see Chapter 5. Program Creation Concepts on page 61.

Calls to Programs and Procedures

In ILE you can call either a program or a procedure. ILE requires that the caller identify whether the target of the call statement is a program or a procedure. ILE languages communicate this requirement by having separate call statements for programs and for procedures. Therefore, when you write your ILE program, you must know whether you are calling a program or a procedure. Each ILE language has unique syntax that allows you to distinguish between a dynamic program call and a static procedure call. The standard call statement in each ILE language defaults to either a dynamic program call or a static procedure call. For RPG and COBOL the default is a dynamic program call, and for C the default is a static procedure call. Thus, the standard language call performs the same type of function in either OPM or ILE. This convention makes migrating from an OPM language to an ILE language relatively easy. The binder can handle a procedure name that is up to 256 characters long. To determine how long your procedure names can be, see your ILE HLL programmer s guide.

Dynamic Program Calls

A dynamic program call transfers control to either an ILE program object or an OPM program object. Dynamic program calls include the following: v An OPM program can call another OPM program or an ILE program, but it cannot call a service program. v An ILE program can call an OPM program or another ILE program, but it cannot call a service program.
Chapter 2. ILE Basic Concepts

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v A service program can call an OPM program or an ILE program, but it cannot call another service program.

Static Procedure Calls

A static procedure call transfers control to an ILE procedure. Static procedure calls can be coded only in ILE languages. A static procedure call can be used to call any of the following: v A procedure within the same module v A procedure in a separate module within the same ILE program or service program v A procedure in a separate ILE service program Figure 13 on page 23 shows examples of static procedure calls. The figure shows that: v A procedure in an ILE program can call an exported procedure in the same program or in a service program. Procedure P1 in program A calls procedure P2 in another copied module. Procedure P3 in program C calls procedure P4 in service program D. v A procedure in a service program can call an exported procedure in the same service program or in another service program. Procedure P6 in service program B calls procedure P7 in another copied module. Procedure P5 in service program E calls procedure P4 in service program F.

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iSeries ILE Concepts V5R1

Program A Module Proc: P1 CallPrc P2 End P1 Module Proc: P2 End P2 Static Procedure Call

Service Program B Module Proc: P6 CallPrc P7 End P6 Module Proc: P7 End P7

Static Procedure Call

Program C Module Proc: P3 CallPrc P4 End P3 Static Procedure Call

Service Program D Module Proc: P4 End P4

Service Program E Module Proc: P5 CallPrc P4 End P5 Static Procedure Call

Service Program F Module Proc: P4 End P4

RV2W993-2

Figure 13. Static Procedure Calls

Activation
After successfully creating an ILE program, you will want to run your code. The process of getting a program or service program ready to run is called activation. You do not have to issue a command to activate a program. Activation is done by the system when a program is called. Because service programs are not called, they are activated during the call to a program that directly or indirectly requires their services. Activation performs the following functions: v Uniquely allocates the static data needed by the program or service program v Changes the symbolic links to service programs providing the exports into links to physical addresses No matter how many jobs are running a program or service program, only one copy of that objects instructions resides in storage. However, each program activation has its own static storage. So even when one program object is used concurrently by many jobs, the static variables are separate for each activation. A
Chapter 2. ILE Basic Concepts

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program can also be activated in more than one activation group, even within the same job, but activation is local to a particular activation group. If either of the following is true: v Activation cannot find the needed service program v The service program no longer supports the procedures or data items represented by the signature an error occurs and you cannot run your application. For more details on program activation, refer to Program Activation Creation on page 28. When activation allocates the storage necessary for the static variables used by a program, the space is allocated from an activation group. At the time the program or service program is created, you can specify the activation group that should be used at run time. For more information on activation groups, refer to Activation Group on page 29.

Error Handling
Figure 14 on page 25 shows the complete error-handling structure for both OPM and ILE programs. This figure is used throughout this manual to describe advanced error-handling capabilities. This topic gives a brief overview of the standard language error-handling capabilities. For additional information on error handling, refer to Error Handling on page 38. The figure shows a fundamental layer called exception-message architecture. An exception message may be generated by the system whenever an OPM program or an ILE program encounters an error. Exception messages are also used to communicate status information that may not be considered a program error. For example, a condition that a database record is not found is communicated by sending a status exception message. Each high-level language defines language-specific error-handling capabilities. Although these capabilities vary by language, in general it is possible for each HLL user to declare the intent to handle specific error situations. The declaration of this intent includes identification of an error-handling routine. When an exception occurs, the system locates the error-handling routine and passes control to user-written instructions. You can take various actions, including ending the program or recovering from the error and continuing. Figure 14 on page 25 shows that ILE uses the same exception-message architecture that is used by OPM programs. Exception messages generated by the system initiate language-specific error handling within an ILE program just as they do within an OPM program. The lowest layer in the figure includes the capability for you to send and receive exception messages. This can be done with message handler APIs or commands. Exception messages can be sent and received between ILE and OPM programs.

24

iSeries ILE Concepts V5R1

Original Program Model (OPM) CL RPG

Integrated Language Environment (ILE) C CL RPG

COBOL

HLL - Specific Handlers

HLL - Specific Handlers

Direct Monitors

ILE Conditions

Unhandled Exception Default Actions

Unhandled Exception Default Actions

Exception Message Architecture

RV3W101-0

Figure 14. Error Handling for OPM and ILE

Language-specific error handling works similarly for ILE programs as for OPM programs, but there are basic differences: v When the system sends an exception message to an ILE program, the procedure and module name are used to qualify the exception message. If you send an exception message, these same qualifications can be specified. When an exception message appears in the job log for an ILE program, the system normally supplies the program name, module name, and procedure name. v Extensive optimization for ILE programs can result in multiple HLL statement numbers associated with the same generated instructions. As the result of optimization, exception messages that appear in the job log may contain multiple HLL statement numbers. Additional error-handling capabilities are described in Error Handling on page 38.

Optimizing Translator
On OS/400, optimization means maximizing the run-time performance of the object. All ILE languages have access to the optimization techniques provided by the ILE optimizing translator. Generally, the higher the optimizing request, the longer it takes to create the object. At run time, highly optimized programs or service programs should run faster than corresponding programs or service programs created with a lower level of optimization. Although optimization can be specified for a module, program object, and service program, the optimization techniques apply to individual modules. The levels of optimization are: 10 or *NONE 20 or *BASIC 30 or *FULL 40 (more optimization than level 30)

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For performance reasons, you probably want a high level of optimization when you use a module in production. Test your code at the optimization level at which you expect to use it. Verify that everything works as expected, then make the code available to your users. Because optimization at level 30 (*FULL) or level 40 can significantly affect your program instructions, you may need to be aware of certain debugging limitations and different addressing exception detection. Refer to Chapter 10. Debugging Considerations on page 125 for debug considerations. Refer to Appendix B. Exceptions in Optimized Programs on page 189 for addressing error considerations.

Debugger
ILE provides a debugger that allows source-level debugging. The debugger can work with a listing file and allow you to set breakpoints, display variables, and step into or over an instruction. You can do these without ever having to enter a command from the command line. A command line is also available while working with the debugger. The source-level debugger uses system-provided APIs to allow you to debug your program or service program. These APIs are available to everyone and allow you to write your own debugger. The debuggers for OPM programs continue to exist on the iSeries server but can be used to debug only OPM programs. When you debug an optimized module, some confusion may result. When you use the ILE debugger to view or change a variable being used by a running program or procedure, the following happens. The debugger retrieves or updates the data in the storage location for this variable. At level 20 (*BASIC), 30 (*FULL), or 40 optimization, the current value of a data variable may be in a hardware register, where the debugger cannot access it. (Whether a data variable is in a hardware register depends on several factors. Those factors include how the variable is used, its size, and where in the code you stopped to examine or change the data variable.) Thus, the value displayed for a variable may not be the current value. For this reason, you should use an optimization level of 10 (*NONE) during development. Then, for best performance, you should change the optimization level to 30 (*FULL) or 40 during production. For more information on the ILE debugger, see Chapter 10. Debugging Considerations on page 125.

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Chapter 3. ILE Advanced Concepts

This chapter describes advanced concepts for the ILE model. Before reading this chapter, you should be familiar with the concepts described in Chapter 2. ILE Basic Concepts on page 11.

Program Activation
Activation is the process used to prepare a program to run. Both ILE programs and ILE service programs must be activated by the system before they can be run. Program activation includes two major steps: 1. Allocate and initialize static storage for the program. 2. Complete the binding of programs to service programs. This topic concentrates on step 1. Step 2 is explained in Service Program Activation on page 34. Figure 15 on page 28 shows two ILE program objects stored in permanent disk storage. As with all OS/400 objects, these program objects may be shared by multiple concurrent users running in different OS/400 jobs. Only one copy of the programs code exists. When one of these ILE programs is called, however, some variables declared within the program must be allocated and initialized for each program activation. As shown in Figure 15, each program activation supports at least one unique copy of these variables. Multiple copies of variables with the same name can exist within one program activation. This occurs if your HLL allows you to declare static variables that are scoped to individual procedures.

Copyright IBM Corp. 1997, 2001

27

Program A Program Instructions One copy of program instructions

Job Activation Group Program A Variable X = 10

Job Activation Group Program A Variable X = 20

One copy of static variables for each program activation

RV2W986-3

Figure 15. One Copy of Static Variables for Each Program Activation

Program Activation Creation

ILE manages the process of program activation by keeping track of program activations within an activation group. Refer to Activation Group on page 29 for a definition of an activation group. Only one activation for a particular program object is in an activation group. Programs of the same name residing in different OS/400 libraries are considered different program objects when applying this rule. When you use a dynamic program call statement in your HLL program, ILE uses the activation group that was specified when the program was created. This attribute is specified by using the activation group (ACTGRP) parameter on either the Create Program (CRTPGM) command or the Create Service Program (CRTSRVPGM) command. If a program activation already exists within the activation group indicated with this parameter, it is used. If the program has never been activated within this activation group, it is activated first and then run. If there is a named activation group, the name can be changed with the ACTGRP parameter on the UPDPGM and UPDSRVPGM commands Once a program is activated, it remains activated until the activation group is deleted. As a result of this rule, it is possible to have active programs that are not on the call stack within the activation group. Figure 16 on page 29 shows an example of three active programs within an activation group, but only two of the three programs have procedures on the call stack. In this example, program A calls program B, causing program B to be activated. Program B then returns to program A. Program A then calls program C. The resulting call stack contains procedures for programs A and C but not for program B. For a discussion of the call stack, see Call Stack on page 99.

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Job Activation Group Active Programs Program A Activation Call Stack Procedures called in Program A

Program B Activation

. . .
Procedures called in Program C

Program C Activation

RV2W987-3

Figure 16. Program May Be Active But Not on the Call Stack

Activation Group
All ILE programs and service programs are activated within a substructure of a job called an activation group. This substructure contains the resources necessary to run the programs. These resources fall into the following general categories: Static program variables Dynamic storage Temporary data management resources Certain types of exception handlers and ending procedures Activation groups use either single-level store or teraspace for supplying storage for static program variables. For more information, see Chapter 4. Teraspace and single-level store on page 49. When single-level store is used, the static program variables and dynamic storage are assigned separate address spaces for each activation group, which provides some degree of program isolation and protection from accidental access. When teraspace is used, the static program variables and dynamic storage may be assigned separate address ranges within teraspace, which provides a lesser degree of program isolation and protection from accidental access. The temporary data management resources include the following: Open files (open data path or ODP) Commitment definitions Local SQL cursors Remote SQL cursors Hierarchical file system (HFS) User interface manager Query management instances Open communications links
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Common Programming Interface (CPI) communications The separation of these resources among activation groups supports a fundamental concept. That is, the concept that all programs activated within one activation group are developed as one cooperative application. Software vendors may select different activation groups to isolate their programs from other vendor applications running in the same job. This vendor isolation is shown in Figure 17. In this figure, a complete customer solution is provided by integrating software packages from four different vendors. Activation groups increase the ease of integration by isolating the resources associated with each vendor package.

Job Activation Group RPG Order Entry Application from Vendor 1 Activation Group RPG Accounts Payable Application from Vendor 2

Activation Group COBOL Inventory Control Application from Vendor 3

Activation Group C Decision Support Application from Vendor 4

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Figure 17. Activation Groups Isolate Each Vendors Application

There is a significant consequence of assigning the above resources to an activation group. The consequence is that when an activation group is deleted, all of the above resources are returned to the system. The temporary data management resources left open at the time the activation group is deleted are closed by the system. The storage for static and automatic program variables and dynamic storage that has not been deallocated is returned to the system.

Activation Group Creation

You can control the run-time creation of an ILE activation group by specifying an activation group attribute when you create your program or service program. The attribute is specified by using the ACTGRP parameter on the CRTPGM command or CRTSRVPGM command. There is no Create Activation Group command.

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All ILE programs have one of the following activation group attributes: v A user-named activation group Specified with the ACTGRP(name) parameter. This attribute allows you to manage a collection of ILE programs and ILE service programs as one application. The activation group is created when it is first needed. It is then used by all programs and service programs that specify the same activation group name. v A system-named activation group Specified with the ACTGRP(*NEW) parameter on the CRTPGM command. This attribute allows you to create a new activation group whenever the program is called. ILE selects a name for this activation group. The name assigned by ILE is unique within your job. The name assigned to a system-named activation group does not match any name you choose for a user-named activation group. ILE service programs do not support this attribute. v An attribute to use the activation group of the calling program Specified with the ACTGRP(*CALLER) parameter. This attribute allows you to create an ILE program or ILE service program that will be activated within the activation group of the calling program. With this attribute, a new activation group is never created when the program or service program is activated. All activation groups within a job have a name. Once an activation group exists within a job, it is used by ILE to activate programs and service programs that specify that name. As a result of this design, duplicate activation group names cannot exist within one job. You can, however, use the ACTGRP parameter on the UPDPGM and UPDSRVPGM to change the name of the activation group.

Default Activation Groups

When an OS/400 job is started, the system creates two activation groups to be used by all other OPM programs. The default activation groups use single-level store for static program variables. You cannot delete the OPM default activation groups. They are deleted by the system when your job ends. ILE programs and ILE service programs can be activated in the OPM default activation groups if the following conditions are satisfied: v The ILE programs or ILE service programs were created with the activation group *CALLER option. v The call to the ILE programs or ILE service programs originates in the OPM default activation groups. v The ILE program or service program does not use the teraspace storage model. Because the default activation groups cannot be deleted, your ILE HLL end verbs cannot provide complete end processing. Open files cannot be closed by the system until the job ends. The static and heap storages used by your ILE programs cannot be returned to the system until the job ends. Figure 18 on page 32 shows a typical OS/400 job with an ILE activation group and the OPM default activation groups. The two OPM default activation groups are combined because the special value *DFTACTGRP is used to represent both groups. The boxes within each activation group represent program activations.

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Job Default Activation Group OPM Program A Activation OPM Program B Activation OS/400 System Code Program Activations

Activation Group ILE Program C Activation ILE Program D Activation

RV2W989-3

Figure 18. Default Activation Groups and ILE Activation Group

ILE Activation Group Deletion

Activation groups require resources to be created within a job. Processing time may be saved if an activation group can be reused by an application. ILE provides several options to allow you to return from the activation group without ending or deleting the activation group. Whether the activation group is deleted depends on the type of activation group and the method in which the application ended. An application may leave an activation group and return to a call stack entry (see Call Stack on page 99) that is running in another activation group in the following ways: v HLL end verbs For example, STOP RUN in COBOL or exit() in C. v Unhandled exceptions Unhandled exceptions can be moved by the system to a call stack entry in another activation group. v Language-specific HLL return statements For example, a return statement in C, an EXIT PROGRAM statement in COBOL, or a RETURN statement in RPG. v Skip operations For example, sending an exception message or branching to a call stack entry that is not in your activation group. You can delete an activation group from your application by using HLL end verbs. An unhandled exception can also cause your activation group to be deleted. These operations will always delete your activation group, provided the nearest control

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boundary is the oldest call stack entry in the activation group (sometimes called a hard control boundary). If the nearest control boundary is not the oldest call stack entry (sometimes called a soft control boundary), control passes to the call stack entry prior to the control boundary. However, the activation group is not deleted. A control boundary is a call stack entry that represents a boundary to your application. ILE defines control boundaries whenever you call between activation groups. Refer to Control Boundaries on page 36 for a definition of a control boundary. A user-named activation group may be left in the job for later use. For this type of activation group, any normal return or skip operation past a hard control boundary does not delete the activation group. The same operations used within a system-named activation group deletes the activation group. System-named activation groups are always deleted because you cannot reuse them by specifying the system-generated name. For language-dependent rules about a normal return from the oldest call stack entry of an activation group, refer to the ILE HLL programmer s guides. Figure 19 shows examples of how to leave an activation group. In the figure, procedure P1 is the oldest call stack entry. For the system-named activation group (created with the ACTGRP(*NEW) option), a normal return from P1 deletes the activation group. For the user-named activation group (created with the ACTGRP(name) option), a normal return from P1 does not delete the activation group. If a user-named activation group is left in the job, you can delete it by using the
Always Delete Normal Return System-Named Activation Group ILE Procedure P1 User-Named Activation Group ILE Procedure P1 Normal Return Never Delete

. . .
ILE Skip Procedure Pn

. . .
ILE Procedure Pn Skip

ACTGRP(*NEW)

ACTGRP(NAME)

RV2W1036-2

Figure 19. Leaving User-Named and System-Named Activation Groups

Reclaim Activation Group (RCLACTGRP) command. This command allows you to delete named activation groups after your application has returned. Only activation groups that are not in use can be deleted with this command. Figure 20 on page 34 shows an OS/400 job with one activation group that is not in use and one activation group that is currently in use. An activation group is considered in use if there are call stack entries for the ILE procedures activated within that activation group. Using the RCLACTGRP command in program A or program B deletes the activation group for program C and program D.

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Job Activation Group in Use Active Programs Program A Call Stack Procedures called in Program A

Program B

Procedures called in Program B

Activation Group Not in Use Active Programs Program C Activation

Program D Activation

RV2W990-4

Figure 20. Activation Groups In Use Have Entries on the Call Stack

When an activation group is deleted by ILE, certain end-operation processing occurs. This processing includes calling user-registered exit procedures, data management cleanup, and language cleanup (such as closing files). Refer to Data Management Scoping Rules on page 45 for details on the data management processing that occurs when an activation group is deleted.

Service Program Activation

This topic discusses the unique steps the system uses to activate a service program. The common steps used for programs and service programs are described in Program Activation on page 27. The following activation activities are unique for service programs: v Service program activation starts indirectly as part of a dynamic program call to an ILE program. v Service program activation includes completion of interprogram binding connections by mapping the symbolic links into physical links. v Service program activation includes signature check processing. An ILE program activated for the first time within an activation group, is checked for binding to any ILE service programs. If service programs have been bound to the program being activated, they are also activated as part of the same dynamic call processing. This process is repeated until all necessary service programs are activated. Figure 21 on page 35 shows ILE program A bound to ILE service programs B, C, and D. ILE service programs B and C are also bound to ILE service program E. The activation group attribute for each program and service program is shown.

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ILE Program A ACTGRP(X)

ILE Service Program B ACTGRP(X)

ILE Service Program C ACTGRP(X)

ILE Service Program D ACTGRP(Y)

ILE Service Program E ACTGRP(*CALLER)

RV2W991-1

Figure 21. Service Program Activation

When ILE program A is activated, the following takes place: v The service programs are located by using an explicit library name or by using the current library list. This option is controlled by you at the time the programs and service programs are created. v Just like programs, a service program activation occurs only once within an activation group. In Figure 21, service program E is activated only one time, even though it is used by service programs B and C. v A second activation group (Y) is created for service program D. v Signature checking occurs among all of the programs and service programs. Conceptually this process may be viewed as the completion of the binding process started when the programs and service programs were created. The CRTPGM command and CRTSRVPGM command saved the name and library of each referenced service program. An index into a table of exported procedures and data items was also saved in the client program or service program at program creation time. The process of service program activation completes the binding step by changing these symbolic references into addresses that can be used at run time. Once a service program is activated static procedure calls and static data item references to a module within a different service program are processed. The amount of processing is the same as would be required if the modules had been bound by copy into the same program. However, modules bound by copy require less activation time processing than service programs. The activation of programs and service programs requires execute authority to the ILE program and all ILE service program objects. In Figure 21, the current authority of the caller of program A is used to check authority to program A and all of the service programs. The authority of program A is also used to check authority to all of the service programs. Note that the authority of service program B, C, or D is not used to check authority to service program E.

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Control Boundaries
ILE takes the following action when an unhandled function check occurs, or an HLL end verb is used. ILE transfers control to the caller of the call stack entry that represents a boundary for your application. This call stack entry is known as a control boundary. There are two definitions for a control boundary. Control Boundaries for ILE Activation Groups and Control Boundaries for the OPM Default Activation Group on page 37 illustrate the following definitions. A control boundary can be either of the following: v Any ILE call stack entry for which the immediately preceding call stack entry is in a different nondefault activation group. v Any ILE call stack entry for which the immediately preceding call stack entry is an OPM program.

Control Boundaries for ILE Activation Groups

This example shows how control boundaries are defined between ILE activation groups. Figure 22 shows two ILE activation groups and the control boundaries established by the various calls. Procedures P2, P3, and P6 are potential control boundaries. For example, when you are running in procedure P7, procedure P6 is the control boundary. When you are running in procedures P4 or P5, procedure P3 becomes the control boundary.
Call Stack

ILE Procedure P1

Activation Group A1 ILE Procedure P2

Activation Group A2 ILE Procedure P3

ILE Procedure P4

ILE Procedure P6 ILE Procedure P7

ILE Procedure P5

RV2W992-3

Figure 22. Control Boundaries. The shaded procedures are control boundaries.

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Control Boundaries for the OPM Default Activation Group

This example shows how control boundaries are defined when an ILE program is running in the OPM default activation group. Figure 23 shows three ILE procedures (P1, P2, and P3) running in the OPM default activation group. This example could have been created by using the CRTPGM command or CRTSRVPGM command with the ACTGRP(*CALLER) parameter value. Procedures P1 and P3 are potential control boundaries because the preceding call stack entries are OPM programs A and B.
Default Activation Group OPM Program A

ILE Procedure P1

ILE Procedure P2

OPM
Program B

ILE Procedure P3

*DFTACTGRP
RV2W1040-1

Figure 23. Control Boundaries in the Default Activation Group. The shaded procedures are control boundaries.

Control Boundary Use

When you use an ILE HLL end verb, ILE uses the most recent control boundary on the call stack to determine where to transfer control. The call stack entry just prior to the control boundary receives control after ILE completes all end processing. The control boundary is used when an unhandled function check occurs within an ILE procedure. The control boundary defines the point on the call stack at which the unhandled function check is promoted to the generic ILE failure condition. For additional information, refer to Error Handling on page 38. When the nearest control boundary is the oldest call stack entry in an ILE activation group, any HLL end verb or unhandled function check causes the activation group to be deleted. When the nearest control boundary is not the oldest call stack entry in an ILE activation group, control returns to the call stack entry just prior to the control boundary. The activation group is not deleted because earlier call stack entries exist within the same activation group.
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Figure 22 on page 36 shows procedure P2 and procedure P3 as the oldest call stack entries in their activation groups. Using an HLL end verb in procedure P2, P3, P4, or P5 (but not P6 or P7) would cause activation group A2 to be deleted.

Error Handling
This topic explains advanced error handling capabilities for OPM and ILE programs. To understand how these capabilities fit into the exception message architecture, refer to Figure 24. Specific reference information and additional concepts are found in Chapter 9. Exception and Condition Management on page 115. Figure 24 shows an overview of error handling. This topic starts with the bottom layer of this figure and continues to the top layer. The top layer represents the functions you may use to handle errors in an OPM or ILE program.
Original Program Model (OPM) CL RPG Integrated Language Environment (ILE) C CL RPG

COBOL

HLL - Specific Handlers

HLL - Specific Handlers

Direct Monitors

ILE Conditions

Unhandled Exception Default Actions

Unhandled Exception Default Actions

Exception Message Architecture

RV3W101-0

Figure 24. ILE and OPM Error Handling

Job Message Queues

A message queue exists for every call stack entry within each OS/400 job. This message queue facilitates the sending and receiving of informational messages and exception messages between the programs and procedures running on the call stack. The message queue is referred to as the call message queue. The call message queue is identified by the name of the OPM program or ILE procedure that is on the call stack. The procedure name or program name can be used to specify the target call stack entry for the message that you send. Because ILE procedure names are not unique, the ILE module name and ILE program or service program name can optionally be specified. When the same program or procedure has multiple call stack entries, the nearest call message queue is used. In addition to the call message queues, each OS/400 job contains one external message queue. All programs and procedures running within the job can send and receive messages between an interactive job and the workstation user by using this queue.

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IBM has online information on how to send and receive exception messages by using the message handling APIs. Refer to the CL and APIs section of the Programming category for the iSeries Information Center.

Exception Messages and How They Are Sent

This topic describes the different exception message types and the ways in which an exception message may be sent. Error handling for ILE and OPM is based on exception message types. Unless otherwise qualified, the term exception message indicates any of these message types: Escape (*ESCAPE) Indicates an error causing a program to end abnormally, without completing its work. You will not receive control after sending an escape exception message. Status (*STATUS) Describes the status of work being done by a program. You may receive control after sending this message type. Whether you receive control depends on the way the receiving program handles the status message. Notify (*NOTIFY) Describes a condition requiring corrective action or a reply from the calling program. You may receive control after sending this message type. Whether you receive control depends on the way the receiving program handles the notify message. Function Check Describes an ending condition that has not been expected by the program. An ILE function check, CEE9901, is a special message type that is sent only by the system. An OPM function check is an escape message type with a message ID of CPF9999. IBM has online information on these message types and other OS/400 message types. Refer to the CL and APIs section of the Programming category of the iSeries Information Center. An exception message is sent in the following ways: v Generated by the system OS/400 (including your HLL) generates an exception message to indicate a programming error or status information. v Message handler API The Send Program Message (QMHSNDPM) API can be used to send an exception message to a specific call message queue. v ILE API The Signal a Condition (CEESGL) bindable API can be used to raise an ILE condition. This condition results in an escape exception message or status exception message. v Language-specific verbs For ILE C, the raise() function generates a C signal. Neither ILE RPG nor ILE COBOL has a similar function.

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How Exception Messages Are Handled

When you or the system send an exception message, exception processing begins. This processing continues until the exception is handled, which is when the exception message is modified to indicate that it has been handled. The system modifies the exception message to indicate that it has been handled when it calls an exception handler for an OPM call message queue. Your ILE HLL modifies the exception message before your exception handler is called for an ILE call message queue. As a result, HLL-specific error handling considers the exception message handled when your handler is called. If you do not use HLL-specific error handling, your ILE HLL can either handle the exception message or allow exception processing to continue. Refer to your ILE HLL reference manual to determine your HLL default actions for unhandled exception messages. Additional capabilities defined for ILE will allow you to bypass language-specific error handling. These capabilities include direct monitor handlers and ILE condition handlers. When you use these capabilities, you are responsible for changing the exception message to indicate that the exception is handled. If you do not change the exception message, the system continues exception processing by attempting to locate another exception handler. The topic Types of Exception Handlers on page 42 contains details on direct monitor handlers and ILE condition handlers. IBM provides online information that explains how to change an exception message. Refer to the Change Exception Message (QMHCHGEM) API in the CL and APIs section of the Programming category of the iSeries Information Center.

Exception Recovery
You may want to continue processing after an exception has been sent. Recovering from an error can be a useful application tool that allows you to deliver applications that tolerate errors. For ILE and OPM programs, the system has defined the concept of a resume point. The resume point is initially set to an instruction immediately following the occurrence of the exception. After handling an exception, you may continue processing at a resume point. For more information on how to use and modify a resume point, refer to Chapter 9. Exception and Condition Management on page 115.

Default Actions for Unhandled Exceptions

If you do not handle an exception message in your HLL, the system takes a default action for the unhandled exception. Figure 24 on page 38 shows the default actions for unhandled exceptions based on whether the exception was sent to an OPM or ILE program. Different default actions for OPM and ILE create a fundamental difference in error handling capabilities. For OPM, an unhandled exception generates a special escape message known as a function check message. This message is given the special message ID of CPF9999. It is sent to the call message queue of the call stack entry that incurred the original exception message. If the function check message is not handled, the system removes that call stack entry. The system then sends the function check message to the previous call stack entry. This process continues until the function check message is handled. If the function check message is never handled, the job ends.

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For ILE, an unhandled exception message is percolated to the previous call stack entry message queue. Percolation occurs when the exception message is moved to the previous call message queue. This creates the effect of sending the same exception message to the previous call message queue. When this happens, exception processing continues at the previous call stack entry. Figure 25 on page 42 shows unhandled exception messages within ILE. In this example, procedure P1 is a control boundary. Procedure P1 is also the oldest call stack entry in the activation group. Procedure P4 incurred an exception message that was unhandled. Percolation of an unhandled exception continues until either a control boundary is reached or the exception message is handled. An unhandled exception is converted to a function check when it is percolated to the control boundary. If the exception is an escape, the function check is generated. If it is a notify exception, the default reply is sent, the exception is handled, and the sender of the notify is allowed to continue. If it is a status exception, the exception is handled, and the sender of the status is allowed to continue. The resume point (shown in procedure P3) is used to define the call stack entry at which exception processing of the function check should continue. For ILE, the next processing step is to send the special function check exception message to this call stack entry. This is procedure P3 in this example. The function check exception message can now be handled or percolated to the control boundary. If it is handled, normal processing continues and exception processing ends. If the function check message is percolated to the control boundary, ILE considers the application to have ended with an unexpected error. A generic failure exception message is defined by ILE for all languages. This message is CEE9901 and is sent by ILE to the caller of the control boundary. The default action for unhandled exception messages defined in ILE allows you to recover from error conditions that occur within a mixed-language application. For unexpected errors, ILE enforces a consistent failure message for all languages. This improves the ability to integrate applications from different sources.

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Call Stack

OPM Program A Send Terminating Exception CEE9901

Activation Group ILE Procedure P1 ILE Procedure P2 ILE Procedure P3

Resume Point

Percolate Function Check

Percolate Unhandled Exception

ILE Procedure P4

RV2W1043-1

Figure 25. Unhandled Exception Default Action

Types of Exception Handlers

This topic provides an overview of the exception handler types provided for both OPM and ILE programs. As shown in Figure 24 on page 38, this is the top layer of the exception message architecture. ILE provides additional exception-handling capabilities when compared to OPM. For OPM programs, HLL-specific error handling provides one or more handling routines for each call stack entry. The appropriate routine is called by the system when an exception is sent to an OPM program. HLL-specific error handling in ILE provides the same capabilities. ILE, however, has additional types of exception handlers. These types of handlers give you direct control of the exception message architecture and allow you to bypass HLL-specific error handling. The additional types of handlers for ILE are: Direct monitor handler ILE condition handler To determine if these types of handlers are supported by your HLL, refer to your ILE HLL programmers guide. Direct monitor handlers allow you to directly declare an exception monitor around limited HLL source statements. For ILE C, this capability is enabled through a #pragma directive. ILE COBOL does not directly declare an exception monitor around limited HLL source statements in the same sense that ILE C does. An ILE COBOL program cannot directly code the enablement and disablement of handlers around arbitrary source code. However, a statement such as
ADD a TO b ON SIZE ERROR imperative

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is internally mapped to use the same mechanism. Thus, in terms of the priority of which handler gets control first, such a statement-scoped conditional imperative gets control before the ILE condition handler (registered via CEEHDLR). Control then proceeds to the USE declaratives in COBOL. ILE condition handlers allow you to register an exception handler at run time. ILE condition handlers are registered for a particular call stack entry. To register an ILE condition handler, use the Register a User-Written Condition Handler (CEEHDLR) bindable API. This API allows you to identify a procedure at run time that should be given control when an exception occurs. The CEEHDLR API requires the ability to declare and set a procedure pointer within your language. CEEHDLR is implemented as a built-in function. Therefore, its address cannot be specified and it cannot be called through a procedure pointer. ILE condition handlers may be unregistered by calling the Unregister a User-Written Condition Handler (CEEHDLU) bindable API. OPM and ILE support HLL-specific handlers. HLL-specific handlers are the language features defined for handling errors. For example, the ILE C signal function can be used to handle exception messages. HLL-specific error handling in RPG includes the ability to code *PSSR and INFSR subroutines. HLL-specific error handling in COBOL includes USE declarative for I/O error handling and imperatives in statement-scoped condition phrases such as ON SIZE ERROR and AT INVALID KEY. Exception handler priority becomes important if you use both HLL-specific error handling and additional ILE exception handler types. Figure 26 on page 44 shows a call stack entry for procedure P2. In this example, all three types of handlers have been defined for a single call stack entry. Though this may not be a typical example, it is possible to have all three types defined. Because all three types are defined, an exception handler priority is defined. The figure shows this priority. When an exception message is sent, the exception handlers are called in the following order: 1. Direct monitor handlers First the invocation is chosen, then the relative order of handlers in that invocation. Within an invocation, all direct monitor handlers and COBOL statement-scoped conditional imperatives get control before the ILE condition handlers. Similarly, the ILE condition handlers get control before other HLL-specific handlers. If direct monitor handlers have been declared around the statements that incurred the exception, these handlers are called before HLL-specific handlers. For example, if procedure P2 in Figure 26 on page 44 has a HLL-specific handler and procedure P1 has a direct monitor handler, P2s handler is considered before P1s direct monitor handler. Direct monitors can be lexically nested. The handler specified in the most deeply nested direct monitor is chosen first within the multiply nested monitors that specify the same priority number. 2. ILE condition handler If an ILE condition handler has been registered for the call stack entry, this handler is called second. Multiple ILE condition handlers may be registered. In the example, procedure P5 and procedure P6 are ILE condition handlers. When multiple ILE condition handlers are registered for the same call stack entry, the system calls these handlers in last-in-first-out (LIFO) order. If we categorize

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COBOL statement-scoped conditional imperatives as HLL-specific handlers, those imperatives take priority over the ILE condition handler. 3. HLL-specific handler HLL-specific handlers are called last. The system ends exception processing when an exception message is modified to show that it has been handled. If you are using direct monitor handlers or ILE condition handlers, modifying the exception message is your responsibility. Several control actions are available. For example, you can specify handle as a control action. As long as the exception message remains unhandled, the system continues to search for an exception handler using the priorities previously defined. If the exception is not handled within the current call stack entry, percolation to the previous call stack entry occurs. If you do not use HLL-specific error handling, your ILE HLL can choose to allow exception handling to continue at the previous call stack entry.
Call Stack

Exception Handler Priority ILE Direct Monitor Handler Procedure P4

ILE Procedure P1

ILE Procedure P2 Exception Occurs

ILE ILE Condition Handler Procedure P5

ILE Procedure P3

ILE ILE Condition Handler Procedure P6 ILE HLL - Specific Handler Procedure P7

. . .

Last in First out

Standard Language Default

RV2W1041-3

Figure 26. Exception Handler Priority

ILE Conditions
To allow greater cross-system consistency, ILE has defined a feature that allows you to work with error conditions. An ILE condition is a system-independent representation of an error condition within an HLL. For OS/400, each ILE condition has a corresponding exception message. An ILE condition is represented by a condition token. A condition token is a 12-byte data structure that is

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consistent across multiple participating systems. This data structure contains information that allows you to associate the condition with the underlying exception message. To write programs that are consistent across systems, you need to use ILE condition handlers and ILE condition tokens. For more information on ILE conditions refer to Chapter 9. Exception and Condition Management on page 115.

Data Management Scoping Rules

Data management scoping rules control the use of data management resources. These resources are temporary objects that allow a program to work with data management. For example, when a program opens a file, an object called an open data path (ODP) is created to connect the program to the file. When a program creates an override to change how a file should be processed, the system creates an override object. Data management scoping rules determine when a resource can be shared by multiple programs or procedures running on the call stack. For example, open files created with the SHARE(*YES) parameter value or commitment definition objects can be used by many programs at the same time. The ability to share a data management resource depends on the level of scoping for the data management resource. Data management scoping rules also determine the existence of the resource. The system automatically deletes unused resources within the job, depending on the scoping rules. As a result of this automatic cleanup operation, the job uses less storage and job performance improves. ILE formalizes the data management scoping rules for both OPM and ILE programs into the following scoping levels: Call Activation group Job Depending on the data management resource you are using, one or more of the scoping levels may be explicitly specified. If you do not select a scoping level, the system selects one of the levels as a default. Refer to Chapter 11. Data Management Scoping on page 129 for information on how each data management resource supports the scoping levels.

Call-Level Scoping
Call-level scoping occurs when the data management resource is connected to the call stack entry that created the resource. Figure 27 on page 46 shows an example. Call-level scoping is usually the default scoping level for programs that run in the default activation group. In this figure, OPM program A, OPM program B, or ILE procedure P2 may choose to return without closing their respective files F1, F2, or F3. Data management associates the ODP for each file with the call-level number that opened the file. The RCLRSC command may be used to close the files based on a particular call-level number passed to that command.

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Default Activation Group OPM Program A ODP F1

OPM Override R1 Program B ILE PEP P1 ILE

UEP P2

ODP F2

ODP F3

RV2W1037-1

Figure 27. Call-Level Scoping. ODPs and overrides may be scoped to the call level.

Overrides that are scoped to a particular call level are deleted when the corresponding call stack entry returns. Overrides may be shared by any call stack entry that is below the call level that created the override.

Activation-Group-Level Scoping
Activation-group-level scoping occurs when the data management resource is connected to the activation group of the ILE program or ILE service program that created the resource. When the activation group is deleted, data management closes all resources associated with the activation group that have been left open by programs running in the activation group. Figure 28 on page 47 shows an example of activation-group-level scoping. Activation-group-level scoping is the default scoping level for most types of data management resources used by ILE procedures not running in the default activation group. For example, the figure shows ODPs for files F1, F2, and F3 and override R1 scoped to the activation group.

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ILE Activation Group ILE PEP P1 ODP F1 ILE

UEP P2

Data Management Resources

Override R1

ODP F2

ILE Procedure P3

ODP F3

. . .

RV3W102-0

Figure 28. Activation Group Level Scoping. ODPs and overrides may be scoped to an activation group.

The ability to share a data management resource scoped to an activation group is limited to programs running in that activation group. This provides application isolation and protection. For example, assume that file F1 in the figure was opened with the SHARE(*YES) parameter value. File F1 could be used by any ILE procedure running in the same activation group. Another open operation for file F1 in a different activation group results in the creation of a second ODP for that file.

Job-Level Scoping
Job-level scoping occurs when the data management resource is connected to the job. Job-level scoping is available to both OPM and ILE programs. Job-level scoping allows for sharing data management resources between programs running in different activation groups. As described in the previous topic, scoping resources to an activation group limits the sharing of that resource to programs running in that activation group. Job-level scoping allows the sharing of data management resources between all ILE and OPM programs running in the job. Figure 29 on page 48 shows an example of job-level scoping. Program A may have opened file F1, specifying job-level scoping. The ODP for this file is connected to the job. The file is not closed by the system unless the job ends. If the ODP has been created with the SHARE(YES) parameter value, any OPM program or ILE procedure could potentially share the file.

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Job Default Activation Group OPM Program A ODP F1 OPM

Program B

Data Management Resources

Override R1

ILE Activation Group ILE PEP P1

Commitment Definition *JOB

. . .

ILE UEP P2

RV2W1039-2

Figure 29. Job Level Scoping. ODPs, overrides, and commitment definitions may be scoped to the job level.

Overrides scoped to the job level influence all open file operations in the job. In this example, override R1 could have been created by procedure P2. A job-level override remains active until it is either explicitly deleted or the job ends. The job-level override is the highest priority override when merging occurs. This is because call-level overrides are merged together when multiple overrides exist on the call stack. Data management scoping levels may be explicitly specified by the use of scoping parameters on override commands, commitment control commands, and through various APIs. The complete list of data management resources that use the scoping rules are in Chapter 11. Data Management Scoping on page 129.

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Chapter 4. Teraspace and single-level store

You can choose from two types of storage on iSeries servers when you create your ILE programs: teraspace and single-level store. This chapter focuses on the newer teraspace options. ILE programs use single-level store by default.

Teraspace characteristics
Teraspace is a large temporary space that is local to a job. A teraspace provides a contiguous address space but may consist of many individually allocated areas, with unallocated areas in between. Teraspace exists no longer than the time between job start and job end. A teraspace is not a space object. This means that it is not a system object, and that you cannot refer to it by using a system pointer. However, teraspace is addressable with space pointers. The following table shows how teraspace compares to single-level store.
Table 2. Comparing teraspace to single-level store Attributes Locality Teraspace Single-level store

Process local: normally Global: accessible to any job accessible only to the owning that has a pointer to it. job. 1 TB total Yes Yes Must be done using shared memory APIs (for example, shmat or mmap). Many 16 MB units. No No Can be done by passing pointers to other jobs or using shared memory APIs.

Size Supports memory mapping? Addressed by 8-byte pointers? Supports sharing between jobs?

Enabling your programs for teraspace

ILE programs use single-level store by default. In order to process teraspace addresses, a program must be teraspace enabled. Teraspace-enabled programs can process a teraspace address in a variety of contexts, for example: v When it is returned from a request to allocate teraspace heap storage v When it is returned from a request to allocate teraspace shared memory v When it is passed in from another program. The following compilers generate teraspace-enabled code: v v v v v ILE ILE ILE ILE ILE C (choose TERASPACE(*YES) when you create modules and programs) C++ (choose TERASPACE(*YES) when you create modules and programs) RPG (teraspace-enabled is the default beginning with V4R4) COBOL (teraspace-enabled is the default beginning with V4R4) CL (teraspace-enabled is the default beginning with V5R1)

Copyright IBM Corp. 1997, 2001

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The ILE C and C++ compilers provide the TERASPACE (*YES *TSIFC) create command option to allow the use of teraspace versions of storage interfaces without source code changes. For example, malloc() is mapped to _C_TS_malloc().

See the ILE C for iSeries Programmers Guide options.

for details on these compiler

You can make OPM programs teraspace-enabled by using the CHGPGM command.

Choosing a program storage model

You can go beyond teraspace-enabling by creating your modules and programs so that they use the teraspace storage model. Teraspace storage model programs use teraspace for automatic, static and constant storage. When you choose the teraspace storage model, you can use larger areas for some of these types of storage. Teraspace storage model programs can also use 8-byte pointers to address these storage areas. See Using the teraspace storage model on page 56 for more information about the teraspace storage model. You have the option of specifying one of two storage models for your modules and programs: single-level store (*SNGLVL) and teraspace (*TERASPACE). You can also choose to allow your service program to inherit the storage model of the activation group in which it runs. This topic discusses the teraspace storage model.

Specifying the teraspace storage model

To choose the teraspace storage model, specify the following options when you compile your code: 1. Ensure that your modules are enabled for teraspace. Specify *YES on the TERASPACE parameter when you create your modules. You can use the DSPMOD, DSPPGM, and DSPSRVPGM commands to display the teraspace attributes of a module, program, and service program, respectively. You can see the teraspace attribute from DETAIL(*MODULE) when you use option 5 to display each modules details. 2. Specify *TERASPACE or *INHERIT on the Storage model (STGMDL) parameter of the create module command for your ILE programming language. 3. Specify *TERASPACE on the STGMDL parameter of the CRTPGM or CRTSRVPGM command. This choice must be compatible with the storage model of the modules that you bind with the program. See Rules for binding modules on page 52 for details. You can also specify *TERASPACE on the STGMDL parameter of the CRTBNDC and CRTBNDCPP commands, which create in one step a bound program that contains only one module. On the CRTSRVPGM command, you can also specify *INHERIT on the STGMDL parameter. This causes the service program to be created in such a way that it can use either single-level store or teraspace, depending on the type of storage in use in the activation group into which the service program is activated. The use of the *INHERIT attribute provides the greatest flexibility, but then you must also specify *CALLER on the ACTGRP parameter. In this case, remember that your service program could get activated with either single-level store or teraspace, and you must take care that your code can effectively handle both

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situations. For example, the total size of all static variables must be no larger than the smaller limits imposed for single-level store.
Table 3. Allowed storage model for particular types of programs. Program storage model *TERASPACE *INHERIT *SNGLVL Program type OPM *PGM No No Yes ILE *PGM Yes No Yes ILE *SRVPGM Yes Yes, but only with ACTGRP(*CALLER) Yes

Selecting a compatible activation group

An activation group reflects the storage model of the root program that caused the activation group to be created. The storage model determines the type of automatic, static, and constant storage that is provided to the program. Single-level store storage model programs receive single-level store automatic, static, and constant storage. By default, these programs will also use single-level store for heap storage. Teraspace storage model programs receive teraspace automatic, static, and constant storage. By default, these programs will also use teraspace for heap storage. Programs that use the teraspace storage model cannot be activated into an activation group whose root program uses the single-level store storage model. Programs that use the single-level store storage model cannot be activated into an activation group whose root program uses the teraspace storage model. The following table summarizes the relationship between storage models and the activation group type.
Table 4. Relationship of storage models to activation groups Program storage model *TERASPACE Activation group attribute *CALLER Yes. Make sure that client programs were also created with the teraspace storage model. Yes Yes *DFTACTGRP Not allowed. The default activation groups are *SNGLVL only. Not allowed. Yes *NEW Yes Named Yes

*INHERIT *SNGLVL

Not allowed. Yes

Not allowed. Yes

When you choose the activation group in which your program or service program runs, consider the following guidelines: v If your service program specifies STGMDL(*INHERIT), you must specify ACTGRP(*CALLER). v If your program specifies STGMDL(*TERASPACE): Specify ACTGRP(*NEW) or a named activation group. Specify ACTGRP(*CALLER) only if you can assure that every program that calls your program uses the teraspace storage model.
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How the storage models interact

Consistency is required among the modules and programs that use a storage model. Here are rules to insure that programs interact properly. v Rules for binding modules v Rules for binding to service programs v Rules for activating programs and service programs v Rules for program and procedure calls on page 53

Rules for binding modules

The following table shows the rules for binding modules:
Binding rules: Binding module M into a program with a specified storage model. The storage model of the program that is being created. Teraspace Teraspace Teraspace Error Inherit (service programs only) Error Inherit Error Single-level store Error Single-level store Single-level store

Teraspace M Inherit Single-level store

Rules for binding to service programs

The following table shows the rules for binding programs to target service programs.
Service program binding rules: Target service program storage model Can the calling program or service Teraspace Inherit Single-level program bind to a target service store program? Teraspace Storage model of the calling Inherit1 program or Single-level service program store Yes Yes3 Yes2 Yes Yes Yes Yes2 Yes3 Yes

Notes: 1. Only service programs can be specified to inherit the storage model. 2. The target service program must run in a distinct activation group. For example, the target service program cannot have the ACTGRP(*CALLER) attribute. It is not possible to mix storage models within a single activation group. 3. Binding a service program that uses the inherit storage model to a single-level store or teraspace service program is permitted, but the ultimate success of the operation may not be known until activation time. If the target service program has the ACTGRP(*CALLER) attribute, then the calling service program (specified to inherit the storage model) must be activated into an activation group that is compatible with the target service program. The target service program cannot specify ACTGRP(*CALLER) or specify the same named activation group as the calling program or service program.

Rules for activating programs and service programs

A teraspace-enabled service program that specifies the inherit storage model can activate into an activation group that runs programs that use single-level store or

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teraspace storage models. Otherwise, the storage model of the service program must match the storage model of other programs that run in the activation group.

Rules for program and procedure calls

Programs and service programs that use different storage models can interoperate. They can be bound together and share data as long as they conform to the rules and restrictions described in this chapter. Code that is not teraspace-enabled cannot process teraspace addresses. Such attempts will cause an exception, usually MCH0607 (Unsupported space use).

Converting your service program to inherit a storage model

By converting your service programs to inherit a storage model (specifying *INHERIT on the STGMDL parameter), you enable them for use in either teraspace or single-level storage environments. Follow these steps to enable your existing service program for the teraspace storage model: 1. Create all of your modules with the inherit storage model. You cannot create your service program with the inherit storage model if any of the modules were created with single-level store or teraspace storage models. 2. Make sure that your code anticipates and effectively manages pointers to and from teraspace and single-level store storage. See Using teraspace: best practices on page 56 for more information. 3. Create your service program with the inherit storage model. Specify *CALLER on the ACTGRP parameter as well.

Changing and updating your programs: teraspace considerations

You can change or update your programs to be teraspace-enabled under certain circumstances. There are restrictions on the storage model of a module that is used to update your programs. Changing your programs: You can use the CHGPGM and CHGSRVPGM commands to transform non-teraspace-enabled programs into teraspace-enabled programs. You can do this for ILE programs that have, along with all of their bound modules, a target release of V4R4M0 or later. You can also do this for OPM programs that have a target release of V4R4M0 or later. Updating your programs: You can add and replace modules within the program as long as they use the same storage model. However, you cannot use the update commands to change the storage model of the bound module or the program.

Taking advantage of 8-byte pointers in your C and C++ code

An 8-byte pointer can point only to teraspace. An 8-byte procedure pointer refers to an active procedure through teraspace. The only types of 8-byte pointers are space and procedure pointers. In contrast, there are many types of 16-byte pointers. The following table shows how 8-byte and 16-byte pointers compare.

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Table 5. Pointer comparison Property Length (memory required) Tagged Alignment 8-byte pointer 8 bytes No Byte alignment is permitted (that is, a packed structure). Natural alignment (8-byte) is preferred for performance. Atomic load and store operations when 8-byte aligned. Does not apply to aggregate copy operations. Teraspace storage 16-byte pointer 16 bytes Yes Always 16-byte.

Atomicity

Atomic load and store operations. Atomic copy when part of an aggregate. Teraspace storage + single-level storage

Addressable range Pointer content

A 64-bit value which 16-byte pointer type bits and represents an offset into a 64-bit effective address. teraspace. It does not contain an effective address. Process local storage reference. (An 8-byte pointer can only reference the teraspace of the job in which the storage reference occurs.) Pointer-specific operations allowed for space pointers and procedure pointers, and using a non-pointer view, all arithmetic and logical operations appropriate to binary data can be used without invalidating the pointer. No Process local or single-level store storage reference. (A 16-byte pointer can reference storage that is logically owned by another job.) Only pointer-specific operations.

Locality of reference

Operations permitted

Fastest storage references Fastest loads, stores, and space pointer arithmetic Size of binary value preserved when cast to pointer Can be accepted as a parameter by a procedure that is an exception handler or cancel handler.

Yes

Yes, including avoiding EAO No overhead. 8 bytes 4 bytes

No

Yes

Pointer support in C and C++ compilers

To take full advantage of 8-byte pointers when you compile your code with the IBM C or C++ compiler, specify STGMDL(*TERASPACE) and DTAMDL(*LLP64). The C and C++ compilers also provide the following pointer support: v Syntax for explicitly declaring 8- or 16-byte pointers: Declare a 8-byte pointer as char * __ptr64 Declare a 16-byte pointer as char * __ptr128

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v A compiler option and pragma for specifying the data model, which is unique to the C and C++ programming environment. The data model affects the default size of pointers in the absence of one of the explicit qualifiers. You have two choices for the data model: P128, also known as 4-4-161 LLP64, also known as 4-4-82

Pointer conversions
The IBM C and C++ compilers convert __ptr128 to __ptr64 and vice versa as needed, based on function and variable declarations. Pay particular attention to the following situations: A_ptr128 which points to single-level store storage will convert to an arbitrary __ptr64 value v Code which is not teraspace-enabled cannot access teraspace v Interfaces with pointer-to-pointer parameters require special handling. The compilers automatically insert pointer conversions to match pointer lengths. For example, conversions are inserted when the pointer arguments to a function do not match the length of the pointer parameters in the prototype for the function. Or, if pointers of different lengths are compared, the compiler will implicitly convert the 8-byte pointer to a 16-byte pointer for the comparison. The compilers also allow explicit conversions to be specified, as casts. Keep these points in mind if adding pointer casts: v A conversion from a 16-byte pointer to an 8-byte pointer works only if the 16-byte pointer contains a teraspace address or a null pointer value. Otherwise, a MCH0609 exception will be signalled, or an arbitrary teraspace offset value will be returned. v 16-byte pointers cannot have types converted from one to another, but a 16-byte OPEN pointer can contain any pointer type. In contrast, no 8-byte OPEN pointer exists, but 8-byte pointers can be logically converted between a space pointer and a procedure pointer. Even so, an 8-byte pointer conversion is just a view of the pointer type, so it doesnt allow a space pointer to actually be used as a procedure pointer unless the space pointer was set to point to a procedure. When adding explicit casts between pointers and binary values, remember that 8-byte and 16-byte pointers behave differently. An 8-byte pointer can retain a full 8-byte binary value, while a 16-byte pointer can only retain a 4-byte binary value. While holding a binary value, the only operation defined for a pointer is a conversion back to a binary field. All other operations are undefined, including use as a pointer, conversion to a different pointer length and pointer comparison. So, for example, if the same integer value were assigned to an 8-byte pointer and to a 16-byte pointer, then the 8-byte pointer were converted to a 16-byte pointer and a 16-byte pointer comparison were done, the comparison result would be undefined and likely would not produce an equal result. Mixed-length pointer comparisons are defined only when a 16-byte pointer holds a teraspace address and an 8-byte pointer does, too (that is, the 8-byte pointer does not contain a binary value). Then it is valid to convert the 8-byte pointer to a 16-byte pointer and compare the two 16-byte pointers. In all other cases, v

1. Where 4-4-16 = sizeof(int) sizeof(long) sizeof(pointer) 2. Where 4-4-8 = sizeof(int) sizeof(long) sizeof(pointer) Chapter 4. Teraspace and single-level store

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comparison results are undefined. So, for example, if a 16-byte pointer were converted to an 8-byte pointer and then compared with an 8-byte pointer, the result is undefined.

Using the teraspace storage model

In an ideal teraspace environment, all of your modules, programs, and service programs would use the teraspace storage model. On a practical level, however, you will need to manage an environment that combines modules, programs, and service programs that use both storage models. This section describes the practices you can implement to move toward an ideal teraspace environment. This section also discusses how you can minimize the potential problems of an environment that mixes programs that use single-level store and teraspace.

Using teraspace: best practices

v Use only teraspace storage model modules Create your modules such that they use the teraspace or inherit storage model. Single-level store modules are not suitable for a teraspace environment because you cannot bind these into your program. If you absolutely have to use these (for instance, if you do not have access to the source code for the module), see scenario 9 in Teraspace usage tips on page 59. v Bind only to service programs that use the teraspace or inherit storage model Your teraspace storage model program can bind to almost any kind of service program. However, it would normally bind only to inherit or teraspace storage model service programs. If you control the service programs, you should create all of your service programs such that they can inherit the storage model of the program that binds them. In general, IBM service programs are created in this manner. You may need to do the same, especially if you plan to provide your service programs to third-party programmers. See scenario 10 in Teraspace usage tips on page 59 if you absolutely have to bind to a single-level store service program. v Call only teraspace-enabled programs Your program can make external program calls. If you call programs that are not teraspace-enabled and your parameters are in teraspace, the called program may fail. This consideration also applies to user exit programs. In addition, you must be sure the teraspace-enabled programs you call will not pass teraspace addresses to programs or service programs that are not teraspace-enabled. Otherwise you may wish to follow the best practices outlined in this topic. If you must call a program that is not teraspace-enabled, or cannot determine if the program you are calling is teraspace-enabled, you can still call it by following the steps in scenario 9 in Teraspace usage tips on page 59. v Make pointer calls only to teraspace-enabled procedures Your code could obtain a procedure pointer and use this to call a procedure. Make sure that the procedure you are calling is in a teraspace-enabled program or service program. Also, make sure that it does not pass teraspace addresses to programs that may not be teraspace-enabled. If it does, or if you cannot determine whether or not it does, follow the guidelines discussed in scenario 9 in Teraspace usage tips on page 59. The program or service program containing the procedure must have all modules teraspace-enabled; otherwise, the procedure pointer call fails at run

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time with MCH4443. If all modules in the program are teraspace-enabled, then the called procedure will be teraspace-enabled. If you have followed the guidelines described in this topic, you can use teraspace in your programs. However, the use of teraspace requires that you pay careful attention to your coding practices, because single-level store is used by default. The following topics describe the things you cannot do with teraspace, and some things you should not do. In some cases, the system prevents you from performing certain actions, but at other times you must manage potential teraspace and single-level store interactions on your own. v System controls over teraspace programs when they are created v System controls over teraspace programs when they are activated v System controls over teraspace programs when they are run Note: Service programs that use the inherit storage model must also follow these practices because they may be activated to use teraspace.

System controls over teraspace programs when they are created

In most cases, the system prevents you from doing any of the following actions: v Combining single-level store and teraspace storage model modules into the same program or service program. v Creating a teraspace storage model program or service program that also specifies a default activation group (ACTGRP(*DFTACTGRP)). v Binding a single-level store program to a teraspace storage model service program that also specifies an activation group of *CALLER.

System controls over teraspace programs when they are activated

In some cases at activation time, the system will determine that you have created your programs and service programs in such a way that both single-level store and teraspace storage model programs or service programs would attempt to activate into the same activation group. The system will then send the activation access violation exception and fail the activation.

System controls over teraspace programs when they are run

The system cannot detect the following problems until run time: v Calling single-level store storage model code that is not teraspace-enabled from teraspace storage model code. v Attempting to use pointers into teraspace in programs that are not teraspace-enabled. Your program must be fully enabled for teraspace, and not just the module that contains the procedure being called.

OS/400 interfaces and teraspace

In general, OS/400 is created teraspace-enabled. OS/400 interfaces that have pointer parameters typically expect tagged 16 byte (__ptr128) pointers: v You can call interfaces with only a single level of pointer (for example, void f(char*p);) directly using 8-byte (__ptr64) pointers since the compiler will convert the pointer as required. Be sure to use the system header files. v Interfaces with multiple levels of pointers (for example, void g(char**p);) ordinarily require that you explicitly declare a 16 byte pointer for the second level. However, versions that accept 8-byte pointers are provided for most system interfaces of this type, to allow them to be called directly from code that
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uses only 8-byte pointers. These interfaces are enabled through the standard header files when you select the datamodel(LLP64) option. Bindable APIs for using teraspace: IBM provides bindable APIs for allocating and discarding teraspace.3 v _C_TS_malloc() allocates storage within a teraspace. v _C_TS_free() frees one previous allocation of teraspace. v _C_TS_realloc() changes the size of a previous teraspace allocation. v _C_TS_calloc() allocates storage within a teraspace and sets it to 0. malloc(), free(), calloc(), and realloc() allocate or deallocate single-level storage or teraspace storage according to the storage model of their calling program, unless it was compiled with the TERASPACE(*YES *TSIFC) compiler option. POSIX shared memory and memory mapped file interfaces may use teraspace. For more information about Interprocess Communication APIs and the shmget() interface, see the UNIX-type APIs topic in the iSeries Information Center (under the Programming category and CL and APIs subcategory).

Potential problems that can arise when you use teraspace

When you use teraspace in your programs, you should be aware of the potential problems that can arise. v Teraspace addresses cannot be passed to programs or procedures that are not teraspace enabled. When you call code that is not teraspace enabled, parameters on program calls cannot reside in teraspace, and pointers passed as parameters for either program or procedure calls cannot contain a teraspace address. Depending upon the exact situation, such an attempt will cause an MCH0607, MCH3601 or MCH3602 exception. v Some MI instructions cannot process a teraspace address. An attempt to use a teraspace address in these instructions will cause an MCH0607 exception. CIPHER (only some options are limited) MATBPGM MATPG SCANX (only some options are limited) SETDP SETDPADR v Between-job access is unpredictable. In some circumstances, a pointer to teraspace that is passed to another job will be usable even though teraspace is defined as local to one job. Avoid passing a pointer to teraspace to another job, to prevent application failure when the between-job access does not work. v Effective Address Overflow (EAO) can impair performance. This situation occurs when an address calculation on a 16-byte pointer produces a result address in a different 16 MB region than the start address. A hardware interrupt is generated that is handled by the system software. Many such interrupts can affect performance. Avoid frequent address calculations that span 16 MB boundaries within teraspace when you use 16-byte pointer arithmetic.

3. The teraspace compiler option TERASPACE(*YES *TSIFC) is available from ILE C and C++ compilers to automatically map malloc(), free(), calloc() and realloc() to their teraspace versions when STGMDL(*SLS) is specified.

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Teraspace usage tips

You might encounter the following scenarios as you work with the teraspace storage model. Recommended solutions are provided. v Scenario 1: You need more than 16 MB of dynamic storage in a single allocation Use _C_TS_malloc or specify TERASPACE(*YES *TSIFC) on the compiler create command before using malloc. These provide heap storage to any teraspace-enabled program. v Scenario 2: You need more than 16 MB of shared memory Use shared memory (shmget) with the teraspace option. v Scenario 3: You need to access large byte-stream files efficiently Use memory mapped files (mmap). You can access memory-mapped files from any teraspace-enabled program, but for best performance use the teraspace storage model and the 8-byte pointer data model. v Scenario 4: You need greater than 16 MB of contiguous automatic or static storage Use teraspace storage model. You can use teraspace with either 8-byte or 16-byte pointers, but for best performance select the 8-byte pointer data model. v Scenario 5: Your application makes heavy use of space pointers Use the teraspace storage model and the 8-byte pointer data model to reduce memory footprint and speed up pointer operations. v Scenario 6: You need to port code from another system and want to avoid issues that are unique to 16-byte pointer usage Use the teraspace storage model and the 8-byte pointer data model. v Scenario 7: You need to use single-level store storage in your teraspace program Sometimes your only choice is to use single-level store storage in your teraspace storage model programs. For example, you might need it to store parameters for calling programs or service programs that are not teraspace-enabled. Or, you may need to store user data for interprocess communication. You can get single-level store storage from any of the following sources: Storage in a user space obtained from the CRTS MI instruction The single-level store version of malloc Single-level store reference that was passed to your program Single-level store storage heap space obtained from the ALCHS MI instruction v Scenario 8: Take advantage of 8-byte pointers in your code Create your module and program with STGMDL(*TERASPACE). Use DTAMDL(*LLP64) or explicit declarations (__ptr64) to get 8-byte pointers to refer to teraspace (as opposed to 16-byte pointers pointing into teraspace). Then you will get the advantages listed in Taking advantage of 8-byte pointers in your C and C++ code on page 53. v Scenario 9: Incorporating a single-level store storage model module You cannot bind a single-level store module with a teraspace storage model module. If you need to do this, first try to get a version of the module that uses (or inherits) the teraspace storage model, then simply use it as described in Using teraspace: best practices on page 56. Otherwise, you have two options: Package the module into a separate service program. The service program will use the single-level store storage model, so use the approach given in scenario 10, below, to call it.

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 Package the module into a separate program. This program will use the single-level store storage model. Use the approach outlined in scenario 11, below, to call it. v Scenario 10: Binding to a single-level store storage model service program You can bind your teraspace program to a service program that uses single-level store if the two service programs activate into separate activation groups. You cannot do this if the single-level store service program specifies the ACTGRP(*CALLER) option. If the single-level store service program is also not enabled for teraspace, try to get a teraspace-enabled version of it. If you cannot, see scenario 11, below. v Scenario 11: Calling a program or service program that is not teraspace-enabled First, if possible, try to code your program in such a way that you do not have to call a program that is not teraspace-enabled. However, you can do this if you are careful to pass only parameters that are stored in single-level store storage. To do this, copy the data from teraspace to single level store storage, pass that to the program, and then when it returns, copy any results or changed storage back into teraspace. You cannot make a procedure pointer call from a teraspace storage model caller to a procedure in a program that is not teraspace-enabled.

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Chapter 5. Program Creation Concepts

The process for creating ILE programs or service programs gives you greater flexibility and control in designing and maintaining applications. The process includes two steps: 1. Compiling source code into modules. 2. Binding modules into an ILE program or service program. Binding occurs when the Create Program (CRTPGM) or Create Service Program (CRTSRVPGM) command is run. This chapter explains concepts associated with the binder and with the process of creating ILE programs or service programs. Before reading this chapter, you should be familiar with the binding concepts described in Chapter 2. ILE Basic Concepts on page 11.

Create Program and Create Service Program Commands

The Create Program (CRTPGM) and Create Service Program (CRTSRVPGM) commands look similar and share many of the same parameters. Comparing the parameters used in the two commands helps to clarify how each command can be used. Table 6 shows the commands and their parameters with the default values supplied.
Table 6. Parameters for CRTPGM and CRTSRVPGM Commands Parameter Group CRTPGM Command CRTSRVPGM Command Identification PGM(*CURLIB/WORK) SRVPGM(*CURLIB/UTILITY) MODULE(*PGM) MODULE(*SRVPGM) Program access ENTMOD(*FIRST) EXPORT(*SRCFILE) SRCFILE(*LIBL/QSRVSRC) SRCMBR(*SRVPGM) Binding BNDSRVPGM(*NONE) BNDSRVPGM(*NONE) BNDDIR(*NONE) BNDDIR(*NONE) Run time ACTGRP(*NEW) ACTGRP(*CALLER) Optimization IPA(*NO) IPA(*NO) IPACTLFILE(*NONE) IPACTLFILE(*NONE) IPARPLIL(*NO) IPARPLIL(*NO) OPTION(*GEN Miscellaneous OPTION(*GEN *NODUPPROC *NODUPVAR *NODUPPROC *NODUPVAR *WARN *RSLVREF) *WARN *RSLVREF) DETAIL(*NONE) DETAIL(*NONE) ALWUPD(*YES) ALWUPD(*YES) ALWRINZ(*NO) ALWRINZ(*NO) REPLACE(*YES) REPLACE(*YES) AUT(*LIBCRTAUT) AUT(*LIBCRTAUT) TEXT(*ENTMODTXT) TEXT(*ENTMODTXT) TGTRLS(*CURRENT) TGTRLS(*CURRENT) USRPRF(*USER) USRPRF(*USER) STGMDL(*SNGLVL) STGMDL(*SNGLVL)

The identification parameters for both commands name the object to be created and the modules copied. The only difference in the two parameters is in the
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default module name to use when creating the object. For CRTPGM, use the same name for the module as is specified on the program (*PGM) parameter. For CRTSRVPGM, use the same name for the module as is specified on the service program (*SRVPGM) parameter. Otherwise, these parameters look and act the same. The most significant similarity in the two commands is how the binder resolves symbols between the imports and exports. In both cases, the binder processes the input from the module (MODULE), bound service program (BNDSRVPGM), and binding directory (BNDDIR) parameters. The most significant difference in the commands is with the program-access parameters (see Program Access on page 70). For the CRTPGM command, all that needs to be identified to the binder is which module has the program entry procedure. Once the program is created and a dynamic program call is made to this program, processing starts with the module containing the program entry procedure. The CRTSRVPGM command needs more program-access information because it can supply an interface of several access points for other programs or service programs.

Use Adopted Authority (QUSEADPAUT)

The QUSEADPAUT system value defines which users can create programs with the use adopted authority (USEADPAUT(*YES)) attribute. All users authorized by the QUSEADPAUT system value can create or change programs and service programs to use adopted authority if the user has the necessary authorities. See the Security - Reference to find out what authorities are required.

The system value can contain the name of an authorization list. The users authority is checked against this list. If the user has at least *USE authority to the named authorization list, the user can create, change, or update programs or service programs with the USEADPAUT(*YES) attribute. The authority to the authorization list cannot come from adopted authority. If an authorization list is named in the system value and the authorization list is missing, the function being attempted will not complete. A message is sent indicating this. However, if the program is created with the QPRCRTPG API, and the *NOADPAUT value is specified in the option template, the program will create successfully even if the authorization list does not exist. If more than one function is requested on the command or API, and the authorization list is missing, the function is not performed. If the command being attempted when the authorization list cannot be found is Create Pascal Program (CRTPASPGM) or Create Basic Program (CRTBASPGM), the result is a function check.
Table 7. Possible Values for QUSEADPAUT Values authorizationlist name Description A diagnostic message is signaled to indicate that the program is created with USEADPAUT(*NO) if all of the following are true: v An authorization list is specified for the QUSEADPAUT system value. v The user does not have authority to the authorization list mentioned above. v There are no other errors when the program or service program is created. If the user has authority to the authorization list, the program or service program is created with USEADPAUT(*YES).

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Table 7. Possible Values for QUSEADPAUT (continued) Values *NONE Description All users authorized by the QUSEADPAUT system value can create or change programs and service programs to use adopted authority if the users have the necessary authorities. See the Security - Reference to find out what authorities are required.

For more information about the QUSEADPAUT system value, see the Security Reference .

Using optimization parameters

Specify optimization parameters to further optimize your ILE bound programs or service programs. For more information on bind-time optimizations, see Interprocedural analysis (IPA) on page 145.

Symbol Resolution
Symbol resolution is the process the binder goes through to match the following: v The import requests from the set of modules to be bound by copy v The set of exports provided by the specified modules and service programs The set of exports to be used during symbol resolution can be thought of as an ordered (sequentially numbered) list. The order of the exports is determined by the following: v The order in which the objects are specified on the MODULE, BNDSRVPGM, and BNDDIR parameters of the CRTPGM or CRTSRVPGM command v The exports from the language run-time routines of the specified modules

Resolved and Unresolved Imports

An import and export each consist of a procedure or data type and a name. An unresolved import is one whose type and name do not yet match the type and name of an export. A resolved import is one whose type and name exactly match the type and name of an export. Only the imports from the modules that are bound by copy go into the unresolved import list. During symbol resolution, the next unresolved import is used to search the ordered list of exports for a match. If an unresolved import exists after checking the set of ordered exports, the program object or service program is normally not created. However, if *UNRSLVREF is specified on the option parameter, a program object or service program with unresolved imports can be created. If such a program object or service program tries to use an unresolved import at run time, the following occurs: v If the program object or service program was created or updated for a Version 2 Release 3 system, error message MCH3203 is issued. That message says, Function error in machine instruction. v If the program object or service program was created or updated for a Version 3 Release 1 system, error message MCH4439 is issued. That message says, Attempt to use an import that was not resolved.

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Binding by Copy
The modules specified on the MODULE parameter are always bound by copy. Modules named in a binding directory specified by the BNDDIR parameter are bound by copy if they are needed. A module named in a binding directory is needed in either of the following cases: v The module provides an export for an unresolved import v The module provides an export named in the current export block of the binder language source file being used to create a service program If an export found in the binder language comes from a module object, that module is always bound by copy, regardless of whether it was explicitly provided on the command line or comes from a binding directory. For example,
Module Module Module Binder M1: imports P2 M2: exports P2 M3: exports P3 language S1: STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) EXPORT P3 ENDPGMEXP Binding directory BNDDIR1: M2 M3 CRTSRVPGM SRVPGM(MYLIB/SRV1) MODULE(MYLIB/M1) SRCFILE(MYLIB/S1) SRCMBR(S1) BNDDIR(MYLIB/BNDDIR1)

Service program SRV1 will have three modules: M1, M2, and M3. M3 is copied because P3 is in the current export block.

Binding by Reference
Service programs specified on the BNDSRVPGM parameter are bound by reference. If a service program named in a binding directory provides an export for an unresolved import, that service program is bound by reference. A service program bound in this way does not add new imports. Note: To better control what gets bound to your program, specify the generic service program name or specific libraries. The value *LIBL should only be specified in a user-controlled environment when you know exactly what is getting bound to your program. Do not specify BNDSRVPGM(*LIBL/*ALL) with OPTION(*DUPPROC *DUPVAR). Specifying *LIBL with *ALL may give you unpredictable results at program run time.

Binding Large Numbers of Modules

For the module (MODULE) parameter on the CRTPGM and CRTSRVPGM commands, there is a limit on the number of modules you can specify. If the number of modules you want to bind exceed the limit, you can use one the following methods: 1. Use binding directories to bind large number of modules that provide exports that are needed by other modules. 2. Use a module naming convention that allows generic module names to be specified on the MODULE parameter on the CRTPGM and CRTSRVPGM commands. For example, CRTPGM PGM(mylib/payroll) MODULE(mylib/pay*). All modules with names started with pay are unconditionally included in the program mylib/payroll. Therefore, pick your naming convention carefully so that the generic names specified on the CRTPGM or CRTSRVPGM commands do not bind unwanted modules. 3. Group the modules into separate libraries so that the value *ALL can be used with specific library names on the MODULE parameter. For example, CRTPGM

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PGM(mylib/payroll) MODULE(payroll/*ALL). Every module in the library payroll is unconditionally included in the program mylib/payroll. 4. Use a combination of generic names and specific libraries that are described in method 2 and 3. 5. For service programs, use the binding source language. An export specified in the binding source language causes a module to be bound if it satisfies the export. The RTVBNDSRC command can help you create your binding source language. Although the MODULE parameter on the RTVBNDSRC command limits the number of modules that can be explicitly specified on the MODULE parameter, you can use generic module names and the value *ALL with specific libraries names. You can use the RTVBNDSRC command multiple times with output directed to the same source file. However, you may need to edit the binding source language in this case.

Importance of the Order of Exports

With only a slight change to the command, you can create a different, but potentially equally valid, program. The order in which objects are specified on the MODULE, BNDSRVPGM, and BNDDIR parameters is usually important only if both of the following are true: v Multiple modules or service programs are exporting duplicate symbol names v Another module needs to import the symbol name Most applications do not have duplicate symbols, and programmers seldom need to worry about the order in which the objects are specified. For those applications that have duplicate symbols exported that are also imported, consider the order in which objects are listed on CRTPGM or CRTSRVPGM commands. The following examples show how symbol resolution works. The modules, service programs, and binding directories in Figure 30 on page 66 are used for the CRTPGM requests in Figure 31 on page 67 and Figure 32 on page 69. Assume that all the identified exports and imports are procedures. The examples also show the role of binding directories in the program-creation process. Assume that library MYLIB is in the library list for the CRTPGM and CRTSRVPGM commands. The following command creates binding directory L in library MYLIB:
CRTBNDDIR BNDDIR(MYLIB/L)

The following command adds the names of modules M1 and M2 and of service programs S and T to binding directory L:
ADDBNDDIRE BNDDIR(MYLIB/L) OBJ((M1 *MODULE) (M2 *MODULE) (S) (T))

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Module M1
Import List

Module M2
Export List P20

P20 P21 Prints

. . .
Import List P30

. . .

. . .

Service Program S Export List P1 P20 P30

Service Program T Export List P30 P40 P21

. . .
Binding Directory L

. . .
Service Program QLEPRINTS Export List

M1 M2 S T

*MODULE *MODULE *SRVPGM *SRVPGM

*LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL

Prints

. . .
RV2W1054-3

Figure 30. Modules, Service Programs, and Binding Directory

Program Creation Example 1

Assume that the following command is used to create program A in Figure 31 on page 67:
CRTPGM PGM(TEST/A) MODULE(*LIBL/M1) BNDSRVPGM(*LIBL/S) BNDDIR(*LIBL/L) OPTION(*DUPPROC)

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Program A

Module M1
Import List P20 P21 Prints

Module M2 Export List

P20

. . .
Import List P30

. . .

. . .

Service Program S Export List P1 P20 P30

Service Program T Export List P30 P40 P21

. . .
Binding Directory L

. . .
Service Program QLEPRINTS Export List

M1 M2 S T

*MODULE *MODULE *SRVPGM *SRVPGM

*LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL

Prints

. . .
RV2W1049-4

Figure 31. Symbol Resolution and Program Creation: Example 1

To create program A, the binder processes objects specified on the CRTPGM command parameters in the order specified: 1. The value specified on the first parameter (PGM) is A, which is the name of the program to be created. 2. The value specified on the second parameter (module) is M1. The binder starts there. Module M1 contains three imports that need to be resolved: P20, P21, and Prints. 3. The value specified on the third parameter (BNDSRVPGM) is S. The binder scans the export list of service program S for any procedures that resolve any unresolved import requests. Because the export list contains procedure P20, that import request is resolved. 4. The value specified on the fourth parameter (BNDDIR) is L. The binder next scans binding directory L.

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a. The first object specified in the binding directory is module M1. Module M1 is currently known because it was specified on the module parameter, but it does not provide any exports. b. The second object specified in the binding directory is module M2. Module M2 provides exports, but none of them match any currently unresolved import requests (P21 and Prints). c. The third object specified in the binding directory is service program S. Service program S was already processed in step 3 on page 67 and does not provide any additional exports. d. The fourth object specified in the binding directory is service program T. The binder scans the export list of service program T. Procedure P21 is found, which resolves that import request. 5. The final import that needs to be resolved (Prints) is not specified on any parameter. Nevertheless, the binder finds the Prints procedure in the export list of service program QLEPRINTS, which is a common run-time routine provided by the compiler in this example. When compiling a module, the compiler specifies as the default the binding directory containing its own run-time service programs and the ILE run-time service programs. That is how the binder knows that it should look for any remaining unresolved references in the run-time service programs provided by the compiler. If, after the binder looks in the run-time service programs, there are references that cannot be resolved, the bind normally fails. However, if you specify OPTION(*UNRSLVREF) on the create command, the program is created.

Program Creation Example 2

Figure 32 on page 69 shows the result of a similar CRTPGM request, except that the service program on the BNDSRVPGM parameter has been removed:
CRTPGM PGM(TEST/A) MODULE(*LIBL/M1) BNDDIR(*LIBL/L) OPTION(*DUPPROC)

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Figure 32. Symbol Resolution and Program Creation: Example 2

The change in ordering of the objects to be processed changes the ordering of the exports. It also results in the creation of a program that is different from the program created in example 1. Because service program S is not specified on the BNDSRVPGM parameter of the CRTPGM command, the binding directory is processed. Module M2 exports procedure P20 and is specified in the binding directory ahead of service program S. Therefore, module M2 gets copied to the resulting program object in this example. When you compare Figure 31 on page 67 with Figure 32 you see the following: v Program A in example 1 contains only module M1 and uses procedures from service programs S, T, and QLEPRINTS. v In program A of example 2, two modules called M1 and M2 use service programs T and QLEPRINTS. The program in example 2 is created as follows:
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1. The first parameter (PGM) specifies the name of the program to be created. 2. The value specified on the second parameter (MODULE) is M1, so the binder again starts there. Module M1 contains the same three imports that need to be resolved: P20, P21, and Prints. 3. This time, the third parameter specified is not BNDSRVPGM. It is BNDDIR. Therefore, the binder first scans the binding directory specified (L). a. The first entry specified in the binding directory is module M1. Module M1 from this library was already processed by the module parameter. b. The second entry specified in the binding directory is for module M2. The binder scans the export list of module M2. Because that export list contains P20, that import request is resolved. Module M2 is bound by copy and its imports must be added to the list of unresolved import requests for processing. The unresolved import requests are now P21, Prints, and P30. c. Processing continues to the next object that is specified in the binding directory, the S service program. Here, the service program S provides the P30 export for currently unresolved import requests of P21 and Prints. Processing continues to the next object that is listed in the binding directory, service program T. d. Service program T provides export P21 for the unresolved import. 4. As in example 1, import request Prints is not specified. However, the procedure is found in the run-time routines provided by the language in which module M1 was written. Symbol resolution is also affected by the strength of the exports. For information about strong and weak exports, see Export in Import and Export Concepts on page 72.

Program Access
When you create an ILE program object or service program object, you need to specify how other programs can access that program. On the CRTPGM command, you do so with the entry module (ENTMOD) parameter. On the CRTSRVPGM command, you do so with the export (EXPORT) parameter (see Table 6 on page 61).

Program Entry Procedure Module Parameter on the CRTPGM Command

The program entry procedure module (ENTMOD) parameter tells the binder the name of the module in which the following are located: Program entry procedure (PEP) User entry procedure (UEP) This information identifies which module contains the PEP that gets control when making a dynamic call to the program that is created. The default value for the ENTMOD parameter is *FIRST. This value specifies that the binder uses as the entry module the first module it finds in the list of modules specified on the module parameter that contains a PEP. If the following conditions exist: *FIRST is specified on the ENTMOD parameter A second module with a PEP is encountered the binder copies this second module into the program object and continues the binding process. The binder ignores the additional PEP.

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If *ONLY is specified on the ENTMOD parameter, only one module in the program can contain a PEP. If *ONLY is specified and a second module with a PEP is encountered, the object is not created. For explicit control, you can specify the name of the module that contains the PEP. Any other PEPs are ignored. If the module explicitly specified does not contain a PEP, the CRTPGM request fails. To see whether a module has a program entry procedure, you use the display module (DSPMOD) command. The information appears in the Program entry procedure name field of the Display Module Information display. If *NONE is specified in the field, this module does not have a PEP. If a name is specified in the field, this module has a PEP.

Export Parameter on the CRTSRVPGM Command

The export (EXPORT), source file (SRCFILE), and source member (SRCMBR) parameters identify the public interface to the service program being created. The parameters specify the exports (procedures and data) that a service program makes available for use by other ILE programs or service programs. The default value for the export parameter is *SRCFILE. That value directs the binder to the SRCFILE parameter for a reference to information about exports of the service program. This additional information is a source file with binder language source in it (see Binder Language on page 74). The binder locates the binder language source and, from the specified names to be exported, generates one or more signatures. The binder language also allows you to specify a signature of your choice instead of having the binder generate one. The Retrieve Binder Source (RTVBNDSRC) command can be used to create a source file that contains binder language source based on exports from a module or from a set of modules. The file created by the RTVBNDSRC command contains all symbols eligible to be exported from the modules, specified in the binder language syntax. You can edit this file to include only the symbols you want to export, then specify this file on the SRCFILE parameter of the CRTSRVPGM command. The other possible value for the export parameter is *ALL. When EXPORT(*ALL) is specified, all of the symbols exported from the copied modules are exported from the service program. The signature that gets generated is determined by the following: v The number of exported symbols v Alphabetical order of exported symbols If EXPORT(*ALL) is specified, no binder language is needed to define the exports from a service program. This value is the easiest one to use because you do not have to generate the binder language source. However, a service program with EXPORT(*ALL) specified can be difficult to update or correct once the exports are used by other programs. If the service program is changed, the order or number of exports could change. Therefore, the signature of that service program could change. If the signature changes, all programs or service programs that use the changed service program have to be re-created. EXPORT(*ALL) indicates that all symbols exported from the modules used in the service program are exported from the service program. ILE C can define exports

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as global or static. Only external variables declared in ILE C as global are available with EXPORT(*ALL). In ILE RPG, the following are available with EXPORT(*ALL): v The RPG program name (not to be confused with *PGM object) v Variables defined with the keyword EXPORT In ILE COBOL, the following language elements are module exports: v The name in the PROGRAM-ID paragraph in the lexically outermost COBOL program (not to be confused with *PGM object) of a compilation unit. This maps to a strong procedure export. v The COBOL compiler-generated name derived from the name in the PROGRAM-ID paragraph in the preceding bullet if that program does not have the INITIAL attribute. This maps to a strong procedure export. For information about strong and weak exports, see Export in Import and Export Concepts. v Any data item or file item declared as EXTERNAL. This maps to a weak export.

Export Parameter Used with Source File and Source Member Parameters
The default value on the export parameter is *SRCFILE. If *SRCFILE is specified on the export parameter, the binder must also use the SRCFILE and SRCMBR parameters to locate the binder language source. The following example command binds a service program named UTILITY by using the defaults to locate the binder language source:
CRTSRVPGM SRVPGM(*CURLIB/UTILITY) MODULE(*SRVPGM) EXPORT(*SRCFILE) SRCFILE(*LIBL/QSRVSRC) SRCMBR(*SRVPGM)

For this command to create the service program, a member named UTILITY must be in the source file QSRVSRC. This member must then contain the binder language source that the binder translates into a signature and set of export identifiers. The default is to get the binder language source from a member with the same name as the name of the service program, UTILITY. If a file, member, or binder language source with the values supplied on these parameters is not located, the service program is not created.

Maximum width of a file for the SRCFILE parameter

In V3R7 or later releases, the maximum width of a file for the Source File (SRCFILE) parameter on the CRTSRVPGM or UPDSRVPGM command is 240 characters. If the file is larger than the maximum width, message CPF5D07 appears. For V3R2, the maximum width is 80 characters. For V3R6, V3R1 and V2R3, there is no limit on the maximum width.

Import and Export Concepts

ILE languages support the following types of exports and imports: v v v v v v v Weak data exports Weak data imports Strong data exports Strong data imports Strong procedure exports Weak procedure exports Procedure imports

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An ILE module object can export procedures or data items to other modules. And an ILE module object can import (reference) procedures or data items from other modules. When using a module object on CRTSRVPGM command to create a service program, its exports optionally export from the service program. (SeeExport Parameter on the CRTSRVPGM Command on page 71.) The strength (strong or weak) of an export depends on the programming language. The strength determines when enough is known about an export to set its characteristics, such as the size of a data item. A strong exports characteristics are set at bind time. The strength of the exports affects symbol resolution. v The binder uses the characteristics of the strong export, if one or more weak exports have the same name. v If a weak export does not have the same name as a strong export, you cannot set its characteristics until activation time. At activation time, if multiple weak exports with the same name exist, the program uses the largest one. This is true, unless an already activated weak export with the same name has already set its characteristics. v At bind time, if a binding directory is used, and weak exports are found to match weak imports, they will be bound. However, the binding directory only as long as there are unresolved imports to be resolved. Once all imports are resolved, the search through the binding directory entries stops. Duplicate weak exports are not flagged as duplicate variables or procedures. The order of items in the binding directory is very important. You can export weak exports outside a program object or service program for resolution at activation time. This is opposed to strong exports that you export only outside a service program and only at bind time. You cannot, however, export strong exports outside a program object. You can export strong procedure exports outside a service program to satisfy either of the following at bind time: v Imports in a program that binds the service program by reference. v Imports in other service programs that are bound by reference to that program. Service programs define their public interface through binding source language. You can make weak procedure exports part of the public interface for a service program through the binding source language. However, exporting a weak procedure export from the service program through the binding source language no longer marks it as weak. It is handled as a strong procedure export. You can only export weak data to an activation group. You cannot make it part of the public interface that is exported from the service program through the use of binder source language. Specifying a weak data in the binder source language causes the bind to fail. Table 8 summarizes the types of imports and exports that are supported by some of the ILE languages:
Table 8. Imports and Exports Supported by ILE Languages ILE Weak Languages Data Exports RPG IV COBOL
2

Weak Data Imports No

3

Strong Data Exports Yes No

Strong Data Imports Yes No

Strong Weak Procedure Procedure Procedure Imports Exports Exports Yes Yes
1

No Yes
3

No No

Yes Yes

Yes

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Table 8. Imports and Exports Supported by ILE Languages (continued) CL C C++ Note: 1. COBOL and CL allow only one procedure to be exported from the module. 2. COBOL uses the weak data model. Data items that are declared as external become both weak exports and weak imports for that module. 3. COBOL requires the nomonocase option. Without this option, the lowercase letters are automatically converted to uppercase. No No No No No No No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
1

No No Yes

Yes Yes Yes

For information on which declarations become imports and exports for a particular language, see one of the following books: v Licensed Information Document: ILE RPG for AS/400, GI10-4931 v Licensed Information Document: ILE COBOL for AS/400, GI10-4932 v Licensed Information Document: ILE C for AS/400, GI10-4933

Binder Language
The binder language is a small set of nonrunnable commands that defines the exports for a service program. The binder language enables the source entry utility (SEU) syntax checker to prompt and validate the input when a BND source type is specified. Note: You cannot use the SEU syntax checking type BND for a binder source file that contains wildcarding. You also cannot use it for a binder source file that contains names longer than 254 characters. The binder language consists of a list of the following commands: 1. Start Program Export (STRPGMEXP) command, which identifies the beginning of a list of exports from a service program 2. Export Symbol (EXPORT) commands, each of which identifies a symbol name available to be exported from a service program 3. End Program Export (ENDPGMEXP) command, which identifies the end of a list of exports from a service program Figure 33 on page 75 is a sample of the binder language in a source file:

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STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) LVLCHK(*YES) . . EXPORT SYMBOL(p1) EXPORT SYMBOL('p2') EXPORT SYMBOL('P3') . . ENDPGMEXP . . . STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*PRV) . . EXPORT SYMBOL(p1) EXPORT SYMBOL('p2') . . ENDPGMEXP Figure 33. Example of Binder Language in a Source File

The Retrieve Binder Source (RTVBNDSRC) command can be used to help generate the binder language source based on exports from one or more modules.

Signature
The symbols identified between a STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) and ENDPGMEXP pair define the public interface to a service program. That public interface is represented by a signature. A signature is a value that identifies the interface supported by a service program. Note: Do not confuse the signatures discussed in this topic with digital object signatures. Digital signatures on OS/400 objects ensure the integrity of software and data. They also act as a deterrent to data tampering, the introduction of a virus, or the unauthorized modification to an object. The signature also provides positive identification of the datas origin. For more information about digital object signatures, see the Security category of information in the iSeries Information Center. If you choose not to specify an explicit signature, the binder generates a signature from the list of procedure and data item names to be exported and from the order in which they are specified. Therefore, a signature provides an easy and convenient way to validate the public interface to a service program. A signature does not validate the interface to a particular procedure within a service program. Note: To avoid making incompatible changes to a service program, existing procedure and data item names must not be removed or rearranged in the binder language source. Additional export blocks must contain the same symbols in the same order as existing export blocks. Additional symbols must be added only to the end of the list. There is no way to remove a service program export in a way compatible with existing programs and service programs because that export may be needed by programs or service programs bound to that service program.

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If an incompatible change is made to a service program, exiting programs that remain bound to it may no longer work correctly. An incompatible change to a service program can be made only if it can be guaranteed that all programs and service programs bound to it are re-created with CRTPGM or CRTSRVPGM after the incompatible change is made.

Start Program Export and End Program Export Commands

The Start Program Export (STRPGMEXP) command identifies the beginning of a list of exports from a service program. The End Program Export (ENDPGMEXP) command identifies the end of a list of exports from a service program. Multiple STRPGMEXP and ENDPGMEXP pairs specified within a source file cause multiple signatures to be created. The order in which the STRPGMEXP and ENDPGMEXP pairs occur is not significant.

Program Level Parameter on the STRPGMEXP Command

Only one STRPGMEXP command can specify PGMLVL(*CURRENT), but it does not have to be the first STRPGMEXP command. All other STRPGMEXP commands within a source file must specify PGMLVL(*PRV). The current signature represents whichever STRPGMEXP command has PGMLVL(*CURRENT) specified. If more than one of the STRPGMEXP commands is marked *CURRENT, the first one is assumed to be the current one. That command is represented by the current signature.

Level Check Parameter on the STRPGMEXP Command

The level check (LVLCHK) parameter on the STRPGMEXP command specifies whether the binder should automatically check the public interface to a service program. Specifying LVLCHK(*YES), or letting the value default to LVLCHK(*YES), causes the binder to examine the signature parameter. The signature parameter determines whether the binder uses an explicit signature value or generates a nonzero signature value. If the binder generates a signature value, the system verifies that the value matches the value known to the service programs clients. If the values match, clients of the service program can use the public interface without being recompiled. Specifying LVLCHK(*NO) disables the automatic signature checking. You may decide to use this feature if the following conditions exist: v You know that certain changes to the interface of a service program do not constitute incompatibilities. v You want to avoid updating the binder language source file or recompiling clients. Use the LVLCHK(*NO) value with caution because it means that you are responsible for manually verifying that the public interface is compatible with previous levels. Specify LVLCHK(*NO) only if you can control which procedures of the service program are called and which variables are used by its clients. If you cannot control the public interface, run-time or activation errors may occur. See Binder Language Errors on page 172 for an explanation of the common errors that could occur from using the binder language.

Signature Parameter on the STRPGMEXP Command

The signature (SIGNATURE) parameter allows you to explicitly specify a signature for a service program. The explicit signature can be a hexadecimal string or a character string. You may want to consider explicitly specifying a signature for either of the following reasons:

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v The binder could generate a compatible signature that you do not want. A signature is based on the names of the specified exports and on their order. Therefore, if two export blocks have the same exports in the same order, they have the same signature. As the service program provider, you may know that the two interfaces are not compatible (because, for example, their parameter lists are different). In this case, you can explicitly specify a new signature instead of having the binder generate the compatible signature. If you do so, you create an incompatibility in your service program, forcing some or all clients to recompile. v The binder could generate an incompatible signature that you do not want. If two export blocks have different exports or a different order, they have different signatures. If, as the service program provider, you know that the two interfaces are really compatible (because, for example, a function name has changed but it is still the same function), you can explicitly specify the same signature as previously generated by the binder instead of having the binder generate an incompatible signature. If you specify the same signature, you maintain a compatibility in your service program, allowing your clients to use your service program without rebinding. The default value for the signature parameter, *GEN, causes the binder to generate a signature from exported symbols. You can determine the signature value for a service program by using the Display Service Program (DSPSRVPGM) command and specifying DETAIL(*SIGNATURE).

Export Symbol Command

The Export Symbol (EXPORT) command identifies a symbol name available to be exported from a service program. If the exported symbols contain lowercase letters, the symbol name should be enclosed within apostrophes as in Figure 33 on page 75. If apostrophes are not used, the symbol name is converted to all uppercase letters. In the example, the binder searches for an export named P1, not p1. Symbol names can also be exported through the use of wildcard characters (<<< or >>>). If a symbol name exists and matches the wildcard specified, the symbol name is exported. If any of the following conditions exists, an error is signaled and the service program is not created: v No symbol name matches the wildcard specified v More than one symbol name matches the wildcard specified v A symbol name matches the wildcard specified but is not available for export Substrings in the wildcard specification must be enclosed within quotation marks. Signatures are determined by the characters in wildcard specifications. Changing the wildcard specification changes the signature even if the changed wildcard specification matches the same export. For example, the two wildcard specifications r>>> and ra>>> both export the symbol rate but they create two different signatures. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that you use a wildcard specification that is as similar to the export symbol as possible. Note: You cannot use the SEU syntax checking type BND for a binder source file that contains wildcarding.

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Wildcard Export Symbol Examples

For the following examples, assume that the symbol list of possible exports consists of: interest_rate international prime_rate The following examples show which export is chosen or why an error occurs: EXPORT SYMBOL (interest>>>) Exports the symbol interest_rate because it is the only symbol that begins with interest. EXPORT SYMBOL (i>>>rate>>>) Exports the symbol interest_rate because it is the only symbol that begins with i and subsequently contains rate. EXPORT SYMBOL (<<<i>>>rate) Results in a Multiple matches for wildcard specification error. Both prime_rate and interest_rate contain an i and subsequently end in rate. EXPORT SYMBOL (inter>>>prime) Results in a No matches for wildcard specification error. No symbol begins with inter and subsequently ends in prime. EXPORT SYMBOL (<<<) Results in a Multiple matches for wildcard specification error. This symbol matches all three symbols and therefore is not valid. An export statement can result in only one exported symbol.

Binder Language Examples

As an example of using the binder language, assume that you are developing a simple financial application with the following procedures: v Rate procedure Calculates an Interest_Rate, given the values of Loan_Amount, Term_of_Payment, and Payment_Amount. v Amount procedure Calculates the Loan_Amount, given the values of Interest_Rate, Term_of_Payment, and Payment_Amount. v Payment procedure Calculates the Payment_Amount, given the values of Interest_Rate, Term_of_Payment, and Loan_Amount. v Term procedure Calculates the Term_of_Payment, given the values of Interest_Rate, Loan_Amount, and Payment_Amount. Some of the output listings for this application are shown in Appendix A. Output Listing from CRTPGM, CRTSRVPGM, UPDPGM, or UPDSRVPGM Command on page 163. In the binder language examples, each module contains more than one procedure. This structure is more typical of ILE C than of ILE RPG, but the examples apply even to modules that contain only one procedure.

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Binder Language Example 1

The binder language for the Rate, Amount, Payment, and Term procedures looks like the following:
FILE: MYLIB/QSRVSRC MEMBER: FINANCIAL STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) EXPORT SYMBOL('Term') EXPORT SYMBOL('Rate') EXPORT SYMBOL('Amount') EXPORT SYMBOL('Payment') ENDPGMEXP

Some initial design decisions have been made, and three modules (MONEY, RATES, and CALCS) provide the necessary procedures. To create the service program pictured in Figure 34 on page 80, the binder language is specified on the following CRTSRVPGM command:
CRTSRVPGM SRVPGM(MYLIB/FINANCIAL) MODULE(MYLIB/MONEY MYLIB/RATES MYLIB/CALCS) EXPORT(*SRCFILE) SRCFILE(MYLIB/QSRVSRC) SRCMBR(*SRVPGM)

Note that source file QSRVSRC in library MYLIB, specified in the SRCFILE parameter, is the file that contains the binder language source. Also note that no binding directory is needed because all the modules needed to create the service program are specified on the MODULE parameter.

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Service Program MYLIB/FINANCIAL Public Interface Term Rate Amount Payment

Module MONEY

Procedure Amount Procedure Payment

Module RATES Procedure Term Procedure Rate Module CALCS Procedure CALC1 Procedure CALC2
Current Signature = Sig 123
RV2W1051-3

Figure 34. Creating a Service Program by Using the Binder Language

Binder Language Example 2

As progress is made in developing the application, a program called BANKER is written. BANKER needs to use the procedure called Payment in the service program called FINANCIAL. The resulting application with the BANKER program is shown in Figure 35 on page 81.

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Public Interface

Program BANKER

Service Program MYLIB/FINANCIAL Term Rate

Module M1
CallPrc Payment

Amount Payment

Module MONEY

Procedure Amount Procedure Payment Module RATES

MYLIB/FINANCIAL Payment = 4th slot Signature = Sig 123

Procedure Term Procedure Rate Module CALCS Procedure CALC1 Procedure CALC2
Current Signature = Sig 123
RV2W1053-4

Figure 35. Using the Service Program FINANCIAL

When the BANKER program was created, the MYLIB/FINANCIAL service program was provided on the BNDSRVPGM parameter. The symbol Payment was found to be exported from the fourth slot of the public interface of the FINANCIAL service program. The current signature of MYLIB/FINANCIAL along with the slot associated with the Payment interface is saved with the BANKER program. During the process of getting BANKER ready to run, activation verifies the following: v Service program FINANCIAL in library MYLIB can be found. v The service program still supports the signature (SIG 123) saved in BANKER. This signature checking verifies that the public interface used by BANKER when it was created is still valid at run time. As shown in Figure 35, at the time BANKER gets called, MYLIB/FINANCIAL still supports the public interface used by BANKER. If activation cannot find either a matching signature in MYLIB/FINANCIAL or the service program MYLIB/FINANCIAL, the following occurs: BANKER fails to get activated. An error message is issued.
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Binder Language Example 3

As the application continues to grow, two new procedures are needed to complete our financial package. The two new procedures, OpenAccount and CloseAccount, open and close the accounts, respectively. The following steps need to be performed to update MYLIB/FINANCIAL such that the program BANKER does not need to be re-created: 1. Write the procedures OpenAccount and CloseAccount. 2. Update the binder language to specify the new procedures. The updated binder language supports the new procedures. It also allows the existing ILE programs or service programs that use the FINANCIAL service program to remain unchanged. The binder language looks like this:
FILE: MYLIB/QSRVSRC MEMBER: FINANCIAL STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) EXPORT SYMBOL('Term') EXPORT SYMBOL('Rate') EXPORT SYMBOL('Amount') EXPORT SYMBOL('Payment') EXPORT SYMBOL('OpenAccount') EXPORT SYMBOL('CloseAccount') ENDPGMEXP STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*PRV) EXPORT SYMBOL('Term') EXPORT SYMBOL('Rate') EXPORT SYMBOL('Amount') EXPORT SYMBOL('Payment') ENDPGMEXP

When an update operation to a service program is needed to do both of the following: v Support new procedures or data items v Allow the existing programs and service programs that use the changed service program to remain unchanged one of two alternatives must be chosen. The first alternative is to perform the following steps: 1. Duplicate the STRPGMEXP, ENDPGMEXP block that contains PGMLVL(*CURRENT). 2. Change the duplicated PGMLVL(*CURRENT) value to PGMLVL(*PRV). 3. In the STRPGMEXP command that contains PGMLVL(*CURRENT), add to the end of the list the new procedures or data items to be exported. 4. Save the changes to the source file. 5. Create or re-create the new or changed modules. 6. Create the service program from the new or changed modules by using the updated binder language. The second alternative is to take advantage of the signature parameter on the STRPGMEXP command and to add new symbols at the end of the export block:
STRPGMEXP PGMVAL(*CURRENT) SIGNATURE('123') EXPORT SYMBOL('Term') . .

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. EXPORT SYMBOL('OpenAccount') EXPORT SYMBOL('CloseAccount') ENDPGMEXP

To create the enhanced service program shown in Figure 36, the updated binder language specified on page 82 is used on the following CRTSRVPGM command:
CRTSRVPGM SRVPGM(MYLIB/FINANCIAL) MODULE(MYLIB/MONEY MYLIB/RATES MYLIB/CALCS MYLIB/ACCOUNTS)) EXPORT(*SRCFILE) SRCFILE(MYLIB/QSRVSRC) SRCMBR(*SRVPGM)

Public Interface

Program BANKER

Service Program MYLIB/FINANCIAL Term Rate

Module M1
CallPrc Payment

Amount Payment OpenAccount CloseAccount

MYLIB/FINANCIAL Payment = 4th slot Signature = Sig 123

Module Money Procedure Amount Procedure Payment Module RATES Procedure Term Procedure Rate

Module CALCS Procedure CALC1 Procedure CALC2

Module ACCOUNTS

Procedure OpenAccount Procedure CloseAccount

Current Signature = Sig 456 Previous Signature = Sig 123

RV2W1052-4

Figure 36. Updating a Service Program by Using the Binder Language

The BANKER program does not have to change because the previous signature is still supported. (See the previous signature in the service program MYLIB/FINANCIAL and the signature saved in BANKER.) If BANKER were re-created by the CRTPGM command, the signature that is saved with BANKER would be the current signature of service program FINANCIAL. The only reason to re-create the program BANKER is if the program used one of the new

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procedures provided by the service program FINANCIAL. The binder language allows you to enhance the service program without changing the programs or service programs that use the changed service program.

Binder Language Example 4

After shipping the updated FINANCIAL service program, you receive a request to create an interest rate based on the following: The current parameters of the Rate procedure The credit history of the applicant A fifth parameter, called Credit_History, must be added on the call to the Rate procedure. Credit_History updates the Interest_Rate parameter that gets returned from the Rate procedure. Another requirement is that existing ILE programs or service programs that use the FINANCIAL service program must not have to be changed. If the language does not support passing a variable number of parameters, it seems difficult to do both of the following: v Update the service program v Avoid re-creating all the other objects that use the FINANCIAL service program Fortunately, however, there is a way to do this. The following binder language supports the updated Rate procedure. It still allows existing ILE programs or service programs that use the FINANCIAL service program to remain unchanged.
FILE: MYLIB/QSRVSRC MEMBER: FINANCIAL STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) EXPORT SYMBOL('Term') EXPORT SYMBOL('Old_Rate') /* Original Rate procedure with four parameters */ EXPORT SYMBOL('Amount') EXPORT SYMBOL('Payment') EXPORT SYMBOL('OpenAccount') EXPORT SYMBOL('CloseAccount') EXPORT SYMBOL('Rate') /* New Rate procedure that supports + a fifth parameter, Credit_History */ ENDPGMEXP STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*PRV) EXPORT SYMBOL('Term') EXPORT SYMBOL('Rate') EXPORT SYMBOL('Amount') EXPORT SYMBOL('Payment') EXPORT SYMBOL('OpenAccount') EXPORT SYMBOL('CloseAccount') ENDPGMEXP STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*PRV) EXPORT SYMBOL('Term') EXPORT SYMBOL('Rate') EXPORT SYMBOL('Amount') EXPORT SYMBOL('Payment') ENDPGMEXP

The original symbol Rate was renamed Old_Rate but remains in the same relative position of symbols to be exported. This is important to remember. A comment is associated with the Old_Rate symbol. A comment is everything between /* and */. The binder ignores comments in the binder language source when creating a service program. The new procedure Rate, which supports the additional parameter of Credit_History, must also be exported. This updated procedure is added to the end of the list of exports.

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The following two ways can deal with the original Rate procedure: v Rename the original Rate procedure that supports four parameters as Old_Rate. Duplicate the Old_Rate procedure (calling it Rate). Update the code to support the fifth parameter of Credit_History. v Update the original Rate procedure to support the fifth parameter of Credit_History. Create a new procedure called Old_Rate. Old_Rate supports the original four parameters of Rate. It also calls the new updated Rate procedure with a dummy fifth parameter. This is the preferred method because maintenance is simpler and the size of the object is smaller. Using the updated binder language and a new RATES module that supports the procedures Rate, Term, and Old_Rate, you create the following FINANCIAL service program:

Public Interface

Service Program MYLIB/FINANCIAL

Term Old_Rate Amount Payment OpenAccount CloseAccount Rate

Module MONEY Procedure Amount Procedure Payment

Module CALCS Procedure CALC1 Procedure CALC2

Module ACCOUNTS

Module RATES Procedure Term Procedure Old_Rate Procedure Rate

Procedure OpenAccount Procedure CloseAccount

Current Signature = Sig 789 Previous Signatures = Sig 456, Sig 123
RV2W1055-2

Figure 37. Updating a Service Program by Using the Binder Language

The ILE programs and service programs that use the original Rate procedure of the FINANCIAL service program go to slot 2. This directs the call to the Old_Rate
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procedure, which is advantageous because Old_Rate handles the original four parameters. If any of the ILE programs or service programs that used the original Rate procedure need to be re-created, do one of the following: v To continue to use the original four-parameter Rate procedure, call the Old_Rate procedure instead of the Rate procedure. v To use the new Rate procedure, add the fifth parameter, Credit_History, to each call to the Rate procedure. When an update to a service program must meet the following requirements: v Support a procedure that changed the number of parameters it can process v Allow existing programs and service programs that use the changed service program to remain unchanged the following steps need to be performed: 1. Duplicate the STRPGMEXP, ENDPGMEXP block that contains PGMLVL(*CURRENT). 2. Change the duplicated PGMLVL(*CURRENT) value to PGMLVL(*PRV). 3. In the STRPGMEXP command that contains PGMLVL(*CURRENT), rename the original procedure name, but leave it in the same relative position. In this example, Rate was changed to Old_Rate but left in the same relative position in the list of symbols to be exported. 4. In the STRPGMEXP command that has PGMLVL(*CURRENT), place the original procedure name at the end of the list that supports a different number of parameters. In this example, Rate is added to the end of the list of exported symbols, but this Rate procedure supports the additional parameter Credit_History. 5. Save the changes to the binder language source file. 6. In the file containing the source code, enhance the original procedure to support the new parameter. In the example, this means changing the existing Rate procedure to support the fifth parameter of Credit_History. 7. A new procedure is created that handles the original parameters as input and calls the new procedure with a dummy extra parameter. In the example, this means adding the Old_Rate procedure that handles the original parameters and calling the new Rate procedure with a dummy fifth parameter. 8. Save the binder language source code changes. 9. Create the module objects with the new and changed procedures. 10. Create the service program from the new and changed modules using the updated binder language. Changing Programs: The Change Program (CHGPGM) command changes the attributes of a program without requiring recompiling. Some of the changable attributes follow: v The optimization attribute. v The user profile attribute. v Use adopted authority attribute. v The performance collection attribute. v The profiling data attribute. v The program text.

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The user can also force re-creation of a program even if the specified attributes are the same as the current attributes. Do this by specifying the force program re-creation (FRCCRT) parameter. Re-creating a program with CHGPGM or CHGSRVPGM while one or more jobs is using it causes an Object Destroyed exception to occur. With the new value, *NOCRT, you can prevent this from inadvertently happening. With this new value you can do a CHGCMDDFT to default FRCCRT to *NOCRT. If any parameters are changed on CHGPGM or CHGSRVPGM that may cause a re-create, specify *NOCRT. A DEP statement in the command definition of CHGPGM and CHGSRVPGM will detect the condition, and no programs changes will occur. At this point you can change the FRCCRT parameter value to either *YES or *NO to get the same results. If you remove any observability, or change the text description, you will not need to re-create the program object. If that is the case, FRCCRT(*NOCRT) will work as FRCCRT(*NO). For compatability, IBM does not ship *NOCRT as the default. Other jobs running the program may fail by changing any of the parameters that are listed below: v The Optimize program prompt (OPTIMIZE parameter). v The Use adopted authority prompt (USEADPAUT parameter). v The Enable performance collection prompt (ENBPFRCOL parameter). v The Profiling data prompt (PRFDTA parameter). v The User profile prompt (USRPRF parameter). Additionally, forcing a program re-creation by specifying FRCCRT(*YES) may cause other jobs running the program that is being changed to fail.

Program Updates
After an ILE program object or service program is created, you may have to correct an error in it or add an enhancement to it. However, after you service the object, it may be so large that shipping the entire object to your customers is difficult or expensive. You can reduce the shipment size by using the Update Program (UPDPGM) or Update Service Program (UPDSRVPGM) command. These commands replace only the specified modules, and only the changed or added modules have to be shipped to your customers. If you use the PTF process, an exit program containing one or more calls to the UPDPGM or UPDSRVPGM commands can be used to do the update functions. Binding the same module to multiple program objects or service programs requires running the UPDPGM or UPDSRVPGM command against each *PGM and *SRVPGM object. For example, Figure 38 on page 88

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Public Interface

Service Program MYLIB/FINANCIAL

Term Old_Rate Amount Payment OpenAccount CloseAccount Rate Module MONEY Procedure Amount Module MONEY Procedure Payment Procedure Amount Procedure Payment

Module CALCS Procedure CALC1 Procedure CALC2

Module ACCOUNTS

Module RATES Procedure Term Procedure Old_Rate Procedure Rate

Procedure OpenAccount Procedure CloseAccount

Current Signature = Sig 789 Previous Signatures = Sig 456, Sig 123
RV3W105-0

Figure 38. Replacing a Module in a Service Program

Be careful not to update a program or service program while the program remains activated in another job. Otherwise, updates to that job remain inactive until the reclaimed by activation or signoff. The allow update (ALWUPD) and allow *SRVPGM library update (ALWLIBUPD) parameters on the CRTPGM or CRTSRVPGM command determine whether a program object or service program can be updated. By specifying ALWUPD(*NO), the modules in a program object or service program cannot be replaced by the UPDPGM or UPDSRVPGM command. By specifying ALWUPD(*YES) and ALWLIBUPD(*YES), you can update your program to use a service program from a library that was not previously specified. By specifying ALWUPD(*YES) and ALWLIBUPD(*NO), you can update the modules, but not the bound service program library. You can not specify ALWUPD(*NO) and ALWLIBUPD(*YES) at the same time.

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Parameters on the UPDPGM and UPDSRVPGM Commands

Each module specified on the module parameter replaces a module with the same name that is bound into a program object or service program. If more than one module bound into a program object or service program has the same name, the replacement library (RPLLIB) parameter is used. This parameter specifies which method is used to select the module to be replaced. If no module with the same name is already bound into a program object or service program, the program object or service program is not updated. The bound service program (BNDSRVPGM) parameter specifies additional service programs beyond those that the program object or service program is already bound to. If a replacing module contains more imports or fewer exports than the module it replaces, these service programs may be needed to resolve those imports. With the service program library (SRVPGMLIB) parameter, you can specify the library that stores the bound service program. Each time you run the UPDPGM or UPDSRVPGM commands, the updated bound service program from the specified library is used. You can also change the library name when activating the program. The UPDPGM or UPDSRVPGM command allows you to change library if ALWLIBUPD(*YES) is used. The binding directory (BNDDIR) parameter specifies binding directories that contain modules or service programs that also may be required to resolve extra imports. The activation group (ACTGRP) parameter specifies the activation group name to be used when you transfer an ILE application to OS/400. This parameter also allows you to change the activation group name when you activate a program or service program. The change is only allowed for a named activation group.

Module Replaced by a Module with Fewer Imports

If a module is replaced by another module with fewer imports, the new program object or service program is always created. However, the updated program object or service program contains an isolated module if the following conditions exist: v Because of the now missing imports, one of the modules bound into a program object or service program no longer resolves any imports v That module originally came from a binding directory used on the CRTPGM or CRTSRVPGM command Programs with isolated modules may grow significantly over time. To remove modules that no longer resolve any imports and that originally came from a binding directory, you can specify OPTION(*TRIM) when updating the objects. However, if you use this option, the exports that the modules contain are not available for future program updates.

Module Replaced by a Module with More Imports

If a module is replaced by a module with more imports, the program object or service program can be updated if those extra imports are resolved, given the following: v The existing set of modules bound into the object. v Service programs bound to the object.

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v Binding directories specified on the command. If a module in one of these binding directories contains a required export, the module is added to the program or service program. If a service program in one of these binding directories contains a required export, the service program is bound by reference to the program or service program. v Implicit binding directories. An implicit binding directory is a binding directory that contains exports that may be needed to create a program that contains the module. Every ILE compiler builds a list of implicit binding directories into each module it creates. If those extra imports cannot be resolved, the update operation fails unless OPTION(*UNRSLVREF) is specified on the update command.

Module Replaced by a Module with Fewer Exports

If a module is replaced by another module with fewer exports, the update occurs if the following conditions exist: v The missing exports are not needed for binding. v The missing exports are not exported out of the service program in the case of UPDSRVPGM. The service program export is different if EXPORT(*ALL) is specified. The update does not occur if the following conditions exist: v Some imports cannot be resolved because of the missing exports. v Those missing exports cannot be found from the extra service programs and binding directories specified on the command. v The binder language indicates to export a symbol, but the export is missing.

Module Replaced by a Module with More Exports

If a module is replaced by another module with more exports, the update operation occurs if all the extra exports are uniquely named. The service program export is different if EXPORT(*ALL) is specified. However, if one or more of the extra exports are not uniquely named, the duplicate names may cause a problem: v If OPTION(*NODUPPROC) or OPTION(*NODUPVAR) is specified on the update command, the program object or service program is not updated. v If OPTION(*DUPPROC) or OPTION(*DUPVAR) is specified, the update occurs, but the export with the duplicate name selected for binding may be different. If the module being replaced was specified on the CRTPGM or CRTSRVPGM command before the object that contains the selected export, the selected export is selected. (If the data item is weak, it still may not be selected.)

Tips for Creating Modules, Programs, and Service Programs

To create and maintain modules, ILE programs, and service programs conveniently, consider the following: v Follow a naming convention for the modules that will get copied to create a program or service program. A naming strategy with a common prefix makes it easier to specify modules generically on the module parameter.

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v For ease of maintenance, include each module in only one program or service program. If more than one program needs to use a module, put the module in a service program. That way, if you have to redesign a module, you only have to redesign it in one place. v To ensure your signature, use the binder language whenever you create a service program. The binder language allows the service program to be easily updated without having to re-create the using programs and service programs. The Retrieve Binder Source (RTVBNDSRC) command can be used to help generate the binder language source based on exports from one or more modules. If either of the following conditions exists: A service program will never change Users of the service program do not mind changing their programs when a signature changes you do not need to use the binder language. Because this situation is not likely for most applications, consider using the binder language for all service programs. v If other people will use a program object or service program that you create, specify OPTION(*RSLVREF) when you create it. When you are developing an application, you may want to create a program object or service program with unresolved imports. However, when in production, all the imports should be resolved. If OPTION(*WARN) is specified, unresolved references are listed in the job log that contains the CRTPGM or CRTSRVPGM request. If you specify a listing on the DETAIL parameter, they are also included on the program listing. You should keep the job log or listing. v When designing new applications, determine if common procedures that should go into one or more service programs can be identified. It is probably easiest to identify and design common procedures for new applications. If you are converting an existing application to use ILE, it may be more difficult to determine common procedures for a service program. Nevertheless, try to identify common procedures needed by the application and try to create service programs containing the common procedures. v When converting an existing application to ILE, consider creating a few large programs. With a few, usually minor changes, you can easily convert an existing application to take advantage of the ILE capabilities. After you create the modules, combining them into a few large programs may be the easiest and least expensive way to convert to ILE. Using a few large programs rather than many small programs has the additional advantage of using less storage. v Try to limit the number of service programs your application uses. This may require a service program to be created from more than one module. The advantages are a faster activation time and a faster binding process. There are very few right answers for the number of service programs an application should use. If a program uses hundreds of service programs, it is probably using too many. On the other hand, one service program may not be practical either. As an example, approximately 10 service programs are provided for the language-specific and common run-time routines provided by the OS/400. Over
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70 modules went into creating these 10 service programs. This ratio seems to be a good balance for performance, understandability, and maintainability.

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Chapter 6. Activation Group Management

This chapter contains examples of how to structure an application using activation groups. Topics include: v Supporting multiple applications v Using the Reclaim Resources (RCLRSC) command with OPM and ILE programs v Deleting activation groups with the Reclaim Activation Group (RCLACTGRP) command v Service programs and activation groups

Multiple Applications Running in the Same Job

User-named activation groups allow you to leave an activation group in a job for later use. A normal return operation or a skip operation (such as longjmp() in ILE C) past the control boundary does not delete your activation group. This allows you to leave your application in its last-used state. Static variables and open files remain unchanged between calls into your application. This can save processing time and may be necessary to accomplish the function you are trying to provide. You should be prepared, however, to accept requests from multiple independent clients running in the same job. The system does not limit the number of ILE programs that can be bound to your ILE service program. As a result, you may need to support multiple clients. Figure 39 on page 94 shows a technique that you may use to share common service functions while keeping the performance advantages of a user-named activation group.

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Activation Group A1 ILE User One Program A CALLPRC P1 ID=ONE Activation Group A3 ILE Service Program X Procedure P1

. . .

Procedure P10 Static Storage Activation Group A2 ILE User Two Program B CALLPRC P1 ID=TWO ID=ONE U1, U2,... ID=TWO U1, U2,... Variables

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Figure 39. Multiple Applications Running in the Same Job

Each call to a procedure in service program X requires a user handle. The field ID represents a user handle in this example. Each user is responsible for providing this handle. You do an initialization routine to return a unique handle for each user. When a call is made to your service program, the user handle is used to locate the storage variables that relate to this user. While saving activation-group creation time, you can support multiple clients at the same time.

Reclaim Resources Command

The Reclaim Resources (RCLRSC) command depends on a system concept known as a level number. A level number is a unique value assigned by the system to certain resources you use within a job. Three level numbers are defined as follows: Call level number Each call stack entry is given a unique level number Program-activation level number Each OPM and ILE program activation is given a unique level number Activation-group level number Each activation group is given a unique level number As your job runs, the system continues to assign unique level numbers for each new occurrence of the resources just described. The level numbers are assigned in increasing value. Resources with higher level numbers are created after resources with lower level numbers. Figure 40 on page 95 shows an example of using the RCLRSC command on OPM and ILE programs. Call-level scoping has been used for the open files shown in this example. When call-level scoping is used, each data management resource is given the same level numbers as the call stack entry that created that resource.

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Default Activation Group Call Stack OPM Program A Number 102 OPM Program B RCLRSC LVL(*) Number 104 OPM Program C Number 106 ILE Program D Number 108 Shared ODP F1 Number 108 ODP F3 Number 106 ODP F2 Number 104 ODP F1 Number 102

OPM Program A Activation Number 101 OPM Program B Activation Number 103 OPM Program C Activation Number 105 ILE Program D Activation Number 107 *DFTACTGRP Activation Group A1 ILE Program A Activation Number 199

ILE PEP P1 Number 200 ILE UEP P2 Number 201

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Figure 40. Reclaim Resources

In this example, the calling sequence is programs A, B, C, and D. Programs D and C return to program B. Program B is about to use the RCLRSC command with an option of LVL(*). The RCLRSC command uses the level (LVL) parameter to clean up resources. All resources with a call-level number greater than the call-level number of the current call stack entry are cleaned up. In this example, call-level number 104 is used as the starting point. All resources greater than call-level number 104 are deleted. Note that resources in call level 200 and 201 are unaffected by RCLRSC because they are in an ILE activation group. RCLRSC works only in the default activation group. In addition, the storage from programs C and D and the open data path (ODP) for file F3 is closed. File F1 is shared with the ODP opened in program A. The shared ODP is closed, but file F1 remains open.

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Reclaim Resources Command for OPM Programs

The Reclaim Resources (RCLRSC) command may be used to close open files and free static storage for OPM programs that have returned without ending. Some OPM languages, such as RPG, allow you to return without ending the program. If you later want to close the programs files and free its storage, you may use the RCLRSC command.

Reclaim Resources Command for ILE Programs

For ILE programs that are created by the CRTBNDxxx command with DFTACTGRP(*YES) specified, the RCLRSC command frees static storage just as it does for OPM programs. For ILE programs that are not created by the CRTBNDxxx command with DFTACTGRP(*YES) specified, the RCLRSC command reinitializes any activations that have been created in the default activation group but does not free static storage. ILE programs that use large amounts of static storage should be activated in an ILE activation group. Deleting the activation group returns this storage to the system. The RCLRSC command closes files opened by service programs or ILE programs running in the default activation group. The RCLRSC command does not reinitialize static storage of service programs and does not affect nondefault activation groups. To use the RCLRSC command directly from ILE, you can use either the QCAPCMD API or an ILE CL procedure. The QCAPCMD API allows you to directly call system commands without the use of a CL program. In Figure 40 on page 95, directly calling system commands is important because you may want to use the call-level number of a particular ILE procedure. Certain languages, such as ILE C, also provide a system function that allows direct running of OS/400 commands.

Reclaim Activation Group Command

The Reclaim Activation Group (RCLACTGRP) command can be used to delete a nondefault activation group that is not in use. This command allows options to either delete all eligible activation groups or to delete an activation group by name.

Service Programs and Activation Groups

When you create an ILE service program, decide whether to specify an option of *CALLER or a name for the ACTGRP parameter. This option determines whether your service program will be activated into the callers activation group or into a separately named activation group. Either choice has advantages and disadvantages. This topic discusses what each option provides. For the ACTGRP(*CALLER) option, the service program functions as follows: v Static procedure calls are fast Static procedure calls into the service program are optimized when running in the same activation group. v Shared external data Service programs may export data to be used by other programs and service programs in the same activation group. v Shared data management resources Open files and other data management resources may be shared between the service program and other programs in the activation group. The service program may issue a commit operation or a rollback operation that affects the other programs in the activation group.

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v No control boundary Unhandled exceptions within the service program percolate to the client programs. HLL end verbs used within the service program can delete the activation group of the client programs. For the ACTGRP(name) option, the service program functions as follows: v Separate address space for variables The client program cannot manipulate pointers to address your working storage. This may be important if your service program is running with adopted authority. v Separate data management resources You have your own open files and commitment definitions. The accidental sharing of open files is prevented. v State information controlled You control when the application storage is deleted. By using HLL end verbs or normal language return statements, you can decide when to delete the application. You must, however, manage the state information for multiple clients.

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Chapter 7. Calls to Procedures and Programs

The ILE call stack and argument-passing methods facilitate interlanguage communication, making it easier for you to write mixed-language applications. This chapter discusses different examples of dynamic program calls and static procedure calls, which were introduced in Calls to Programs and Procedures on page 21. A third type of call, the procedure pointer call, is introduced. In addition, this chapter discusses original program model (OPM) support for OPM and ILE application programming interfaces (APIs).

Call Stack
The call stack is a last-in-first-out (LIFO) list of call stack entries, one entry for each called procedure or program. Each call stack entry has information about the automatic variables for the procedure or program and about other resources scoped to the call stack entry, such as condition handlers and cancel handlers. There is one call stack per job. A call adds a new entry on the call stack for the called procedure or program and passes control to the called object. A return removes the stack entry and passes control back to the calling procedure or program in the previous stack entry.

Call Stack Example

Figure 41 on page 100 contains a segment of a call stack with two programs: an OPM program (Program A) and an ILE program (Program B). Program B contains three procedures: its program entry procedure, its user entry procedure, and another procedure (P1). The concepts of program entry procedure (PEP) and user entry procedure (UEP) are defined in Module Object on page 12. The call flow includes the following steps: 1. A dynamic program call to Program A. 2. Program A calls Program B, passing control to its PEP. This call to Program B is a dynamic program call. 3. The PEP calls the UEP. This is a static procedure call. 4. The UEP calls procedure P1. This is a static procedure call.

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Call Stack OPM Program A OPM

ILE Program B Module M1 Program Entry Procedure ILE

Dynamic Program Call Program Entry Procedure Static Procedure Call ILE

User Entry Procedure

User Entry Procedure Static Procedure Call

Module M2 Procedure P1 Procedure P1

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Figure 41. Dynamic Program Calls and Static Procedure Calls on the Call Stack

Figure 41 illustrates the call stack for this example. The most recently called entry on the stack is depicted at the bottom of the stack. It is the entry that is currently processing. The current call stack entry may do either of the following: v Call another procedure or program, which adds another entry to the bottom of the stack. v Return control to its caller after it is done processing, which removes itself from the stack. Assume that, after procedure P1 is done, no more processing is needed from Program B. Procedure P1 returns control to the UEP, and P1 is removed from the stack. Then the UEP returns control to the PEP, and the UEP is removed from the stack. Finally, the PEP returns control to Program A, and the PEP is removed from the stack. Only Program A is left on this segment of the call stack. Program A continues processing from the point where it made the dynamic program call to Program B.

Calls to Programs and Calls to Procedures

Three types of calls can be made during ILE run time: dynamic program calls, static procedure calls, and procedure pointer calls. When an ILE program is activated, all of its procedures except its PEP become available for static procedure calls and procedure pointer calls. Program activation occurs when the program is called by a dynamic program call and the activation does not already exist. When a program is activated, all the service programs that

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are bound to this program are also activated. The procedures in an ILE service program can be accessed only by static procedure calls or by procedure pointer calls (not by dynamic program calls).

Static Procedure Calls

A call to an ILE procedure adds a new call stack entry to the bottom of the stack and passes control to a specified procedure. Examples include any of the following: 1. A call to a procedure in the same module 2. A call to a procedure in a different module in the same ILE program or service program 3. A call to a procedure that has been exported from an ILE service program in the same activation group 4. A call to a procedure that has been exported from an ILE service program in a different activation group In examples 1, 2, and 3, the static procedure call does not cross an activation group boundary. The call path length, which affects performance, is identical. This call path is much shorter than the path for a dynamic program call to an ILE or OPM program. In example 4, the call crosses an activation group boundary, and additional processing is done to switch activation group resources. The call path length is longer than the path length of a static procedure call within an activation group, but still shorter than for a dynamic program call. For a static procedure call, the called procedure must be bound to the calling procedure during binding. The call always accesses the same procedure. This contrasts with a call to a procedure through a pointer, where the target of the call can vary with each call.

Procedure Pointer Calls

Procedure pointer calls provide a way to call a procedure dynamically. For example, by manipulating arrays, or tables, of procedure names or addresses, you can dynamically route a procedure call to different procedures. Procedure pointer calls add entries to the call stack in exactly the same manner as static procedure calls. Any procedure that can be called using a static procedure call can also be called through a procedure pointer. If the called procedure is in the same activation group, the cost of a procedure pointer call is almost identical to the cost of a static procedure call. Procedure pointer calls can additionally access procedures in any ILE program that has been activated.

Passing Arguments to ILE Procedures

In an ILE procedure call, an argument is an expression that represents a value that the calling procedure passes to the procedure specified in the call. ILE languages use three methods for passing arguments: by value, directly The value of the data object is placed directly into the argument list. by value, indirectly The value of the data object is copied to a temporary location. The address of the copy (a pointer) is placed into the argument list.

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by reference A pointer to the data object is placed into the argument list. Changes made by the called procedure to the argument are reflected in the calling procedure. Figure 42 illustrates these argument passing styles. Not all ILE languages support passing by value, directly. The available passing styles are described in the ILE HLL programmers guides.
By value, directly a copy of argument

By value, indirectly pointer a copy of argument

By reference pointer the actual argument

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Figure 42. Methods for Passing Arguments to ILE Procedures

HLL semantics usually determine when data is passed by value and when it is passed by reference. For example, ILE C passes and accepts arguments by value, directly, while for ILE COBOL and ILE RPG, arguments are usually passed by reference. You must ensure that the calling program or procedure passes arguments in the manner expected by the called procedure. The ILE HLL programmers guides contain more information on passing arguments to different languages. A maximum of 400 arguments are allowed on a static procedure call. Each ILE language may further restrict the maximum number of arguments. The ILE languages support the following argument-passing styles: v ILE C passes and accepts arguments by value directly, widening integers and floating-point values. Arguments can also be passed by value indirectly by specifying the #pragma argument directive for a called function. v ILE COBOL passes arguments by reference or by value indirectly. ILE COBOL accepts parameters only indirectly. v ILE RPG passes and accepts arguments by reference. v ILE CL passes and accepts arguments by reference.

Function Results
To support HLLs that allow the definition of functions (procedures that return a result argument), the model assumes that a special function result argument may be present, as shown in Figure 43 on page 103. As described in the ILE HLL programmers guides, ILE languages that support function results use a common mechanism for returning function results.

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Calling Procedure
Call

Calling procedure passes arguments

Called procedure may return a function result

Return

Called Procedure
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Figure 43. Program Call Argument Terminology

Omitted Arguments
All ILE languages can simulate omitted arguments, which allows the use of the feedback code mechanism for ILE condition handlers and other run-time procedures. For example, if an ILE C procedure or an ILE bindable API is expecting an argument passed by reference, you can sometimes omit the argument by passing a null pointer in its place. For information about how to specify an omitted argument in a specific ILE language, refer to the programmer s guide for that language. The CL and APIs section of the Programming category of the iSeries Information Center specifies which arguments can be omitted for each API. For ILE languages that do not provide an intrinsic way for a called procedure to test if an argument has been omitted, the Test for Omitted Argument (CEETSTA) bindable API is available.

Dynamic Program Calls

A dynamic program call is a call made to a program object. For example, when you use the CL command CALL, you are making a dynamic program call. OPM programs are called by using dynamic program calls. OPM programs are additionally limited to making only dynamic program calls. EPM programs can make program calls and procedure calls. EPM programs can also be called by other programs and procedures. ILE programs are also called by dynamic program calls. The procedures within an activated ILE program can be accessed by using static procedure calls or procedure pointer calls. ILE programs that have not been activated yet must be called by a dynamic program call. In contrast to static procedure calls, which are bound at compile time, symbols for dynamic program calls are resolved to addresses when the call is performed. As a result, a dynamic program call uses more system resources than a static procedure call. Examples of a dynamic program call include:
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v A call to an ILE program, an EPM program, or an OPM program v A call to a non-bindable API A dynamic program call to an ILE program passes control to the PEP of the identified program, which then passes control to the UEP of the program. After the called program is done processing, control is passed back to the instruction following the call program instruction.

Passing Arguments on a Dynamic Program Call

Calls to ILE or OPM programs (in contrast to calls to ILE procedures) usually pass arguments by reference, meaning that the called program receives the address of the arguments. EPM programs can receive arguments passed by reference, by value directly, or by value indirectly. When using a dynamic program call, you need to know the method of argument passing that is expected by the called program and how to simulate it if necessary. A maximum of 255 arguments are allowed on a dynamic program call. Each ILE language may further restrict the maximum number of arguments. Information on how to use the different passing methods is contained in the ILE HLL programmers guides, and, for passing methods in EPM, in the Pascal Users Guide, SC09-1844.

Interlanguage Data Compatibility

ILE calls allow arguments to be passed between procedures that are written in different HLLs. To facilitate data sharing between the HLLs, some ILE languages have added data types. For example, ILE COBOL added USAGE PROCEDURE-POINTER as a new data type. To pass arguments between HLLs, you need to know the format each HLL expects of arguments it is receiving. The calling procedure is required to make sure the arguments are the size and type expected by the called procedure. For example, an ILE C function may expect a 4-byte integer, even if a short integer (2 bytes) is declared in the parameter list. Information on how to match data type requirements for passing arguments is contained in the ILE HLL programmers guides.

Syntax for Passing Arguments in Mixed-Language Applications

Some ILE languages provide syntax for passing arguments to procedures in other ILE languages. For example, ILE C provides a #pragma argument to pass value arguments to other ILE procedures by value indirectly.

Operational Descriptors
Operational descriptors may be useful to you if you are writing a procedure or API that can receive arguments from procedures written in different HLLs. Operational descriptors provide descriptive information to the called procedure in cases where the called procedure cannot precisely anticipate the form of the argument (for example, different types of strings). The additional information allows the procedure to properly interpret the arguments. The argument supplies the value; the operational descriptor supplies information about the arguments size and type. For example, this information may include the length of a character string and the type of string.

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With operational descriptors, services such as bindable APIs are not required to have a variety of different bindings for each HLL, and HLLs do not have to imitate incompatible data types. A few ILE bindable APIs use operational descriptors to accommodate the lack of common string data types between HLLs. The presence of the operational descriptor is transparent to the API user. Operational descriptors support HLL semantics while being invisible to procedures that do not use or expect them. Each ILE language can use data types that are appropriate to the language. Each ILE language compiler provides at least one method for generating operational descriptors. For more information on HLL semantics for operational descriptors, refer to the ILE HLL reference manual. Operational descriptors are distinct from other data descriptors with which you may be familiar. For instance, they are unrelated to the descriptors associated with distributed data or files.

Requirements of Operational Descriptors

You should use operational descriptors when they are expected by a called procedure written in a different ILE language and when they are expected by an ILE bindable API. Generally, bindable APIs require descriptors for most string arguments. Information on bindable APIs in the CL and APIs section of the Programming category of the iSeries Information Center specifies whether a given bindable API requires operational descriptors.

Absence of a Required Descriptor

The omission of a required descriptor is an error. If a procedure requires a descriptor for a specific parameter, this requirement forms part of the interface for that procedure. If a required descriptor is not provided, it will fail during run time.

Presence of an Unnecessary Descriptor

The presence of a descriptor that is not required does not interfere with the called procedures access to arguments. If an operational descriptor is not needed or expected, the called procedure simply ignores it. Note: Descriptors can be an impediment to interlanguage communication when they are generated regardless of need. Descriptors increase the length of the call path, which can diminish performance.

Bindable APIs for Operational Descriptor Access

Descriptors are normally accessed directly by a called procedure according to the semantics of the HLL in which the procedure is written. Once a procedure is programmed to expect operational descriptors, no further handling is usually required by the programmer. However, sometimes a called procedure needs to determine whether the descriptors that it requires are present before accessing them. For this purpose the following bindable APIs are provided: v Retrieve Operational Descriptor Information (CEEDOD) bindable API v Get String Information (CEESGI) bindable API

Support for OPM and ILE APIs

When you develop new functions in ILE or convert an existing application to ILE, you may want to continue to support call-level APIs from OPM. This topic explains one technique that may be used to accomplish this dual support while maintaining your application in ILE.

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ILE service programs provide a way for you to develop and deliver bindable APIs that may be accessed from all ILE languages. To provide the same functions to OPM programs, you need to consider the fact that an ILE service program cannot be called directly from an OPM program. The technique to use is to develop ILE program stubs for each bindable API that you plan to support. You may want to name the bindable APIs the same as the ILE program stubs, or you may choose different names. Each ILE program stub contains a static procedure call to the actual bindable API. An example of this technique is shown in Figure 44.
Default Activation Group OPM Program A CALLPGM B Activation Group Vendor1 ILE Program B CALLPRC P1 STUB

ILE Program D CALLPRC P4 STUB Activation Group A1 ILE Program H CALLPRC P1 ILE Service Program X Procedure P1

. . .

. . .

Procedure P4

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Figure 44. Supporting OPM and ILE APIs

Programs B through D are the ILE program stubs. Service program X contains the actual implementation of each bindable API. Each program stub and the service program are given the same activation group name. In this example, the activation group name VENDOR1 is chosen. Activation group VENDOR1 is created by the system when necessary. The dynamic program call from OPM program A creates the activation group on the first call from an OPM program. The static procedure call from ILE program H creates the activation group when ILE program H is activated. Once the activation group exists, it may be used from either program A or program H. You should write the implementation of your API in an ILE procedure (procedure P1 in this example). This procedure may be called either directly through a procedure call or indirectly through a dynamic program call. You should not implement any functions such as sending exception messages that depend on a specific call stack structure. A normal return from either the program stub or the implementing procedure leaves the activation group in the job for later use. You can implement your API procedure with the knowledge that a control boundary is

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established for either the program stub or the implementing procedure on each call. HLL end verbs delete the activation group whether the call originated from an OPM program or an ILE program.

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Chapter 8. Storage Management

The operating system provides storage support for the ILE high-level languages. This storage support removes the need for unique storage managers for the run-time environment of each language. It avoids incompatibilities between different storage managers and mechanisms in high-level languages. The operating system provides the automatic, static, and dynamic storage used by programs and procedures at run time. Automatic and static storage are managed by the operating system. That is, the need for automatic and static storage is known at compilation time from program variable declarations. Dynamic storage is managed by the program or procedure. The need for dynamic storage is known only at run time. When program activation occurs, static storage for program variables is allocated and initialized. When a program or procedure begins to run, automatic storage is allocated. The automatic storage stack is extended for variables as the program or procedure is added to the call stack. As a program or procedure runs, dynamic storage is allocated under program control. This storage is extended as additional storage is required. You have the ability to control dynamic storage. The remainder of this chapter concentrates on dynamic storage and the ways in which it can be controlled.

Single-Level Store Heap

A heap is an area of storage that is used for allocations of dynamic storage. The amount of dynamic storage that is required by an application depends on the data being processed by the program and procedures that use a heap. The operating system allows the use of multiple single-level store heaps that are dynamically created and discarded. The ALCHSS instruction always uses single-level store. Some languages also support the use of teraspace for dynamic storage.

Heap Characteristics
Each heap has the following characteristics: v The system assigns a unique heap identifier to each heap within the activation group. The heap identifier for the default heap is always zero. A storage management-bindable API, called by a program or procedure, uses the heap identifier to identify the heap on which it is to act. The bindable API must run within the activation group that owns the heap. v The activation group that creates a heap also owns it. Because activation groups own heaps, the lifetime of a heap is no longer than that of the owning activation group. The heap identifier is meaningful and unique only within the activation group that owns it. v The size of a heap is dynamically extended to satisfy allocation requests.

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The maximum size of the heap is 4 gigabytes minus 512K bytes. This is the maximum heap size if the total number of allocations (at any one time) does not exceed 128 000. v The maximum size of any single allocation from a heap is limited to 16 megabytes minus 64K bytes.

Default Heap
The first request for dynamic storage from the default heap within an activation group that is using single-level store storage results in the creation of a default heap from which the storage allocation takes place. If there is insufficient storage in the heap to satisfy any subsequent requests for dynamic storage, the system extends the heap and allocates additional storage. Allocated dynamic storage remains allocated until explicitly freed or until the system discards the heap. The default heap is discarded only when the owning activation group ends. Programs in the same activation group automatically share dynamic storage provided the default heap allocated the storage. However, you can isolate the dynamic storage that is used by some programs and procedures within an activation group. You do this by creating one or more heaps.

User-Created Heaps
You can explicitly create and discard one or more heaps by using ILE bindable APIs. This gives you the capability of managing the heaps and the dynamic storage that is allocated from those heaps. For example, the system may or may not share dynamic storage that is allocated in user-created heaps for programs within an activation group. The sharing of dynamic storage depends on the heap identifier that is referred to by the programs. You can use more than one heap to avoid automatic sharing of dynamic storage. In this way you can isolate logical groups of data. Following are some additional reasons for using one or more user-created heaps: v You can group certain storage objects together to meet a one-time requirement. Once you meet that requirement, you can free the dynamic storage that was allocated by a single call to the Discard Heap (CEEDSHP) bindable API. This operation frees the dynamic storage and discards the heap. In this way, dynamic storage is available to meet other requests. v You can free multiple dynamic storage that is allocated at once by using the Mark Heap (CEEMKHP) and Release Heap (CEERLHP) bindable APIs. The CEEMKHP bindable API allows you to mark a heap. When you are ready to free the group of allocations that were made since the heap was marked, use the CEERLHP bindable API. Using the mark and release functions leaves the heap intact, but frees the dynamic storage that is allocated from it. In this way, you can avoid the system overhead that is associated with heap creation by re-using existing heaps to meet dynamic storage requirements. v Your storage requirements may not match the storage attributes that define the default heap. For example, the initial size of the default heap is 4K bytes. However, you require a number of dynamic storage allocations that together exceed 4K bytes. You can create a heap with a larger initial size than 4K bytes. This reduces the system overhead which would otherwise occur both when implicitly extending the heap and subsequently accessing the heap extensions.

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Similarly, you can have heap extensions larger than 4K bytes. For information about defining heap sizes, see Heap Allocation Strategy and the discussion of heap attributes. You may have other reasons for using multiple heaps rather than the default heap. The storage management-bindable APIs give you the capability to manage the heaps that you create and the dynamic storage that is allocated in those heaps. IBM provides online information that explains the storage management-bindable APIs. Refer to the CL and APIs section that is in the Programming category of the iSeries Information Center.

Single-Heap Support
Languages that do not have intrinsic multiple-heap storage support use the default single-level store heap. You cannot use the Discard Heap (CEEDSHP), the Mark Heap (CEEMKHP), or the Release Heap (CEERLHP) bindable APIs with the default heap. You can free dynamic storage that is allocated by the default heap by using explicit free operations, or by ending the activation group that owns it. These restrictions on the use of the default heap help prevent inadvertent release of allocated dynamic storage in mixed-language applications. Remember to consider release heap and discard heap operations as insecure for large applications that re-use existing code with potentially different storage support. Remember not to use release heap operations that are valid for the default heap. This causes multiple parts of an application that uses the mark function correctly when used separately to possibly fail when used together.

Heap Allocation Strategy

The attributes associated with the default heap are defined by the system through a default allocation strategy. This allocation strategy defines attributes such as a heap creation size of 4K bytes and an extension size of 4K bytes. You cannot change this default allocation strategy. However, you can control heaps that you explicitly create through the Create a Heap (CEECRHP) bindable API. You also can define an allocation strategy for explicitly created heaps through the Define Heap Allocation Strategy (CEE4DAS) bindable API. Then, when you explicitly create a heap, the heap attributes are provided by the allocation strategy that you defined. In this way you can define separate allocation strategies for one or more explicitly created heaps. You can use the CEECRHP bindable API without defining an allocation strategy. In this case, the heap is defined by the attributes of the _CEE4ALC allocation strategy type. The _CEE4ALC allocation strategy type specifies a heap creation size of 4K bytes and an extension size of 4K bytes. The _CEE4ALC allocation strategy type contains the following attributes:
Max_Sngl_Alloc Min_Bdy Crt_Size Ext_Size Alloc_Strat No_Mark Blk_Xfer PAG Alloc_Init Init_Value = = = = = = = = = = 16MB - 64K /* maximum size of a single allocation */ 16 /* minimum boundary alignment of any allocation */ 4K /* initial creation size of the heap */ 4K /* the extension size of the heap */ 0 /* a choice for allocation strategy */ 1 /* a group deallocation choice */ 0 /* a choice for block transfer of a heap */ 0 /* a choice for heap creation in a PAG */ 0 /* a choice for allocation initialization */ 0x00 /* initialization value */

The attributes that are shown here illustrate the structure of the _CEE4ALC allocation strategy type. IBM provides online information that explains all of the
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_CEE4ALC allocation strategy attributes. Refer to the CL and APIs section that is found in the Programming category of the iSeries Information Center.

Single-Level Store Heap Interfaces

Bindable APIs are provided for all heap operations. Applications can be written using either the bindable APIs, language-intrinsic functions, or both. The bindable APIs fall into the following categories: v Basic heap operations. These operations can be used on the default heap and on user-created heaps. The Free Storage (CEEFRST) bindable API frees one previous allocation of heap storage. The Get Heap Storage (CEEGTST) bindable API allocates storage within a heap. The Reallocate Storage (CEECZST) bindable API changes the size of previously allocated storage. v Extended heap operations. These operations can be used only on user-created heaps. The Create Heap (CEECRHP) bindable API creates a new heap. The Discard Heap (CEEDSHP) bindable API discards an existing heap. The Mark Heap (CEEMKHP) bindable API returns a token that can be used to identify heap storage to be freed by the CEERLHP bindable API. The Release Heap (CEERLHP) bindable API frees all storage allocated in the heap since the mark was specified. v Heap allocation strategies The Define Heap Allocation Strategy (CEE4DAS) bindable API defines an allocation strategy that determines the attributes for a heap created with the CEECRHP bindable API. IBM provides specific online information information about the storage management bindable APIs. See the CL and APIs section of the Programming category of the iSeries Information Center.

ILE C Heap Support

By default, the dynamic storage provided by malloc, calloc, realloc and new is the same type of storage as the storage model of the root program in the activation group. However, when the single-level storage model is in use, then teraspace storage is provided by these interfaces if the TERASPACE(*YES *TSIFC) compiler option was specified. Similarly, a single-level store storage model program can explicitly use bindable APIs to work with teraspace, such as _C_TS_malloc, _C_TS_free, _C_TS_realloc and _C_TS_calloc. For details about how you can use teraspace storage, see Chapter 4. Teraspace and single-level store on page 49. If you choose to use both the CEExxxx storage management bindable APIs and the ILE C malloc(), calloc(), realloc(), and free() functions, the following rules apply: v Dynamic storage allocated through the C functions malloc(), calloc(), and realloc(), cannot be freed or reallocated with the CEEFRST and the CEECZST bindable APIs. v Dynamic storage allocated by the CEEGTST bindable API can be freed with the free() function.

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v Dynamic storage initially allocated with the CEEGTST bindable API can be reallocated with the realloc() function. Other languages, such as COBOL and RPG, have no heap storage model. These languages can access the ILE dynamic storage model through the bindable APIs for dynamic storage.

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Chapter 9. Exception and Condition Management

This chapter provides additional details on exception handling and condition handling. Before you read this chapter, read the advanced concepts described in Error Handling on page 38. The exception message architecture of the OS/400 is used to implement both exception handling and condition handling. There are cases in which exception handling and condition handling interact. For example, an ILE condition handler registered with the Register a User-Written Condition Handler (CEEHDLR) bindable API is used to handle an exception message sent with the Send Program Message (QMHSNDPM) API. These interactions are explained in this chapter. The term exception handler is used in this chapter to mean either an OS/400 exception handler or an ILE condition handler.

Handle Cursors and Resume Cursors

To process exceptions, the system uses two pointers called the handle cursor and resume cursor. These pointers keep track of the progress of exception handling. You need to understand the use of the handle cursor and resume cursor under certain advanced error-handling scenarios. These concepts are used to explain additional error-handling features in later topics. The handle cursor is a pointer that keeps track of the current exception handler. As the system searches for an available exception handler, it moves the handle cursor to the next handler in the exception handler list defined by each call stack entry. This list can contain: v Direct monitor handlers v ILE condition handlers v HLL-specific handlers The handle cursor moves down the exception handler list to lower priority handlers until the exception is handled. If the exception is not handled by any of the exception handlers that have been defined for a call stack entry, the handle cursor moves to the first (highest priority) handler for the previous call stack entry. The resume cursor is a pointer that keeps track of the current location at which your exception handler can resume processing after handling the exception. Normally the system sets the resume cursor to the next instruction following the occurrence of an exception. For call stack entries above the procedure that incurred the exception, the resume point is directly after the procedure or program call that currently suspended the procedure or program. To move the resume cursor to an earlier resume point, use the Move Resume Cursor (CEEMRCR) bindable API. Figure 45 on page 116 shows an example of the handle cursor and resume cursor.

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Call Stack

ILE Procedure P1 CALLPRC P2

Resume Point

ILE Procedure P2 CALLPRC P3

Resume Point

Exception Handler List Handle Cursor

ILE Procedure P3 Exception Occurred

Resume Point

. . .

Resume Cursor

Exception Handler Procedure P10

RV2W1044-0

Figure 45. Handle Cursor and Resume Cursor Example

The handle cursor is currently at the second exception handler defined in the exception handler priority list for procedure P2. The handler procedure P10 is currently called by the system. If procedure P10 handles the exception and returns, control goes to the current resume cursor location defined in procedure P3. This example assumes that procedure P3 percolated the exception to procedure P2. The exception handler procedure P10 can modify the resume cursor with the Move Resume Cursor (CEEMRCR) bindable API. Two options are provided with this API. An exception handler can modify the resume cursor to either of the following: v The call stack entry containing the handle cursor v The call stack entry prior to the handle cursor In Figure 45, you could modify the resume cursor to either procedure P2 or P1. After the resume cursor is modified and the exception is marked as handled, a normal return from your exception handler returns control to the new resume point.

Exception Handler Actions

When your exception handler is called by the system, you can take several actions to handle the exception. For example, ILE C extensions support control actions, branch point handlers, and monitoring by message ID. The possible actions described here pertain to any of the following types of handlers: v Direct monitor handler v ILE condition handler v HLL-specific handler

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How to Resume Processing

If you determine that processing can continue, you can resume at the current resume cursor location. Before you can resume processing, the exception message must be changed to indicate that it has been handled. Certain types of handlers require you to explicitly change the exception message to indicate that the message has been handled. For other handler types, the system can change the exception message before your handler is called. For a direct monitor handler, you may specify an action to be taken for the exception message. That action may be to call the handler, to handle the exception before calling the handler, or to handle the exception and resume the program. If the action is just to call the handler, you can still handle the exception by using the Change Exception Message (QMHCHGEM) API or the bindable API CEE4HC (Handle Condition). You can change the resume point within a direct monitor handler by using the Move Resume Cursor (CEEMRCR) bindable API. After making these changes, you continue processing by returning from your exception handler. For an ILE condition handler, you continue the processing by setting a return code value and returning to the system. IBM provides online information that describes the actual return code values for the Register a User-Written Condition Handler (CEEHDLR) bindable API. Refer to the CL and APIs section that is found in the Programming category of the iSeries Information Center. For an HLL-specific handler, the exception message is changed to indicate that it has been handled before your handler is called. To determine whether you can modify the resume cursor from an HLL-specific handler, refer to your ILE HLL programmers guide.

How to Percolate a Message

If you determine that an exception message is not recognized by your handler, you can percolate the exception message to the next available handler. For percolation to occur, the exception message must not be considered as a handled message. Other exception handlers in the same or previous call stack entries are given a chance to handle the exception message. The technique for percolating an exception message varies depending on the type of exception handler. For a direct monitor handler, do not change the exception message to indicate that it has been handled. A normal return from your exception handler causes the system to percolate the message. The message is percolated to the next exception handler in the exception handler list for your call stack entry. If your handler is at the end of the exception handler list, the message is percolated to the first exception handler in the previous call stack entry. For an ILE condition handler, you communicate a percolate action by setting a return code value and returning to the system. IBM provides online information that describes the actual return code values for the Register a User-Written Condition Handler (CEEHDLR) bindable API. Refer to the CL and APIs section that is found in the Programming category of the iSeries Information Center. For an HLL-specific handler, it may not be possible to percolate an exception message. Whether you can percolate a message depends on whether your HLL marks the message as handled before your handler is called. If you do not declare an HLL-specific handler, your HLL can percolate the unhandled exception

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message. Please refer to your ILE HLL reference manual to determine the exception messages your HLL-specific handler can handle.

How to Promote a Message

Under certain limited situations, you can choose to modify the exception message to a different message. This action marks the original exception message as handled and restarts exception processing with a new exception message. This action is allowed only from direct monitor handlers and ILE condition handlers. For direct monitor handlers, use the Promote Message (QMHPRMM) API to promote a message. The system can promote only status and escape message types. With this API you have some control over the handle cursor placement that is used to continue exception processing. Refer to the CL and APIs section that is found in the Programming category of the iSeries Information Center. For an ILE condition handler, you communicate the promote action by setting a return code value and returning to the system. IBM provides online information that describes the actual return code values for the Register a User-Written Condition Handler (CEEHDLR) bindable API. Refer to the CL and APIs section that is found in the Programming category of the iSeries Information Center.

Default Actions for Unhandled Exceptions

If an exception message is percolated to the control boundary, the system takes a default action. If the exception is a notify message, the system sends the default reply, handles the exception, and allows the sender of the notify message to continue processing. If the exception is a status message, the system handles the exception and allows the sender of the status message to continue processing. If the exception is an escape message, the system handles the escape message and sends a function check message back to where the resume cursor is currently positioned. If the unhandled exception is a function check, all entries on the stack up to the control boundary are cancelled and the CEE9901 escape message is sent to the next prior stack entry. Table 9 contains default responses that the system takes when an exception is unhandled at a control boundary.
Table 9. Default Responses to Unhandled Exceptions Message Type Severity of Condition Condition Raised by the Signal a Condition (CEESGL) Bindable API Return the unhandled condition. Return the unhandled condition. Not applicable. Not applicable. Return the unhandled condition. Exception Originated from Any Other Source Resume without logging the message. Resume without logging the message. Log the notify message and send the default reply. Log the notify message and send the default reply. Log the escape message and send a function check message to the call stack entry of the current resume point.

Status Status Notify Notify Escape

0 (Informative message) 1 (Warning) 0 (Informative message) 1 (Warning) 2 (Error)

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Table 9. Default Responses to Unhandled Exceptions (continued) Message Type Severity of Condition Condition Raised by the Signal a Condition (CEESGL) Bindable API Escape 3 (Severe error) Return the unhandled condition.

Exception Originated from Any Other Source

Escape

4 (Critical ILE error)

Function check

4 (Critical ILE error)

Log the escape message and send a function check message to the call stack entry of the current resume point. Log the escape message and Log the escape message and send a function check send a function check message to the call stack message to the call stack entry of the current resume entry of the current resume point. point. Not applicable End the application, and send the CEE9901 message to the caller of the control boundary.

Note: When the application is ended by an unhandled function check, the activation group is deleted if the control boundary is the oldest call stack entry in the activation group.

Nested Exceptions
A nested exception is an exception that occurs while another exception is being handled. When this happens, processing of the first exception is temporarily suspended. The system saves all of the associated information such as the locations of the handle cursor and resume cursor. Exception handling begins again with the most recently generated exception. New locations for the handle cursor and resume cursor are set by the system. Once the new exception has been properly handled, handling activities for the original exception normally resume. When a nested exception occurs, both of the following are still on the call stack: v The call stack entry associated with the original exception v The call stack entry associated with the original exception handler To reduce the possibility of exception handling loops, the system stops the percolation of a nested exception at the original exception handler call stack entry. Then the system promotes the nested exception to a function check message and percolates the function check message to the same call stack entry. If you do not handle the nested exception or the function check message, the system ends the application by calling the Abnormal End (CEE4ABN) bindable API. In this case, message CEE9901 is sent to the caller of the control boundary. If you move the resume cursor while processing the nested exception, you can implicitly modify the original exception. To cause this to occur, do the following: 1. Move the resume cursor to a call stack entry earlier than the call stack entry that incurred the original exception 2. Resume processing by returning from your handler

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Condition Handling
ILE conditions are OS/400 exception messages represented in a manner independent of the system. An ILE condition token is used to represent an ILE condition. Condition handling refers to the ILE functions that allow you to handle errors separately from language-specific error handling. Other systems have implemented these functions. You can use condition handling to increase the portability of your applications between systems that have implemented condition handling. ILE condition handling includes the following functions: v Ability to dynamically register an ILE condition handler v Ability to signal an ILE condition v Condition token architecture v Optional condition token feedback codes for bindable ILE APIs These functions are described in the topics that follow.

How Conditions Are Represented

The ILE condition token is a 12-byte compound data type that contains structured fields to convey aspects of a condition. Such aspects can be its severity, its associated message number, and information that is specific to the given instance of the condition. The condition token is used to communicate this information about a condition to the system, to message services, to bindable APIs, and to procedures. The information returned in the optional fc parameter of all ILE bindable APIs, for example, is communicated using a condition token. If an exception is detected by the operating system or by the hardware, a corresponding condition token is automatically built by the system. You can also create a condition token using the Construct a Condition Token (CEENCOD) bindable API. Then you can signal a condition to the system by returning the token through the Signal a Condition (CEESGL) bindable API.

Layout of a Condition Token

Figure 46 displays a map of the condition token. The starting bit position is shown for each field.
Case Severity Control Condition_ID
0 32 34 37 40

Facility_ID

I_S_Info
64

The ILE condition ID always has case 1 format: MsgSev

0

Msg_No
16 RV2W1032-2

Figure 46. ILE Condition Token Layout

Every condition token contains the components indicated in Figure 46:

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Condition_ID A 4-byte identifier that, with the Facility_ID, describes the condition that the token communicates. ILE bindable APIs and most applications produce case 1 conditions. Case A 2-bit field that defines the format of the Condition_ID portion of the token. ILE conditions are always case 1.

Severity A 3-bit binary integer that indicates the severity of the condition. The Severity and MsgSev fields contain the same information. See Table 9 on page 118 for a list of ILE condition severities. See Table 11 on page 122 and Table 12 on page 122 for the corresponding OS/400 message severities. Control A 3-bit field containing flags that describe or control various aspects of condition handling. The third bit specifies whether the Facility_ID has been assigned by IBM. Facility_ID A 3-character alphanumeric string that identifies the facility that generated the condition. The Facility_ID indicates whether the message was generated by the system or an HLL run time. Table 10 lists the facility IDs used in ILE. I_S_Info A 4-byte field that identifies the instance specific information associated with a given instance of the condition. This field contains the reference key to the instance of the message associated with the condition token. If the message reference key is zero, there is no associated message. MsgSev A 2-byte binary integer that indicates the severity of the condition. MsgSev and Severity contain the same information. See Table 9 on page 118 for a list of ILE condition severities. See Table 11 on page 122 and Table 12 on page 122 for the corresponding OS/400 message severities. Msg_No A 2-byte binary number that identifies the message associated with the condition. The combination of Facility_ID and Msg_No uniquely identifies a condition. Table 10 contains the facility IDs used in ILE condition tokens and in the prefix of OS/400 messages.
Table 10. Facility IDs Used in Messages and ILE Condition Tokens Facility ID Facility CEE ILE common library CPF OS/400 XPF message MCH OS/400 machine exception message

Condition Token Testing

You can test a condition token that is returned from a bindable API for the following: Success To test for success, determine if the first 4 bytes are zero. If the first 4 bytes are zero, the remainder of the condition token is zero, indicating a successful call was made to the bindable API.
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Equivalent Tokens To determine whether two condition tokens are equivalent (that is, the same type of condition token, but not the same instance of the condition token), compare the first 8 bytes of each condition token with one another. These bytes are the same for all instances of a given condition. Equal Tokens To determine whether two condition tokens are equal, (that is, they represent the same instance of a condition), compare all 12 bytes of each condition token with one another. The last 4 bytes can change from instance to instance of a condition.

Relationship of ILE Conditions to OS/400 Messages

A message is associated with every condition that is raised in ILE. The condition token contains a unique ID that ILE uses to write a message associated with the condition to the message file. The format of every run-time message is FFFxxxx: FFF The facility ID, a 3-character ID that is used by all messages generated under ILE and ILE languages. Refer to Table 10 on page 121 for a list of IDs and corresponding facilities. The error message number. This is a hexadecimal number that identifies the error message associated with the condition.

xxxx

Table 11 and Table 12 show how ILE condition severity maps to OS/400 message severity.
Table 11. Mapping OS/400 *ESCAPE Message Severities to ILE Condition Severities From OS/400 Message To ILE Condition Severity To OS/400 Message Severity Severity 0-29 2 20 30-39 3 30 40-99 4 40 Table 12. Mapping OS/400 *STATUS and *NOTIFY Message Severities From OS/400 Message To ILE Condition Severity Severity 0 0 1-99 1 Severities to ILE Condition To OS/400 Message Severity 0 10

OS/400 Messages and the Bindable API Feedback Code

As input to a bindable API, you have the option of coding a feedback code, and using the feedback code as a return (or feedback) code check in a procedure. The feedback code is a condition token value that is provided for flexibility in checking returns from calls to other procedures. You can then use the feedback code as input to a condition token. If the feedback code is omitted on the call to a bindable API and a condition occurs, an exception message is sent to the caller of the bindable API. If you code the feedback code parameter in your application to receive feedback information from a bindable API, the following sequence of events occurs when a condition is raised:

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1. An informational message is sent to the caller of the API, communicating the message associated with the condition. 2. The bindable API in which the condition occurred builds a condition token for the condition. The bindable API places information into the instance specific information area. The instance specific information of the condition token is the message reference key of the informational message. This is used by the system to react to the condition. 3. If a detected condition is critical (severity is 4), the system sends an exception message to the caller of the bindable API. 4. If a detected condition is not critical (severity less than 4), the condition token is returned to the routine that called the bindable API. 5. When the condition token is returned to your application, you have the following options: v Ignore it and continue processing. v Signal the condition using the Signal a Condition (CEESGL) bindable API. v Get, format, and dispatch the message for display using the Get, Format, and Dispatch a Message (CEEMSG) bindable API. v Store the message in a storage area using the Get a Message (CEEMGET) bindable API. v Use the Dispatch a Message (CEEMOUT) bindable API to dispatch a user-defined message to a destination that you specify. v When the caller of the API regains control, the informational message is removed and does not appear in the job log. If you omit the feedback code parameter when you are calling a bindable API, the bindable API sends an exception message to the caller of the bindable API.

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Chapter 10. Debugging Considerations

The source debugger is used to debug OPM, ILE and service programs. CL commands can still be used to debug original program model (OPM) programs. This chapter presents several considerations about the source debugger. Information on how to use the source debugger can be found in the online information and in the programmers guide for the ILE high-level language (HLL) you are using. Information on the commands to use for a specific task (for example, creating a module) can be found in your ILE HLL programmers guide.

Debug Mode
To use the source debugger, your session must be in debug mode. Debug mode is a special environment in which program debug functions can be used in addition to normal system functions. Your session is put into debug mode when you run the Start Debug (STRDBG) command.

Debug Environment
A program can be debugged in either of the two environments: v The OPM debug environment. All OPM programs are debugged in this environment unless the OPM programs are explicitly added to the ILE debug environment. v The ILE debug environment. All ILE programs are debugged in this environment. In addition, an OPM program is debugged in this environment if all of the following criteria are met: It is a CL, COBOL or RPG program. It is complied with OPM source debug data. By setting the OPMSRC parameter of the STRDBG command to indicate *YES. The ILE debug environment provides source level debug support. The debug capability comes directly from statement, source, or list views of the code. Once an OPM program is in the ILE debug environment, the system will provide seamless debugging of both the ILE and OPM programs through the same user interface. For information on how to use the source debugger for OPM programs in the ILE debug environment, see online help or the programmers guide for the equivalent ILE high-level language (HLL) you are using for the OPM language: CL, COBOL, or RPG. For example, you can refer to the ILE RPG for AS/400 for information on debugging OPM RPG programs in Programmers Guide the ILE debug environment.

Addition of Programs to Debug Mode

A program must be added to debug mode before it can be debugged. OPM programs, ILE programs, and ILE service programs can be in debug mode at the same time. As many as 20 OPM programs can be in debug mode at one time in
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the OPM debug environment. The number of ILE programs, service programs and OPM programs in the ILE debug environment that can be in debug mode at one time is not limited. However, the maximum amount of debug data that is supported at one time is 16MB per module. You must have *CHANGE authority to a program or service program to add it to debug mode. A program or service program can be added to debug mode when it is stopped on the call stack. ILE programs and service programs are accessed by the source debugger one module at a time. When you are debugging an ILE program or service program, you may need to debug a module in another program or service program. That second program or service program must be added to debug mode before the module in the second program can be debugged. When debug mode ends, all programs are removed from debug mode.

How Observability and Optimization Affect Debugging

Whether a module is observable and whether it is fully optimized affect the ability to debug it. Module observability refers to data that can be stored with a module that allows it to be changed without being compiled again. Optimization is a process where the system looks for processing shortcuts that reduce the amount of system resources necessary to produce the same output.

Observability
Module observability consists of two types of data: Debug Data Represented by the *DBGDTA value. This data is necessary to allow a module to be debugged. Creation Data Represented by the *CRTDTA value. This data is necessary to translate the code to machine instructions. The module must have this data for you to change the module optimization level. Once a module is compiled, you can only remove this data. Using the Change Module (CHGMOD) command, you can remove either type of data from the module, or remove both types. Removing all observability reduces the module to its minimum size (with compression). Once this data is removed, you cannot change the module in any way unless you compile the module again and replace the data. To compile it again, you must have authority to the source code.

Optimization Levels
Generally, if a module has creation data, you can change the level at which the source code is optimized to run on the system. Processing shortcuts are translated into machine code, allowing the procedures in the module to run more efficiently. The higher the optimization level, the more efficiently the procedures in the module run. However, with more optimization you cannot change variables and may not be able to view the actual value of a variable during debugging. When you are debugging, set the optimization level to 10 (*NONE). This provides the lowest

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level of performance for the procedures in the module but allows you to accurately display and change variables. After you have completed your debugging, set the optimization level to 30 (*FULL) or 40. This provides the highest level of performance for the procedures in the module.

Debug Data Creation and Removal

Debug data is stored with each module and is generated when a module is created. To debug a procedure in a module that has been created without debug data, you must re-create the module with debug data, and then rebind the module to the ILE program or service program. You do not have to recompile all the other modules in the program or service program that already have debug data. To remove debug data from a module, re-create the module without debug data or use the Change Module (CHGMOD) command.

Module Views
The levels of debug data available may vary for each module in an ILE program or service program. The modules are compiled separately and could be produced with different compilers and options. These debug data levels determine which views are produced by the compiler and which views are displayed by the source debugger. Possible values are: *NONE No debug views are produced. *STMT No source is displayed by the debugger, but breakpoints can be added using procedure names and statement numbers found on the compiler listing. The amount of debug data stored with this view is the minimum amount of data necessary for debugging. *SOURCE The source debugger displays source if the source files used to compile the module are still present on the system. *LIST The list view is produced and stored with the module. This allows the source debugger to display source even if the source files used to create the module are not present on the system. This view can be useful as a backup copy if the program will be changed. However, the amount of debug data may be quite large, especially if other files are expanded into the listing. The compiler options used when the modules were created determine whether the includes are expanded. Files that can be expanded include DDS files and include files (such as ILE C includes, ILE RPG /COPY files, and ILE COBOL COPY files). *ALL All debug views are produced. As for the list view, the amount of debug data may be very large.

ILE RPG also has a debug option *COPY that produces both a source view and a copy view. The copy view is a debug view that has all the /COPY source members included.

Debugging across Jobs

You may want to use a separate job to debug programs running in your job or a batch job. This is very useful when you want to observe the function of a program without the interference of debugger panels. For example, the panels or windows that an application displays may overlay or be overlaid by the debugger panels
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during stepping or at breakpoints. You can avoid this problem by starting a service job and starting the debugger in a different job from the one that is being debugged. For information on this, see the appendix on testing in the CL Programming book.

OPM and ILE Debugger Support

The OPM and ILE debugger support enable source level debugging of the OPM programs through the ILE Debugger APIs. For information on ILE Debugger APIs, see the CL and APIs section under the Programming category of the iSeries Information Center. The OPM and ILE debugger support provide seamless debugging of both the ILE and OPM programs through the same user interface. To use this support, you must compile an OPM program with the RPG, COBOL, or CL compiler. You must set the OPTION parameter *SRCDBG or *LSTDBG for the compilation. OS/400 does not support System/36 compilers nor EPM compilers.

Watch Support
The Watch support provides the ability to stop program execution when the content of a specified storage location is changed. The storage location is specified by the name of a program variable. The program variable is resolved to a storage location and the content at this location is monitored for changes. If the content at the storage location is changed, execution stops. The interrupted program source is displayed at the point of interruption, and the source line that is highlighted will be run after the statement that changed the storage location.

Unmonitored Exceptions
When an unmonitored exception occurs, the program that is running issues a function check and sends a message to the job log. If you are in debug mode and the modules of the program were created with debug data, the source debugger shows the Display Module Source display. The program is added to debug mode if necessary. The appropriate module is shown on the display with the affected line highlighted. You can then debug the program.

Globalization Restriction for Debugging

If either of the following conditions exist: v The coded character set identifier (CCSID) of the debug job is 290, 930, or 5026 (Japan Katakana) v The code page of the device description used for debugging is 290, 930, or 5026 (Japan Katakana) debug commands, functions, and hexadecimal literals should be entered in uppercase. For example:
BREAK 16 WHEN var=X'A1B2' EVAL var:X

The above restriction for Japan Katakana code pages does not apply when using identifier names in debug commands (for example, EVAL). However, when debugging ILE RPG, ILE COBOL, or ILE CL modules, identifier names in debug commands are converted to uppercase by the source debugger and therefore may be redisplayed differently.

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Chapter 11. Data Management Scoping

This chapter contains information on the data management resources that may be used by an ILE program or service program. Before reading this chapter, you should understand the data management scoping concepts described in Data Management Scoping Rules on page 45. Details for each resource type are left to each ILE HLL programmer s guide.

Common Data Management Resources

This topic identifies all the data management resources that follow data management scoping rules. Following each resource is a brief description of how to specify the scoping. Additional details for each resource can be found in the publications referred to. Open file operations Open file operations result in the creation of a temporary resource that is called an open data path (ODP). You can start the open function by using HLL open verbs, the Open Query File (OPNQRYF) command, or the Open Data Base File (OPNDBF) command. The ODP is scoped to the activation group of the program that opened the file. For OPM or ILE programs that run in the default activation group, the ODP is scoped to the call-level number. To change the scoping of HLL open verbs, you can use an override. You can specify scoping by using the open scope (OPNSCOPE) parameter on all override commands, the OPNDBF command, and the OPNQRYF command. Overrides Overrides are scoped to the call level, the activation-group level, or the job level. To specify override scoping, use the override scope (OVRSCOPE) parameter on any override command. If you do not specify explicit scoping, the scope of the override depends on where the system issues the override. If the system issues the override from the default activation group, it is scoped to the call level. If the system issues the override from any other activation group, it is scoped to the activation group level. Commitment definitions Commitment definitions support scoping to the activation group level and scoping to the job level. The scoping level is specified with the control scope (CTLSCOPE) parameter on the Start Commitment Control (STRCMTCTL) command. For more information about commitment definitions, see Backup and Recovery .

Local SQL cursors You can create SQL programs for ILE compiler products. The SQL cursors used by an ILE program may be scoped to either the module or activation group. You may specify the SQL cursor scoping through the end SQL (ENDSQL) parameter on the Create SQL Program commands. Remote SQL connections Remote connections used with SQL cursors are scoped to an activation

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group implicitly as part of normal SQL processing. This allows multiple conversations to exist among either one source job and multiple target jobs or multiple systems. User interface manager The Open Print Application (QUIOPNPA) and Open Display Application APIs support an application scope parameter. These APIs can be used to scope the user interface manager (UIM) application to either an activation group or the job. For more information about the user interface manager, see the CL and APIs section under the Programming category of the iSeries Information Center. Open data links (open file management) The Enable Link (QOLELINK) API enables a data link. If you use this API from within an ILE activation group, the data link is scoped to that activation group. If you use this API from within the default activation group, the data link is scoped to the call level. For more information about open data links, see the CL and APIs section under the Programming category of the iSeries Information Center. Common Programming Interface (CPI) Communications conversations The activation group that starts a conversation owns that conversation. The activation group that enables a link through the Enable Link (QOLELINK) API owns the link. IBM has online information about Common Programming Interface (CPI) Communications conversations. See the CL and APIs section under the Programming category of the iSeries Information Center. Hierarchical file system The Open Stream File (OHFOPNSF) API manages hierarchical file system (HFS) files. You can use the open information (OPENINFO) parameter on this API to control scoping to either the activation group or the job level. For more information about the hierarchical file system, see the CL and APIs section under the Programming category of the iSeries Information Center.

Commitment Control Scoping

ILE introduces two changes for commitment control: v Multiple, independent commitment definitions per job. Transactions can be committed and rolled back independently of each other. Before ILE, only a single commitment definition was allowed per job. v If changes are pending when an activation group ends normally, the system implicitly commits the changes. Before ILE, the system did not commit the changes. Commitment control allows you to define and process changes to resources, such as database files or tables, as a single transaction. A transaction is a group of individual changes to objects on the system that should appear to the user as a single atomic change. Commitment control ensures that one of the following occurs on the system: v The entire group of individual changes occurs (a commit operation) v None of the individual changes occur (a rollback operation) Various resources can be changed under commitment control using both OPM programs and ILE programs.

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The Start Commitment Control (STRCMTCTL) command makes it possible for programs that run within a job to make changes under commitment control. When commitment control is started by using the STRCMTCTL command, the system creates a commitment definition. Each commitment definition is known only to the job that issued the STRCMTCTL command. The commitment definition contains information pertaining to the resources being changed under commitment control within that job. The commitment control information in the commitment definition is maintained by the system as the commitment resources change. The commitment definition is ended by using the End Commitment Control (ENDCMTCTL) command. For more information about commitment control, see the Backup and Recovery book.

Commitment Definitions and Activation Groups

Multiple commitment definitions can be started and used by programs running within a job. Each commitment definition for a job identifies a separate transaction that has resources associated with it. These resources can be committed or rolled back independently of all other commitment definitions started for the job. Note: Only ILE programs can start commitment control for activation groups other than the default activation group. Therefore, a job can use multiple commitment definitions only if the job is running one or more ILE programs. Original program model (OPM) programs run in the default activation group. By default, OPM programs use the *DFTACTGRP commitment definition. For OPM programs, you can use the *JOB commitment definition by specifying CMTSCOPE(*JOB) on the STRCMTCTL command. When you use the Start Commitment Control (STRCMTCTL) command, you specify the scope for a commitment definition on the commitment scope (CMTSCOPE) parameter. The scope for a commitment definition indicates which programs that run within the job use that commitment definition. The default scope for a commitment definition is to the activation group of the program issuing the STRCMTCTL command. Only programs that run within that activation group will use that commitment definition. Commitment definitions that are scoped to an activation group are referred to as commitment definitions at the activation-group level. The commitment definition started at the activation-group level for the OPM default activation group is known as the default activation-group (*DFTACTGRP) commitment definition. Commitment definitions for many activation-group levels can be started and used by programs that run within various activation groups for a job. A commitment definition can also be scoped to the job. A commitment definition with this scope value is referred to as the job-level or *JOB commitment definition. Any program running in an activation group that does not have a commitment definition started at the activation-group level uses the job-level commitment definition. This occurs if the job-level commitment definition has already been started by another program for the job. Only a single job-level commitment definition can be started for a job. For a given activation group, only a single commitment definition can be used by the programs that run within that activation group. Programs that run within an

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activation group can use the commitment definition at either the job level or the activation-group level. However, they cannot use both commitment definitions at the same time. When a program performs a commitment control operation, the program does not directly indicate which commitment definition to use for the request. Instead, the system determines which commitment definition to use based on which activation group the requesting program is running in. This is possible because, at any point in time, the programs that run within an activation group can use only a single commitment definition.

Ending Commitment Control

Commitment control may be ended for either the job-level or activation-grouplevel commitment definition by using the End Commitment Control (ENDCMTCTL) command. The ENDCMTCTL command indicates to the system that the commitment definition for the activation group of the program making the request is to be ended. The ENDCMTCTL command ends one commitment definition for the job. All other commitment definitions for the job remain unchanged. If the commitment definition at the activation-group level is ended, programs running within that activation group can no longer make changes under commitment control. If the job-level commitment definition is started or already exists, any new file open operations specifying commitment control use the job-level commitment definition. If the job-level commitment definition is ended, any program running within the job that was using the job-level commitment definition can no longer make changes under commitment control. If commitment control is started again with the STRCMTCTL command, changes can be made.

Commitment Control during Activation Group End

When the following conditions exist at the same time: v An activation group ends v The job is not ending the system automatically ends a commitment definition at an activation-group level. If both of the following conditions exist: v Uncommitted changes exist for a commitment definition at an activation-group level v The activation group is ending normally the system performs an implicit commit operation for the commitment definition before it ends the commitment definition. Otherwise, if either of the following conditions exist: v The activation group is ending abnormally v The system encountered errors when closing any files opened under commitment control scoped to the activation group an implicit rollback operation is performed for the commitment definition at the activation-group level before being ended. Because the activation group ends abnormally, the system updates the notify object with the last successful commit operation. Commit and rollback are based on pending changes. If there are no pending changes, there is no rollback, but the notify object is still updated. If the

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activation group ends abnormally with pending changes, the system implicitly rolls back the changes. If the activation group ends normally with pending changes, the system implicitly commits the changes. An implicit commit operation or rollback operation is never performed during activation group end processing for the *JOB or *DFTACTGRP commitment definitions. This is because the *JOB and *DFTACTGRP commitment definitions are never ended because of an activation group ending. Instead, these commitment definitions are either explicitly ended by an ENDCMTCTL command or ended by the system when the job ends. The system automatically closes any files scoped to the activation group when the activation group ends. This includes any database files scoped to the activation group opened under commitment control. The close operation for any such file occurs before any implicit commit operation that is performed for the commitment definition at the activation-group level. Therefore, any records that reside in an I/O buffer are first forced to the database before any implicit commit operation is performed. As part of the implicit commit operation or rollback operation, the system calls the API commit and rollback exit program for each API commitment resource. Each API commitment resource must be associated with the commitment definition at the activation-group level. After the API commit and rollback exit program is called, the system automatically removes the API commitment resource. If the following conditions exist: v An implicit rollback operation is performed for a commitment definition that is being ended because an activation group is being ended v A notify object is defined for the commitment definition the notify object is updated.

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Chapter 12. ILE Bindable Application Programming Interfaces

ILE bindable application programming interfaces (bindable APIs) are an important part of ILE. In some cases they provide additional function beyond that provided by a specific high-level language. For example, not all HLLs offer intrinsic means to manipulate dynamic storage. In those cases, you can supplement an HLL function by using particular bindable APIs. If your HLL provides the same function as a particular bindable API, use the HLL-specific one. Bindable APIs are HLL independent. This can be useful for mixed-language applications. For example, if you use only condition management bindable APIs with a mixed-language application, you will have uniform condition handling semantics for that application. This makes condition management more consistent than when using multiple HLL-specific condition handlers. The bindable APIs provide a wide range of function including: Activation group and control flow management Condition management Date and time manipulation Dynamic screen management Math functions Message handling Program or procedure call management and operational descriptor access Source debugger Storage management For reference information on the ILE bindable APIs, see the CL and APIs section under the Programming category of the iSeries Information Center.

ILE Bindable APIs Available

Most bindable APIs are available to any HLL that ILE supports. Naming conventions of the bindable APIs are as follows: v Bindable APIs with names beginning with CEE are based on the SAA Language Environment* specifications. These APIs are intended to be consistent across the IBM SAA systems. For more information about the SAA Language Environment, see the SAA CPI Language Environment Reference. v Bindable APIs with names beginning with CEE4 or CEES4 are specific to OS/400. ILE provides the following bindable APIs: Activation Group and Control Flow Bindable APIs Abnormal End (CEE4ABN) Find a Control Boundary (CEE4FCB) Register Activation Group Exit Procedure (CEE4RAGE) Register Call Stack Entry Termination User Exit Procedure (CEERTX) Signal the Termination-Imminent Condition (CEETREC) Unregister Call Stack Entry Termination User Exit Procedure (CEEUTX) Condition Management Bindable APIs Construct a Condition Token (CEENCOD) Decompose a Condition Token (CEEDCOD) Handle a Condition (CEE4HC)
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Move the Resume Cursor to a Return Point (CEEMRCR) Register a User-Written Condition Handler (CEEHDLR) Retrieve ILE Version and Platform ID (CEEGPID) Return the Relative Invocation Number (CEE4RIN) Signal a Condition (CEESGL) Unregister a User Condition Handler (CEEHDLU) Date and Time Bindable APIs Calculate Day-of-Week from Lilian Date (CEEDYWK) Convert Date to Lilian Format (CEEDAYS) Convert Integers to Seconds (CEEISEC) Convert Lilian Date to Character Format (CEEDATE) Convert Seconds to Character Timestamp (CEEDATM) Convert Seconds to Integers (CEESECI) Convert Timestamp to Number of Seconds (CEESECS) Get Current Greenwich Mean Time (CEEGMT) Get Current Local Time (CEELOCT) Get Offset from Universal Time Coordinated to Local Time (CEEUTCO) Get Universal Time Coordinated (CEEUTC) Query Century (CEEQCEN) Return Default Date and Time Strings for Country (CEEFMDT) Return Default Date String for Country (CEEFMDA) Return Default Time String for Country (CEEFMTM) Set Century (CEESCEN) Math Bindable APIs The x in the name of each math bindable API refers to one of the following data types: I S D T E 32-bit binary integer 32-bit single floating-point number 64-bit double floating-point number 32-bit single floating-complex number (both real and imaginary parts are 32 bits long) 64-bit double floating-complex number (both real and imaginary parts are 64 bits long) Absolute Function (CEESxABS) Arccosine (CEESxACS) Arcsine (CEESxASN) Arctangent (CEESxATN) Arctangent2 (CEESxAT2) Conjugate of Complex (CEESxCJG) Cosine (CEESxCOS) Cotangent (CEESxCTN) Error Function and Its Complement (CEESxERx) Exponential Base e (CEESxEXP) Exponentiation (CEESxXPx) Factorial (CEE4SIFAC) Floating Complex Divide (CEESxDVD) Floating Complex Multiply (CEESxMLT) Gamma Function (CEESxGMA) Hyperbolic Arctangent (CEESxATH) Hyperbolic Cosine (CEESxCSH) Hyperbolic Sine (CEESxSNH) Hyperbolic Tangent (CEESxTNH)

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Imaginary Part of Complex (CEESxIMG) Log Gamma Function (CEESxLGM) Logarithm Base 10 (CEESxLG1) Logarithm Base 2 (CEESxLG2) Logarithm Base e (CEESxLOG) Modular Arithmetic (CEESxMOD) Nearest Integer (CEESxNIN) Nearest Whole Number (CEESxNWN) Positive Difference (CEESxDIM) Sine (CEESxSIN) Square Root (CEESxSQT) Tangent (CEESxTAN) Transfer of Sign (CEESxSGN) Truncation (CEESxINT) Additional math bindable API: Basic Random Number Generation (CEERAN0) Message Handling Bindable APIs Dispatch a Message (CEEMOUT) Get a Message (CEEMGET) Get, Format, and Dispatch a Message (CEEMSG) Program or Procedure Call Bindable APIs Get String Information (CEEGSI) Retrieve Operational Descriptor Information (CEEDOD) Test for Omitted Argument (CEETSTA) Source Debugger Bindable APIs Allow a Program to Issue Debug Statements (QteSubmitDebugCommand) Enable a Session to Use the Source Debugger (QteStartSourceDebug) Map Positions from One View to Another (QteMapViewPosition) Register a View of a Module (QteRegisterDebugView) Remove a View of a Module (QteRemoveDebugView) Retrieve the Attributes of the Source Debug Session (QteRetrieveDebugAttribute) Retrieve the List of Modules and Views for a Program (QteRetrieveModuleViews) Retrieve the Position Where the Program Stopped (QteRetrieveStoppedPosition) Retrieve Source Text from the Specified View (QteRetrieveViewText) Set the Attributes of the Source Debug Session (QteSetDebugAttribute) Take a Job Out of Debug Mode (QteEndSourceDebug) Storage Management Bindable APIs Create Heap (CEECRHP) Define Heap Allocation Strategy (CEE4DAS) Discard Heap (CEEDSHP) Free Storage (CEEFRST) Get Heap Storage (CEEGTST) Mark Heap (CEEMKHP) Reallocate Storage (CEECZST) Release Heap (CEERLHP)

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Dynamic Screen Manager Bindable APIs

The dynamic screen manager (DSM) bindable APIs are a set of screen I/O interfaces that provide a dynamic way to create and manage display screens for the ILE high-level languages. The DSM APIs fall into the following functional groups: v Low-level services The low-level services APIs provide a direct interface to the 5250 data stream commands. The APIs are used to query and manipulate the state of the display screen; to create, query, and manipulate input and command buffers that interact with the display screen; and to define fields and write data to the display screen. v Window services The window services APIs are used to create, delete, move, and resize windows; and to manage multiple windows concurrently during a session. v Session services The session services APIs provide a general paging interface that can be used to create, query, and manipulate sessions; and to perform input and output operations to sessions. IBM provides online information about the DSM bindable APIs. Refer to the CL and APIs section under the Programming category of the iSeries Information Center.

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Chapter 13. Advanced Optimization Techniques

This chapter describes the following techniques you can use to optimize your ILE programs and service programs: v Program Profiling v Interprocedural analysis (IPA) on page 145 v Licensed Internal Code Options on page 152

Program Profiling
Program profiling is an advanced optimization technique to reorder procedures, or code within procedures, in ILE programs and service programs based on statistical data gathered while running the program. This reordering can improve instruction cache utilization and reduce paging required by the program, thereby improving performance. The semantic behavior of the program is not affected by program profiling. The performance improvement realized by program profiling depends on the type of application. Generally speaking, you can expect more improvement from programs that spend the majority of time in the application code itself, rather than spending time in the runtime or doing input/output processing. Additionally, different iSeries server models have different instruction cache capabilities. A model with limited caching capabilities may not see as much improvement as a model with extensive caching capabilities. Therefore, you may want to consider your customer set to determine the model to profile. Program profiling is only available for ILE programs and service programs that meet the following conditions: v The programs were created specifically for V4R2M0 or later releases. v The programs target release is the same as the current system release level. v The programs that are compiled by using an optimization level of *FULL (30) or above. Note: Because of the optimization requirements, you should fully debug your programs before using program profiling.

Types of Profiling
You can profile your programs in the following two ways: v Block order v Procedure order and block order Block order profiling records the number of times each side of a conditional branch is taken. It reorders code within the bound module so that the more frequently used condition does not branch. This improves the instruction cache utilization by increasing the likelihood that the next instruction is in the instruction cache, reducing the need to fetch it from main memory. Procedure order profiling records the number of times each procedure calls another procedure within the program. It reorders the procedures within the program so that the most frequently called procedures are packaged together. This reduces the
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paging by increasing the likelihood that the called procedure is brought into main memory at the same time the calling procedure was brought in. Even though you can choose to apply only block order profiling to your program, it is recommended that you apply both types. This provides the best performance gains.

How to Profile a Program

Profiling a program is a five step process: 1. Enable the program to collect profiling data. 2. Start the program profiling collection on the system with the Start Program Profiling (STRPGMPRF) command. 3. Collect profiling data by running the program through its high-use code paths. Because program profiling uses statistical data gathered while running the program to perform these optimizations, it is critical that this data be collected over typical uses of your application. 4. End the program profiling collection on the system with the End Program Profiling (ENDPGMPRF) command. 5. Apply the collected profiling data to the program by requesting that code be reordered for optimal performance based on the collected profiling data. Program profiling is sensitive to the level of the optimizing translator that is used. IBM recommends performing the steps on the same machine. (Otherwise the collected data may not be usable.) v Do not apply optimizing translator PTFs between the time programs are enabled for profiling data collection and the next time it is applied. v Do not apply system release levels between the time programs are enabled for profiling data collection and the time it is applied.

Enabling the program to collect profiling data

A program is enabled to collect profiling data if at least one of the modules bound into the program is enabled to collect profiling data. Enabling a program to collect profiling data can be done either by changing one or more *MODULE objects to collect profiling data and then creating or updating the program with these modules, or by changing the program after it is created to collect profiling data. Both techniques result in a program with bound modules enabled to collect profiling data. Depending on the ILE language you are using, there may be an option on the compiler command to create the module as enabled to collect profiling data. The change module (CHGMOD) command can also be used by specifying *COL on the profiling data (PRFDTA) parameter to change any ILE module to collect profiling data, as long as the ILE language supports an optimization level of at least *FULL (30). To collect profiling data after creation through either the Change Program (CHGPGM) or Change Service Program (CHGSRVPGM) commands an observable program must do the following: v Specify *COL on the profiling data (PRFDTA) parameter that will affect all modules bound in the program that: Must have a target release that matches the current system release which is V4R2M0 or later. Have an optimization level of 30 or above

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Note: You can only enable profiling data for programs and service programs that are created for the same release level as the system they are on. The modules in the programs and service programs must also have their created for release at the same level as the system. Enabling a module or program to collect profiling data requires that the object be retranslated. Therefore, the time required to enable a module or program to collect profiling data is comparable to the time it takes to force recreate the object (FRCCRT parameter). Additionally, the size of the object will be larger due to the extra machine instructions generated by the optimizing translator. Once you enable a program or module to collect profiling data, creation data observability cannot be removed until one of the following occurs: v The collected profiling data is applied to the program. v The program or module changes so that it cannot collect profiling data. Use the Display Module (DSPMOD), Display Program (DSPPGM) or Display Service Program (DSPSRVPGM) commands, specifying DETAIL(*BASIC), to determine if a module or program is enabled to collect profiling data. For programs or service programs use option 5 (display description) from the DETAIL(*MODULE) to determine which of the bound module(s) are enabled to collect profiling data. See topic How to Tell if a Program or Module is Profiled or Enabled for Collection on page 144 for more details. Note: If a program already has profiling data collected (the statistical data gathered while the program is running), this data is cleared when a program is re-enabled to collect profiling data. See Managing Programs Enabled to Collect Profiling Data on page 143 for details.

Collect Profiling Data

Program profiling must be started on the machine that a program enabled to collect profiling data is to be run on in order for that program to update profiling data counts. This enables large, long-running applications to be started and allowed to reach a steady state before gathering profiling data. This gives you control over when data collection occurs. Use the Start Program Profiling (STRPGMPRF) command to start program profiling on a machine. To end program profiling on a machine, use the End Program Profiling (ENDPGMPRF) command. IBM ships both commands with the public authority of *EXCLUDE. Program profiling is ended implicitly when a machine is IPLed. Once program profiling is started, any program or service program that is run that is also enabled to collect profiling data will update its profiling data counts. This will happen regardless of whether or not the program was activated before the STRPGMPRF command was issued. If the program you are collecting profiling data on can be called by multiple jobs on the machine, the profiling data counts will be updated by all of these jobs. If this is not desirable, a duplicate copy of the program should be made in a separate library and that copy should be used instead. Notes: 1. When program profiling is started on a machine, profiling data counts are incremented while a program that is enabled to collect profiling data is running. Therefore it is possible that stale profiling data counts are being
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added to if this program was previously run without subsequently clearing these counts. You can force the profiling data counts to be cleared in several ways. See Managing Programs Enabled to Collect Profiling Data on page 143 for details. 2. Profiling data counts are not written to DASD each time they are incremented as doing so would cause too great a degradation to the programs runtime. Profiling data counts are only written to DASD when the program is naturally paged out. To ensure profiling data counts are written to DASD, use the Clear Pool (CLRPOOL) command to clear the storage pool which the program is running in.

Applying the Collected Profiling Data

Applying collected profiling data does the following: 1. Instructs the machine to use the collected profiling data to reorder procedures (procedure order profiling data) in the program for optimal performance. 2. Additionally it instructs the machine to use the code within procedures (basic block profiling data) in the program for optimal performance. 3. It removes the machine instructions from the program that were previously added when the program was enabled to collect profiling data. This means that the program cannot collect profile data. 4. The collected profiling data is stored in the program as observable data: v *BLKORD (basic block profiling observability) v *PRCORD (procedure order profiling observability) Once the collected data has been applied to the program, it cannot be applied again. To apply profiling data again requires you to go through the steps outlined in How to Profile a Program on page 140. Any previously applied profiling data is discarded when a program is enabled to collect profiling data. If you want to apply the data you already collected again, make a copy of the program before applying profiling data. This may be desirable if you are experimenting with the benefits derived from each type of profiling (either block order or block and procedure ordered ). To apply profiling data, use the Change Program (CHGPGM) or Change Service Program (CHGSRVPGM) command. For the profiling data (PRFDTA) parameter specify to apply: v Block order profiling data (*APYBLKORD) v Procedure profiling data (*APYPRCORD) v Or both types of profiling data (*APYALL) or (*APYPRCORD) IBM recommends using *APYALL. Applying profiling data to the program creates and saves two new forms of observability with the program. You can remove these new observabilities by using the Change Program (CHGPGM) and Change Service Program (CHGSRVPGM) commands. v *BLKORD observability is implicitly added when block order profiling data is applied to the program. This allows the machine to preserve the applied block order profiling data for the program in cases where the program is retranslated. v Applying procedure order profiling data to the program implicitly adds *PRCORD and *BLKORD observability. This allows the machine to preserve the applied procedure order profiling data for the program in cases where the program is either retranslated or updated.

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For example, you apply block order profiling data to your program and then subsequently remove *BLKORD observability. The program is still block order profiled. However, any change that causes your program to be retranslated will also cause it to no longer be block order profiled. Note: Removing *CRTDTA observability will also cause *BLKORD observability to be removed implicitly. This is because *BLKORD observability is only needed when the program is retranslated. Since the program cannot be retranslated if *CRTDTA observability is removed, *BLKORD is no longer needed and is also removed. However *PRCORD observability is not removed. In addition it is not recommend to retranslate the program with *BLKORD observability with a different version of the optimizing translator from the one used to enable the program and apply the profiling data. Optimizing translator PTFs and new releases of the operating system may invalidate some of the basic block profiling data.

Managing Programs Enabled to Collect Profiling Data

Changing a program that is enabled to collect profiling data by using the Change Program (CHGPGM) or Change Service Program (CHGSRVPGM) commands will implicitly cause profiling data counts to be zeroed if the change requires the program be retranslated. For example, if you change a program that is enabled to collect profiling data from optimization level *FULL to optimization level 40, any collected profiling data will be implicitly cleared. This is also true if a program that is enabled to collect profiling data is restored, and FRCOBJCVN(*YES *ALL) is specified on the Restore Object (RSTOBJ) command. Likewise, updating a program that is enabled to collect profiling data by using the Update Program (UPDPGM) or Update Service Program (UPDSRVPGM) commands will implicitly cause profiling data counts to be cleared if the resulting program is still enabled to collect profiling data. For example, program P1 contains modules M1 and M2. Module M1 bound in P1 is enabled to collect profiling data but module M2 is not. So long as one of the modules is enabled, updating program P1 with module M1 or M2 will result in a program that is still enabled to collect profiling data. All profiling data counts will be cleared. However, if module M1 is changed to no longer be enabled to collect profiling data by specifying *NOCOL on the profiling data (PRFDTA) parameter of the Change Module (CHGMOD) command, updating program P1 with M1 will result in program P1 no longer being enabled to collect profiling data. You can explicitly clear profiling counts from the program by specifying the *CLR option on the profiling data (PRFDTA) parameter of the Change Program (CHGPGM) or Change Service Program (CHGSRVPGM) commands. Note the program must not be activated to use the *CLR option. If you no longer want the program to collect profiling data, you must do one of the following steps to accomplish this. v Specify *NOCOL on the profiling data (PRFDTA) parameter of the Change Program (CHGPGM) v Specify *NOCOL on the profiling data (PRFDTA) parameter of the Change Service Program (CHGSRVPGM) commands.

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This will change the program back to the state before it collected profiling data. You can change the PRFDTA value of the modules to *NOCOL with the CHGMOD command or by recompiling the modules, and rebind the modules into the program.

Managing Programs with Profiling Data Applied to Them

If a program that has profiling data applied is changed by using the Change Program (CHGPGM) or Change Service Program (CHGSRVPGM) commands, you will lose applied profiling data if both of these conditions are true: v The change requires the program to be retranslated. Note: The optimization level of a program that has profiling data applied cannot be changed. This is because the profiling data is optimization level dependent. v The required profiling observability has been removed. Also all applied profiling data will be lost if the change request is to enable the program to collect profiling data, regardless of whether profiling observability has been removed or not. Such a request will result in a program that is enabled to collect profiling data. Here are some examples: v Program A has procedure order and block order profiling data applied. *BLKORD observability has been removed from the program but *PRCORD observability has not. A CHGPGM command is run to change the performance collection attribute of program A, which also requires the program to be retranslated. This change request will cause program A to no longer be block order profiled. However, the procedure order profiling data will still be applied. v Program A has procedure order and block order profiling data applied. *BLKORD and *PRCORD observability have been removed from the program. A CHGPGM command is run to change the user profile attribute of program A, which also requires the program to be retranslated. This change request will cause program A to no longer be block order or procedure order profiled. Program A will go back to the state before the profiling data was applied. v Program A has block order profiling data applied. *BLKORD observability has been removed from the program. A CHGPGM command is run to change the text of the program, which does not require the program to be translated again. This change request will cause program A to still be block order profiled. v Program A has procedure order and block profiling data applied. This does not remove *PRCORD and *BLKORD observability from the program. Run a CHGPGM command to enable the program to collect profiling data (this retranslates the program). This will cause program A to no longer be block order or procedure order profiled. This leaves the program in a state as if profiling data was never applied. This enables the program to collect profiling data with all profiling data counts cleared.

How to Tell if a Program or Module is Profiled or Enabled for Collection

Use the Display Program (DSPPGM) or Display Service Program (DSPSRVPGM) commands, specifying DETAIL(*BASIC), to determine the program profiling data attribute of a program. The value of Profiling data will be one of the following values: v *NOCOL - The program is not enabled to collect profiling data.

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v *COL - One or more modules in the program are enabled to collect profiling data. This value does not indicate if profiling data was actually collected. v *APYALL - Block order and procedure order profiling data are applied to this program. The collection of profiling data is no longer enabled. v *APYBLKORD - Block order profiling data is applied to the procedures of one or more bound modules in this program. This applies to only the bound modules that were previously enabled to collect profiling data. The collection of profiling data is no longer enabled. v *APYPRCORD- Procedure order program profiling data is applied to this program. The collection of profiling data is no longer enabled. To have only procedure order profiling applied to it, a program is: v First profiled specifying *APYALL or *APYPRCORD (which is the same as *APYALL). v Then the *PRCORD observability needs to be removed and the program retranslated. To display the program profiling data attribute of a module bound within the program use DSPPGM or DSPSRVPGM DETAIL(*MODULE), specify option 5 on the modules bound into the program, to see the value of this parameter at the module level. The value of Profiling data will be one of the following values: v *NOCOL - This bound module is not enabled to collect profiling data. v *COL - This bound module is enabled to collect profiling data. This value does not indicate if profiling data was actually collected. v *APYBLKORD - Block order profiling data is applied to one or more procedures of this bound modules. The collection of profiling data is no longer enabled. In addition DETAIL(*MODULE) displays the following fields to give an indication of the number of procedures affected by the program profiling data attribute. v Number of procedures - Total number of procedures in the module. v Number of procedures block reordered - The number of procedures in this module that are basic block reordered. v Number of procedures block order measured - Number of procedures in this bound module that had block order profiling data collected when block order profiling data was applied. When the benchmark was run, it could be the case that no data was collected for a specific procedure because the procedure was not executed in the benchmark. Thus this count reflects the actual number of procedures that were executed with the benchmark. Use DSPMOD command to determine the profiling attribute of a module. The value of Profiling data will be one of the following. It will never show *APYBLKORD because basic block data can be applied only to modules bound into a program, never to stand-alone modules. v *NOCOL - module is not enabled to collect profile data. v *COL - module is enabled to collect profile data.

Interprocedural analysis (IPA)

This topic provides an overview of the Interprocedural Analysis (IPA) processing that is available through the IPA option on the CRTPGM and CRTSRVPGM commands.

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At compile time, the optimizing translator performs both intraprocedural and interprocedural analysis. Intraprocedural analysis is a mechanism for performing optimization for each function within a compilation unit, using only the information available for that function and compilation unit. Interprocedural analysis is a mechanism for performing optimization across function boundaries. The optimizing translator performs interprocedural analysis, but only within a compilation unit. Interprocedural analysis that is performed by the IPA compiler option improves on the limited interprocedural analysis described above. When you run interprocedural analysis through the IPA option, IPA performs optimizations across the entire program. It also performs optimizations not otherwise available at compile time with the optimizing translator. The optimizing translator or the IPA option performs the following types of optimizations: v Inlining across compilation units. Inlining replaces certain function calls with the actual code of the function. Inlining not only eliminates the overhead of the call, but also exposes the entire function to the caller and thus enables the compiler to better optimize your code. v Program partitioning. Program partitioning improves performance by reordering functions to exploit locality of reference. Partitioning places functions that call each other frequently in closer proximity in memory. For more information on program partitioning, see Partitions created by IPA on page 151. v Coalescing of global variables. The compiler puts global variables into one or more structures and accesses the variables by calculating the offsets from the beginning of the structures. This lowers the cost of variable access and exploits data locality. v Code straightening. Code straightening streamlines the flow of your program. v Unreachable code elimination. Unreachable code elimination removes unreachable code within a function. v Call graph pruning of unreachable functions. The call graph pruning of unreachable functions removes code that is 100% inlined or never referred to. v Intraprocedural constant propagation and set propagation. IPA propagates floating point and integer constants to their uses and computes constant expressions at compile time. Also, variable uses that are known to be one of several constants can result in the folding of conditionals and switches. v Intraprocedural pointer alias analysis. IPA tracks pointer definitions to their uses, resulting in more refined information about memory locations that a pointer dereference may use or define. This enables other parts of the compiler to better optimize code around such dereferences. IPA tracks data and function pointer definitions. When a pointer can only refer to a single memory location or function, IPA rewrites it to be an explicit reference to the memory location or function. v Intraprocedural copy propagation. IPA propagates expressions, and defines some variables to the uses of the variable. This creates additional opportunities for the folding of constant expressions. It also eliminates redundant variable copies. v Intraprocedural unreachable code and store elimination. IPA removes definitions of variables that it cannot reach, along with the computation that feeds the definition. v Conversion of reference (address) arguments to value arguments. IPA converts reference (address) arguments to value arguments when the formal parameter is not written in the called procedure. v Conversion of static variables to automatic (stack) variables. IPA converts static variables to automatic (stack) variables when their use is limited to a single procedure call.

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The run time for code that is optimized using IPA is normally faster than for code optimized only at compile time. Not all applications are suited for IPA optimization, however, and the performance gains that are realized from using IPA will vary. For certain applications, the performance of the application may not improve when using interprocedural analysis. In fact, in some rare cases, the performance of the application can actually degrade when you use interprocedural analysis. If this occurs, we suggest that you not use interprocedural analysis. The performance improvement realized by interprocedural analysis depends on the type of application. Applications that will most likely show performance gains are those that have the following characteristics: v Contain a large number of functions v Contain a large number of compilation units v Contain a large number of functions that are not in the same compilation units as their callers v Do not perform a large number of input and output operations Interprocedural optimization is available only for ILE programs and service programs that meet the following conditions: v You created the modules bound into the program or service program specifically for V4R4M0 or later releases. v You compiled the modules bound into the program or service program with an optimization level of 20 (*BASIC) or higher. v The modules bound into the program or service program have IL data that is associated with them. Use the create module option MODCRTOPT(*KEEPILDTA) to keep intermediate language (IL) data with the module. Note: Because of the optimization requirements, you should fully debug your programs before you use interprocedural analysis.

How to optimize your programs with IPA

To use IPA to optimize your program or service program objects, perform the following steps: 1. Make sure that you compile all of the modules necessary for the program or service program with MODCRTOPT(*KEEPILDTA) and with an optimization level of 20 or greater (preferably 40). You can use the DSPMOD command with the DETAIL(*BASIC) parameter to verify that a single module compiled with the correct options. The Intermediate language data field will have a value of *YES if IL data is present. TheOptimization level field indicates the optimization level of the module. 2. Specify IPA(*YES) on the CRTPGM or CRTSRVPGM command. When the IPA portion of the bind runs, the system displays status messages to indicate IPA progress. You can further define how IPA optimizes your program by using the following parameters: v Specify IPACTLFILE(IPA-control-file) to provide additional IPA suboption information. See IPA control file syntax on page 148 for a listing of the options you can specify in the control file. v Specify IPARPLIL(*YES) to replace IL data within each module when you create the program. You can improve the performance of subsequent binds that use these same modules by using this option. The option instructs IPA to replace the

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compiler-generated IL data within each module with an optimized version that IPA generates. This allows IPA to skip some early optimization steps when rebinding the module. When you specify IPA(*YES) on the CRTPGM command, you cannot also allow updates to the program (that is, you cannot specify ALWUPD(*YES)). This is also true for the ALWLIBUPD parameter on the CRTSRVPGM command. If specified along with IPA(*YES), the parameter must be ALWLIBUPD(*NO).

IPA control file syntax

The IPA control file is a stream file that contains additional IPA processing directives. The control file can be a member of a file, and uses the QSYS.LIB naming convention (for example, /qsys.lib/mylib.lib/xx.file/yy.mbr). The IPACTLFILE parameter identifies the path name of this file. IPA issues an error message if the control file directives have syntax that is not valid. You can specify the following directives in the control file: exits=name[,name] Specifies a list of functions, each of which always ends the program. You can optimize calls to these functions (for example, by eliminating save and restore sequences), because the calls never return to the program. These functions must not call any other parts of the program that have IL data associated with them. inline=attribute Specifies how you want the compiler to identify functions that you want it to process inline. You can specify the following attributes for this directive: auto Specifies that the inliner should determine if a function can be inlined on the basis of the inline-limit and inline-threshold values. The noinline directive overrides automatic inlining. This is the default. Specifies that IPA should consider for inlining only the functions that you have specified by name with the inline directive. name[,name] Specifies a list of functions that you want to inline. The functions may or may not be inlined. name[,name] from name[,name] Specifies a list of functions that are desirable candidates for inlining, if a particular function or list of functions calls the functions. The functions may or may not be inlined. inline-limit=num Specifies the maximum relative size (in abstract code units) to which a function can grow before inlining stops. Abstract code units are proportional in size to the executable code in the function. Larger values for this number allow the compiler to inline larger subprograms, more subprogram calls, or both. This directive is applicable only when inline=auto is on. The default value is 8192. inline-threshhold=size Specifies the maximum size (in abstract code units) of a function that can

noauto

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be a candidate for automatic inlining. This directive is applicable only when inline=auto is on. The default size is 1024. isolated=name[,name] Specifies a list of isolated functions. Isolated functions are those that do not directly (or indirectly through another function within its call chain) refer to or change global variables that are accessible to visible functions. IPA assumes that functions that are bound from service programs are isolated. lowfreq=name[,name] Specifies names of functions that are expected to be called infrequently. These are typically error handling functions or trace functions. IPA can make other parts of the program faster by doing less optimization for calls to these functions. missing=attribute Specifies the interprocedural behavior of missing functions. Missing functions are those that do not have IL data associated with them, and that are not explicitly named in an unknown, safe, isolated, or pure directive. These directives specify how much optimization IPA can safely perform on calls to library routines that do not have IL data associated with them. IPA has no visibility to the code within these functions. You must ensure that all user references are resolved with user libraries or runtime libraries. The default setting for this directive is unknown. Unknown instructs IPA to make pessimistic assumptions about the data that may be used and changed through a call to such a missing function, and about the functions that may be called indirectly through it. You can specify the following attributes for this directive: unknown Specifies that the missing functions are unknown. See the description for the unknown directive below. This is the default attribute. safe Specifies that the missing functions are safe. See the description for the safe directive, below.

isolated Specifies that the missing functions are isolated. See the description for the isolated directive, above. pure Specifies that the missing functions are pure. See the description for the pure directive, below.

noinline=name[,name] Specifies a list of functions that the compiler will not inline. noinline=name[,name] from name[,name] Specifies a list of functions that the compiler will not inline, if the functions are called from a particular function or list of functions. partition=small| medium|large|unsigned-integer Specifies the size of each program partition that IPA creates. The size of the partition is directly proportional to the time required to link and the quality of the generated code. When the partition size is large, the time required to link is longer but the quality of the generated code is generally better. The default for this directive is medium.
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For a finer degree of control, you can use an unsigned-integer value to specify the partition size. The integer is in abstract code units, and its meaning may change between releases. You should only use this integer for very short term tuning efforts, or for those situations where the number of partitions must remain constant. pure=name[,name] Specifies a list of pure functions. These are functions that are safe and isolated. A pure function has no observable internal state. This means that the returned value for a given call of a function is independent of any previous or future calls of the function. safe=name[,name] Specifies a list of safe functions. These are functions that do not directly or indirectly call any function that has IL data associated with it. A safe function may refer to and change global variables. unknown=name[,name] Specifies a list of unknown functions. These are functions that are not safe, isolated, or pure.

IPA usage notes

v Use of IPA can increase bind time. Depending on the size of the application and the speed of your processor, the bind time can increase significantly. v IPA can generate significantly larger bound program and service program objects than traditional binding. v While IPAs interprocedural optimizations can significantly improve performance of a program, they can also cause functioning programs that contain errors to fail. v Because IPA will compile functions inline, take care when using APIs that accept a relative stack frame offset (for example, QMHRCVPM). v IPA operates on the IL data placed by the compiler within the module and does not use other attributes of the *MODULE itself. This may sometimes lead to unexpected results. For example, suppose that you originally compiled a *MODULE at OPTLVL(20). The compiler places IL data within the *MODULE, and that IL data indicates OPTLVL(20). Suppose that you then used the CHGMOD command to change the OPTLVL of the *MODULE to OPTLVL(40). If IPA operates on this module, the output from IPA would be translated at OPTLVL(20), since the IL data indicates that the OPTLVL is 20. This could result in a net slowdown of the code. Make sure that your IL data contains the correct information.

IPA restrictions and limitations

v You cannot use either the UPDPGM or UPDSRVPGM on a bound program or service program that IPA has optimized. v You cannot debug any programs or service programs that IPA generated with the normal source debug facilities. This is because IPA does not maintain debug information within the IL data and in fact throws away any debug information when it generates the output partitions. As such, the source debugger does not handle IPA programs or service programs. v There is a limit of 10,000 output partitions. If you reach this limit, the bind will fail, and the system will send a message. If you reach this limit, you should run the CRTPGM or CRTSRVPGM command again, and specify a larger partition size. See the partition directive in IPA control file syntax on page 148.

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v There are certain IPA limitations that may apply to your program if that program contains SQL data. If the compiler that you use allows an option to keep the IL data, then these limitations do not apply. If the compiler you use does not allow an option to keep the IL data, you must perform the steps listed below to use IPA on a program containing SQL data. For example, consider a C program with embedded SQL statements. You would normally compile this source with the CRTSQLCI command; however, that command does not have a MODCRTOPT(*KEEPILDTA) option. Perform the following steps to create a *MODULE that contains both embedded SQL data and IL data. 1. Compile an SQL C source file with the CRTSQLCI command, and specify the *NOGEN compiler option. This step precompiles the SQL statements and places the SQL precompiler data into the associated space of the original source file. It also places the C source into a member with the same name in temporary source physical file QTEMP/QSQLTEMP. 2. Compile the C source file in QTEMP/QSQLTEMP with the MODCRTOPT(*KEEPILDTA) option on the compiler command. This action creates an SQL C *MODULE object, and propagates the preprocessor data from the associated space of the original source file into the module object. This *MODULE object also contains the IL data. At this point, you can specify the *MODULE object on the CRTPGM or CRTSRVPGM command with the IPA(*YES) parameter. v IPA does not support modules that you compile at optimization level 10 (*NONE). IPA requires information within the IL data that is available only at higher optimization levels. v IPA does not support modules that do not contain IL data. Because of this, IPA supports only those modules that you create with compilers that offer the MODCRTOPT(*KEEPILDTA) option. Currently, this includes the C and C++ compilers. v IPA does not support modules that have a storage model of *INHERIT or *TERASPACE. The modules must have a storage model of *SNGLVL. v The complete set of *MODULEs bound into a program or service program must have the correct attributes as noted above. It is not possible to perform IPA on a partial program or a partial service program. v IPA cannot bind modules with different default bit mode switches. For example, a C compiler may default to 32 bit mode, and a C++ compiler may default to a 64 bit mode. You cannot bind modules that are created by these two compilers with the IPA(*YES) option.

Partitions created by IPA

The final program or service program created by IPA consists of partitions. IPA creates a *MODULE for each partition. Partitions have two purposes: v They improve the locality of reference in a program by concentrating related code in the same region of storage. v They reduce the memory requirements during object code generation for that partition. There are three types of partitions: v An initialization partition. This contains initialization code and data. v The primary partition. This contains information for the primary entry point for the program. v Secondary or other partitions.
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IPA determines the number of each type of partition in the following ways: v The partition directive within the control file specified by the IPACTLFILE parameter. This directive indicates how large to make each partition. v The connectivity within the program call graph. Connectivity refers to the volume of calls between functions in a program. v Conflict resolution between compiler options specified for different compilation units. IPA attempts to resolve conflicts by applying a common option across all compilation units. If it cannot, it forces the compilation units for which the effects of the original option are to be maintained into separate partitions. One example of this is the Licensed Internal Code Options (LICOPTs). If two compilation units have conflicting LICOPTs, IPA cannot merge functions from those compilation units into the same output partition. Refer to (reference somewhere in Appendix A) for an example of the Partition Map listing section. IPA creates the partitions in a temporary library, and binds the associated *MODULEs together to create the final program or service program. IPA creates the partition *MODULE names using random prefix (for example, QD0068xxxx where xxxx ranges from 0000 to 9999). Because of this, some of the fields within DSPPGM or DSPSRVPGM may not be as expected. The Program entry procedure module shows the *MODULE partition name and not the original *MODULE name. The Library field for that module shows the temporary library name rather than the original library name. In addition, the names of the modules bounds into the program or service program will be the generated partition names. For any program or service program that has been optimized by IPA, the Program attribute field displayed by DSPPGM or DSPSRVPGM will be IPA, as will the attribute field of all bound modules for that program or service program. Note: When IPA is doing partitioning, IPA prefixes the function or data name with @nnn@, where nnn is the source file number. This ensures that static function names and static data names remain unique.

Licensed Internal Code Options

Licensed Internal Code options (LICOPTs) are compiler options that are passed to the Licensed Internal Code in order to affect how code is generated or packaged. These passed compiler options affect the code that is generated for a module, an ILE program object, or a compiled Java program. You can use some of the options for fine-tuning the optimization of your code. Some of the options aid in the debugging of a program.This section will only discuss Licensed Internal Code options in relation to ILE. For information related to Java, see the online help information for the LICOPT parameter of the CRTJVAPGM command. Another information source is the web page in the online document http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/pubs/html/as400/v4r4/ic2924/info/java/rzaha/devkit.htm.

Currently Defined Options

The Licensed Internal Code options that are currently defined for ILE are: [No]AlwaysTryToFoliate Instructs the optimizing translator, when compiling at optimization level 40, to more aggressively attempt an optimization known as call foliation, which attempts to reduce the number of stack frames maintained on the runtime call stack. The advantage to this is that, in some cases, fewer stack frames may be required, which can improve locality of reference and, in rare circumstances, reduce the possibility of runtime stack overflow. The disadvantage is that, in

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the event of program failure, there may be fewer clues that are left behind in the call stack when you debug. This option is off by default. [No]CallTracingAtHighOpt Use this option to request that call and return traps be inserted into the procedure prologue and epilogue, respectively, of procedures which require a stack, even at optimization level 40. By default, no call and return traps are inserted into any procedures at optimization level 40. The advantage of inserting call and return traps is the ability to use TRACEJOB, while the disadvantage is potentially worse run-time performance. This option is off by default. [No]Compact Use this option to reduce code size where possible, at the expense of execution speed. This is done by inhibiting optimizations that replicate or expand code inline. This option is off by default. [No]FoldFloat Specifies that the system may evaluate constant floating-point expressions at compile time. This LICOPT overrides the Fold float constants module creation option. When this LICOPT isnt specified, the module creation option is honored. [No]Maf Permit the generation of floating-point multiply-add instructions. These instructions combine a multiply and an add operation without an intermediate rounding operation. Execution performance is improved, but computational results may be affected. This LICOPT overrides the Use multiply add module creation option. When this LICOPT isnt specified, the module creation option is honored. [No]MinimizeTeraspaceFalseEAOs Current hardware load and store instructions detect 16 MB boundary crossings, otherwise known as effective address overflows (EAOs). EAO checking is also done as part of address arithmetic operations. The same generated code must handle both teraspace and single level store (SLS) addresses, so valid teraspace uses can incur false EAOs. These EAO conditions do not indicate a problem, but handling them adds significant processing overhead. The MinimizeTeraspaceFalseEAOs LICOPT causes differences in the hardware instruction sequences generated for the program. First, different address arithmetic instruction sequences are generated that are slightly slower in the usual case but eliminate most EAO occurrences. In addition, certain optimizations are inhibited that produce faster code in the usual case but can increase the frequency of false EAOs. An example of when this LICOPT should be used is when most address arithmetic performed in a module computes teraspace addresses from a common base address plus offset values that are frequently larger than 16 MB. This option is off by default. [No]OrderedPtrComp Use this option to compare pointers as unsigned integer values, and to always produce an ordered result (equal, less than, or greater than). When you use this option, pointers that refer to different spaces will not compare unordered. This option is off by default. [No]PredictBranchesInAbsenceOfProfiling When profile data is not provided, use this option to perform static branch prediction to guide code optimizations. If profile data is provided, the profile data will be used to predict branch probabilities instead, regardless of this option. This option is off by default.
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Note that for each of these options there is a positive and a negative variation, the negative beginning with the prefix no. The negative variant means that the option is not to be applied. There will always be two variants like this for Boolean options, in order to allow a user to explicitly turn off an option as well as turn it on. The capability to do so is necessary to turn off an option for which the default option is on. The default for any option may change from release to release.

Application
You can specify Licensed Internal Code options as compiler options when you compile your programs. You can also specify them on the CHGMOD (Change Module), CHGPGM (Change Program), and CHGSRVPGM (Change Service Program) commands in order to apply them to an existing object. The parameter name on the command is LICOPT. An example of applying Licensed Internal Code options to a module is:
> CHGMOD MODULE(TEST) LICOPT('maf')

When used on CHGPGM or CHGSRVPGM, the system applies the specified Licensed Internal Code options to all modules that are contained in the ILE program object. An example of applying Licensed Internal Code options to an ILE program object is:
> CHGPGM PGM(TEST) LICOPT('nomaf')

An example of applying Licensed Internal Code options to a service program is:

> CHGSRVPGM SRVPGM(TEST) LICOPT('maf')

Restrictions
Several restrictions exist on the types of programs and modules to which you can apply Licensed Internal Code options. v You cannot apply Licensed Internal Code options to OPM programs. v The module or ILE program or service program object must have been originally created for release V4R5M0 or later. v You cannot apply Licensed Internal Code options to pre-V4R5 bound modules within a V4R5 or later program or service program. This does not affect other bound modules within the program which can have LICOPTs applied.

Syntax
On the CHGMOD, CHGPGM, and CHGSRVPGM commands, the case of the LICOPT parameter value is not significant. For example, the following two command invocations would have the same effect:
> CHGMOD MODULE(TEST) LICOPT('nomaf') > CHGMOD MODULE(TEST) LICOPT('NoMaf')

When specifying several Licensed Internal Code options together, you must separate the options by commas. Also, the system ignores all spaces that precede or that follow any option. Here are some examples:
> CHGMOD MODULE(TEST) LICOPT('Maf,NoFoldFloat') > CHGMOD MODULE(TEST) LICOPT('Maf, NoFoldFloat') > CHGMOD MODULE(TEST) LICOPT(' Maf , NoFoldFloat ')

For Boolean options, the system does not allow specifying of the two opposite variants at the same time. For example, the system will not allow the following command:

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> CHGMOD MODULE(TEST) LICOPT('Maf,NoMaf')

<- NOT ALLOWED!

However, you can specify the same option more than once. For example, this is valid:
> CHGMOD MODULE(TEST) LICOPT('Maf, NoFoldFloat, Maf')

Release Compatibility
The system will not allow users to move a module, ILE program, or service program that has had Licensed Internal Code options applied to any release before V4R5M0. In fact, the system prevents the user from specifying an earlier target release when attempting to save the object to media or to a save file. OS/400 may define new Licensed Internal Code options in future releases (or within a given release via a PTF). You can use the new options on systems that have the first release that supports them, or any later release. You can move any module, ILE program, or service program that has new options applied, to a release that does not support the options. However, the release must be V4R5M0 or later. The system ignores and no longer applies unsupported Licensed Internal Code options for re-translated objects if the LICOPT parameter of a command does not specify the options. This type of retranslation can occur when the system retranslates the object by using LICOPT(*SAME) on the CHGMOD, CHGPGM, or CHGSRVPGM commands. This type of retranslation also occurs when the system automatically translates the object. This does not prevent retranslation. On the other hand, any attempts to specify the same unsupported options in the LICOPT parameter of the CHGMOD, CHGPGM, or CHGSRVPGM commands will fail.

Displaying Module and ILE Program Licensed Internal Code Options

The DSPMOD, DSPPGM, and DSPSRVPGM commands display the Licensed Internal Code options that were applied. DSPMOD displays them in the Module Information section. For example:
Licensed Internal Code options . . . . . . . . . . . : maf

DSPPGM and DSPSRVPGM display the Licensed Internal Code options that are applied to each individual module within the program in the Module Attributes section for each module. By specifying the same Licensed Internal Code option more than once, all occurrences of that option except for the last one appear preceded by a + symbol. For example, assume that the command used to apply Licensed Internal Code options to a module object is as stated below:
> CHGMOD MODULE(TEST) LICOPT('maf, maf, Maf')

Then DSPMOD will show this:

Licensed Internal Code options . . . . . . . . . . . : +maf,+maf,Maf

The + means that the user specified redundant occurrences of the same option. If any Licensed Internal Code options appear preceded by a * symbol, they no longer apply to a Module or ILE Program. This is because the system that performed the last re-translation of the object did not support them. For more information, please see the Release Compatibility section. For example, assume that the new option was originally applied on a release N+1 system by using the following command:
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> CHGMOD MODULE(TEST) LICOPT('NewOption')

The Module is taken back to a release N system that does not support that option, and then the Module object is retranslated there using:
> CHGMOD MODULE(TEST) FRCCRT(*YES) LICOPT(*SAME)

The Licensed Internal Code options shown on DSPMOD will look like this:
Licensed Internal Code options . . . . . . . . . . . : *NewOption

The * means that the option no longer applies to the Module.

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Chapter 14. Shared Storage Synchronization

Shared storage provides an efficient means for communication between two or more concurrently running threads. This chapter discusses a number of issues that are related to shared storage. The primary focus is on data synchronization problems that can arise when accessing shared storage, and how to overcome them. Although not unique to ILE, the programming problems associated with shared storage are more likely to occur in ILE languages than in original MI languages. This is due to the broader support for multiprogramming Application Programming Interfaces in ILE.

Shared Storage
The term shared storage, as it pertains to this discussion, refers to any space data that is accessed from two or more threads. This definition includes any storage directly accessible down to its individual bytes, and can include the following classes of storage: v MI space objects v Primary associated spaces of other MI objects v POSIX shared memory segments v Implicit process spaces: Automatic storage, static storage, and activation-based heap storage v Teraspace The system considers these spaces, regardless of the longevity of their existence, as shared storage when accessed by multiple threads capable of concurrent processing.

Shared Storage Pitfalls

When creating applications that take advantage of shared storage, you need to avoid two types of problems that can result in unpredictable data values: race conditions and storage access ordering problems. v A race condition exists when different program results are possible due solely to the relative timing of two or more cooperating threads. You can avoid race conditions by synchronizing the processing of the competing threads so that they interact in a predictable, well-behaved manner. Although the focus of this document is on storage synchronization, the techniques for synchronizing thread execution and synchronizing storage overlap to a great extent. Because of this, the example problems discussed later in this chapter briefly touch on race conditions. v Storage access ordering problems are also known as storage synchronization or memory consistency problems. These problems result when two or more cooperating threads rely on a specific ordering of updates to shared storage, and their respective accesses to the storage accesses are not synchronized. For example, one thread might store values to two shared variables, and another thread has an implicit dependency on observing those updates in a certain order.

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You can avoid shared storage access ordering problems by ensuring that the system performs storage synchronization actions for the threads that read from and write to shared storage. Some of these actions are described in the following topics.

Shared Storage Access Ordering

When threads share storage, no guarantee exists that shared storage accesses (reads and writes) performed by one thread will be observed in that particular order by other threads. You can prevent this by having some form of explicit storage synchronization performed by the threads that are reading or writing to the shared storage. Storage synchronization is required when two or more threads attempt concurrent access to shared storage, and the semantics of the threads logic requires some ordering on the shared storage accesses. When the order in which shared storage updates are observed is not important, no storage synchronization is necessary. A given thread will always observe its own storage updates (to shared or non-shared storage) in order. All threads accessing overlapping shared storage locations will observe those accesses in the same order. Consider the following simple example, which illustrates how both race conditions and storage access ordering problems can lead to unpredictable results.
Thread A -------------Y = 1; X = 1; volatile int X = 0; volatile int Y = 0; Thread B ------------print(X); print(Y);

The table below summarizes the possible results that are printed by B.
X 0 0 Y 0 1 Type of Problem Race Condition Race Condition Explanation Thread B read the variables before the modifications of Thread A. Thread B observed the update to Y but printed X before observing Thread As update. Thread B read both variables after the updates of Thread A. Thread B observed the update to X but had yet to see Thread As update to Y. With no explicit data synchronizing actions, this type of out-of-sequence storage access can occur.

1 1

1 0

Race Condition Storage Access Ordering

Example Problem 1: One Writer, Many Readers

Usually, the potential for out-of-order shared storage accesses does not affect the correctness of multi-threaded program logic. However, in some cases, the order in which threads see the storage updates of other threads is vital to the correctness of the program. Consider a typical scenario that requires some form of explicit data synchronization. This is when the state of one shared storage location is used (by convention in a programs logic) to control access to a second (non-overlapping)

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shared storage location. For example, assume that one thread initializes some shared data (DATA). Furthermore, assume that the thread then sets a shared flag (FLAG) to indicate to all other threads that the shared data is initialized.
Initializing Thread ------------------DATA = 10 FLAG = 1 All Other Threads --------------------------loop until FLAG has value 1 use DATA

In this case, the sharing threads must enforce an order on the shared storage accesses. Otherwise, other threads might view the initializing threads shared storage updates out of order. This could allow some or all of the other threads to read an uninitialized value from DATA.

Example 1 Solution
A preferred method for solving the problem in the example above is to avoid the dependency between the data and flag values altogether. You can do this by using a more robust thread synchronization scheme. Although you could employ many of the thread synchronization techniques, one that lends itself well to this problem is a semaphore. (Support for semaphores has been available since AS/400 Version 3, Release 2.) In order for the following logic to be appropriate, you must assume the following: v The program created the semaphore before starting the cooperating threads. v The program initialized the semaphore to a count of 1.
Initializing Thread ------------------DATA = 10 Decrement semaphore All Other Threads --------------------------Wait for semaphore count to reach 0 use DATA

Storage Synchronizing Actions

When an ordering of shared storage accesses is required, all threads that require enforcement of an ordering must take explicit action to synchronize the shared storage accesses. These actions are called storage synchronizing actions. A synchronizing action taken by a thread ensures that shared storage accesses that appear prior to the synchronizing action in the threads logical flow complete before those accesses that appear in the logical flow of the code after the synchronizing action. This is from the viewpoint of other threads at their synchronizing actions. In other words, if a thread performs two writes to two shared locations and a synchronizing action separates those writes, the system accomplishes the following: The first write is guaranteed to be available to other threads at or before their next synchronizing actions, and no later than the point at which the second write becomes available. When two reads from two shared locations are separated by a storage synchronizing action, the second read reads a value no less current than the first read. This is only true when other threads enforce an ordering when writing to the shared storage. The following thread synchronization actions are also storage synchronization actions:
Mechanism Object Locks Synchronizing Action Lock, Unlock First Available in VRM All

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Mechanism Space Location Locks Mutex Semaphores Pthread Conditions Data Queues Message Queues Compare-and-Swap

Synchronizing Action Lock, Unlock Lock, Unlock Post, Wait Wait, Signal, Broadcast Enqueue, Dequeue Enqueue, Dequeue Successful store to target

First Available in VRM All V3R1M0 V3R2M0 V4R2M0 All V3R2M0 V3R1M0

Additionally, the following MI instruction constitutes a storage synchronization action, but is not usable for synchronizing threads:
Mechanism SYNCSTG MI Instruction Synchronizing Action Always First Available in VRM V4R5M0

Remember: To completely enforce shared storage access ordering between two or more threads, all threads that are dependent on the access ordering must use the appropriate synchronizing actions. This is true for both readers and writers of the shared data. This agreement between readers and writers ensures that the order of accesses will remain unchanged by any optimizations that are employed by the underlying machine.

Example Problem 2: Two Contending Writers or Readers

Another common problem requiring additional synchronization is one in which two or more threads attempt to enforce an informal locking protocol, as in the example below. In this example, two threads manipulate data in shared storage. Both threads repeatedly attempt to read and write two shared data items, using a shared flag in an attempt to serialize accesses.
Thread A -------------------------------------/* Do some work on the shared data */ for (int i=0; i<10; ++i) { /* Wait until the locked flag is clear */ while (locked == 1) { sleep(1); } locked = 1; /* Set the lock */ /* Update the shared data */ data1 += 5; data2 += 10; } locked = 0; /* Clear the lock */ } Thread B -------------------------------------/* Do some work on the shared data */ for (int i=0; i<10; ++i) { /* Wait until the locked flag is clear */ while (locked == 1) { sleep(1); } locked = 1; /* Set the lock */

/* Update the shared data */ data1 += 4; data2 += 6; locked = 0; /* Clear the lock */

This example illustrates both of our shared memory pitfalls. Race Conditions The locking protocol used here has not circumvented the data race conditions. Both jobs could simultaneously see that the locked flag is clear, and thus both fall into the logic which updates the data. At that point, there is no guarantee of which data values will be read, incremented, and written allowing many possible outcomes. Storage Access Ordering Concerns Ignore, for a moment, the race condition mentioned above. Notice that the logic used by both jobs to update the lock and the shared data contains assumptions about the implicit ordering of the field updates. Specifically, there is an assumption on the part of each thread that the other thread will observe that the locked flag has been set to 1 prior to observing changes to the data. Additionally, it is assumed that each thread will observe the

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changing of the data prior to observing the locked flag value of zero. As noted earlier in this discussion, these assumptions are not valid.

Example 2 Solution
To avoid the race condition, and to enforce storage ordering, you should serialize accesses to the shared data by one of the synchronization mechanisms that is enumerated above. This example, where multiple threads are competing for a shared resource, lends itself well to some form of lock. A solution employing a space location lock will be discussed, followed by an alternative solution employing the compare-and-swap mechanism.
THREAD A -------------------------------------for (i=0; i<10; ++i) { /* Get an exclusive lock on the shared data. We go into a wait state until the lock is granted. */ locksl( LOCK_LOC, _LENR_LOCK ); /* Update the shared data */ data1 += 5; data2 += 10; /* Unlock the shared data */ unlocksl( LOCK_LOC, _LENR_LOCK ); THREAD B -----------------------------------for (i=0; i<10; ++i) { /* Get an exclusive lock on the shared data. We go into a wait state until the lock is granted. */ locksl( LOCK_LOC, _LENR_LOCK ); /* Update the shared data */ data1 += 4; data2 += 6; /* Unlock the shared data */ unlocksl( LOCK_LOC, _LENR_LOCK );

Restricting access to the shared data with a lock guarantees that only one thread will be able to access the data at a time. This solves the race condition. This solution also solves the storage access ordering concerns, since there is no longer an ordering dependency between two shared storage locations.

Alternate Solution: Using Compare-and-Swap

Space location locks, like those used in the first solution, are full of features that are not required in this simple example. For instance, space location locks support a time-out value which would allow processing to resume if unable to acquire the lock within some period of time. Space location locks also support several combinations of shared locks. These are important features, but come at the price of some performance overhead. An alternative is to use Compare-and-Swap. This is a lower-level mechanism that can to provide a very simple and fast locking protocol if there is little contention for the lock. In this solution, the system will use Compare-and-Swap to attempt to set the lock. If that attempt fails (because the system found the lock already set), the thread will wait for a while and then try again until acquiring the lock. After updating the shared data, the system will use Compare-and-Swap again to release the lock. In this example, assume that, in addition to the shared data items, the threads also share the address of a location LOCK. Furthermore, assume that the lock was initialized to zero (either through static initialization or some prior synchronized initialization).
THREAD A ---------------------------------------/* Do some work on the shared data */ for (i=0; i<10; ++i) { /* Set the expected value for the lock */ unlck_val = 0; /* Attempt to set the lock using Compare-and-Swap */ while (_CMPSWP(&LOCK, &unlck_val, 1) == 0) { sleep(1); unlck_val = 0; } /* Update the shared data */ data1 += 5; data2 += 10; /* Unlock the shared data... must use CMPSWP again to ensure other jobs/threads see update to shared data prior to clearing of the lock. */ _CMPSWP(&LOCK, &locked_val, 0); THREAD B ---------------------------------------/* Do some work on the shared data */ for (i=0; i<10; ++i) { /* Set the expected value for the lock */ unlck_val = 0; /* Attempt to set the lock using Compare-and-Swap */ while (_CMPSWP(&LOCK, &unlck_val, 1) == 0) { sleep(1); unlck_val = 0; } /* Update the shared data */ data1 += 4; data2 += 6; /* Unlock the shared data... must use CMPSWP again to ensure other jobs/threads see update to shared data prior to clearing of the lock. */ _CMPSWP(&LOCK, &locked_val, 0);

Here, the threads use Compare-and-Swap to perform a race-free test and update of the lock variable. This solves the race condition experienced in the original
Chapter 14. Shared Storage Synchronization

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problem fragments. It also addresses the storage access ordering problem. As noted earlier, Compare-and-Swap is a synchronizing action. Using Compare-and-Swap to set the lock prior to reading the shared data, ensures that the threads will read the most recently updated data. Using Compare-and-Swap to clear the lock after updating the shared data ensures that the updates are available for subsequent reads by any thread.

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Appendix A. Output Listing from CRTPGM, CRTSRVPGM, UPDPGM, or UPDSRVPGM Command

This appendix shows examples of binder listings and explains errors that could occur as a result of using the binder language.

Binder Listing
The binder listings for the Create Program (CRTPGM), Create Service Program (CRTSRVPGM), Update Program (UPDPGM), and Update Service Program (UPDSRVPGM) commands are almost identical. This topic presents a binder listing from the CRTSRVPGM command used to create the FINANCIAL service program in Binder Language Examples on page 78. Three types of listings can be specified on the detail (DETAIL) parameter of the CRTPGM, CRTSRVPGM, UPDPGM, or UPDSRVPGM commands: *BASIC *EXTENDED *FULL

Basic Listing
If you specify DETAIL(*BASIC) on the CRTPGM, CRTSRVPGM, UPDPGM, or UPDSRVPGM command, the listing consists of the following: v The values specified on the CRTPGM, CRTSRVPGM, UPDPGM, or UPDSRVPGM command v A brief summary table v Data showing the length of time some pieces of the binding process took to complete Figure 47, Figure 48, and Figure 49 on page 165 show this information.

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Create Service Program Service program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Export source file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Export source member . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Activation group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Allow update . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Allow bound *SRVPGM library name update . . . . . Creation options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Listing detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . User profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Replace existing service program . . . . . . . . . Target release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Allow reinitialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Module MONEY RATES Service Program *NONE Binding Directory *NONE Library Binding Directory Library Binding Directory Library Binding Directory Library MYLIB MYLIB Library Module CALCS ACCTS Service Program Library MYLIB MYLIB Library Service Program Library Service Program : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : FINANCIAL MYLIB *SRCFILE QSRVSRC MYLIB *SRVPGM *CALLER *YES *NO *GEN *FULL *USER *YES *CURRENT *NO *LIBCRTAUT Module

Page

*NODUPPROC *NODUPVAR

*DUPWARN

Library

Module

Library

Library

Library

Figure 47. Values Specified on CRTSRVPGM Command

Create Service Program Brief Summary Table Program entry procedures . . . . . . . . . . . : Multiple strong definitions Unresolved references . . . . . . . . . : 0 0 0

Page

. . . . . . . . . . . . :

* * * * *

E N D O F B R I E F S U M M A R Y T A B L E

* * * * *

Figure 48. Brief Summary Table

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Create Service Program Binding Statistics Symbol collection CPU time . . . . . . . . Symbol resolution CPU time . . . . . . . . Binding directory resolution CPU time . . Binder language compilation CPU time . . . Listing creation CPU time . . . . . . . . Program/service program creation CPU time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : : : : : : .018 .006 .403 .040 1.622 .178 2.761 11.522

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Total CPU time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : Total elapsed time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : * * * * *

E N D O F B I N D I N G S T A T I S T I C S

* * * * *

*CPC5D0B - Service program FINANCIAL created in library MYLIB. * * * * * E N D O F C R E A T E S E R V I C E P R O G R A M L I S T I N G * * * * *

Figure 49. Binding Statistics

Extended Listing
If you specify DETAIL(*EXTENDED) on the CRTPGM, CRTSRVPGM, UPDPGM, or UPDSRVPGM command, the listing includes all the information provided by DETAIL(*BASIC) plus an extended summary table. The extended summary table shows the number of imports (references) that were resolved and the number of exports (definitions) processed. For the CRTSRVPGM or UPDSRVPGM command, the listing also shows the binder language used, the signatures generated, and which imports (references) matched which exports (definitions). Figure 50, Figure 51 on page 166, and Figure 52 on page 167 show examples of the additional data.
Create Service Program Extended Summary Table Valid definitions . . . Strong . . . . . . . . Weak . . . . . . . . . Resolved references . . To strong definitions To weak definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : : : : : : 418 418 0 21 21 0 * * * * * Page 2

* * * * *

E N D O F E X T E N D E D S U M M A R Y T A B L E

Figure 50. Extended Summary Listing

Appendix A. Output Listing from CRTPGM, CRTSRVPGM, UPDPGM, or UPDSRVPGM Command

165

Create Service Program Module . . . . . . . . . . . : Library . . . . . . . . . : Bound . . . . . . . . . . : Number 00000001 00000002 00000003 00000004 00000005 00000006 00000007 00000008 00000009 Symbol Def Def Def Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref MONEY MYLIB *YES Identifier main Amount Payment Q LE AG_prod_rc Q LE AG_user_rc _C_main Q LE leDefaultEh Q LE mhConversionEh _C_exception_router Binder Information Listing

Page

Type Proc Proc Proc Data Data Proc Proc Proc Proc

Scope Module SrvPgm SrvPgm

Export Strong Strong Strong

Key

0000017F 0000017E 000000AC 00000180 00000181 00000125

Module . . . . . . . . . . . : Library . . . . . . . . . : Bound . . . . . . . . . . : Number 0000000A 0000000B 0000000C 0000000D 0000000E 0000000F 00000010 Symbol Def Def Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref

RATES MYLIB *YES Identifier Term Rate Q LE AG_prod_rc Q LE AG_user_rc Q LE leDefaultEh Q LE mhConversionEh _C_exception_router Type Proc Proc Data Data Proc Proc Proc Scope SrvPgm SrvPgm Export Strong Strong Key

0000017F 0000017E 00000180 00000181 00000125

Module . . . . . . . . . . . : Library . . . . . . . . . : Bound . . . . . . . . . . : Number 00000011 00000012 00000013 00000014 00000015 00000016 00000017 Symbol Def Def Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref

CALCS MYLIB *YES Identifier Calc1 Calc2 Q LE AG_prod_rc Q LE AG_user_rc Q LE leDefaultEh Q LE mhConversionEh _C_exception_router Type Proc Proc Data Data Proc Proc Proc Scope Module Module Export Strong Strong Key

0000017F 0000017E 00000180 00000181 00000125

Module . . . . . . . . . . . : Library . . . . . . . . . : Bound . . . . . . . . . . : Number 00000018 00000019 0000001A 0000001B 0000001C 0000001D 0000001E Symbol Def Def Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref

ACCTS MYLIB *YES Identifier OpenAccount CloseAccount Q LE AG_prod_rc Q LE AG_user_rc Q LE leDefaultEh Q LE mhConversionEh _C_exception_router Type Proc Proc Data Data Proc Proc Proc Scope SrvPgm SrvPgm Export Strong Strong Key

0000017F 0000017E 00000180 00000181 00000125

Figure 51. Binder Information Listing (Part 1 of 2)

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Service program . . . . . . : Library . . . . . . . . . : Bound . . . . . . . . . . : Number Symbol Ref

QC2SYS *LIBL *NO Identifier system QLEAWI *LIBL *YES Identifier Q Q Q Q LE LE LE LE AG_user_rc AG_prod_rc leDefaultEh mhConversionEh Type Data Data Proc Proc Scope Export Strong Strong Strong Strong Key Type Proc Scope Export Strong Key

0000001F Def Service program . . . . . . : Library . . . . . . . . . : Bound . . . . . . . . . . : Number 0000017E 0000017F 00000180 00000181 Symbol Def Def Def Def Ref

Figure 51. Binder Information Listing (Part 2 of 2)

Create Service Program Binder Language Listing STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) EXPORT SYMBOL('Term') EXPORT SYMBOL('Rate') EXPORT SYMBOL('Amount') EXPORT SYMBOL('Payment') EXPORT SYMBOL('OpenAccount') EXPORT SYMBOL('CloseAccount') ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 00000000ADCEFEE088738A98DBA6E723. STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*PRV) EXPORT SYMBOL('Term') EXPORT SYMBOL('Rate') EXPORT SYMBOL('Amount') EXPORT SYMBOL('Payment') ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 000000000000000000ADC89D09E0C6E7. * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G

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* * * * *

Figure 52. Binder Language Listing

Full Listing
If you specify DETAIL(*FULL) on the CRTPGM, CRTSRVPGM, UPDPGM, or UPDSRVPGM command, the listing includes all the detail provided for DETAIL(*EXTENDED) plus a cross-reference listing. Figure 53 on page 168 shows a partial example of the additional data provided.

Appendix A. Output Listing from CRTPGM, CRTSRVPGM, UPDPGM, or UPDSRVPGM Command

167

Create Service Program Cross-Reference Listing Identifier . . . xlatewt yn y0 y1 Amount Calc1 Calc2 CloseAccount CEECRHP CEECZST CEEDATE CEEDATM CEEDAYS CEEDCOD CEEDSHP CEEDYWK CEEFMDA CEEFMDT CEEFMTM CEEFRST CEEGMT CEEGPID CEEGTST CEEISEC CEELOCT CEEMGET CEEMKHP CEEMOUT CEEMRCR CEEMSG CEENCOD CEEQCEN CEERLHP CEESCEN CEESECI CEESECS CEESGL CEETREC CEEUTC CEEUTCO CEE4ABN CEE4CpyDvfb CEE4CpyIofb CEE4CpyOfb CEE4DAS CEE4FCB CEE4HC CEE4RAGE CEE4RIN OpenAccount Payment Q LE leBdyCh Q LE leBdyEpilog Q LE leDefaultEh Q LE mhConversionEh Q LE AG_prod_rc Q LE AG_user_rc Q LE HdlrRouterEh Q LE RtxRouterCh Rate Term Defs . . . 000000DD 00000140 0000013E 0000013F 00000002 00000011 00000012 00000019 000001A0 0000019F 000001A9 000001B1 000001A8 00000187 000001A1 000001B3 000001AD 000001AF 000001AE 0000019E 000001B6 00000195 0000019D 000001B0 000001B4 00000183 000001A2 00000184 00000182 00000185 00000186 000001AC 000001A3 000001AB 000001B2 000001AA 00000190 00000191 000001B5 000001B7 00000192 0000019A 00000199 00000198 000001A4 0000018A 00000197 0000018B 00000196 00000018 00000003 00000188 00000189 00000180 00000015 00000181 00000016 0000017F 00000013 0000017E 0000018F 0000018E 0000000B 0000000A --------Refs-------Ref Ref Type . . . *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *MODULE *MODULE *MODULE *MODULE *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *MODULE *MODULE *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *SRVPGM *MODULE *MODULE Library . . . *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL MYLIB MYLIB MYLIB MYLIB *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL MYLIB MYLIB *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL *LIBL MYLIB MYLIB

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00000007 00000008 00000004 0000001A 00000005 00000014

0000000E 0000001C 0000000F 0000001D 0000000C 0000000D 0000001B

Object . . . QC2UTIL1 QC2UTIL2 QC2UTIL2 QC2UTIL2 MONEY CALCS CALCS ACCTS QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI ACCTS MONEY QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI QLEAWI RATES RATES

Figure 53. Cross-Reference Listing

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IPA Listing Components

The following sections describe the IPA components of the listing: v Object File Map v Compiler Options Map v Inline Report v v v v v Global Symbols Map Partition Map Source File Map Messages Message Summary

The CRTPGM or CRTSRVPGM command generates all of these sections, except the inline report, if you specify IPA(*YES) and DETAIL(*BASIC or *EXTENDED). The CRTPGM or CRTSRVPGM command generates the inline report only if you specify IPA(*YES) and DETAIL(*FULL).

Object File Map

The Object File Map listing section displays the names of the object files that were used as input to IPA. Other listing sections, such as the Source File Map, use the FILE ID numbers that appear in this listing section.

Compiler Options Map

The Compiler Options Map listing section identifies the compiler options that were specified within the IL data for each compilation unit that is processed. For each compilation unit, it displays the options that are relevant to IPA processing. You can specify these options through a compiler option, a #pragma directive, or as default values.

Inline Report
The Inline Report listing section describes the actions that are performed by the IPA inliner. In this report, the term subprogram is equivalent to a C/C++ function or a C++ method. The summary contains such information as: v Name of each defined subprogram. IPA sorts subprogram names in alphabetical order. v Reason for action on a subprogram: You specified #pragma noinline for the subprogram. You specified #pragma inline for the subprogram. IPA performed automatic inlining on the subprogram. There was no reason to inline the subprogram. There was a partition conflict. IPA could not inline the subprogram because IL data did not exist.

v Action on a subprogram: IPA inlined subprogram at least once. IPA did not inline subprogram because of initial size constraints. IPA did not inline subprogram because of expansion beyond size constraint. The subprogram was a candidate for inlining, but IPA did not inline it. Subprogram was a candidate for inlining, but was not referred to. The subprogram is directly recursive, or some calls have mismatched parameters. v Status of original subprogram after inlining:
Appendix A. Output Listing from CRTPGM, CRTSRVPGM, UPDPGM, or UPDSRVPGM Command

169

v v v v v

IPA discarded the subprogram because it is no longer referred to and is defined as static internal. IPA did not discard the subprogram, for various reasons: - Subprogram is external. (It can be called from outside the compilation unit.) - Subprogram call to this subprogram remains. - Subprogram has its address taken. Initial relative size of subprogram (in Abstract Code Units). Final relative size of subprogram (in Abstract Code Units) after inlining. The number of calls within the subprogram and the number of these calls that IPA inlined into the subprogram. The number of times the subprogram is called by others in the compile unit and the number of times IPA inlined the subprogram. The mode that is selected and the value of threshold and limit specified. Static functions whose names may not be unique within the application as a whole will have names prefixed with @nnn@, where nnn is the source file number.

The detailed call structure contains specific information of each subprogram such as: v Subprograms that it calls. v Subprograms that call it. v Subprograms in which it is inlined. The information can allow better analysis of the program if you want to use the inliner in selective mode. The counts in this report do not include calls from non-IPA to IPA programs.

Global Symbols Map

The Global Symbols Map listing section shows how global symbols are mapped into members of global data structures by the global variable coalescing optimization process. It includes symbol information and file name information (file name information may be approximate). In addition, line number information may be available.

Partition Map
The Partition Map listing section describes each of the object code partitions created by IPA. It provides the following information: v The reason for generating each partition. v The options used to generate the object code. v The function and global data included in the partition. v The source files that were used to create the partition.

Source File Map

The Source File Map listing section identifies the source files that are included in the object files.

Messages
If IPA detects an error, or the possibility of an error, it issues one or more diagnostic messages, and generates the Messages listing section. This listing section contains a summary of the messages that are issued during IPA processing. The messages are sorted by severity. The Messages listing section displays the listing

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page number where each message was originally shown. It also displays the message text, and optionally, information relating to a file name, line (if known), and column (if known).

Message Summary
The Message Summary listing section displays the total number of messages and the number of messages for each severity level.

Listing for Example Service Program

Figure 49 on page 165, Figure 51 on page 166, and Figure 53 on page 168 show some of the listing data generated when DETAIL(*FULL) was specified to create the FINANCIAL service program in Figure 36 on page 83. The figures show the binding statistics, the binder information listing, and the cross-reference listing.

Binder Information Listing for Example Service Program

The binder information listing ( Figure 51 on page 166) includes the following data and column headings: v The library and name of the module or service program that was processed. If the Bound field shows a value of *YES for a module object, the module is marked to be bound by copy. If the Bound field shows a value of *YES for a service program, the service program is bound by reference. If the Bound field shows a value of *NO for either a module object or service program, that object is not included in the bind. The reason is that the object did not provide an export that satisfied an unresolved import. v Number For each module or service program that was processed, a unique identifier (ID) is associated with each export (definition) or import (reference). v Symbol This column identifies the symbol name as an export (Def) or an import (Ref). v Ref A number specified in this column (Ref) is the unique ID of the export (Def) that satisfies the import request. For example, in Figure 51 on page 166 the unique ID for the import 00000005 matches the unique ID for the export 0000017E. v Identifier This is the name of the symbol that is exported or imported. The symbol name imported for the unique ID 00000005 is Q LE AG_user_rc. The symbol name exported for the unique ID 0000017E is also Q LE AG_user_rc. v Type If the symbol name is a procedure, it is identified as Proc. If the symbol name is a data item, it is identified as Data. v Scope For modules, this column identifies whether an exported symbol name is accessed at the module level or at the public interface to a service program. If a program is being created, the exported symbol names can be accessed only at the module level. If a service program is being created, the exported symbol names can be accessed at the module level or the service program (SrvPgm) level. If an exported symbol is a part of the public interface, the value in the Scope column must be SrvPgm. v Export This column identifies the strength of a data item that is exported from a module or service program. v Key
Appendix A. Output Listing from CRTPGM, CRTSRVPGM, UPDPGM, or UPDSRVPGM Command

171

This column contains additional information about any weak exports. Typically this column is blank.

Cross-Reference Listing for Example Service Program

The cross-reference listing in Figure 53 on page 168 is another way of looking at the data presented in the binder information. The cross-reference listing includes the following column headings: v Identifier The name of the export that was processed during symbol resolution. v Defs The unique ID associated with each export. v Refs A number in this column indicates the unique ID of the import (Ref) that was resolved to this export (Def). v Type Identifies whether the export came from a *MODULE or a *SRVPGM object. v Library The library name as it was specified on the command or in the binding directory. v Object The name of the object that provided the export (Def).

Binding Statistics for Example Service Program

Figure 49 on page 165 shows a set of statistics for creating the service program FINANCIAL. The statistics identify where the binder spent time when it was processing the create request. You have only indirect control over the data presented in this section. Some amount of processing overhead cannot be measured. Therefore, the value listed in the Total CPU time field is larger than the sum of the times listed in the preceding fields.

Binder Language Errors

While the system is processing the binder language during the creation of a service program, an error might occur. If DETAIL(*EXTENDED) or DETAIL(*FULL) is specified on the Create Service Program (CRTSRVPGM) command, you can see the errors in the spooled file. The following information messages could occur: v Signature padded v Signature truncated The following warning errors could occur: v Current export block limits interface v Duplicate export block v Duplicate symbol on previous export v Level checking cannot be disabled more than once, ignored v Multiple current export blocks not allowed, previous assumed The following serious errors could occur: v Current export block is empty v Export block not completed, end-of-file found before ENDPGMEXP

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v v v v v v v v v v v v

Export block not started, STRPGMEXP required Export blocks cannot be nested, ENDPGMEXP missing Exports must exist inside export blocks Identical signatures for dissimilar export blocks, must change exports Multiple wildcard matches No current export block No wildcard match Previous export block is empty Signature contains variant characters SIGNATURE(*GEN) required with LVLCHK(*NO) Signature syntax not valid Symbol name required

v Symbol not allowed as service program export v Symbol not defined v Syntax not valid

Signature Padded
Figure 54 shows a binder language listing that contains this message.
Binder Language Listing STRPGMEXP SIGNATURE('Short signature') ******** Signature padded EXPORT SYMBOL('Proc_2') ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: E2889699A340A289879581A3A4998540. * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G * * * * *

Figure 54. The Signature Provided Was Shorter than 16 Bytes, So It Is Padded

This is an information message.

Suggested Changes
No changes are required. If you wish to avoid the message, make sure that the signature being provided is exactly 16 bytes long.

Signature Truncated
Figure 55 on page 174 shows a binder language listing that contains this message.

Appendix A. Output Listing from CRTPGM, CRTSRVPGM, UPDPGM, or UPDSRVPGM Command

173

Binder Language Listing STRPGMEXP SIGNATURE('This signature is very long') ******** Signature truncated EXPORT SYMBOL('Proc_2') ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: E38889A240A289879581A3A499854089. * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G * * * * *

Figure 55. Only the First 16 Bytes of Data Provided Are Used for the Signature

This is an information message.

Suggested Changes
No changes are required. If you wish to avoid the message, make sure that the signature being provided is exactly 16 bytes long.

Current Export Block Limits Interface

Figure 56 shows a binder language listing that contains this error.
Binder Language Listing STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) EXPORT SYMBOL(A) EXPORT SYMBOL(B) ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 00000000000000000000000000000CD2. STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*PRV) EXPORT SYMBOL(A) EXPORT SYMBOL(B) EXPORT SYMBOL(C) ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 0000000000000000000000000000CDE3. ******** Current export block limits interface. * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G * * * * *

Figure 56. A PGMLVL(*PRV) Exported More Symbols than the PGMLVL(*CURRENT)

This is a warning error. A PGMLVL(*PRV) export block has specified more symbols than the PGMLVL(*CURRENT) export block. If no other errors occurred, the service program is created. If both of the following are true: v PGMLVL(*PRV) had supported a procedure named C v Under the new service program, procedure C is no longer supported any ILE program or service program that called procedure C in this service program gets an error at runtime.

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Suggested Changes
1. Make sure that the PGMLVL(*CURRENT) export block has more symbols to be exported than a PGMLVL(*PRV) export block. 2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command again. In this example, the EXPORT SYMBOL(C) was incorrectly added to the STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*PRV) block instead of to the PGMLVL(*CURRENT) block.

Duplicate Export Block

Figure 57 shows a binder language listing that contains this error.
Binder Language Listing STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) EXPORT SYMBOL(A) EXPORT SYMBOL(B) ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 00000000000000000000000000000CD2. STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*PRV) EXPORT SYMBOL(A) EXPORT SYMBOL(B) ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 00000000000000000000000000000CD2. ******** Duplicate export block. * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G * * * * *

Figure 57. Duplicate STRPGMEXP/ENDPGMEXP Blocks

This is a warning error. More than one STRPGMEXP and ENDPGMEXP block exported all the same symbols in the exact same order. If no other errors occurred, the service program is created. The duplicated signature is included only once in the created service program.

Suggested Changes
1. Make one of the following changes: v Make sure that the PGMLVL(*CURRENT) export block is correct. Update it as appropriate. v Remove the duplicate export block. 2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command again. In this example, the STRPGMEXP command with PGMLVL(*CURRENT) specified needs to have the following source line added after EXPORT SYMBOL(B):
EXPORT SYMBOL(C)

Duplicate Symbol on Previous Export

Figure 58 on page 176 shows a binder language listing that contains a duplicate symbol error.

Appendix A. Output Listing from CRTPGM, CRTSRVPGM, UPDPGM, or UPDSRVPGM Command

175

Binder Language Listing STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) EXPORT SYMBOL(A) EXPORT SYMBOL(B) EXPORT SYMBOL(A) ******** Duplicate symbol on previous export EXPORT SYMBOL(C) ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 000000000000000000000000000CDED3. * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G * * * * *

Figure 58. Duplicate Exported Symbols

This is a warning error. A symbol to be exported from the service program was specified more than once in a STRPGMEXP and ENDPGMEXP block. If no other errors occurred, the service program is created. Only the first duplicate symbol is exported from the service program. All duplicate symbols affect the signature that is generated.

Suggested Changes
1. Remove one of the duplicate source lines from the binder language source file. 2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command again. In this example, remove the second EXPORT SYMBOL(A).

Level Checking Cannot Be Disabled More than Once, Ignored

Figure 59 shows a binder language listing that contains this error.
Binder Language Listing STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) LVLCHK(*NO) EXPORT SYMBOL(A) EXPORT SYMBOL(B) ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 00000000000000000000000000000000. STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*PRV) LVLCHK(*NO) ******** Level checking cannot be disabled more than once, ignored EXPORT SYMBOL(A) ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 000000000000000000000000000000C1. * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G * * * * *

Figure 59. Multiple STRPGMEXP Commands Have LVLCHK(*NO) Specified

This is a warning error. More than one STRPGMEXP blocks specified LVLCHK(*NO). If no other errors occurred, the service program is created. The second and subsequent LVLCHK(*NO) are assumed to be LVLCHK(*YES).

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Suggested Changes
1. Make sure that only one STRPGMEXP block has LVLCHK(*NO) specified. 2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command again. In this example, the PGMLVL(*PRV) export block is the only export block that has LVLCHK(*NO) specified. The LVLCHK(*NO) value is removed from the PGMLVL(*CURRENT) export block.

Multiple Current Export Blocks Not Allowed, Previous Assumed

Figure 60 shows a binder language listing that contains this error.
Binder Language Listing STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) EXPORT SYMBOL(A) EXPORT SYMBOL(B) EXPORT SYMBOL(C) ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 0000000000000000000000000000CDE3. STRPGMEXP EXPORT SYMBOL(A) ******** Multiple 'current' export blocks not allowed, 'previous' assumed. EXPORT SYMBOL(B) ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 00000000000000000000000000000CD2. * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G * * * * *

Figure 60. More than One PGMLVL(*CURRENT) Value Specified

This is a warning error. A value of PGMLVL(*CURRENT) was specified or was allowed to default to PGMLVL(*CURRENT) on more than one STRPGMEXP command. The second and subsequent export blocks with a value of PGMLVL(*CURRENT) are assumed to be PGMLVL(*PRV). If no other errors occurred, the service program is created.

Suggested Changes
1. Change the appropriate source text to STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*PRV). 2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command again. In this example, the second STRPGMEXP is the one to change.

Current Export Block Is Empty

Figure 61 on page 178 shows a binder language listing that contains this error.

Appendix A. Output Listing from CRTPGM, CRTSRVPGM, UPDPGM, or UPDSRVPGM Command

177

Binder Language Listing STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 00000000000000000000000000000000. ***ERROR Current export block is empty. * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G * * * * *

Figure 61. No Symbols to Be Exported from the STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) Block

This is a serious error. No symbols are identified to be exported from the *CURRENT export block. The service program is not created.

Suggested Changes
1. Make one of the following changes: v Add the symbol names to be exported. v Remove the empty STRPGMEXP-ENDPGMEXP block, and make another STRPGMEXP-ENDPGMEXP block as PGMLVL(*CURRENT). 2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command. In this example, the following source line is added to the binder language source file between the STRPGMEXP and ENDPGMEXP commands:
EXPORT SYMBOL(A)

Export Block Not Completed, End-of-File Found before ENDPGMEXP

Figure 62 shows a binder language listing that contains this error.
Binder Language Listing STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) ***ERROR Syntax not valid. ***ERROR Export block not completed, end-of-file found before ENDPGMEXP. * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G * * * * *

Figure 62. No ENDPGMEXP Command Found, but the End of the Source File Was Found

This is a serious error. No ENDPGMEXP was found before the end of the file was reached. The service program is not created.

Suggested Changes
1. Make one of the following changes: v Add the ENDPGMEXP command in the appropriate place. v Remove any STRPGMEXP command that does not have a matching ENDPGMEXP command, and remove any symbol names to be exported.

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2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command. In this example, the following lines are added after the STRPGMEXP command:
EXPORT SYMBOL(A) ENDPGMEXP

Export Block Not Started, STRPGMEXP Required

Figure 63 shows a binder language listing that contains this error.
Binder Language Listing ENDPGMEXP ***ERROR Export block not started, STRPGMEXP required. ***ERROR No 'current' export block * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G * * * * *

Figure 63. STRPGMEXP Command Is Missing

This is a serious error. No STRPGMEXP command was found prior to finding an ENDPGMEXP command. The service program is not created.

Suggested Changes
1. Make one of the following changes: v Add the STRPGMEXP command. v Remove any exported symbols and the ENDPGMEXP command. 2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command. In this example, the following two source lines are added to the binder language source file before the ENDPGMEXP command.
STRPGMEXP EXPORT SYMBOL(A)

Export Blocks Cannot Be Nested, ENDPGMEXP Missing

Figure 64 shows a binder language listing that contains this error.
Binder Language Listing STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) EXPORT SYMBOL(A) EXPORT SYMBOL(B) STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*PRV) ***ERROR Export blocks cannot be nested, ENDPGMEXP missing. EXPORT SYMBOL(A) ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 000000000000000000000000000000C1. * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G * * * * *

Figure 64. ENDPGMEXP Command Is Missing

Appendix A. Output Listing from CRTPGM, CRTSRVPGM, UPDPGM, or UPDSRVPGM Command

179

This is a serious error. No ENDPGMEXP command was found prior to finding another STRPGMEXP command. The service program is not created.

Suggested Changes
1. Make one of the following changes: v Add the ENDPGMEXP command prior to the next STRPGMEXP command. v Remove the STRPGMEXP command and any symbol names to be exported. 2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command. In this example, an ENDPGMEXP command is added to the binder source file prior to the second STRPGMEXP command.

Exports Must Exist inside Export Blocks

Figure 65 shows a binder language listing that contains this error.
Binder Language Listing STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) EXPORT SYMBOL(A) EXPORT SYMBOL(B) ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 00000000000000000000000000000CD2. EXPORT SYMBOL(A) ***ERROR Exports must exist inside export blocks. * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G * * * * *

Figure 65. Symbol Name to Be Exported Is outside the STRPGMEXP-ENDPGMEXP Block

This is a serious error. A symbol to be exported is not defined within a STRPGMEXP-ENDPGMEXP block. The service program is not created.

Suggested Changes
1. Make one of the following changes: v Move the symbol to be exported. Put it within a STRPGMEXP-ENDPGMEXP block. v Remove the symbol. 2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command. In this example, the source line in error is removed from the binder language source file.

Identical Signatures for Dissimilar Export Blocks, Must Change Exports

This is a serious error.

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Identical signatures have been generated from STRPGMEXP-ENDPGMEXP blocks that exported different symbols. This error condition is highly unlikely to occur. For any set of nontrivial symbols to be exported, this error should occur only once every 3.4E28 tries. The service program is not created.

Suggested Changes
1. Make one of the following changes: v Add an additional symbol to be exported from the PGMLVL(*CURRENT) block. The preferred method is to specify a symbol that is already exported. This would cause a warning error of duplicate symbols but would help ensure that a signature is unique. An alternative method is to add another symbol to be exported that has not been exported. v Change the name of a symbol to be exported from a module, and make the corresponding change to the binder language source file. v Specify a signature by using the SIGNATURE parameter on the Start Program Export (STRPGMEXP) command. 2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command.

Multiple Wildcard Matches

Figure 66 shows a binder language listing that contains this error.
Binder Language Listing STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) EXPORT ("A"<<<) ***ERROR Multiple matches of wildcard specification EXPORT ("B"<<<) ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 0000000000000000000000000000FFC2. * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G

Figure 66. Multiple Matches of Wildcard Specification

This is a serious error. A wildcard specified for export matched more than one symbol available for export. The service program is not created.

Suggested Changes
1. Specify a wildcard with more detail so that the desired matching export is the only matching export. 2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command.

No Current Export Block

Figure 67 on page 182 shows a binder language listing that contains this error.

Appendix A. Output Listing from CRTPGM, CRTSRVPGM, UPDPGM, or UPDSRVPGM Command

181

Binder Language Listing STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*PRV) EXPORT SYMBOL(A) ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 000000000000000000000000000000C1. ***ERROR No 'current' export block * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G * * * * *

Figure 67. No PGMLVL(*CURRENT) Export Block

This is a serious error. No STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) is found in the binder language source file. The service program is not created.

Suggested Changes
1. Make one of the following changes: v Change a PGMLVL(*PRV) to PGMLVL(*CURRENT). v Add a STRPGMEXP-ENDPGMEXP block that is the correct *CURRENT export block. 2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command. In this example, the PGMLVL(*PRV) is changed to PGMLVL(*CURRENT).

No Wildcard Matches
Figure 68 shows a binder language listing that contains this error.
Binder Language Listing STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) EXPORT ("Z"<<<) ***ERROR No matches of wildcard specification EXPORT ("B"<<<) ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 0000000000000000000000000000FFC2. * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G

Figure 68. No Matches of Wildcard Specification

This is a serious error. A wildcard specified for export did not match any symbols available for export. The service program is not created.

Suggested Changes
1. Specify a wildcard that matches the symbol desired for export. 2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command.

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Previous Export Block Is Empty

Figure 69 shows a binder language listing that contains this error.
Binder Language Listing STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) EXPORT SYMBOL(A) EXPORT SYMBOL(B) ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 00000000000000000000000000000CD2. STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*PRV) ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 00000000000000000000000000000000. ***ERROR Previous export block is empty. * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G * * * * *

Figure 69. No PGMLVL(*CURRENT) Export Block

This is a serious error. A STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*PRV) was found, and no symbols were specified. The service program is not created.

Suggested Changes
1. Make one of the following changes: v Add symbols to the STRPGMEXP-ENDPGMEXP block that is empty. v Remove the STRPGMEXP-ENDPGMEXP block that is empty. 2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command. In this example, the empty STRPGMEXP-ENDPGMEXP block is removed from the binder language source file.

Signature Contains Variant Characters

Figure 70 shows a binder language listing that contains this error.
Binder Language Listing STRPGMEXP SIGNATURE('\!cdefghijklmnop') ***ERROR Signature contains variant characters EXPORT SYMBOL('Proc_2') ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: E05A8384858687888991929394959697. * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G * * * * *

Figure 70. Signature Contains Variant Characters

This is a serious error. The signature contains characters that are not in all coded character set identifiers (CCSIDs). The service program is not created.
Appendix A. Output Listing from CRTPGM, CRTSRVPGM, UPDPGM, or UPDSRVPGM Command

183

Suggested Changes
1. Remove the variant characters. 2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command. In this specific case, it is the \! that needs to be removed.

SIGNATURE(*GEN) Required with LVLCHK(*NO)

Figure 71 shows a binder language listing that contains this error.
Binder Language Listing STRPGMEXP SIGNATURE('ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP') EXPORT SYMBOL('Proc_2') ***ERROR SIGNATURE(*GEN) required with LVLCHK(*NO) ENDPGMEXP LVLCHK(*NO)

******** Export signature: C1C2C3C4C5C6C7C8C9D1D2D3D4D5D6D7. * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G * * * * *

Figure 71. If LVLCHK(*NO) Is Specified, an Explicit Signature Is Not Valid

This is a serious error. If LVLCHK(*NO) is specified, SIGNATURE(*GEN) is required. The service program is not created.

Suggested Changes
1. Make one of the following changes: v Specify SIGNATURE(*GEN) v Specify LVLCHK(*YES) 2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command.

Signature Syntax Not Valid

Figure 72 shows a binder language listing that contains this error.
Binder Language Listing ***ERROR ***ERROR ***ERROR ***ERROR STRPGMEXP SIGNATURE('"abcdefghijkl "') Signature syntax not valid Signature syntax not valid Syntax not valid. Syntax not valid. EXPORT SYMBOL('Proc_2') ENDPGMEXP * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G * * * * *

Figure 72. What Is Specified for the Signature Value Is Not Valid

This is a serious error. The signature contains characters that are not valid. The service program is not created.

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Suggested Changes
1. Remove the characters that are not valid from the signature value. 2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command. In this case, remove the characters from the signature field.

Symbol Name Required

Figure 73 shows a binder language listing that contains this error.
Binder Language Listing STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) EXPORT SYMBOL(A) EXPORT SYMBOL(') ***ERROR Symbol name required. ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 000000000000000000000000000000C1. * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G * * * * *

Figure 73. No Symbol to Be Exported

This is a serious error. No symbol name was found to export from the service program. The service program is not created.

Suggested Changes
1. Make one of the following changes: v Remove the line in error from the binder language source file. v Add a symbol name to be exported from the service program. 2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command. In this example, the source line EXPORT SYMBOL("") is removed from the binder language source file.

Symbol Not Allowed as Service Program Export

Figure 74 shows a binder language listing that contains this error.
Binder Language Listing STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) EXPORT SYMBOL(A) ***ERROR Symbol not allowed as service program export. EXPORT SYMBOL(D) ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 00000000000000000000000000000CD4. * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G * * * * *

Figure 74. Symbol Name Not Valid to Export from Service Program

This is a serious error.

Appendix A. Output Listing from CRTPGM, CRTSRVPGM, UPDPGM, or UPDSRVPGM Command

185

The symbol to be exported from the service program was not exported from one of the modules to be bound by copy. Typically the symbol specified to be exported from the service program is actually a symbol that needs to be imported by the service program. The service program is not created.

Suggested Changes
1. Make one of the following changes: v Remove the symbol in error from the binder language source file. v On the MODULE parameter of the CRTSRVPGM command, specify the module that has the desired symbol to be exported. v Add the symbol to one of the modules that will be bound by copy, and re-create the module object. 2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command. In this example, the source line of EXPORT SYMBOL(A) is removed from the binder language source file.

Symbol Not Defined

Figure 75 shows a binder language listing that contains this error.
Binder Language Listing STRPGMEXP PGMLVL(*CURRENT) EXPORT SYMBOL(A) EXPORT SYMBOL(Q) ***ERROR Symbol not defined. ENDPGMEXP ******** Export signature: 00000000000000000000000000000CE8. * * * * * E N D O F B I N D E R L A N G U A G E L I S T I N G * * * * *

Figure 75. Symbol Not Found in the Modules That Are to Be Bound by Copy

This is a serious error. The symbol to be exported from the service program could not be found in the modules that are to be bound by copy. The service program is not created.

Suggested Changes
1. Make one of the following changes: v Remove the symbol that is not defined from the binder language source file. v On the MODULE parameter of the CRTSRVPGM command, specify the module that has the desired symbol to be exported. v Add the symbol to one of the modules that will be bound by copy, and re-create the module object. 2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command. In this example, the source line of EXPORT SYMBOL(Q) is removed from the binder language source file.

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Syntax Not Valid

This is a serious error. The statements in the source member are not valid binder language statements. The service program is not created.

Suggested Changes
1. Correct the source member so it contains valid binder language statements. 2. Run the CRTSRVPGM command.

Appendix A. Output Listing from CRTPGM, CRTSRVPGM, UPDPGM, or UPDSRVPGM Command

187

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Appendix B. Exceptions in Optimized Programs

In rare circumstances, an MCH3601 exception message may occur in programs compiled with optimization level 30 (*FULL) or 40. This appendix explains one example in which this message occurs. The same program does not receive an MCH3601 exception message when compiled with optimization level 10 (*NONE) or 20 (*BASIC). Whether the message in this example occurs depends on how your ILE HLL compiler allocates storage for arrays. This example might never occur for your language. When you ask for optimization level 30 (*FULL) or 40, ILE attempts to improve performance by calculating array index references outside of loops. When you refer to an array in a loop, you are often accessing every element in order. Performance can be improved by saving the last array element address from the previous loop iteration. To accomplish this performance improvement, ILE calculates the first array element address outside the loop and saves the value for use inside the loop. Take the following example:
DCL ARR[1000] INTEGER; DCL I INTEGER; I = init_expression; /* More statements */ WHILE ( I < limit_expression ) I = I + 1; /* Some statements in the while loop */ ARR[I] = some_expression; /* Other statements in the while loop */ END; /* Assume that init_expression evaluates to -1 which is then assigned to I */

If a reference to ARR[init_expression] would have produced an incorrect array index, this example can cause an MCH3601 exception. This is because ILE attempted to calculate the first array element address before entering the WHILE loop. If you receive MCH3601 exceptions at optimization level 30 (*FULL) or 40, look for the following situation: 1. You have a loop that increments a variable before it uses the variable as an array element index. 2. The initial value of the index variable on entrance to the loop is negative. 3. A reference to the array using the initial value of the variable is not valid. When these conditions exist, it may be possible to do the following so that optimization level 30 (*FULL) or 40 can still be used: 1. Move the part of the program that increments the variable to the bottom of the loop.
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2. Change the references to the variables as needed. The previous example would be changed as follows:
I = init_expression + 1; WHILE ( I < limit_expression + 1 ) ARR[I] = some_expression; I = I + 1; END;

If this change is not possible, reduce the optimization level from 30 (*FULL) or 40 to 20 (*BASIC) or 10 (*NONE).

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Appendix C. CL Commands Used with ILE Objects

The following lists indicate which CL commands can be used with each ILE object.

CL Commands Used with Modules

CHGMOD Change Module CRTCMOD Create C Module CRTCBLMOD Create COBOL Module CRTCLMOD Create CL Module CRTRPGMOD Create RPG Module DLTMOD Delete Module DSPMOD Display Module RTVBNDSRC Retrieve Binder Source WRKMOD Work with Module

CL Commands Used with Program Objects

CHGPGM Change Program CRTBNDC Create Bound C Program CRTBNDCBL Create Bound COBOL Program CRTBNDCL Create Bound CL Program CRTBNDRPG Create Bound RPG Program CRTPGM Create Program DLTPGM Delete Program DSPPGM Display Program

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DSPPGMREF Display Program References UPDPGM Update Program WRKPGM Work with Program

CL Commands Used with Service Programs

CHGSRVPGM Change Service Program CRTSRVPGM Create Service Program DLTSRVPGM Delete Service Program DSPSRVPGM Display Service Program UPDSRVPGM Update Service Program WRKSRVPGM Work with Service Program

CL Commands Used with Binding Directories

ADDBNDDIRE Add Binding Directory Entry CRTBNDDIR Create Binding Directory DLTBNDDIR Delete Binding Directory DSPBNDDIR Display Binding Directory RMVBNDDIRE Remove Binding Directory Entry WRKBNDDIR Work with Binding Directory WRKBNDDIRE Work with Binding Directory Entry

CL Command Used with Structured Query Language

CRTSQLCI Create Structured Query Language ILE C Object CRTSQLCBLI Create Structured Query Language ILE COBOL Object CRTSQLRPGI Create Structured Query Language ILE RPG Object

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CL Commands Used with Source Debugger

DSPMODSRC Display Module Source ENDDBG End Debug STRDBG Start Debug

CL Commands Used to Edit the Binder Language Source File

STRPDM Start Programming Development Manager STRSEU Start Source Entry Utility The following nonrunnable commands can be entered into the binder language source file: ENDPGMEXP End Program Export EXPORT Export STRPGMEXP Start Program Export

Appendix C. CL Commands Used with ILE Objects

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Appendix D. Notices
This information was developed for products and services offered in the U.S.A. IBM may not offer the products, services, or features discussed in this document in other countries. Consult your local IBM representative for information on the products and services currently available in your area. Any reference to an IBM product, program, or service is not intended to state or imply that only that IBM product, program, or service may be used. Any functionally equivalent product, program, or service that does not infringe any IBM intellectual property right may be used instead. However, it is the users responsibility to evaluate and verify the operation of any non-IBM product, program, or service. IBM may have patents or pending patent applications covering subject matter described in this document. The furnishing of this document does not give you any license to these patents. You can send license inquiries, in writing, to: IBM Director of Licensing IBM Corporation 500 Columbus Avenue Thornwood, NY 10594 U.S.A. For license inquiries regarding double-byte (DBCS) information, contact the IBM Intellectual Property Department in your country or send inquiries, in writing, to: IBM World Trade Asia Corporation Licensing 2-31 Roppongi 3-chome, Minato-ku Tokyo 106-0032, Japan The following paragraph does not apply to the United Kingdom or any other country where such provisions are inconsistent with local law: INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS MACHINES CORPORATION PROVIDES THIS PUBLICATION AS IS WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. Some states do not allow disclaimer of express or implied warranties in certain transactions, therefore, this statement may not apply to you. This information could include technical inaccuracies or typographical errors. Changes are periodically made to the information herein; these changes will be incorporated in new editions of the publication. IBM may make improvements and/or changes in the product(s) and/or the program(s) described in this publication at any time without notice. Any references in this information to non-IBM Web sites are provided for convenience only and do not in any manner serve as an endorsement of those Web sites. The materials at those Web sites are not part of the materials for this IBM product and use of those Web sites is at your own risk. Licensees of this program who wish to have information about it for the purpose of enabling: (i) the exchange of information between independently created

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programs and other programs (including this one) and (ii) the mutual use of the information which has been exchanged, should contact: IBM Corporation Software Interoperability Coordinator 3605 Highway 52 N Rochester, MN 55901-7829 U.S.A. Such information may be available, subject to appropriate terms and conditions, including in some cases, payment of a fee. The licensed program described in this information and all licensed material available for it are provided by IBM under terms of the IBM Customer Agreement, IBM International Program License Agreement, or any equivalent agreement between us. COPYRIGHT LICENSE: This information contains sample application programs in source language, which illustrate programming techniques on various operating platforms. You may copy, modify, and distribute these sample programs in any form without payment to IBM, for the purposes of developing, using, marketing or distributing application programs conforming to the application programming interface for the operating platform for which the sample programs are written. These examples have not been thoroughly tested under all conditions. IBM, therefore, cannot guarantee or imply reliability, serviceability, or function of these programs. You may copy, modify, and distribute these sample programs in any form without payment to IBM for the purposes of developing, using, marketing, or distributing application programs conforming to IBMs application programming interfaces. Each copy or any portion of these sample programs or any derivative work, must include a copyright notice as follows: (your company name) (year). Portions of this code are derived from IBM Corp. Sample Programs. Copyright IBM Corp. _enter the year or years_. All rights reserved. If you are viewing this information softcopy, the photographs and color illustrations may not appear.

Programming Interface Information

This publication is intended to help you to use the Integrated Language Environment. This publication documents General-Use Programming Interface and Associated Guidance Information provided by OS/400. General-Use programming interfaces allow the customer to write programs that obtain the services of OS/400.

Trademarks
The following terms are trademarks of International Business Machines Corporation in the United States, other countries, or both: 400 Application System/400

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AS/400 C/400 Client Access e (Stylized) IBM Integrated Language Environment iSeries iSeries 400 Operating System/400 OS/400 SAA System/36 Systems Application Architecture Java and all Java-based trademarks and logos are trademarks or registered trademarks of Sun Microsystems, Inc. in the United States, other countries, or both. Windows is a registered trademark of Microsoft Corporation. UNIX is a registered trademark of X/Open Company Limited. Other company, product, and service names may be trademarks or service marks of others.

Appendix D. Notices

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Bibliography
For additional information about topics related to the ILE environment on the iSeries server, refer to the following publications: v Backup and Recovery provides information about planning a backup and recovery strategy, the different types of media available to save and restore system data, as well as a description of how to record changes made to database files using journaling and how that information can be used for system recovery. This manual describes how to plan for and set up user auxiliary storage pools (ASPs), mirrored protection, and checksums along with other availability recovery topics. It also describes how to install the system again from backup. provides a wide-ranging v CL Programming discussion of programming topics, including a general discussion of objects and libraries, CL programming, controlling flow and communicating between programs, working with objects in CL programs, and creating CL programs. Other topics include predefined and immediate messages and message handling, defining and creating user-defined commands and menus, application testing, including debug mode, breakpoints, traces, and display functions. provides v Communications Management information about work management in a communications environment, communications status, tracing and diagnosing communications problems, error handling and recovery, performance, and specific line speed and subsystem storage information. v ICF Programming provides information needed to write application programs that use communications and the OS/400 intersystem communications function (OS/400-ICF). This guide also contains information on data description specifications (DDS) keywords, system-supplied formats, return codes, file transfer support, and program examples. v ILE C for iSeries Programmers Guide provides information on how to develop applications using the ILE C language. It includes information about creating, running, and debugging programs. It also includes programming considerations for interlanguage program and procedure calls, locales, exception handling, database files, externally described files, and device files. Some performance tips are also described. An appendix includes information on migrating source code from EPM C/400 or System C/400 to ILE C. v ILE C for iSeries Language Reference provides information about how to write programs that adhere to the Systems Application Architecture C Level 2 definition and use ILE C specific functions such as record I/O. It also provides information on ILE C machine interface library functions. v ILE for C Run-time Library Reference provides quick reference information about ILE C command syntax, elements of C, SAA C library functions, ILE C library extensions to SAA C, and ILE C machine interface library extensions. v ILE COBOL for AS/400 Programmers Guide describes how to write, compile, bind, run, debug, and maintain ILE COBOL programs on the AS/400 system. It provides programming information on how to call other ILE COBOL and non-ILE COBOL programs, share data with other programs, use pointers, and handle exceptions. It also describes how to perform input/output operations on externally attached devices, database files, display files, and ICF files. v ILE COBOL for AS/400 Reference describes the ILE COBOL programming language. It provides information on the structure of the ILE COBOL programming language and on the structure of an ILE COBOL source program. It also describes all Identification Division paragraphs, Environment Division clauses, Data Division

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paragraphs, Procedure Division statements, and Compiler-Directing statements. v ILE RPG for AS/400 Programmers Guide is a guide for using the RPG IV programming language, which is an implementation of ILE RPG in the Integrated Language Environment (ILE) on the iSeries server. It includes information on creating and running programs, with considerations for procedure calls and interlanguage programming. The guide also covers debugging and exception handling and explains how to use AS/400 files and devices in RPG programs. Appendixes include information on migration to RPG IV and sample compiler listings. It is intended for people with a basic understanding of data processing concepts and of the RPG language. provides v ILE RPG for AS/400 Reference information needed to write programs for the iSeries server using the RPG IV programming language. This manual describes, position by position and keyword by keyword, the valid entries for all RPG specifications, and provides a detailed description of all the operation codes and built-in functions. This manual also contains information on the RPG logic cycle, arrays and tables, editing functions, and indicators. v Intrasystem Communications Programming provides information about interactive communications between two application programs on the same iSeries server. This guide describes the communications operations that can be coded into a program that uses intrasystem communications support to communicate with another program. It also provides information on developing intrasystem communications application programs that use the OS/400 intersystem communications function (OS/400-ICF). tells how system v Security - Reference security support can be used to protect the system and the data from being used by people who do not have the proper authorization, protect the data from intentional or unintentional damage or destruction, keep security information up-to-date, and set up security on the system. v The Work Management topic, under the Systems Management category of the iSeries Information Center, provides information about

how to create and change a work management environment. Other topics include a description of tuning the system, collecting performance data including information on record formats and contents of the data being collected, working with system values to control or change the overall operation of the system, and a description of how to gather data to determine who is using the system and what resources are being used.

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Index Special Characters

_C_TS_calloc() 58 _C_TS_free( 58 _C_TS_malloc() 58 _C_TS_realloc() 58 _CEE4ALC allocation strategy type 111 activation group (continued) user-named deletion 33 description 30, 93 activation group selection for teraspace storage model 51 advanced concepts 27 ALWLIBUPD parameter on CRTPGM command 88 on CRTSRVPGM command 88 ALWUPD parameter on CRTPGM command 88 on CRTSRVPGM command 88 API (application programming interface) Abnormal End (CEE4ABN) 119 activation group 135 CEE4ABN (Abnormal End) 119 CEEDOD (Retrieve Operational Descriptor Information) 105 CEEHDLR (Register User-Written Condition Handler) 43, 115 CEEHDLU (Unregister User-Written Condition Handler) 43 CEEMGET (Get Message) 123 CEEMOUT (Dispatch Message) 123 CEEMRCR (Move Resume Cursor) 117 CEEMSG (Get, Format and Dispatch Message) 123 CEENCOD (Construct Condition Token) 120 CEESGI (Get String Information) 105 CEESGL (Signal Condition) condition token 120, 123 description 39 CEETSTA (Test for Omitted Argument) 103 Change Exception Message (QMHCHGEM) 117 condition management 135, 137 Construct Condition Token (CEENCOD) 120 control flow 135 date 136 debugger 137 Dispatch Message (CEEMOUT) 123 dynamic screen manager (DSM) 138 error handling 137 exception management 135, 137 Get, Format and Dispatch Message (CEEMSG) 123 Get Message (CEEMGET) 123 Get String Information (CEESGI) 105 HLL independence 135 list of 135, 138 math 136 message handling 137 Move Resume Cursor (CEEMRCR) 117 naming conventions 135 API (application programming interface) (continued) original program model (OPM) and ILE 105 procedure call 137 program call 137 Promote Message (QMHPRMM) 118 QCAPCMD 96 QMHCHGEM (Change Exception Message) 117 QMHPRMM (Promote Message) 118 QMHSNDPM (Send Program Message) 39, 115 Register User-Written Condition Handler (CEEHDLR) 43, 115 Retrieve Operational Descriptor Information (CEEDOD) 105 Send Program Message (QMHSNDPM) 39, 115 services 2 Signal Condition (CEESGL) condition token 120, 123 description 39 source debugger 137 storage management 137 supplementing HLL-specific run-time library 135 Test for Omitted Argument (CEETSTA) 103 time 136 Unregister User-Written Condition Handler (CEEHDLU) 43 application multiple running in same job 93 application development tools 6 application programming interface (API) Abnormal End (CEE4ABN) 119 activation group 135 CEE4ABN (Abnormal End) 119 CEEDOD (Retrieve Operational Descriptor Information) 105 CEEHDLR (Register User-Written Condition Handler) 43, 115 CEEHDLU (Unregister User-Written Condition Handler) 43 CEEMGET (Get Message) 123 CEEMOUT (Dispatch Message) 123 CEEMRCR (Move Resume Cursor) 117 CEEMSG (Get, Format and Dispatch Message) 123 CEENCOD (Construct Condition Token) 120 CEESGI (Get String Information) 105 CEESGL (Signal Condition) condition token 120, 123 description 39 CEETSTA (Test for Omitted Argument) 103

A
Abnormal End (CEE4ABN) bindable API 119 access ordering shared storage 158 ACTGRP 89 ACTGRP (activation group) parameter 31 *CALLER value 96 activation group creation 31 program activation 28, 31 actions storage synchronizing 159 activation description 23 dynamic program call 103 program 27 program activation 34 service program 34, 100 activation group ACTGRP (activation group) parameter *CALLER value 96 activation group creation 28 program activation 28, 31 benefits of resource scoping 3 bindable APIs (application programming interfaces) 135 call stack example 28 commitment control example 4 scoping 131 control boundary activation group deletion 33 example 36 creation 30 data management scoping 46, 131 default 31 deletion 32 management 93 mixing COBOL with other languages 4 multiple applications running in same job 93 original program model (OPM) 31 reclaim resources 94, 96 resource isolation 29 resources 29 reuse 32 scoping 46, 131 service program 96 shared open data path (ODP) example 3 system-named 31, 33 Copyright IBM Corp. 1997, 2001

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application programming interface (API) (continued) Change Exception Message (QMHCHGEM) 117 condition management 135, 137 Construct Condition Token (CEENCOD) 120 control flow 135 date 136 debugger 137 Dispatch Message (CEEMOUT) 123 dynamic screen manager (DSM) 138 error handling 137 exception management 135, 137 Get, Format and Dispatch Message (CEEMSG) 123 Get Message (CEEMGET) 123 Get String Information (CEESGI) 105 HLL independence 135 list of 135, 138 math 136 message handling 137 Move Resume Cursor (CEEMRCR) 117 naming conventions 135 original program model (OPM) and ILE 105 procedure call 137 program call 137 Promote Message (QMHPRMM) 118 QCAPCMD 96 QMHCHGEM (Change Exception Message) 117 QMHPRMM (Promote Message) 118 QMHSNDPM (Send Program Message) 39, 115 Register User-Written Condition Handler (CEEHDLR) 43, 115 Retrieve Operational Descriptor Information (CEEDOD) 105 Send Program Message (QMHSNDPM) 39, 115 services 2 Signal Condition (CEESGL) condition token 120, 123 description 39 source debugger 137 storage management 137 supplementing HLL-specific run-time library 135 Test for Omitted Argument (CEETSTA) 103 time 136 Unregister User-Written Condition Handler (CEEHDLU) 43 argument passing in mixed-language applications 104 argument passing between languages 104 by reference 102 by value directly 101 by value indirectly 101 omitted arguments 103 to procedures 101 to programs 104

automatic storage 109

B
basic listing 163 benefit of ILE binding 1 C environment 6 code optimization 6 coexistence with existing applications 3 common run-time services 2 future foundation 6 language interaction control 4 modularity 1 resource control 3 reusable components 2 source debugger 3 Bibliography 199 bind by copy 19, 64 by reference 19, 64 bindable API services 2 bindable API (application programming interface) Abnormal End (CEE4ABN) 119 activation group 135 CEE4ABN (Abnormal End) 119 CEEDOD (Retrieve Operational Descriptor Information) 105 CEEHDLR (Register User-Written Condition Handler) 43, 115 CEEHDLU (Unregister User-Written Condition Handler) 43 CEEMGET (Get Message) 123 CEEMOUT (Dispatch Message) 123 CEEMRCR (Move Resume Cursor) 117 CEEMSG (Get, Format and Dispatch Message) 123 CEENCOD (Construct Condition Token) 120 CEESGI (Get String Information) 105 CEESGL (Signal Condition) condition token 120, 123 description 39 CEETSTA (Test for Omitted Argument) 103 condition management 135, 137 Construct Condition Token (CEENCOD) 120 control flow 135 date 136 debugger 137 Dispatch Message (CEEMOUT) 123 dynamic screen manager (DSM) 138 error handling 137 exception management 135, 137 Get, Format and Dispatch Message (CEEMSG) 123 Get Message (CEEMGET) 123 Get String Information (CEESGI) 105 HLL independence 135 list of 135, 138 math 136 message handling 137

bindable API (application programming interface) (continued) Move Resume Cursor (CEEMRCR) 117 naming conventions 135 original program model (OPM) and ILE 105 procedure call 137 program call 137 Register User-Written Condition Handler (CEEHDLR) 43, 115 Retrieve Operational Descriptor Information (CEEDOD) 105 Signal Condition (CEESGL) condition token 120, 123 description 39 source debugger 137 storage management 137 supplementing HLL-specific run-time library 135 Test for Omitted Argument (CEETSTA) 103 time 136 Unregister User-Written Condition Handler (CEEHDLU) 43 binder 19 binder information listing service program example 171 binder language definition 74 ENDPGMEXP (End Program Export) 74 ENDPGMEXP (End Program Export) command 76 error 172 examples 78, 86 EXPORT 77 EXPORT (Export Symbol) 74 STRPGMEXP (Start Program Export) 74 LVLCHK parameter 76 PGMLVL parameter 76 SIGNATURE parameter 76 STRPGMEXP (Start Program Export) command 76 binder listing basic 163 extended 165 full 167 service program example 171 binding benefit of ILE 1 large number of modules 64 original program model (OPM) 7 binding directory CL (control language) commands 192 definition 18 binding statistics service program example 172 BNDDIR parameter on UPDPGM command 89 BNDDIR parameter on UPDSRVPGM command 89 BNDSRVPGM parameter on UPDPGM command 89 BNDSRVPGM parameter on UPDSRVPGM command 89

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by reference, passing arguments 102 by value directly, passing arguments 101 by value indirectly, passing arguments 101

C
C environment 6 C signal 39 call procedure 21, 99 procedure pointer 99 program 21, 99 call-level scoping 45 call message queue 38 call stack activation group example 28 definition 99 example dynamic program calls 99 static procedure calls 99 callable service 135 Case component of condition token 121 CEE4ABN (Abnormal End) bindable API 119 CEE4DAS (Define Heap Allocation Strategy) bindable API 112 CEE9901 (generic failure) exception message 41 CEE9901 function check 39 CEECRHP (Create Heap) bindable API 111, 112 CEECRHP bindable API 111 CEECZST (Reallocate Storage) bindable API 112 CEEDOD (Retrieve Operational Descriptor Information) bindable API 105 CEEDSHP (Discard Heap) bindable API 110, 112 CEEFRST (Free Storage) bindable API 112 CEEGTST (Get Heap Storage) bindable API 112 CEEHDLR (Register User-Written Condition Handler) bindable API 43, 115 CEEHDLU (Unregister User-Written Condition Handler) bindable API 43 CEEMGET (Get Message) bindable API 123 CEEMKHP (Mark Heap) bindable API 110, 112 CEEMOUT (Dispatch Message) bindable API 123 CEEMRCR (Move Resume Cursor) bindable API 117 CEEMSG (Get, Format and Dispatch Message) bindable API 123 CEENCOD (Construct Condition Token) bindable API 120 CEERLHP (Release Heap) bindable API 111, 112 CEESGI (Get String Information) bindable API 105 CEESGL (Signal Condition) bindable API condition token 120, 123 description 39

CEETSTA (Test for Omitted Argument) bindable API 103 Change Exception Message (QMHCHGEM) API 117 Change Module (CHGMOD) command 126, 127 characteristics of teraspace 49 CHGMOD (Change Module) command 126, 127 CL (control language) command CHGMOD (Change Module) 127 RCLACTGRP (Reclaim Activation Group) 96 RCLRSC (Reclaim Resources) for ILE programs 96 for OPM programs 96 code optimization errors 189 levels 126 performance compared to original program model (OPM) 6 levels 25 module observability 126 coexistence with existing applications 3 command, CL CALL (dynamic program call) 103 CHGMOD (Change Module) 126 CRTPGM (Create Program) 61 CRTSRVPGM (Create Service Program) 61 ENDCMTCTL (End Commitment Control) 131 OPNDBF (Open Data Base File) 129 OPNQRYF (Open Query File) 129 RCLACTGRP (Reclaim Activation Group) 33 RCLRSC (Reclaim Resources) 94 STRCMTCTL (Start Commitment Control) 129, 131 STRDBG (Start Debug) 125 Update Program (UPDPGM) 87 Update Service Program (UPDSRVPGM) 87 command, CL (control language) CHGMOD (Change Module) 127 RCLACTGRP (Reclaim Activation Group) 96 RCLRSC (Reclaim Resources) for ILE programs 96 for OPM programs 96 commitment control activation group 131 commit operation 130 commitment definition 131 ending 132 example 4 rollback operation 130 scope 130, 131 transaction 130 commitment definition 129, 131 Common Programming Interface (CPI) Communication, data management 130 Compare-and-Swap 161

component reusable benefit of ILE 2 condition definition 44 management 115 bindable APIs (application programming interfaces) 135, 137 relationship to OS/400 message 122 Condition ID component of condition token 121 condition token 120 Case component 121 Condition ID component 121 Control component 121 definition 44, 120 Facility ID component 121 feedback code on call to bindable API 122 Message Number component 121 Message Severity component 121 Msg_No component 121 MsgSev component 121 relationship to OS/400 message 122 Severity component 121 testing 121 Construct Condition Token (CEENCOD) bindable API 120 control boundary activation group example 36 default activation group example 37 definition 36 function check at 118 unhandled exception at 118 use 37 Control component of condition token 121 control file syntax for IPA 148 control flow bindable APIs (application programming interfaces) 135 CPF9999 (function check) exception message 40 CPF9999 function check 39 Create Heap (CEECRHP) bindable API 111, 112 Create Program (CRTPGM) command ACTGRP (activation group) parameter activation group creation 31 program activation 28, 31 ALWLIBUPD (Allow Library Update) 88 ALWUPD (Allow Update) parameter 87, 88 BNDDIR parameter 64 compared to CRTSRVPGM (Create Service Program) command 61 DETAIL parameter *BASIC value 163 *EXTENDED value 165 *FULL value 167 ENTMOD (entry module) parameter 70 MODULE parameter 64 output listing 163 Index

203

Create Program (CRTPGM) command (continued) program creation 13 service program activation 35 Create Service Program (CRTSRVPGM) command ACTGRP (activation group) parameter *CALLER value 96 program activation 28, 31 ALWLIBUPD (Allow Library Update) parameter 88 ALWUPD (Allow Update) parameter 88 BNDDIR parameter 64 compared to CRTPGM (Create Program) command 61 DETAIL parameter *BASIC value 163 *EXTENDED value 165 *FULL value 167 EXPORT parameter 71, 72 MODULE parameter 64 output listing 163 service program activation 35 SRCFILE (source file) parameter 72 SRCMBR (source member) parameter 72 creation of debug data 127 module 90 program 61, 90 program activation 28 service program 90 cross-reference listing service program example 172 CRTPGM BNDSRVPGM parameter 64 CRTPGM (Create Program) command compared to CRTSRVPGM (Create Service Program) command 61 DETAIL parameter *BASIC value 163 *EXTENDED value 165 *FULL value 167 ENTMOD (entry module) parameter 70 output listing 163 program creation 13 CRTSRVPGM BNDSRVPGM parameter 64 CRTSRVPGM (Create Service Program) command ACTGRP (activation group) parameter *CALLER value 96 compared to CRTPGM (Create Program) command 61 DETAIL parameter *BASIC value 163 *EXTENDED value 165 *FULL value 167 EXPORT parameter 71, 72 output listing 163 SRCFILE (source file) parameter 72 SRCMBR (source member) parameter 72 cursor handle 115

cursor (continued) resume 115

D
data compatibility 104 data links 130 data management scoping activation group level 46 activation-group level 131 call level 45, 94 commitment definition 129 Common Programming Interface (CPI) Communication 130 hierarchical file system 130 job-level 47, 131 local SQL (Structured Query Language) cursor 129 open data link 130 open file management 130 open file operation 129 override 129 remote SQL (Structured Query Language) connection 129 resource 129 rules 45 SQL (Structured Query Language) cursors 129 user interface manager (UIM) 130 data sharing original program model (OPM) 7 date bindable APIs (application programming interfaces) 136 debug data creation 127 definition 12 removal 127 debug environment ILE 125 OPM 125 debug mode addition of programs 125 definition 125 debug support ILE 128 OPM 128 debugger bindable APIs (application programming interfaces) 137 CL (control language) commands 193 considerations 125 description 26 debugging across jobs 127 AS/400 globalization restriction 128 bindable APIs (application programming interfaces) 137 CCSID 290 128 CCSID 65535 and device CHRID 290 128 CL (control language) commands 193 error handling 128 ILE program 14 module view 127 observability 126

debugging (continued) optimization 126 unmonitored exception 128 default activation group control boundary example 37 original program model (OPM) and ILE programs 31 default exception handling compared to original program model (OPM) 40 default heap 110 Define Heap Allocation Strategy (CEE4DAS) bindable API 112 deletion activation group 32 direct monitor exception handler type 42, 115 Discard Heap (CEEDSHP) bindable API 110, 112 Dispatch Message (CEEMOUT) bindable API 123 DSM (dynamic screen manager) bindable APIs (application programming interfaces) 138 dynamic binding original program model (OPM) 7 dynamic program call activation 103 CALL CL (control language) command 103 call stack 99 definition 21 examples 21 Extended Program Model (EPM) 103 original program model (OPM) 6, 103 program activation 28 service program activation 34 dynamic screen manager (DSM) bindable APIs (application programming interfaces) 138 dynamic storage 109

E
Enabling program collecting profiling data 140 enabling programs for teraspace 49 End Commitment Control (ENDCMTCTL) command 131 End Program Export (ENDPGMEXP), binder language 74 End Program Export (ENDPGMEXP) command 76 ENDCMTCTL (End Commitment Control) command 131 ENDPGMEXP (End Program Export), binder language 74 ENTMOD (entry module) parameter 70 entry point compared to ILE program entry procedure (PEP) 12 Extended Program Model (EPM) 8 original program model (OPM) 6 EPM (Extended Program Model) 8 error binder language 172 during optimization 189

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error handling architecture 24, 38 bindable APIs (application programming interfaces) 135, 137 debug mode 128 default action 40, 118 language specific 40 nested exception 119 priority example 43 recovery 40 resume point 40 error message MCH3203 63 MCH4439 63 escape (*ESCAPE) exception message type 39 exception handler priority example 43 types 42 exception handling architecture 24, 38 bindable APIs (application programming interfaces) 135, 137 debug mode 128 default action 40, 118 language specific 40 nested exception 119 priority example 43 recovery 40 resume point 40 exception management 115 exception message C signal 39 CEE9901 (generic failure) 41 CPF9999 (function check) 40 debug mode 128 function check (CPF9999) 40 generic failure (CEE9901) 41 handling 40 ILE C raise() function 39 OS/400 39 percolation 40 relationship of ILE conditions to 122 sending 39 types 39 unmonitored 128 exception message architecture error handling 38 export definition 12 order 65 strong 72, 171 weak 72, 171 EXPORT (Export Symbol) 77 EXPORT (Export Symbol), binder language 74 EXPORT parameter service program signature 71 used with SRCFILE (source file) and SRCMBR (source member) parameters 72 export symbol wildcard character 77 Export Symbol (EXPORT), binder language 74 exports strong 70, 72

exports (continued) weak 70, 72 extended listing 165 Extended Program Model (EPM) external message queue 38

F
Facility ID component of condition token 121 feedback code option call to bindable API 122 file system, data management 130 Free Storage (CEEFRST) bindable API 112 full listing 167 function check (CPF9999) exception message 40 control boundary 118 exception message type 39

ILE C heap support 112 ILE condition handler exception handler type 42, 115 import definition 12 procedure 14 resolved and unresolved 63 strong 72 weak 72 interlanguage data compatibility 104 interprocedural analysis 145 IPA control file syntax 148 partitions created by 151 restrictions and limitations 150 usage notes 150

J
job multiple applications running in same 93 job-level scoping 47 job message queue 38

G
generic failure (CEE9901) exception message 41 Get, Format and Dispatch Message (CEEMSG) bindable API 123 Get Heap Storage (CEEGTST) bindable API 112 Get Message (CEEMGET) bindable API 123 Get String Information (CEESGI) bindable API 105 globalization restriction for debugging 128

L
language procedure-based characteristics 8 language interaction consistent error handling 41 control 4 data compatibility 104 language specific error handling 40 exception handler 43, 115 exception handling 40 level check parameter on STRPGMEXP command 76 level number 94 Licensed Internal Code options (LICOPTs) 152 currently defined options 152 displaying 155 release compatibility 155 restrictions 154 specifying 154 syntax 154 LICOPTs (Licensed Internal Code options) 152 listing, binder basic 163 extended 165 full 167 service program example 171

H
handle cursor definition 115 heap allocation strategy 111 characteristics 109 default 110 definition 109 user-created 110 heap allocation strategy 111 history of ILE 6 HLL specific error handling 40 exception handler 43, 115 exception handling 40

I
ILE basic concepts 11 compared to Extended Program Model (EPM) 8 original program model (OPM) 11 definition 1 history 6 introduction 1 program structure 11

M
8, Mark Heap (CEEMKHP) bindable API 110, 112 math bindable APIs (application programming interfaces) 136 maximum width file for SRCFILE (source file) parameter 72 MCH3203 error message 63 Index

205

MCH4439 error message 63 message bindable API feedback code 122 exception types 39 queue 38 relationship of ILE conditions to 122 message handling bindable APIs (application programming interfaces) 137 Message Number (Msg_No) component of condition token 121 message queue job 38 Message Severity (MsgSev) component of condition token 121 modularity benefit of ILE 1 module object CL (control language) commands 191 creation tips 90 description 12 MODULE parameter on UPDPGM command 89 MODULE parameter on UPDSRVPGM command 89 module replaced by module fewer exports 90 fewer imports 89 more exports 90 more imports 89 module replacement 87 module view debugging 127 Move Resume Cursor (CEEMRCR) bindable API 117 multiple applications running in same job 93

N
nested exception 119 notify (*NOTIFY) exception message type 39

O
observability 126 ODP (open data path) scoping 45 omitted argument 103 Open Data Base File (OPNDBF) command 129 open data path (ODP) scoping 45 open file operations 129 Open Query File (OPNQRYF) command 129 operational descriptor 104, 105 OPM (original program model) activation group 31 binding 7 characteristics 7 compared to ILE 11, 13 data sharing 7 default exception handling 40 description 6 dynamic binding 7

OPM (original program model) (continued) dynamic program call 103 entry point 6 exception handler types 42 program entry point 6 OPNDBF (Open Data Base File) command 129 OPNQRYF (Open Query File) command 129 optimization benefit of ILE 6 code levels 25 module observability 126 errors 189 interprocedural analysis 145 levels 126 optimization technique profiling program 139 optimizing translator 6, 25 optimizing your programs with IPA 147 ordering concerns storage access 160 original program model (OPM) activation group 31 binding 7 characteristics 7 compared to ILE 11, 13 data sharing 7 default exception handling 40 description 6 dynamic binding 7 dynamic program call 6, 103 entry point 6 exception handler types 42 program entry point 6 OS/400 exception message 39, 122 output listing Create Program (CRTPGM) command 163 Create Service Program (CRTSRVPGM) command 163 Update Program (UPDPGM) command 163 Update Service Program (UPDSRVPGM) command 163 override, data management 129

P
parameters on UPDPGM and UPDSRVPGM commands 89 partitions created by IPA 151 passing arguments between languages 104 by reference 102 by value directly 101 by value indirectly 101 in mixed-language applications 104 omitted arguments 103 to procedures 101 to programs 104 PEP (program entry procedure) call stack example 99 definition 12 specifying with CRTPGM (Create Program) command 70

percolation exception message 40 performance optimization benefit of ILE 6 errors 189 levels 25, 126 module observability 126 pitfalls shared storage 157 pointer comparing 8- and 16-byte 53 conversions in teraspace-enabled programs 55 lengths 53 support in APIs 57 support in C and C++ compilers 54 priority exception handler example 43 procedure definition 8, 11 passing arguments to 101 procedure-based language characteristics 8 procedure call bindable APIs (application programming interfaces) 137 compared to program call 21, 99 Extended Program Model (EPM) 103 static call stack 99 definition 22 examples 22 procedure pointer call 99, 101 profiling program 140 profiling types 139 program access 70 activation 27 CL (control language) commands 191 comparison of ILE and original program model (OPM) 13 creation examples 66, 68 process 61 tips 90 passing arguments to 104 program activation activation 28 creation 28 dynamic program call 28 program call bindable APIs (application programming interfaces) 137 call stack 99 compared to procedure call 99 definition 21 examples 21 program entry point compared to ILE program entry procedure (PEP) 12 Extended Program Model (EPM) 8 original program model (OPM) 6 program entry procedure (PEP) call stack example 99 definition 12

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program entry procedure (PEP) (continued) specifying with CRTPGM (Create Program) command 70 program isolation in activation groups 29 program level parameter on STRPGMEXP command 76 program structure 11 program update 87 module replaced by module fewer exports 90 fewer imports 89 more exports 90 more imports 89 Promote Message (QMHPRMM) API 118

Q
QCAPCMD API 96 QMHCHGEM (Change Exception Message) API 117 QMHPRMM (Promote Message) API 118 QMHSNDPM (Send Program Message) API 39, 115 QUSEADPAUT (use adopted authority) system value description 62 risk of changing 62

resume cursor definition 115 exception recovery 40 resume point exception handling 40 Retrieve Binder Source (RTVBNDSRC) command 71 Retrieve Operational Descriptor Information (CEEDOD) bindable API 105 reuse activation group 32 components 2 rollback operation commitment control 130 RPLLIB parameter on UPDPGM command 89 RPLLIB parameter on UPDSRVPGM command 89 run-time services 2

S
scope commitment control 131 scoping, data management activation group level 46 activation-group level 131 call level 45, 94 commitment definition 129 Common Programming Interface (CPI) Communication 130 hierarchical file system 130 job level 47 job-level 131 local SQL (Structured Query Language) cursor 129 open data link 130 open file management 130 open file operation 129 override 129 remote SQL (Structured Query Language) connection 129 resource 129 rules 45 SQL (Structured Query Language) cursors 129 user interface manager (UIM) 130 Send Program Message (QMHSNDPM) API 39, 115 sending exception message 39 service program activation 34, 100 binder listing example 171 CL (control language) commands 192 creation tips 90 definition 15 description 9 signature 71, 75 static procedure call 100 Severity component of condition token 121 shared open data path (ODP) example 3 shared storage 157 pitfalls 157 shared storage access ordering 158 shared storage synchronization 157

R
race conditions 160 RCLACTGRP (Reclaim Activation Group) command 33, 96 RCLRSC (Reclaim Resources) command 94 for ILE programs 96 for OPM programs 96 Reallocate Storage (CEECZST) bindable API 112 Reclaim Activation Group (RCLACTGRP) command 33, 96 Reclaim Resources (RCLRSC) command 94 for ILE programs 96 for OPM programs 96 recovery exception handling 40 register exception handler 43 Register User-Written Condition Handler (CEEHDLR) bindable API 43, 115 Release Heap (CEERLHP) bindable API 111, 112 removal of debug data 127 resolved import 63 resolving symbol description 63 examples 66, 68 resource, data management 129 resource control 3 resource isolation in activation groups 29 restriction debugging globalization 128

Signal Condition (CEESGL) bindable API condition token 120, 123 description 39 signature 75 EXPORT parameter 71 signature parameter on STRPGMEXP command 76 single-heap support 111 single-level store storage model 50 source debugger 3 bindable APIs (application programming interfaces) 137 CL (control language) commands 193 considerations 125 description 26 specifying Licensed Internal Code options 154 SQL (Structured Query Language) CL (control language) commands 192 connections, data management 129 SRCFILE (source file) parameter 72 file maximum width 72 SRCMBR (source member) parameter 72 SRVPGMLIB on UPDSRVPGM command 89 stack, call 99 Start Commitment Control (STRCMTCTL) command 129, 131 Start Debug (STRDBG) command 125 Start Program Export (STRPGMEXP), binder language 74 Start Program Export (STRPGMEXP) command 76 static procedure call call stack 99 definition 22 examples 22, 101 service program 100 service program activation 35 static storage 109 static variable 27, 93 status (*STATUS) exception message type 39 storage shared 157 storage access ordering concerns 160 storage access ordering concerns 160 storage management 109 automatic storage 109 bindable APIs (application programming interfaces) 137 dynamic storage 109 heap 109 static storage 94, 109 storage model single-level store 50 teraspace 50 storage synchronization, shared 157 storage synchronizing actions 159 storage synchronizing actions 159 STRCMTCTL (Start Commitment Control) command 129, 131 STRDBG (Start Debug) command 125 strong export 72, 171 Index

207

strong exports 70 STRPGMEXP (Start Program Export), binder language 74 structure of ILE program 11 Structured Query Language (SQL) CL (control language) commands 192 connections, data management 129 support for original program model (OPM) and ILE APIs 105 symbol name wildcard character 77 symbol resolution definition 63 examples 66, 68 syntax rules for Licensed Internal Code options 154 system-named activation group 31, 33 system value QUSEADPAUT (use adopted authority) description 62 risk of changing 62 use adopted authority (QUSEADPAUT) description 62 risk of changing 62

UEP (user entry procedure) (continued) definition 12 unhandled exception default action 40 unmonitored exception 128 Unregister User-Written Condition Handler (CEEHDLU) bindable API unresolved import 63 Update Program (UPDPGM) command 87 Update Service Program (UPDSRVPGM) command 87 UPDPGM command BNDDIR parameter 89 BNDSRVPGM parameter 89 MODULE parameter 89 RPLLIB parameter 89 UPDSRVPGM command BNDDIR parameter 89 BNDSRVPGM parameter 89 MODULE parameter 89 RPLLIB parameter 89 use adopted authority (QUSEADPAUT) system value description 62 risk of changing 62 user entry procedure (UEP) call stack example 99 definition 12 user interface manager (UIM), data management 130 user-named activation group deletion 33 description 30, 93 43

T
teraspace 49 allowed storage model for program types 51 characteristics 49 choosing storage model 50 converting service programs to use 53 enabling in your programs 49 interaction of single-level store and teraspace storage models 52 pointer conversions 55 pointer support in OS/400 interfaces 57 selecting compatible activation group 51 specifying as storage model 50 usage notes 56 using 8-byte pointers 53 teraspace storage model 50 Test for Omitted Argument (CEETSTA) bindable API 103 testing condition token 121 time bindable APIs (application programming interfaces) 136 tip module, program and service program creation 90 transaction commitment control 130 translator code optimization 6, 25

V
variable static 27, 93

W
watch support weak export 128 171 77 weak exports 70, 72 wildcard character for export symbol

U
UEP (user entry procedure) call stack example 99

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