Error: The difference between the reported value and the (usually unknown) true value of a quantity.

Validity: How well an instrument (or measurement technique) reflects what it is purported to measure. Depends on details of the instrument, and varies with the operating conditions. Robustness: When the input to an instrument varies slightly, does its output stably reflect the changes, or does it become unstable, or chaotic? Reliability: Given very different values, or measurements taken at very different times, are the measurements consistent? Repeatability: Do repeated measurements, on a constant true value, give the same answer? Accuracy: How close is the mean measurement of a series of trials to the true value? Precision: How much do the measurements vary from trial to trial? Resolution: How finely can we and/or the instrument separate one value from another that's close to it? Mistake: .Human error.!

Detector Device that indicates a change in one variable in its environment (eg., pressure, temp, particles) Can be mechanical, electrical, or chemical

Sensor

Analytical device capable of monitoring specific chemical species continuously and reversibly

Transducer Devices that convert information in nonelectrical domains to electrical domains and the converse

Instrument Model.

Measurement : generally involves using an instrument as a physical means of determining a quantity or variable Instrument : a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable Accuracy : closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of the variable being measured. Precision : a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements; i.e., given a fixed value of a variable, precision is a measure of the degree to which successive measurements differ from one another Sensitivity : the ratio of output signal or response of the instrument to a change of input or measured variable. Resolution : the smallest change in measured value to which th instrument will respond. Error : deviation from the true value of the measured variable.

Accuracy vs Precision. Precision is composed of two characteristics : conformity and the number of significant figures to which a measurement may be made Conformity is a necesary, but not sufficient, condition for precision because of the lack of significant figures obtained Precision is a necesary, but not sufficient, condition for accuracy.

Significant Figures Significant figures convey actual information regarding the magnitude and the measurement precision of a quantity The more significant figures, the greater the precision of the measurement

When a number of independent measurements are taken in an effort to obtain the best possible answer (closest the true value), the result is usually expressed as the arithmetic mean of all readings, with the range of possible error as the largest deviation from that mean When two or more measurements with different degrees of accuracy are added, the result is only as accurate as the least accurate measurement. Types of Error

Gross errors : largely human errors, among them misreading of instruments, incorrect adjustments, and computational mistakes. Systematic errors : shortcomings of the instruments, such as defective or worn parts, and effects of the environment on equipment or the user. Random errors : those due to causes that cannot be directly established because of random variations in the parameter or the system of measurement.

Probability of Errors.

ProbableError.

Deviation (+) ()

Fraction of total area included

0.6745

0.5000

1.0

0.6828

2.0

0.9546

3.0

0.9972

Limiting Errors In most indicating instruments the accuracy is guaranteed to a certain percentage of fullscale reading. Circuit components (such as capacitors, resistors, etc.) are guaranteed within

a certain percentage of their rated value. The limits of these deviations from the specified values are known as limiting errors or guarantee errors.

Electric and Magnetic Units

Standards of Measurement Standard of measurement is a physical representation of a unit of measurement Classification : International standards Primary standards Secondary standards Working standard

Suspension Galvanometer

Torque and Deflection of The Galvanometer Steady-state Deflection

Torque deflection : T = BIAN The practical coil area generally ranges from approximately 0.5 to 2.5 cm2 Flux densities for modern instruments usually range from 1,500 to 5,000 gauss (0.15 to 0.5 Wb/m2)

Dynamic Behavior The motion of a moving coil in a magnetic field is characterized by three quantities : The moment of inertia (J) of the moving coil about its axis of rotation The opposing torque (S) developed by the coil suspension The damping constant (D).

Damping Mechanism.

Galvanometer damping is provided by two mechanisms : mechanical and electromagnetic A galvanometer may also be damped by connecting a resistor across the coil --- CDRX (Critical Damping Resistance External)

PMMC

Permanent Magnet Moving-Coil Mechanism Often called dArsonval movement Construction -------------------

Temperature Compensation Both the magnetic fieldstrength and spring-tension decrease with an increase in temperature The coil resistance increases with an increase in temperature The spring change, conversely, tends to cause the pointer to read high with an increase in temperature Compensation may be accomplished by using swamping resistors in series with the movable coil

Galvanometer Sensitivity

DC Ammeters Shunt Resistor

Rs =ImRm / I Im. Ayrton Shunt

DC Voltmeters

Volt meter and Ammeter Method

MULTIMETER

Introduction to Alternating-current Indicating Instruments The d'Arsonval movement responds to the average or dc value of the current through the moving coil If the movement carries an alternating current with positive and negative half cycles, the driving torque would be in one direction for the positive alternation and other direction for the negative alternation If the frequency of the ac is very low, the pointer would swing back and forth around zero point on the meter scale At higher frequencies, the inertia of the coil is so great that the pointer cannot follow the rapid reversals of the driving torque and hovers around the zero mark, vibrating slightly.

Wheatstone bridge

R1RX = R2R3

Measurement errors : Found in the limiting errors of the three known resistors Insufficient sensitivity of the null detector Changes in resistance of the bridge arms due to the heating effect of the current through the resistors Thermal emfs in the bridge circuit or the galvanometer circuit (when low-value resistors are being measured) Errors due to the resistance of leads and contacts exterior to the actual bridge circuit