RDBMS Concepts

A Relational Database management System(RDBMS) is a database management system based on relational model introduced by E.F Codd. In relational model, data is represented in terms of tuples(rows). RDBMS is used to manage Relational database. Relational database is a collection of organized set of tables from which data can be accessed easily. Relational Database is most commonly used database. It consists of number of tables and each table has its own primary key.

What is Table ?
In Relational database, a table is a collection of data elements organised in terms of rows and columns. A table is also considered as convenient representation of relations. But a table can have duplicate tuples while a true relation cannot have duplicate tuples. Table is the most simplest form of data storage. Below is an example of Employee table. ID Name Age Salary

Adam

34

13000

Alex

28

15000

Stuart

20

18000

Ross

42

19020

What is a Record ?
A single entry in a table is called a Record or Row. A Record in a table represents set of related data. For example, the above Employee table has 4 records. Following is an example of single record.

Adam

34

13000

What is Field ?
A table consists of several records(row), each record can be broken into several smaller entities known asFields. The above Employee table consist of four fields, ID, Name, Age and Salary.

What is a Column ?
In Relational table, a column is a set of value of a particular type. The term Attribute is also used to represent a column. For example, in Employee table, Name is a column that represent names of employee. Name

Adam

Alex

Stuart

Ross

Database Keys
Keys are very important part of Relational database. They are used to establish and identify relation between tables. They also ensure that each record within a table can be uniquely identified by combination of one or more fields within a table.

Super Key
Super Key is defined as a set of attributes within a table that uniquely identifies each record within a table. Super Key is a superset of Candidate key.

Candidate Key
Candidate keys are defined as the set of fields from which primary key can be selected. It is an attribute or set of attribute that can act as a primary key for a table to uniquely identify each record in that table.

Primary Key
Primary key is a candidate key that is most appropriate to become main key of the table. It is a key that uniquely identify each record in a table.

Composite Key

Key that consist of two or more attributes that uniquely identify an entity occurance is called Composite key. But any attribute that makes up the Composite key is not a simple key in its own.

Secondary or Alternative key

The candidate key which are not selected for primary key are known as secondary keys or alternative keys

Non-key Attribute
Non-key attributes are attributes other than candidate key attributes in a table.

Non-prime Attribute
Non-prime Attributes are attributes other than Primary attribute.

Normalization of Database

Normalization is a systematic approach of decomposing tables to eliminate data redundancy and undesirable characteristics like Insertion, Update and Deletion Anamolies. It is a two step process that puts data into tabular form by removing duplicated data from the relation tables. Normalization is used for mainly two purpose,

Eliminating reduntant(useless) data. Ensuring data dependencies make sense i.e data is logically stored.

Problem Without Normalization

Without Normalization, it becomes difficult to handle and update the database, without facing data loss. Insertion, Updation and Deletion Anamolies are very frequent if Database is not Normalized. To understand these anomalies let us take an example of Student table. S_id S_Name S_Address Subject_opted

401

Adam

Noida

Bio

402

Alex

Panipat

Maths

403

Stuart

Jammu

Maths

404

Adam

Noida

Physics

Updation Anamoly : To update address of a student who occurs twice or more than twice in a table, we will have to update S_Address column in all the rows, else data will become inconsistent.

Insertion Anamoly : Suppose for a new admission, we have a Student id(S_id), name and address of a student but if student has not opted for any subjects yet then we have to insert NULL there, leading to Insertion Anamoly.

Deletion Anamoly : If (S_id) 401 has only one subject and temporarily he drops it, when we delete that row, entire student record will be deleted along with it.

Normalization Rule
Normalization rule are divided into following normal form.

1. First Normal Form 2. Second Normal Form 3. Third Normal Form 4. BCNF

First Normal Form (1NF)

A row of data cannot contain repeating group of data i.e each column must have a unique value. Each row of data must have a unique identifier i.e Primary key. For example consider a table which is not in First normal form Student Table : S_id S_Name subject

401

Adam

Biology

401

Adam

Physics

402

Alex

Maths

403

Stuart

Maths

You can clearly see here that student name Adam is used twice in the table and subject math is also repeated. This violates the First Normal form. To reduce above table to First Normal form break the table into two different tables New Student Table : S_id S_Name

401

Adam

402

Alex

403

Stuart

Subject Table : subject_id student_id subject

10

401

Biology

11

401

Physics

12

402

Math

12

403

Math

In Student table concatenation of subject_id and student_id is the Primary key. Now both the Student table and Subject table are normalized to first normal form

Second Normal Form (2NF)

A table to be normalized to Second Normal Form should meet all the needs of First Normal Form and there must not be any partial dependency of any column on primary key. It means that for a table that has concatenated primary key, each column in the table that is not part of the primary key must depend upon the entire concatenated key for its existence. If any column depends oly on one part of the concatenated key, then the table fails Second normal form. For example, consider a table which is not in Second normal form. Customer Table : customer_id Customer_Name Order_id Order_name Sale_detail

101

Adam

10

order1

sale1

101

Adam

11

order2

sale2

102

Alex

12

order3

sale3

103

Stuart

13

order4

sale4

In Customer table concatenation of Customer_id and Order_id is the primary key. This table is in First Normal form but not in Second Normal form because there are partial dependencies of columns on primary key. Customer_Name is only dependent on customer_id, Order_name is dependent on Order_id and there is no link between sale_detail and Customer_name. To reduce Customer table to Second Normal form break the table into following three different tables. Customer_Detail Table : customer_id Customer_Name

101

Adam

102

Alex

103

Stuart

Order_Detail Table : Order_id Order_Name

10

Order1

11

Order2

12

Order3

13

Order4

Sale_Detail Table : customer_id Order_id Sale_detail

101

10

sale1

101

11

sale2

102

12

sale3

103

13

sale4

Now all these three table comply with Second Normal form.

Third Normal Form (3NF)

Third Normal form applies that every non-prime attribute of table must be dependent on primary key. Thetransitive functional dependency should be removed from the table. The table must be in Second Normal form. For example, consider a table with following fields. Student_Detail Table : Student_id Student_name DOB Street city State Zip

In this table Student_id is Primary key, but street, city and state depends upon Zip. The dependency between zip and other fields is called transitive dependency. Hence to apply 3NF, we need to move the street, city and state to new table, with Zip as primary key. New Student_Detail Table : Student_id Student_name DOB Zip

Address Table : Zip Street city state

The advantage of removing transtive dependency is,

Amount of data duplication is reduced. Data integrity achieved.

Boyce and Codd Normal Form (BCNF)

Boyce and Codd Normal Form is a higher version of the Third Normal form. This form deals with certain type of anamoly that is not handled by 3NF. A 3NF table which does not have multiple overlapping candidate keys is said to be in BCNF.

Overview of Database

A Database is a collection of related data organised in a way that data can be easily accessed, managed and updated. Any piece of information can be a data, for example name of your school. Database is actualy a place where related piece of information is stored and various operations can be performed on it.

DBMS
A DBMS is a software that allows creation, definition and manipulation of database. Dbms is actualy a tool used to perform any kind of operation on data in database. Dbms also provides protection and security to database. It maintains data consistency in case of multiple users. Here are some examples of popular dbms, MySql, Oracle, Sybase, Microsoft Access and IBM DB2 etc.

Components of Database System

The database system can be divided into four components.

Users : Users may be of various type such as DB administrator, System developer and End users.

Database application : Database application may be Personal, Departmental, Enterprise and Internal

DBMS : Software that allow users to define, create and manages database access, Ex: MySql, Oracle etc.

Database : Collection of logical data.

Functions of DBMS

Provides data Independence Concurrency Control Provides Recovery services Provides Utility services Provides a clear and logical view of the process that manipulates data.

Advantages of DBMS

Segregation of applicaion program. Minimal data duplicacy. Easy retrieval of data. Reduced development time and maintainance need.

Disadvantages of DBMS

Complexity Costly Large in size

Database Architecture
Database architecture is logically divided into two types.

1. Logical two-tier Client / Server architecture 2. Logical three-tier Client / Server architecture

Two-tier Client / Server Architecture

Two-tier Client / Server architecture is used for User Interface program and Application Programs that runs on client side. An interface called ODBC(Open Database Connectivity) provides an API that allow client side program to call the dbms. Most DBMS vendors provide ODBC drivers. A client program may connect to several DBMS's. In this architecture some variation of client is also possible for example in some DBMS's more functionality is transferred to the client including data dictionary, optimization etc. Such clients are called Data server.

Three-tier Client / Server Architecture

Three-tier Client / Server database architecture is commonly used architecture for web applications. Intermediate layer called Application server or Web Server stores the web connectivty software and the business logic(constraints) part of application used to access the right amount of data from the database server. This layer acts like medium for sending partially processed data between the database server and the client.

Database Model
A Database model defines the logical design of data. The model describes the relationships between different parts of the data. In history of database design, three models have been in use.

Hierarchical Model Network Model Relational Model

Hierarchical Model
In this model each entity has only one parent but can have several children . At the top of hierarchy there is only one entity which is called Root.

Network Model
In the network model, entities are organised in a graph,in which some entities can be accessed through sveral path

Relational Model

In this model, data is organised in two-dimesional tables called relations. The tables or relation are related to each other.

Codd's Rule
E.F Codd was a Computer Scientist who invented Relational model for Database management. Based on relational model, Relation database was created. Codd proposed 13 rules popularly known as Codd's 12 rules to test DBMS's concept against his relational model. Codd's rule actualy define what quality a DBMS requires in order to become a Relational Database Management System(RDBMS). Till now, there is hardly any commercial product that follows all the 13 Codd's rules. Even Oracle follows only eight and half out(8.5) of 13. The Codd's 12 rules are as follows.

Rule zero
This rule states that for a system to qualify as an RDBMS, it must be able to manage database entirely through the relational capabilities.

Rule 1 : Information rule

All information(including metadeta) is to be represented as stored data in cells of tables. The rows and columns have to be strictly unordered.

Rule 2 : Guaranted Access

Each unique piece of data(atomic value) should be accesible by : Table Name + primary key(Row) + Attribute(column). NOTE : Ability to directly access via POINTER is a violation of this rule.

Rule 3 : Systemetic treatment of NULL

Null has several meanings, it can mean missing data, not applicable or no value. It should be handled consistently. Primary key must not be null. Expression on NULL must give null.

Rule 4 : Active Online Catalog

Database dictionary(catalog) must have description of Database. Catalog to be governed by same rule as rest of the database. The same query language to be used on catalog as on application database.

Rule 5 : Powerful language

One well defined language must be there to provide all manners of access to data. Example: SQL. If a file supporting table can be accessed by any manner except SQL interface, then its a violation to this rule.

Rule 6 : View Updation rule

All view that are theoretically updatable should be updatable by the system.

Rule 7 : Relational Level Operation

There must be Insert, Delete, Update operations at each level of relations. Set operation like Union, Intersection and minus should also be supported.

Rule 8 : Physical Data Independence

The physical storage of data should not matter to the system. If say, some file supporting table were renamed or moved from one disk to another, it should not effect the application.

Rule 9 : Logical Data Independence

If there is change in the logical structure(table structures) of the database the user view of data should not change. Say, if a table is split into two tables, a new view should give result as the join of the two tables. This rule is most difficult to satisfy.

Rule 10 : Integrity Independence

The database should be able to conforce its own integrity rather than using other programs. Key and Check constraints, trigger etc should be stored in Data Dictionary. This also make RDBMS independent of front-end.

Rule 11 : Distribution Independence

A database should work properly regardless of its distribution across a network. This lays foundation of distributed database.

Rule 12 : Nonsubversion rule

If low level access is allowed to a system it should not be able to subvert or bypass integrity rule to change data. This can be achieved by some sort of looking or encryption.

Introduction to SQL
Structure Query Language(SQL) is a programming language used for storing and managing data in RDBMS. SQL was the first commercial language introduced for E.F Codd's Relational model. Today almost all RDBMS(MySql, Oracle, Infomix, Sybase, MS Access) uses SQL as the standard database language. SQL is used to perform all type of data operations in RDBMS.

SQL Command
SQL defines following data languages to manipulate data of RDBMS.

DDL : Data Definition Language

All DDL commands are auto-committed. That means it saves all the changes permanently in the database. Command Description

create

to create new table or database

alter

for alteration

truncate

delete data from table

drop

to drop a table

rename

to rename a table

DML : Data Manipulation Language

DML commands are not auto-committed. It means changes are not permanent to database, they can be rolled back. Command Description

insert

to insert a new row

update

to update existing row

delete

to delete a row

merge

merging two rows or two tables

TCL : Transaction Control Language

These commands are to keep a check on other commands and their affect on the database. These commands can annul changes made by other commands by rolling back to original state. It can also make changes permanent. Command Description

commit

to permanently save

rollback

to undo change

savepoint

to save temporarily

DCL : Data Control Language

Data control language provides command to grant and take back authority. Command Description

grant

grant permission of right

revoke

take back permission.

DQL : Data Query Language

Command Description

select

retrieve records from one or more table

create command
create is a DDL command used to create a table or a database.

Creating a Database
To create a database in RDBMS, create command is uses. Following is the Syntax, create database database-name;

Example for Creating Database

create database Test; The above command will create a database named Test.

Creating a Table
create command is also used to create a table. We can specify names and datatypes of various columns along.Following is the Syntax, create table table-name { column-name1 datatype1, column-name2 datatype2, column-name3 datatype3, column-name4 datatype4 }; create table command will tell the database system to create a new table with given table name and column information.

Example for creating Table

create table Student(id int, name varchar, age int); The above command will create a new table Student in database system with 3 columns, namely id, name and age.

alter command
alter command is used for alteration of table structures. There are various uses of alter command, such as,

to add a column to existing table to rename any existing column to change datatype of any column or to modify its size. alter is also used to drop a column.

To Add Column to existing Table

Using alter command we can add a column to an existing table. Following is the Syntax, alter table table-name add(column-name datatype); Here is an Example for this, alter table Student add(address char); The above command will add a new column address to the Student table

To Add Multiple Column to existing Table

Using alter command we can even add multiple columns to an existing table. Following is the Syntax, alter table table-name add(column-name1 datatype1, column-name2 datatype2, column -name3 datatype3); Here is an Example for this, alter table Student add(father-name varchar(60), mother-name varchar(60), dob dat e); The above command will add three new columns to the Student table

To Add column with Default Value

alter command can add a new column to an existing table with default values. Following is the Syntax, alter table table-name add(column-name1 datatype1 default data); Here is an Example for this, alter table Student add(dob date default '1-Jan-99'); The above command will add a new column with default value to the Student table

To Modify an existing Column

alter command is used to modify data type of an existing column . Following is the Syntax, alter table table-name modify(column-name datatype);

Here is an Example for this, alter table Student modify(address varchar(30)); The above command will modify address column of the Student table

To Rename a column
Using alter command you can rename an existing column. Following is the Syntax, alter table table-name rename old-column-name to column-name; Here is an Example for this, alter table Student rename address to Location; The above command will rename address column to Location.

To Drop a Column
alter command is also used to drop columns also. Following is the Syntax, alter table table-name drop(column-name); Here is an Example for this, alter table Student drop(address); The above command will drop address column from the Student table

truncate command
truncate command removes all records from a table. But this command will not destroy the table's structure. When we apply truncate command on a table its Primary key is initialized. Following is its Syntax, truncate table table-name Here is an Example explaining it. truncate table Student; The above query will delete all the records of Student table.

drop command
drop query completely removes a table from database. This command will also destroy the table structure. Following is its Syntax, drop table table-name Here is an Example explaining it. drop table Student; The above query will delete the Student table completely. It can also be used on Databases. For Example, to drop a database, drop database Test; The above query will drop a database named Test from the system.

rename query
rename command is used to rename a table. Following is its Syntax, rename old-table-name to table-name Here is an Example explaining it. rename Student to Student-record; The above query will rename Student table to Student-record.

DML command
Data Manipulation Language (DML) statements are used for managing data in database. DML commands are not auto-committed. It means changes made by DML command are not permanent to database, it can be rolled back.

1) INSERT command
Insert command is used to insert data into a table. Following is its general syntax, INSERT into table-name values(data1,data2,..) Lets see an example,

Consider a table Student with following fields. S_id S_Name age

INSERT into Student values(101,'Adam',15); The above command will insert a record into Student table. S_id S_Name age

101

Adam

15

Example to Insert NULL value to a column

All the 3 statements below will insert NULL value into age column of the Student table. INSERT into Student(id,name) values(102,'Alex'); Or, INSERT into Student values(102,'Alex',null); Or, INSERT into Student values(102,'Alex',''); The above command will insert only two column value other column is set to null. S_id S_Name age

101

Adam

15

102

Alex

Example to Insert Default value to a column

INSERT into Student values(103,'Chris',default) S_id S_Name age

101

Adam

15

102

Alex

103

chris

14

Suppose the age column of student table has default value of 14.

2) UPDATE command
Update command is used to update a row of a table. Following is its general syntax, UPDATE table-name set column-name = value where condition; Lets see an example, update Student set age=18 where s_id=102; S_id S_Name age

101

Adam

15

102

Alex

18

103

chris

14

Example to Update multiple columns

UPDATE Student set s_name='Abhi',age=17 where s_id=103;

The above command will update two columns of a record. S_id S_Name age

101

Adam

15

102

Alex

18

103

Abhi

17

3) Delete command
Delete command is used to delete data from a table. Delete command can also be used with condition to delete a particular row. Following is its general syntax, DELETE from table-name;

Example to Delete all Records from a Table

DELETE from Student; The above command will delete all the records from Student table.

Example to Delete a particular Record from a Table

Consider the following Student table S_id S_Name age

101

Adam

15

102

Alex

18

103

Abhi

17

DELETE from Student where s_id=103; The above command will delete the record where s_id is 103 from Student table. S_id S_Name age

101

Adam

15

102

Alex

TCL command
Transaction Control Language(TCL) commands are used to manage transactions in database.These are used to manage the changes made by DML statements. It also allows statements to be grouped together into logical transactions.

Commit command
Commit command is used to permanently save any transaaction into database. Following is Commit command's syntax, commit;

Rollback command
This command restores the database to last commited state. It is also use with savepoint command to jump to a savepoint in a transaction.

Following is Rollback command's syntax, rollback to savepoint-name;

Savepoint command
savepoint command is used to temporarily save a transaction so that you can rollback to that point whenever necessary. Following is savepoint command's syntax, savepoint savepoint-name;

Example of Savepoint and Rollback

Following is the class table, ID NAME

abhi

adam

alex

Lets use some SQL queries on the above table and see the results. INSERT into class values(5,'Rahul'); commit; UPDATE class set name='abhijit' where id='5'; savepoint A; INSERT into class values(6,'Chris'); savepoint B; INSERT into class values(7,'Bravo');

savepoint C; SELECT * from class; The resultant table will look like, ID NAME

abhi

adam

alex

abhijit

chris

bravo

Now rollback to savepoint B rollback to B; SELECT * from class; The resultant table will look like ID NAME

abhi

adam

alex

abhijit

chris

Now rollback to savepoint A rollback to A; SELECT * from class; The result table will look like ID NAME

abhi

adam

alex

abhijit

DCL command
Data Control Language(DCL) is used to control privilege in Database. To perform any operation in the database, such as for creating tables, sequences or views we need privileges. Privileges are of two types,

System : creating session, table etc are all types of system privilege. Object : any command or query to work on tables comes under object privilege.

DCL defines two commands,

Grant : Gives user access privileges to database. Revoke : Take back permissions from user.

To Allow a User to create Session

grant create session to username;

To Allow a User to create Table

grant create table to username;

To provide User with some Space on Tablespace to store Table

alter user username quota unlimited on system;

To Grant all privilege to a User

grant sysdba to username

To Grant permission to Create any Table

grant create any table to username

To Grant permission to Drop any Table

grant drop any table to username

To take back Permissions

revoke create table from username

WHERE clause
Where clause is used to specify condition while retriving data from table. Where clause is used mostly withSelect, Update and Delete query. If condititon specified by where clause is true then only the result from table is returned.

Syntax for WHERE clause

SELECT column-name1, column-name2, column-name3, column-nameN from table-name WHERE [condition];

Example using WHERE clause

Consider a Student table, s_id s_Name age address

101

Adam

15

Noida

102

Alex

18

Delhi

103

Abhi

17

Rohtak

104

Ankit

22

Panipat

Now we will use a SELECT statement to display data of the table, based on a condition, which we will add to the SELECT query using WHERE clause. SELECT s_id,

s_name, age, address from Student WHERE s_id=101; s_id s_Name age address

101

Adam

15

Noida

SELECT Query
Select query is used to retrieve data from a tables. It is the most used SQL query. We can retrieve complete tables, or partial by mentioning conditions using WHERE clause.

Syntax of SELECT Query

SELECT column-name1, column-name2, column-name3, column-nameN from table-name;

Example for SELECT Query

Conside the following Student table,
S_id S_Name age address

101

Adam

15

Noida

102

Alex

18

Delhi

103

Abhi

17

Rohtak

104

Ankit

22

Panipat

SELECT s_id, s_name, age from Student.

The above query will fetch information of s_id, s_name and age column from Student table
S_id S_Name age

101

Adam

15

102

Alex

18

103

Abhi

17

104

Ankit

22

Example to Select all Records from Table

A special character asterisk * is used to address all the data(belonging to all columns) in a query. SELECTstatement uses * character to retrieve all records from a table.
SELECT * from student;

The above query will show all the records of Student table, that means it will show complete Student table as result.
S_id S_Name age address

101

Adam

15

Noida

102

Alex

18

Delhi

103

Abhi

17

Rohtak

104

Ankit

22

Panipat

Example to Select particular Record based on Condition

SELECT * from Student WHERE s_name = 'Abhi';

103

Abhi

17

Rohtak

Example to Perform Simple Calculations using Select Query

Conside the following Employee table.
eid Name age salary

101

Adam

26

5000

102

Ricky

42

8000

103

Abhi

22

10000

104

Rohan

35

5000

SELECT eid, name, salary+3000

from Employee;

The above command will display a new column in the result, showing 3000 added into existing salaries of the employees.
eid Name salary+3000

101

Adam

8000

102

Ricky

11000

103

Abhi

13000

104

Rohan

8000

Like clause
Like clause is used as condition in SQL query. Like clause compares data with an expression using wildcard operators. It is used to find similar data from the table.

Wildcard operators
There are two wildcard operators that are used in like clause.

Percent sign % : represents zero, one or more than one character. Underscore sign _ : represents only one character.

Example of LIKE clause

Consider the following Student table. s_id s_Name age

101

Adam

15

102

Alex

18

103

Abhi

17

SELECT * from Student where s_name like = 'A%'; The above query will return all records where s_name starts with character 'A'. s_id s_Name age

101

Adam

15

102

Alex

18

103

Abhi

17

Example
SELECT * from Student where s_name like = '_d%'; The above query will return all records from Student table where s_name contain 'd' as second character. s_id s_Name age

101

Adam

15

Example
SELECT * from Student where s_name like = '%x'; The above query will return all records from Student table where s_name contain 'x' as last character.

s_id

s_Name

age

102

Alex

Order By Clause
Order by clause is used with Select statement for arranging retrieved data in sorted order. The Order byclause by default sort data in ascending order. To sort data in descending order DESC keyword is used withOrder by clause.

Syntax of Order By
SELECT column-list|* from table-name order by asc|desc;

Example using Order by

Consider the following Emp table, eid name age salary

401

Anu

22

9000

402

Shane

29

8000

403

Rohan

34

6000

404

Scott

44

10000

405

Tiger

35

8000

SELECT * from Emp order by salary; The above query will return result in ascending order of the salary. eid name age salary

403

Rohan

34

6000

402

Shane

29

8000

405

Tiger

35

8000

401

Anu

22

9000

404

Scott

44

10000

Example of Order by DESC

Consider the Emp table described above, SELECT * from Emp order by salary DESC; The above query will return result in descending order of the salary. eid name age salary

404

Scott

44

10000

401

Anu

22

9000

405

Tiger

35

8000

402

Shane

29

8000

403

Rohan

34

6000

Group By Clause
Group by clause is used to group the results of a SELECT query based on one or more columns. It is also used with SQL functions to group the result from one or more tables. Syntax for using Group by in a statement. SELECT column_name, function(column_name) FROM table_name WHERE condition GROUP BY column_name

Example of Group by in a Statement

Consider the following Emp table. eid name age salary

401

Anu

22

9000

402

Shane

29

8000

403

Rohan

34

6000

404

Scott

44

9000

405

Tiger

35

8000

Here we want to find name and age of employees grouped by their salaries SQL query for the above requirement will be, SELECT name, age from Emp group by salary Result will be, name age

Rohan

34

shane

29

anu

22

Example of Group by in a Statement with WHERE clause

Consider the following Emp table eid name age salary

401

Anu

22

9000

402

Shane

29

8000

403

Rohan

34

6000

404

Scott

44

9000

405

Tiger

35

8000

SQL query will be, select name, salary from Emp where age > 25 group by salary Result will be. name salary

Rohan

6000

Shane

8000

Scott

9000

You must remember that Group By clause will always come at the end, just like the Order by clause.

HAVING Clause
having clause is used with SQL Queries to give more precise condition for a statement. It is used to mention condition in Group based SQL functions, just like WHERE clause. Syntax for having will be, select column_name, function(column_name) FROM table_name WHERE column_name condition GROUP BY column_name HAVING function(column_name) condition

Example of HAVING Statement

Consider the following Sale table. oid order_name previous_balance customer

11

ord1

2000

Alex

12

ord2

1000

Adam

13

ord3

2000

Abhi

14

ord4

1000

Adam

15

ord5

2000

Alex

Suppose we want to find the customer whose previous_balance sum is more than 3000. We will use the below SQL query, SELECT * from sale group customer having sum(previous_balance) > 3000 Result will be, oid order_name previous_balance customer

11

ord1

2000

Alex

Distinct keyword
The distinct keyword is used with Select statement to retrieve unique values from the table. Distinct removes all the duplicate records while retrieving from database.

Syntax for DISTINCT Keyword

SELECT distinct column-name from table-name;

Example
Consider the following Emp table.
eid name age salary

401

Anu

22

5000

402

Shane

29

8000

403

Rohan

34

10000

404

Scott

44

10000

405

Tiger

35

8000

select distinct salary from Emp;

The above query will return only the unique salary from Emp table
salary

5000

8000

10000

AND & OR operator

AND and OR operators are used with Where clause to make more precise conditions for fetching data from database by combining more than one condition together.

AND operator
AND operator is used to set multiple conditions with Where clause.

Example of AND
Consider the following Emp table
eid name age salary

401

Anu

22

5000

402

Shane

29

8000

403

Rohan

34

12000

404

Scott

44

10000

405

Tiger

35

9000

SELECT * from Emp WHERE salary < 10000 AND age > 25

The above query will return records where salary is less than 10000 and age greater than 25.
eid name age salary

402

Shane

29

8000

405

Tiger

35

9000

OR operator
OR operator is also used to combine multiple conditions with Where clause. The only difference between AND and OR is their behaviour. When we use AND to combine two or more than two conditions, records satisfying all the condition will be in the result. But in case of OR, atleast one condition from the conditions specified must be satisfied by any record to be in the result.

Example of OR
Consider the following Emp table
eid name age salary

401

Anu

22

5000

402

Shane

29

8000

403

Rohan

34

12000

404

Scott

44

10000

405

Tiger

35

9000

SELECT * from Emp WHERE salary > 10000 OR age > 25

The above query will return records where either salary is greater than 10000 or age greater than 25.
402 Shane 29 8000

403

Rohan

34

12000

404

Scott

44

10000

405

Tiger

35

9000

SQL Constraints
SQl Constraints are rules used to limit the type of data that can go into a table, to maintain the accuracy and integrity of the data inside table. Constraints can be divided into following two types,

Column level constraints : limits only column data Table level constraints : limits whole table data

Constraints are used to make sure that the integrity of data is maintained in the database. Following are the most used constraints that can be applied to a table.

NOT NULL UNIQUE PRIMARY KEY FOREIGN KEY CHECK

DEFAULT

NOT NULL Constraint

NOT NULL constraint restricts a column from having a NULL value. Once NOT NULL constraint is applied to a column, you cannot pass a null value to that column. It enforces a column to contain a proper value. One important point to note about NOT NULL constraint is that it cannot be defined at table level.

Example using NOT NULL constraint

CREATE table Student(s_id int NOT NULL, Name varchar(60), Age int);

The above query will declare that the s_id field of Student table will not take NULL value.

UNIQUE Constraint
UNIQUE constraint ensures that a field or column will only have unique values. A UNIQUE constraint field will not have duplicate data. UNIQUE constraint can be applied at column level or table level.

Example using UNIQUE constraint when creating a Table (Table Level)

CREATE table Student(s_id int NOT NULL UNIQUE, Name varchar(60), Age int);

The above query will declare that the s_id field of Student table will only have unique values and wont take NULL value.

Example using UNIQUE constraint after Table is created (Column Level)

ALTER table Student add UNIQUE(s_id);

The above query specifies that s_id field of Student table will only have unique value.

Primary Key Constraint

Primary key constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database. A Primary Key must contain unique value and it must not contain null value. Usually Primary Key is used to index the data inside the table.

Example using PRIMARY KEY constraint at Table Level

CREATE table Student (s_id int PRIMARY KEY, Name varchar(60) NOT NULL, Age int);

The above command will creates a PRIMARY KEY on the s_id .

Example using PRIMARY KEY constraint at Column Level

ALTER table Student add PRIMARY KEY (s_id);

The above command will creates a PRIMARY KEY on the s_id .

Foreign Key Constraint

FOREIGN KEY is used to relate two tables. FOREIGN KEY constraint is also used to restrict actions that would destroy links between tables. To understand FOREIGN KEY, let's see it using two table. Customer_Detail Table : c_id Customer_Name address

101

Adam

Noida

102

Alex

Delhi

103

Stuart

Rohtak

Order_Detail Table : Order_id Order_Name c_id

10

Order1

101

11

Order2

103

12

Order3

102

In Customer_Detail table, c_id is the primary key which is set as foreign key in Order_Detail table. The value that is entered in c_id which is set as foreign key in Order_Detail table must be present in Customer_Detailtable where it is set as primary key. This prevents invalid data to be inserted into c_id column of Order_Detailtable.

Example using FOREIGN KEY constraint at Table Level

CREATE table Order_Detail(order_id int PRIMARY KEY, order_name varchar(60) NOT NULL, c_id int FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES Customer_Detail(c_id));

In this query, c_id in table Order_Detail is made as foriegn key, which is a reference of c_id column of Customer_Detail.

Example using FOREIGN KEY constraint at Column Level

ALTER table Order_Detail add FOREIGN KEY (c_id) REFERENCES Customer_Detail(c_id);

Behaviour of Foriegn Key Column on Delete

There are two ways to maintin the integrity of data in Child table, when a particular record is deleted in main table. When two tables are connected with Foriegn key, and certain data in the main table is deleted, for which record exit in child table too, then we must have some mechanism to save the integrity of data in child table.

On Delete Cascade : This will remove the record from child table, if that value of foriegn key is deleted from the main table.

On Delete Null : This will set all the values in that record of child table as NULL, for which the value of foriegn key is eleted from the main table.

If we don't use any of the above, then we cannot delete data from the main table for which data in child table exists. We will get an error if we try to do so.
ERROR : Record in child table exist

CHECK Constraint
CHECK constraint is used to restrict the value of a column between a range. It performs check on the values, before storing them into the database. Its like condition checking before saving data into a column.

Example using CHECK constraint at Table Level

create table Student(s_id int NOT NULL CHECK(s_id > 0), Name varchar(60) NOT NULL, Age int);

The above query will restrict the s_id value to be greater than zero.

Example using CHECK constraint at Column Level

ALTER table Student add CHECK(s_id > 0);