Working scientifically

Introduction Working scientifically involves the processes of science, including understanding the sorts of questions that are the province of science; the design of experiments; reasoning and arguing with scientific evidence; and analysing and interpreting data. Detailed discussion of working scientifically in primary schools can be found in Keith Skamps Teaching primary science constructively (Thomson Learning2004). An example of the forms of knowledge associated with working scientifically can be found in the Victorian Curriculum and Standards Framework (CSF) for science, which can be found on the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority website <http://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/index.html>. Key concepts of working scientifically The activities in this topic are designed to explore the following key concepts: Working scientifically involves particular forms of reasoning with evidence that is different in detail from reasoning in other areas. There is no one scientific method, but many ways in which scientists plan to establish ideas and generate evidence to explore and support these ideas. An oft-cited example of scientific method is the controlled experiment, where the relationship between an effect and a variable is explored, with other potentially confounding variables controlled (i.e. kept the same). An example would be the exploration of the effect of the length of a pendulum on its period of swing, keeping the weight and swing size the same but varying the length and timing of the swing. However, for many branches of science, this type of control is not possible. For instance, in studying ecological systems, in many cases theories must be established by looking at existing ecosystems with many variables. In geology and astronomy the idea of controlling and repeating observations is very different. What is common to all these areas, however, is the collection of evidence to support or argue against claims, and reasoning with evidence that attempts to isolate clear causes for phenomena. Working scientifically involves a number of concepts of evidence, including the purpose and techniques of focused observation, there cognition of a scientific question that can be investigated, the need for repeat measurements and skills in devising measurement processes, ways of recording data (these can vary considerably) and representing data for analysis, different experimental designs and associated principles (e.g. understanding sample size in making observations in the field), and

reporting.

Students alternative conceptions of working scientifically Research into students ideas about this topic has identified the following nonscientific conceptions: Students will not immediately see the task of an investigation as exploring ideas or looking for patterns, but will treat an investigation simply as establishing what is without thought for considering alternative interpretations. Students have problems recognising what is an investigable question and will propose questions such as What is electricity? as the basis for investigation. Their questions need to be worked with and clarified to become amenable to scientific investigation. Students will not understand many of the concepts relating to measurementfor instance, the reading of a scale, the recording of comparison measurements using consistent processes, the calibration of instruments, the need for repeat measurements and the concept of uncertainty in measurement. They need to be supported in making defensible measurements. Students can understand the need to control variables in simple situations(to make the test fair), such as the need to use the same amount of each type of sugar when comparing the solubility of sugars. However, they have difficulty in cases of interacting variables (e.g. finding out the separate effects of weight and length on a pendulum swing, or the separate effect of light and moisture in determining where slaters prefer to live). Students will not understand the power of laying out data in tables and graphs, and the use of a table as a design organiser to help plan a series of measurements. Depending on their knowledge and experience, students may have trouble arguing clearly from evidence.

It has been amply demonstrated that, with appropriate support, even very young children are capable of distinguishing between observations and inferences, of asking investigable questions, planning experiments and arguing from evidence. Consumer science

Consumer science refers to activities in the classroom whereby students use scientific processes to make judgments about consumer products. Although consumer science does not fall easily into any major curriculum topic categories, it is an important and fun vehicle for teaching students about some of the science processes such as fair testing, measuring and recording. It provides a vehicle for learning about the nature of scientific investigation. It should be noted, however, that these investigations, because they mostly involve comparisons on the basis of criteria, do not illustrate the more difficult nature of working scientifically that deals with the exploration of conceptual ideas. Skills and understandings of consumer science The activities in this topic are designed to develop the following skills and understandings of this topic: how to formulate useful, investigable questions the importance of measuring accurately why it is necessary to ensure that all tests are fair and repeatable the purpose of planning and designing investigations how to design valid experiments with appropriate variable control how to design measurement procedures how to represent data for analysis and reporting. Things to consider when completing activities The activities in this topic give examples of some types of products suitable for early and middle years consumer science testing. In judging different products, the things that need to be considered (summarising the discussion above) are: what criteria are relevant for the evaluation what weighting should be given to the various criteria whether the test is fair

 whether the results are reproducible whether the method of comparison (scale, addition of scores, etc.) is appropriate. Development of students testing capabilities The following descriptions of students capabilities at different year levels, and the type of activity appropriate for each, are based on reports of Deakin University students teaching consumer science activities to groups of student since schools. Prep/Year 1 It is most appropriate to structure tests and scaffold childrens experimenting. Criteria and procedures need to be decided by the teacher, using simple test sand comparisons, rather than measurements. Ensure there is a low demand for manipulation skills. Examples of appropriate tests include comparing the sweetness of cereals, the amount of salt or oil in chips or the amount of bubble in detergents. Year 2 Students can define criteria, but have little understanding of a fair test, e.g. so they may cheat to make sure their chosen sample wins. Year 3 Students are beginning to appreciate the notion of a fair test. They can define criteria and conduct given tests with fairness and appreciate how differences in results can arise.

Year 4 Depending on the content area, students should now be able to design experiments and plan measurements with minimal input from the teacher. Years 5 and above The comparison of products by discussion of weighting of criteria is increasingly possible. Students are able to set out tables and deal with different orders on different criteria. They can hold a reasoned discussion on the factor saffecting the performance of different products, and ways of exploring these further. Activities Exploring consumer science

Key ideas: Articulating and refining questions. Designing experiments and controlling variables. Developing measurement procedures. Constructing and interpreting data representations

A C T I V I T Y: P O TAT O Teaching note: This activity can be used for all levels but will need to be CHIPS adapted accordingly. Have the students work in groups. Each group should have a score sheet and a recorder, a reporter, a timekeeper and someone to hand out each item. Make sure all the students take it in turns to taste the items. You might want to collect the information and collate it on the board. Some discussion of the problems with testing, especially the problems associated in keeping things fair, should be encouraged.

You will need: a variety of brands of potato chips brown paper squares brown paper bags rollingpins breadboards jars of water.

a) Test for salt content Taste directlyhave ONE student taste each brand of chip to determine and give their opinion of which is the saltiest. It might be a good idea to blindfold the student so they do not see the brand they are tasting and select their favourite (or least favourite, accordingly)

Dissolve in water and taste (what will you control?)crush a chip of each brand (making sure you keep the samples the same size) and put the crumbs of each chip into separate containers with about 40 mL of water. Add a pinch of salt to another40 mL of water. Have a clean glass of water on hand. Alternatively taste the salted water and each chip water, taking a sip of fresh water in between tastes. Which is saltier? b) Test for oil content by rubbing between sheets of brown paper Place a chip between two sheets of brown paper on the breadboard, and then crush it by rolling over it with the rolling pin. How much oil appears on the brown paper? Measure the spot using a ruler. Alternatively, place a chip on top of a pile of brown paper pieces. Roll over it using the rolling pin. How many thicknesses of paper did the oil penetrate? Hold the oil patch over some print or up to the light. How translucent is the patch? Repeat the experiment for the other brands of chips. c) Taste test Place a sample of each brand of chip into a paper bag. Have one student act as the taste-tester (only one student at a time should test the chips!). Get the student to taste each brand of chip from the unmarked bags. It might be a good idea to get them to have a sip of clean water between each taste. What could they test for (e.g. crunch, flavour, texture)? d) Testing the packaging Examine the packaging that the chips come in. How is the manufacturer trying to sell the chips? What colours are used in the packaging? What is the salt or fat content according to the nutrition label? Is there a trinket included in the pack? Is this important to the group? How easy are the bags to open? Rate what the students think of each and keep score. Which brand of chips is considered to be best according to its packaging? Why? Rank the criteria in order of importance. Which chips would you recommend A C T I V I T Y: CEREAL Teaching note: This activity is similar to the chip experiment above and so the same guidance should be offered. The experiments outlined above for potato

chips can be carried out for cereals, although you should test for sugar content instead of salt! You will need: a variety of cereal packages.

Look at the packet nutrition guide. Compare cereals for sugar, fat, carbohydrate content.

A C T I V I T Y: TESTING BALLS Teaching note: This activity is suitable for all levels depending on the comparisons made. You will need: a range of types of balls, e.g. tennis, squash, ping-pong, golf, rubber, plastic a range of different surfaces, e.g. carpet, concrete, grass a metre rule