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Experiment -1
Aim : Study and measurement of frequency using Lissajous pattern Apparatus :Introduction: The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides accurate time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a general purpose laboratory instrument. The heart of the CRO is a cathode-ray tube shown schematically in Fig. 1. The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the heated cathode (negative electrode) and accelerated toward the fluorescent screen. The assembly of the cathode, intensity grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode (positive electrode) is called an electron gun. Its purpose is to generate the electron beam and control its intensity and focus. Between the electron gun and the fluorescent screen are two pair of metal plates - one oriented to provide horizontal deflection of the beam and one pair oriented ot give vertical deflection to the beam. These plates are thus referred to as the horizontal and vertical deflection plates. The combination of these two deflections allows the beam to reach any portion of the fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron beam hits the screen, the phosphor is excited and light is emitted from that point. This conversion of electron energy into light allows us to write with points or lines of light on an otherwise darkened screen. The linear deflection or sweep of the beam horizontally is accomplished by use of a sweep generator that is incorporated in the oscilloscope circuitry. The voltage output of such a generator is that of a sawtooth wave. Application of one cycle of this voltage difference, which increases linearly with time, to the horizontal plates causes the beam to be deflected linearly with time across the tube face. When the voltage suddenly falls to zero, as at points (a) (b) (c), etc...., the end of each sweep the beam flies back to its initial position. The horizontal deflection of the beam is repeated periodically, the frequency of this periodicity is adjustable by external controls. To obtain steady traces on the tube face, an internal number of cycles of the unknown signal that is applied to the vertical plates must be associated with each cycle of the sweep generator. Thus, with such a matching of synchronization of the two deflections, the pattern on the tube face repeats itself and hence appears to remain stationary. The persistence of vision in the human eye and of the glow of the fluorescent screen aids in producing a stationary pattern. In addition, the electron beam is cut off (blanked) during fly back so that the retrace sweep is not observed. CRO Operation: A simplified block diagram of a typical oscilloscope is shown in Fig. 3. In general, the instrument is operated in the following manner. The signal to be displayed is amplified by the vertical amplifier and applied to the verical deflection plates of the CRT. A portion of the signal in the vertical 1 C.R.O, Function generator, Multimeter, Oscillator

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amplifier is applied to the sweep trigger as a triggering signal. The sweep trigger then generates a pulse coincident with a selected point in the cycle of the triggering signal. This pulse turns on the sweep generator, initiating the sawtooth wave form. The sawtooth wave is amplified by the horizontal amplifier and applied to the horizontal deflection plates. Usually, additional provisions signal are made for applying an external triggering signal or utilizing the 60 Hz line for triggering. Also the sweep generator may be bypassed and an external signal applied directly to the horizontal amplifier.

CRO Controls The controls available on most oscilloscopes provide a wide range of operating conditions and thus make the instrument especially versatile. Since many of these controls are common to most oscilloscopes a brief description of them follows. Cathode Ray Tube Power and Scale Illumination:Turns instrument on and controls illumination of the graticule. Focus: Focus the spot or trace on the screen. Intensity:Regulates the brightness of the spot or trace.

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Connections for the Oscilloscope Vertical Input: A pair of jacks for connecting the signal under study to the Y (or vertical) amplifier. The lower jack is grounded to the case. Horizontal Input A pair of jacks for connecting an external signal to the horizontal amplifier. The lower terminal is grounded to the case of the oscilloscope. External Trigger Input:Input connector for external trigger signal. Cal. Out:Provides amplitude calibrated square waves of 25 and 500 millivolts for use in calibrating the gain of the amplifiers. Accuracy of the v ertical deflection is + 3%. Sensitivity is variable. Horizontal sweep should be accurate to within 3%. Range of sweep is variable. Procedure: I. Set the signal generator to a frequency of 1000 cycles per second. Connect the output from the generator to the vertical input of the oscilloscope. Establish a steady trace of this input signal on the scope. Adjust (play with) all of the scope and signal generator controls until you become familiar with the function of each. The purpose fo such "playing" is to allow the student to become so familiar with the oscilloscope that it becomes an aid (tool) in making measurements in other experiments and not as a formidable obstacle. Note: If the vertical gain is set too low, it may not be possible to obtain a steady trace. II. Measurements of Voltage: Consider the circuit in Fig. 4(a). The signal generator is used to produce a 1000 hertz sine wave. The AC voltmeter and the leads to the vertical input of the oscilloscope are connected across the generator's output. By adjusting the Horizontal Sweep time/cm 3 and trigger, a steady trace of the sine wave may be displayed on the screen. The trace represents a plot of voltage vs. time, where the vertical deflection of the trace about the line of symmetry CD is proportional to the magnitude of the voltage at any instant of time.

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To determine the size of the voltage signal appearing at the output of terminals of the signal generator, an AC (Alternating Current) voltmeter is connected in parallel across these terminals (Fig. 4a). The AC voltmeter is designed to read the dc "effective value" of the voltage. This effective value is also known as the "Root Mean Square value" (RMS) value of the voltage. The peak or maximum voltage seen on the scope face (Fig. 4b) is Vm volts and is represented by the distance from the symmetry line CD to the maximum deflection. The relationship between the magnitude of the peak voltage displayed on the scope and the effective or RMS voltage (VRMS) read on the AC voltmeter is VRMS = 0.707 Vm (for a sine or cosine wave). III. Lissajous Figures: When sine-wave signals of different frequencies are input to the horizontal and vertical amplifiers a stationary pattern is formed on the CRT when the ratio of the two frequencies is an integral fraction such as 1/2, 2/3, 4/3, 1/5, etc. These stationary patterns are known as Lissajous figures and can be used for comparison measurement of frequencies. Use two oscillators to generate some simple Lissajous figures like those shown in Fig. 5. You will find it difficult to maintain the Lissajous figures in a fixed configuration because the two oscillators are not phase and frequency locked. Their frequencies and phase drift slowly causing the two different signals to change slightly with respect to each other. Result :- CRO is Studied

Ques1: Ans:

What is C.R.O. It stands for Cathode Ray Oscilloscope which is capable of giving a visual indication of the signal wave form.

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Ques2: Ans:

Why Delay line used in C.R.O. The function of delay line is to slow down the arrival of the input waveform at the vertical deflecting plates until the trigger at time base ckt have an opportunity to start the sweep of the beam so the proper synchronization is maintain b/w horizontal & vertical signal. What is C.R.T. Why Control Grid is used in C.R.T. It stands for Cathode Ray Tube & it is the heart of CRO. The control grid is used to control the intensity of electrons. What is Graticule? The Graticule is agrid of lines that serves as a scale while making time and amplitude measurement. What is Lissajous Figure. The closed loop patterns displays on the CRT screen by the two signals,applied to vertical & horizontal plates,are known as Lissajous figure.

Ques3: Ans:

Ques4: Ans: Ques5: Ans:

Experiment - 2
Aim :- Measurement of displacement using LVDT

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Apparatus:LVDT kit, Multimeter, Connecting probes Theory:Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) are used to measure displacement. LVDTs operate on the principle of a transformer. As shown in figure 4, an LVDT consists of a coil as assembly and a core. The coil assembly is typically mounted to a stationary form, while the core is secured to the object whose position is being measured. The coil assembly consists of three coils of wire wound on the hollow form. A core of permeable material can slide freely through the center of the form. The inner coil is the primary, which is excited by an AC source as shown. Magnetic flux produced by the primary is coupled to the two secondary coils, inducing an AC voltage in each coil. LVDT Measurement : LVDT measures displacement by associating a specific signal value for any given position of the core. This association of a signal value to a position occurs through electromagnetic coupling of an AC excitation signal on the primary winding to the core and back to the secondary windings. The position of the core determines how tightly the signal of the primary coil is coupled to each of the secondary coils. The two secondary coils are series-opposed, which means wound in series but in opposite directions. This results in the two signals on each secondary being 180 deg out of phase. Therefore phase of the output signal determines direction and its amplitude,distance.

6
Displacing the core to the left causes the first secondary to be more strongly coupled to the primary than the second secondary. The resulting higher voltage of the first secondary in relation to the second secondary causes an output voltage that is in phase with the primary voltage. Procedure:-

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1. Switch ON the trainer. 2. Make micrometer to read 10 mm . 3. Display will indicate 00.0. This is the position when core is at center i.e equal flux linking to both the secondary. 4. Rotating thimble again clockwise by 0.1mm. Reading will be taken after each 0.1 mm rotation until micrometer read 0 mm. This is positive end. At this point secondary I have highest voltage and secondary II has lowest voltage. 5. Rotate thimble anticlockwise so that micrometer read 10 mm. 6. Rotate thimble anti clockwise so that micrometer read 10.1 mm. It will move core 0.1 mm outside the LVDT and simultaneously observe reading on display. It will indicate displacement from 10 mm position in negative direction. The reading will be negative. It indicates that secondary II is at higher voltage than secondary I. 7. Take reading of voltage generated in coil by connecting multimeter on output point of LVDT kit.

Observation Table: S.no Displacement in micrometer Display displacement(mm) Generated voltage (mv)

1 2 3 4

7
Ques1: Ans: Ques2: Ans: Why LVDT is used? LVDT is used for measurement of linear displacement In an LVDT which type of material is used for making core? High permeability, nickel- iron hydrogen annealed

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Ques3: Ans: Ques4: Ans: Ques5: Ans:

On which principle LVDT works ? It works on the principle of Electromagnetic Induction What are the advantages of LVDT High Range, friction and electrical isolation, Low hysteresis, low power consumption Why we connect two secondaries in differential (anti-parallel)? In order to obtain null point for the displacement of core

Experiment -3
Aim :- Strain measurement and calibration. Apparatus :Strain gauge Kit, Connecting Probes Theory:-Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force. More specifically, strain () is defined as the fractional change in length, as shown below.

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L = L Strain can be positive (tensile) or negative (compressive). Although dimensionless,strain is sometimes expressed in units such as in/in or mm/mm. In practice, the magnitude of measured strain is very small. Therefore, strain is often expressed as micro strain (-strain), which is x 10 -6. Types of Strain gauges : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Unbonded metal strain gauges. Bonded metal wire strain gauges. Bonded metal foil strain gauges. Vacuum deposited thin metal film strain gauges. Sputter deposited thin film metal strain gauges.

Procedure: 1.Switch On the trainer. 2.Observe reading of the display. It should be 000. 3.If the display reading is not 000 then adjust offset null. 9 4.Take reading of strain directly from display board . Observation Table: S. No 1 2 3 Weight in gm Strain

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Ques1: Ans:

What is Strain gauge. Strain gauge is passive resistance transducer which converts the mechanical elongation and compression in to a resistance change. What is the value of gauge factor for wire wound strain gauges? 1+2v Define Gauge Factor ? It is the ratio of small change in resistance to small change in length. How metal foil type strain gauges are superior than wire wound? They have higher dissipation capacity and easy fabrication In wire wound strain gauges, the change in resistance on application of strain is mainly due to ? Change in both length and diameter of wire.

Ques2: Ans: Ques3: Ans: Ques4: Ans: Ques5: Ans:

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Experiment -4
Aim :- Measurement of R, L, C and Q using Q meter . Appratus :- Q-Meter , power supply , Connecting wire Theory :Q-Measurement using a Q-Meter The basic ZPR has at least one tuned circuit that serves to tune the receiver to a desired station. Most of the receivers that are built by those who listen to far distant broadcasts will have several. While there is considerable lore on the web that present an algorithm for coil construction, this does not provide the numbers we need for design. If we are to really be able to analyze the

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circuits that we build, even in a circuit as primitive as a crystal receiver, we must do measurements on key components to characterize, and hence, model them. We must have resonator Q. Shown below is the basic topology of a Q-Meter, the HP-4342A.

HP4342A

This instrument has a built in signal generator (22 kHz up to 70 MHz) that supplies energy to a ferrite transformer with an extremely low output impedance, around one milliohm. The output has a magnitude e. This level is maintained with a detector and feedback loop. The signal is then applied to the inductor under test, which is attached to terminals on top of the instrument. The inductor is 11 tuned to resonance with a high quality, calibrated, built-in variable capacitor. The voltage across the capacitor is measured with a very high impedance RF voltmeter. The value of this voltage, E, is then directly related to Q. The lower the net series resistance, the higher E will be. Some amateur experimenters have built homebrew Q meters using the HP scheme. Calibration may be a challenge, but the basic concepts are fundamental and would form a sound basis for experimental efforts. I might be tempted to try some of the very wideband op-amps that are available today as a way to generate the ultra low output impedance drive. A modern measurement performed in industry or at an institution of higher learning will probably be done with a network analyzer. We will not go into any detail here, for that will take us far from our immediate goals. However, we should state that it is now quite possible for the amateur experimenter to build his or her own network analyzer. Some of the antenna analyzers now on the market edge in this direction.

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A network analyzer was described a few years ago in QEX. In my opinion though, the finest example of a home brew analyzer is that presented by Paul Kiciak, N2PK. Pauls vector (meaning that it gives impedance magnitude and angle, or real + imaginary) is found on the web at http://n2pk.com/ and offers measurements to 60 MHz with a 100 dB dynamic range.

The use of this method is very general and is not restricted in frequency.

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The EMRFD Q-Measurement Scheme

In this method, a tuned circuit containing the inductor to be measured is configured as a series resonator and is then connected as a shunt element. The basic scheme is shown below.

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A steady strong output is seen in the detector as the signal generator is tuned. As resonance is reached, the output dips down. The reactance of the inductor is cancelled by that of the capacitor exactly at resonance leaving nothing but the loss resistance, R, to attenuate the signal reaching the detector. The higher the Q the greater the dip will become. A more detailed diagram is shown below.

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PROCEDURE :This is certainly not a definitive experiment. It should be repeated with a coil where the Litz wire seemed to actually make a difference, and that was not the case with the toroid. However, the classic lore is not supported. But this makes sense after some thought (and some comments from colleague KK7B.) The weak dependence suggests that even though a cut at the end of a wire means that conduction is eliminated at the end of the wire, this does not mean that it is removed from the interior of the coil. Strand to strand capacitance guarantees that similar current will flow in each. The current in each forces the flow to the surface. If a strand is cut, there will still be some current flow in that strand back from the cut. The capacitance between strands connects the strands to those that are still connected at the end. The Basket Case Solenoid coils tend to have the highest Q if the wires are spaced by about 1 wire diameter. This lore is found in Doug DeMaws book on Ferromagnetic Inductors (Prentice Hall, 1981) and is quoted on the Amidon web page. This rule of thumb is reasonable. The highest inductance will occur with tight spacing. If the spacing increases beyond this, there is a greater chance that some of the magnetic flux from one wire in a coil will escape from the side of a coil and not link to all turns. If we plot the inductance of a solenoid of constant pitch versus the number of turns, L is proportional to N2 when N is small. However, the parabolic shape relaxes toward a linear dependence as N becomes large, especially as the length exceeds the diameter. Linear L versus N is akin to adding inductors in series where each one is isolated from the others. When one turn is directly next to the next turn with no gap, the current flowing in one turn will force some of the current in the next wire to move away. The overall effect produces non-uniform current in 14

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the wire surfaces. This is alleviated with a slight spacing between turns. But too much spacing decreases inductance too much. A classic coil type is the so called basket weave. A couple of coils of this type are shown, along with a coil winding fixture on page 7 of this report. There are an odd number of rods in the winding jig. This means that as we weave the wires among the rods, one turn will not be directly adjacent to the next turn. This makes the coil behave as if it was a solenoid spaced by 1 turn. But there is no real gap, so the coil length, and hence, inductance is the same as a tightly wound one would be. A similar coil was then wound with 175/46 Litz wire. Again, inductance was 265 uH. The 1 MHz Q was a spectacular 650. The Q dropped off at both 530 and 1630 kHz, but was OK over most of the range. This is the highest 1 MHz Q I had ever seen at that time. I remember frequent Q values well over 1000 with some helical resonators at 500 MHz, but that is common at UHF. Ferrite Rod Experiments The next resonator type to be investigated was the ferrite rod. The only new part that I had around was an Amidon R33-050-750, meaning that it was built from mix 33 type ferrite with a diameter of 0.5 inch and length 7.5 inch. This material has an initial permeability of 800, which is high enough to make me wonder about it as a high Q antenna material. Owing to the high permeability, the number of turns needed should be much less than the 70 turns suggested in the N7FKI paper. I put a layer of paper on the core and then would 36 turns of #22 enamel wire over the central 3 inches. The inductance was 158 uH. Additional turns would be needed to reach the desired 240 uH. Result: Then Q was measured. It was a miserable 58.6 at 1 MHz.

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Ques1: Ans:

Define Basic Q-Meter circuit. Q meter is an instrument which is design to measure some of the elecrical properties of coils & capacitor. Define Q of a coil. The ratio of reactance to resistance is called as Q of coil. Which method are used by Q-meter to measure impedance? (I) Series substitution method (ii) Shunt substitution method What is the principle of Q-meter? Q-meter principle is based on series resonance The Q-meter works on the principle of which type of resonance? Self resonant frequency.

Ques2: Ans: Ques3: Ans: Ques4: Ans: Ques5: Ans:

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Experiment -5

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Aim :- Study of temperature and resistance characteristics using RTD. Apparatus :- Experiment kit connecting probes digital multimeter Theory:The variation in resistance of metal with variation in temperature is the basis of of temperature measurement in platinum rtd The metal generally used is platinum or tungsten Platinum is especially suited for this purpose it can show limited susceptibility to contamination all metal produce a positive change in resistance with temprature This of course is the main function of an RTD. This implies that a metal with high value off resistance should be used for RTD the requirement of the conductor material to be used in RTD .The change in resistance of material per unit change in temperature should be as large as possible .The material should have high value of resistance so that minimum volume of material is used for the construction of RTD .The resistance of material should have continuous and stable relation ship with temperature .Platinum or tungsten wire is wound on a former to give a resistance in range of 10 K ohm depending upon application Procedure :1.Connect the circuit as shown in figure 2.The socket 'c'of slide potentiometer to +5v 3.The socket 'b' of slide potentiometer to output of platinum RTD connect digital multimeter as voltmeter on 200 mv orr 2v DC range in between output of platinum RTD &ground 4.Set the 10 K slider resistance midway 5.Switch on the instrument check the output of IC temperature sensor for ambient temperature by temporarily connecting DMM in 20 v DC range and find out the resistance in ohm for this particular temperature Say for example ambient is 250c then platinum RTD reading as per chart is 109.73 6.Switch on the power supply adjust the slider control of the 10 K ohm resistance to the voltage drop across the platinum RTD is 109mv as indicated by DMM This calibrate the platinum RTD for an ambient temperature of 250c since the resistance at 250c will be 109 ohms Note that the voltage reading across the RTD in mV is the same as the RTD resistance in ohms,since current flowing must be 0.109/109=1 mA 7.Connect the +12V supply to Heater element input and note the values of the voltage across the RTD with the voltmeter to its 200mV or 2V Range (this representing the RTD resistance ) and the output voltage from the IC temperature sensor with the voltmeter set to its 20 v range (this representing the temperature of the RTD ) after each minute given in below table

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Time (minutes)

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RTD Temperature RTD resistance (OHM )

8.Switch of the power supply and disconnect heater element supply (+12) Plot the graph of RTD resistance in ohm against temperature in 0c .It should resemble the one given below Temperature Vs resistance Table

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

100.00 100.39 100.78 101.17 101.56 101.95 102.34 102.73 103.12 103.51 103.90

30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

111.67 112.06 112.44 112.83 113.22 113.61 114.99 114..77 115.15 115.15 115.54

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Ques1:

What is RTD?

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Ans: Ques2: Ans: Ques3: Ans: Ques4: Ans: Ques5: Ans:

Resistance temperature Detector By which material RTD is made up of? Platinum Why platinum material is used for making RTD? Because of its linear resistance-temperature relationship and its chemical inertness What are the advantages of RTD? High accuracy, low drift, wide operating range. What is the disadvantages of RTD? RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 C.

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Experiment -6
Aim:- To measure the value of unknown capacitance with the help of schering bridge

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Apparatus Required :Analog board ,DC power supply,2mm patch cord ,Digital multimeter Theory :This bridge is the simplest method of comparing Two capacitance and to determine unknown capacitance In first arm Zx consist of an unknown capacitor cx in series with the resistance Rx and second arm consist of capacitor c3 and third arm consist of variable resistance R2 and forth arm consist of a parallel combination of resistance R 1 and capacitor c1 The balance can be obtained by varying the resistance R2of third arm At balance Z1Zx=Z2Z3 The value of Rx can be calculated by formula RX =R2C1/C3 The value of Cx can be calculated by the formula Cx =R1C3/R2 Procedure : 1.Connect external power supply 2.connect function generator probe in between Vin terminals 3.Make connection as shown in figure 4.Set 5Vpp,1 Khz input sinusoidal signal of function generate 5.Rotate the potentiometer R2 to find null or minimum sound is generated 6.Switch off the power supply and function generator 7.Take the reading of potentiometer resistance R2 between test points TP2 and TP3 8.calculate the value of capacitance Cxi and Rxi by there formula 9.Take the reading of unknown internal resistance Rx1 at socket a and test point Tp 10.Repeat the above steps for different values of Cx and Rx

20 1.Observation table :S no R1 C1 C R RX=R2C1/C3 CX= R1C3/R2

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Measured value of R2 is ...............ohm /k ohm Now measure the value of Cx by the formula CX= R1C3/R2 Now measure the value of Rx by the formula RX=R2C1/C3

Result :The capacitance of capacitor CX= ...........micro farad The effective resistance Rx= ...................ohm /K ohm

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Ques1: Ans: Ques2:

Which parameter is measured by Schering Bridge Capacitance What range of capacitance is measured by Schering Bridge?

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Ans: Ques3: Ans: Ques4: Ans: Ques5: Ans:

From 100pF to 1F Utilization of Schering Bridge? For measurement of relative permittivity. What is Dissipation Factor? The dissipation factor of a capacitor is the the ratio of its resistance to its capacitive reactance. Advantage of Schering bridge? Measurement of small capacitances carried out at low voltages.

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Experiment -7
Aim :-To measure the value of unknown inductance with the help of Maxwell's inductance bridge Apparatus Required :

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Analog board DC power supply 2mm patch cord Digital multimeter

Circuit Diagram:

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Theory : This is the simplest method of comparing two inductance and to determine the values off unknown inductance. Its first arm consist of a non inductive resistance R1 second arm consist of a standard inductor in series with the non inductive resistance R3 is used for resistance balance control third arm consist of an unknown inductors with internal resistance Rx The balance can be obtained by varying resistance R2 of third arm

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L1 = inductor with unknown inductance Rx= internal resistance, L3= standard inductor R1,R3= non inductive resistance At balance Z1 Zx=Z2 Z3 the value of Lx can be calculated by the formula Lx =L3R2/R1 Where Lis the value of unknown inductor and R is internal resistance

Procedure :1.Connect external power supply 2.Connect function generator probe in between Vin terminals. 3.Make connection as shown in figure 4.Set 5Vpp,1 Khz input sinusoidal signal of function generator 5.Rotate the potentiometer R2 to find null or minimum sound is generated 6.Switch off the power supply and function generator 7.Take the reading of potentiometer resistance R2 between test points TP2 and TP3 8.calculate the value of inductance Lxi and Rxi by there formula

24 9.Take the reading of unknown internal resistance Rx1 at socket a and test point Tp2

10.Repeat the above steps for different values of Lx and Rx

Observation Table :

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S NO

RI

R2

L3

LX=L3R2/R1

Rx=R2R3/R1

CALCULATION : Measured value of R2 is .............ohm Now measure the value of Lx by the form LX=L3R2/R1 Measured value of resistance Rx by the multimeter between socket .........ohm Now measure the values of Rx by the formula Rx=R2R3/R1 Result : The Inductance for Lx is measured to be =.............micro henry The internal Resistance is =.................ohm

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Ques1: Ans: Ques2: Ans: Ques3:

For which type of coil Maxwell's bridge is used? For low Q Coils i.e. 1<Q< 10 What range of inductance can be measured by Maxwell's bridge? From 1H to 1000H What is the disadvantage of Maxwell's bridge?

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Ans: Ques4: Ans: Ques5: Ans:

The Maxwell's bridge is unsuited for coils with very high Q values. How inductance is measured using Maxwell's Bridge? By comparing with the variable standard self inductance. What is the advantage of Maxwell's bridge? For measurement of wide range of inductance at power and audio frequencies.

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Experiment -8
Aim :- Study and measurement using pH meter. Apparatus Required:- Measuring Electrodes Theory :- Many industrial process require that the acidity or alkalinity of solution be measured and controlled if the process is to proceed effectively and efficiently. The degree of acidity or alkalinity of solutions be measured and controlled if the process is to proceed and the aqueous solution is determined by the relative concentration of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in the solution.

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When the hydrogen ion predominate the solution is acidic where the hydroxyl ion are in majority, the solution is alkaline. Since the product of hydrogen ion and hydroxyl ion concentration in any such solution has a constant value, measurement of hydrogen ion concentration indicates not only the acidity of a solution but its effective as well. The dissociation constant is the product of hydrogen (H+) ions and Hydroxyl (OH-) ions and this product is always equal to 10-14 hydrogen ion concentration is measured on a scale called pH scale. pH = - log10 (H+) This scale ranges from 0 to 14 for a neutral solution. pH= - log(10-7) = 7 Thus a neutral solution like pure water has a pH value of 7

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As the solution becomes more alkaline its pH scale reading increases above 7. The measurement of pH value is obtained by immersing a pair of electrodes into the solution to be measured and by measuring the voltage developed across them. In the pH cell, one of the electrodes called the reference electrode, is at a constant potential regardless of the pH value of the solution under test. The potential of the other electrodes, called measuring electrode is determined by the pH value of the solution.

Result :- pH meter is studied

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Ques1: Ans: Ques2: Ans:

What is pH meter? A pH meter is an electronic instrument with an electrode that is sensitive to the hydronium ions in a solution pH meter is used for? It is used to measure how acid or basic a solution is. pH ranges from about -1 to +14 though the range of a pH meter is from about 0 to 13.5. The pH of water is 7. How pH meter is Standardize? pH meter is standardize using a buffer solution of known pH value What is dissociation constant? The dissociation constant is the product of hydrogen (H+) ions and Hydroxyl (OH-) ion. What are the applications of pH meter? For finding base and acid .

Ques3: Ans: Ques4: Ans: Ques5: Ans:

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Experiment -9
Aim :- Study of Piezoelectric Transducer. Apparatus required :- Piezoelectric Pickup, Digital meter. Theory :- A piezoelectric material is one in which an electric potential appears across certain surface of a crystal if the diameter of the crystal are changed by the application of mechanical force. This potential is produced by the displacement of changed. If the effect is reversed then the dimension of crystal will be changed and deforms the crystal. Elements exhibit piezoelectric qualities are called as electro resistive elements. The material that exhibit a significant and useful piezoelectric electric effect are divided into two categories:

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Natural Group (ii) Synthetic Group The Quartz and Rochelle salt belongs to natural group while materials like lithium sulphate, ethylene demineralization belongs to synthetic group. The piezoelectric effect can be made to respond to mechanical deformation and of material in many ways. The modes can be thickness, expansion, transverse expansion. A piezoelectric element used for continuing mechanical motion to electric signal may be thought as charge generator and the charge appears as voltage across the electrodes. The voltage is E= Q/C The piezoelectric effect is direction sensitive for steady state mechanical force the transducer provide any transient output and hence piezoelectric crystal finds wide application only for dynamic measurement.

Result :- Piezoelectric transducer is studied.

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Ques1: Ans: Ques2: Ans: Ques3: Ans:

Piezoelectric crystal is used in which device? The piezoelectric crystal is used in transducers in ultrasound medical imaging What are piezoelectric transducer use for? The most common use of piezoelectric transducers is in sonography Explain piezoelectric material? A piezoelectric material is one in which an electric potential appears across certain surface of a crystal if the

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diameter of the crystal are changed by the application of mechanical force Ques4: Ans: Ques5: Ans: Give some examples of piezoelectric material? Quartz, Rochelle Salt, Ceramics A and B What is piezoelectric effect? A permanently-polarized material such as quartz (SiO2) or barium titanate (BaTiO3) will produce an electric field when the material changes dimensions as a result of an imposed mechanical force. This phenomenon is known as the piezoelectric effect.

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