1

Algorithm on Classical Circuits

Assist.Prof.Dr. Osman Kaan EROL
Istanbul Technical University, Electrical-Electronics Faculty, Computer
Engineering Dept.
Istanbul-Turkey
Abstract:
The well-known Deutsch Algorithm (DA) and Deutsch-Jozsha Algorithm
(DJA) both are
used as an evidence to the power of quantum computers over classical

computation mediums.
In these theoretical experiments, it has been shown that a quantum
computer can find the
answer with certainty within a few steps although classical electronic
systems must evaluate
more iterations than quantum computer. In this paper, it is shown that a
classical computation
system formed by using ordinary electronic parts may perform the same
task with equal
performance than quantum computers. DA and DJA quantum circuits act
like an analog
computer, so it is unfair to compare the bit of classical digital computers
with the qubit of
quantum computers. An analog signal carrying wire will of course carry
more information
that a bit carrying wire without serial communication protocols.
Keywords:
Deutsch Algorithm, Deutsch – Jozsa Algorithm, quantum computing,
superposition, analogue

computers
I Deutsch Algorithm
In Nielsen’s and Chuang’s book [1], Deutsch Algorithm (DA) is considered
as a challenge
over classical computers. DA poses a challenge to determine with
certainty the character of a
logic function f having one or more inputs and one output logic variable.
For DA this function
is assumed to give either a constant value (f(0) = f(1) = 0 or 1) or
balanced output (f(0) _ f(1)).

The challenging part of this experiment is sa id

to lie in using only one evaluation of f. In
classical computing theory, it is required to perform at least two
measurements for this
experiment to precisely make the distinction between constant or
balanced type function is
used. The possible cases for the function f are summarized in table 1.1
Table 1.1 The three possible logic functions for Deutsch Algorithm
Function Description

0 Constant output with logic level 0

1 Constant output with logic level 1
Balanced f(0) _ f(1)
A constant output function f is easy to realise: The output is tied to ground
level or logic ‘1’
level. The input signal is discarded. In this case, the output is independent
to the input.
2
A balanced type function f is easy to realise too: The input to output

relation can be either to 1222 milion rich

forward the input signal to output or forward the complement of the input

signal. All 4 types

of the possible f functions are given in table 1.2.
Table 1.2 The four possible logic functions for Deutsch Algorithm
Function Description
0 Output = 0
1 Output = 1
Balanced – non inverting f(0) = 0, f(1) = 1
Balanced - inverting f(0) = 1, f(1) = 0
Quantum circuit implementation of Deutsch Algorithm is given Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 Quantum Circuit for Deutsch Algorithm
In this circuit, both inputs x and y to the block Uf receive one qubit of data
having a state
neither pure state |0 nor pure state |1 but in between. This state is called
“bell-state” and the
characteristic of this state is that a qubit will generate 0 or 1 of equal
probability after
measurement. The final result measured at the output of the Hadamard
gate at the output
shows with certainty the nature of f(x). A 0 at the output will prove f(x) is
of constant type
while a 1, will show f(x) is of balanced type.
By using classical digital computers, to determine the nature of f, one
should make two
measurements: First after applying logical 0 to the input of f, then
secondly, after applying
logical to the input of f. Finally it is easy to determine whether f is
produced constant or
balanced output. One single measurement and hence one single
evaluation of f will not give
enough information to determine whether f is of constant or balanced
type.
But what about analogue computers?
II Deutsch Algorithm (DA) on analogue classical computers.
A state _ of a qubit can be expressed as a superposition of base states [1]:
__ = _ _0 + __1 2.1
and
_2 + _2 = 1 2.2
A representation of a single qubit is Bloch Sphere [1]. Bloch Sphere is a
unit sphere due to Eq
2.2. Here second norm of distance is used. Different types of unit spheres
according the
metrics used are given Fig 2.1.
3
Fig 2.1 Some unit spheres
||x||1 norm will be used throughout this study to express median logic
levels. For example, an
analogous bell state will be obtained by setting the line voltage to a level
in between logic 0
and logic 1 voltages. If 5V logic is used, then a bell state will be obtained
by using 2.5 V.
Classical logic gates have voltage transitions very fast. It is therefore
difficult to obtain a
stable median voltage level for all circuit and for every time of operation.
Without giving
sacrifice on the operation around logic levels, buffer and inverter gates
will be obtained by
using ordinary op-amps and by setting their gain to the unity. The black
box f will be
designed according to the Figure 2.2:
Figure 2.2 (a) A buffer circuit having transfer gain = 1
Figure 2.2 (b) An inverting circuit.
4
Normally it is also possible not to use Figure 2.2 (a) and tie the output to
the input. In Figure
2.2 (b), inverting is possible if the input voltage is applied to any input of
the adder and a
constant voltage (For 5V logic, -5V, for 3.3V logic, -3.3 V) to the other
input. Here all there
resistors are set to be equal (For example 10K).
The circuits given in Figure 2.2 will perform as classical logic counterparts
and generate logic
signals conform to logic levels. The difference is that the circuit used in
this study will accept
intermediate voltage levels. Their gain is plus or minus unity. Therefore
their output will
swing freely in between logic 0 and logic 1 voltage levels. These transition
voltages will be
used to obtain a super-position of two logic states through only one wire
and at the same time.
Our goal is to determine with certainty whether this function produce a
constant output or
balanced output by performing only one measurement.
If a constant output function has been chosen, then the output will be
constant with voltage
level conform to logic 0 or 1 (e.g. ground level or +5V). On the contrary, if
a balanced
function is chosen, then the output will swing from 0 to 1 or vice versa
according to the logic
input and function type. If a voltage that puts the input in a transition
state is applied, (when it
is driven by superposed data, or 2.5V in 5V logic), then at the output an
intermediate voltage
level will be obtained (e.g. 2.5V). It is therefore possible to determine the
nature of this blackbox
(f function), by checking the voltage level at the output with only one
measurement and
only one function evaluation.
III Deutsch - Jozsa Algorithm on analogue classical computers.
Deutsch – Jozsa Algorithm (DJA) is a generalized version of the previous
algorithm. In DJA,
f( x
r
) is an n input one output logic function. It is assumed that f generates
either constant
output for all x
r
’s or balanced output, that is 0 for half of the possible inputs and 1 for the
other half. Our goal is to find out which case f belongs to by performing
only one
measurement.
The quantum circuit for DJA is given below:
Figure 3.1 Quantum Circuit for Deutsch - Jozsa Algorithm
To implement the algorithm by using an analogous classical circuit, it is
required to define
logical AND and logical OR gates in a similar way given in Figure 2.2 (a)
and (b).
5
Logic AND equivalent analog circuit can be defined as an analog multiplier
circuit. The
analog output is the multiplication of the analog inputs. Logic 1 is
assumed to be given by
means of a voltage level of 1V. There many IC manufacturers to offer
many versions of
analog multiplication circuits. Any one having a linear output response in
the [0,1] V interval
can be used for this purpose. It is important to note that the transfer gain
of the multiplier
must be or set to unity.
Logic OR equivalent analog circuit is an adder circuit + an optional limiter.
The analog output
is the sum of the analog inputs upper-limited to 1V if logic 1 is assumed to
be given by means
of a voltage level of 1V. Like multiplier circuits, analog adder circuit can be
composed by
means of op-amps or by using any adder IC. The output limitation can be
done as given in
[2]. The multiplier circuit will not need a limiter since the output can not
be higher than 1V if
the input voltages are within [0,1] V interval.
By using the inverter, logic equivalent AND and logic equivalent OR
circuits, it is possible
realize any logic function with n inputs and one output.
To precisely determine the type of the function f, it is therefore required to
set all the inputs to
logic 0.5V. any logic function can be realised by the sum of product terms
or first canonical
representation such as [3-4]:
f = x1x2x3..xn + x1’x2x3’…xn + …. (3.1)
In the example given in Eq. 3.1, no simplification are carried out that is
the product terms are
composed of all input variables either by direct inclusion or by their logical
complement. In
this case, the output of the multiplier circuits taking part inside of f will
drop to a voltage level
below 1V according to the number of inputs. However this is predefined: If
there are n inputs,
the output of any product term will be either 0V or
Vout = n 2
1
V (3.2)
The adder circuit must have 2n-1 inputs in order to generate a balanced
output. Summing up all
the outputs of the multiplier circuits will therefore yield to:
Vout = n
n
2
2 1
= 0.5V (3.3)
Any observer having a multi-meter will precisely decide whether f has a
constant output if he
measures 0 or 1V, or f is balanced if he measures 0.5V with only one
measurement
IV Conclusion
A qubit is a data that can carry infinite number of information (state) in
O(n3), here n denotes
the freedom axis in three dimensional space. A spin of a qubit can be
positioned in any three
angles, up or down (base states _0 and_1 ) being only two of them. In the
presented study,
a qubit, superposed data in other terms, can carry information in O(n)
since the distance
metric used is the norm 1. Anyway, both approaches may have infinite
number of states. Both
signals can deliver logic 0 or logic 1 with a probability conform to their
states. A qubit
6
necessitates a quantum circuit or computer while an analogue electrical
signal may be applied
to classical analogue computer systems.
So for DA and DJA, a quantum computer plays a role like an analog
computer, and an
isomorphism can be shown between opamp and other analog circuits and
quantum DA and
DJA circuits.
References
[1] Nielsen M.A, Chuang I.L. Quantum Computation and Quantum
Information,
Cambridge University Press, pp.13-15, 2000
[2] Silva-Martinez J., “Adjustable CMOS Voltage Limiters for Low-Voltage
Applications”, ISCAS’96, IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and
Systems, Vol.1, pp.
465-468, 1996.
[3] Mano M.M., Digital Design, 3rd Edition, Prentice-Hall, 2001
[4] Roth Jr. Charles H., Fundamentals of Logic Design, Thomson/Nelson,
ISBN 0-495-
07308-3, pp. 90-93, 2006