Introduction To Computer Hardware 2013

NET ENGINEERING
Part one: Computer Hardware – 2 & half months
Part two: Computer Networking – 1 & half months

Syllabus of the Computer hardware:

1. SMPS
2. Introduction of Computer
3. Types of Computer
4. Computer Architecture:
a) Input devices:
-> Keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphones, etc.
b) Processing Unit:
-> Motherboard:
- Components of motherboard
- Types of motherboard
- Motherboard‟s Architecture
- Ports & Connectors
-> Processor:
- CPU Technology
- CPU package.
- Major processor specification.
-INTEL & CELERON family.
-> Memory:
- Types of memory
- Primary Memory: RAM & ROM
-> Storage Unit:
- Magnetic Storage Device
- Optical Storage Device
5. Assemble & Dissemble of a PC
6. BIOS & its configuration.
7. File System
8. Disk & Disk partition
9. Formatting a disk
10. Software:
* Operating System (OS)
- Types of OS
- Types of Installation
-> Fresh Installation
-> Upgrading
-> Dual/Multi booting
* Installation of Win 98/2000 Professional, Win 2000 Server, WIN XP,
Win VISTA, Win 7.
*Installation of Application Software.
*Driver Installation & update.
*Utility Software installation.
-> Partition Magic
-> Norton Ghost
-> Anti Virus
-> Nero
-> Multi PC
-> Tune up utility, etc.
11. Trouble Shooting of Hardware

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Syllabus of Networking:
1) Introduction of Network
2) Types of Network
3) Protocol
4) IP Address & IP Addressing
5) Network connecting devices
6) Cable & its type
7) Cabling
8) Physical Network Setup
9) Components of Network

Peer to peer Network

10) Sharing & accessing data on the network
11) Net sharing
12) Local Security Policy
13) NIFS Permission
14) Local users & groups
15) Encryption & Decryption
16) Dial up connection, Broad band connection & ICS (Internet Connection Sharing)

Client Server Network

17) Active Directory
18) Domain Control
19) Domain Registration
20) Domain user & domain groups
21) Home & Profile Path ( File server)
22) Group Policy
23) Installation & Configuration of DHCP server
24) Installation & configuration of DNS server
25) Installation & configuration of ITS server
26) Terminal server
27) Print server
28) Mail server
29) Back up (Disaster Recovery)

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COMPUTER HARDWARE
SMPS (Switch Mode Power Supply)
Yellow – 12 V
Red – 5 V
SMPS stands for Switch Mode Power Supply. It is a power device of a computer which takes 220-230 volt AC
from the main line or City line and converts it into +/- 12 V, +/- 5V, 3.3V DC which are taken as input by other
components of the Computer like mother board, hard disk drive, CD ROM drive, etc.
SMPS are of two types:
1) AT SMPS – Advanced Technology SMPS
2) ATX SMPS – Extended Advanced Technology SMPS
Difference between AT SMPS & ATX SMPS:
a) With the basis of label, we can easily identify the AT & ATX SMPS.
b) In AT SMPS, the power connector for mother board is of 2 rows (6+6) pins connector called P8 & P9
connector. But in ATX SMPS, the power connector for mother board is Single row 20 pins/24pins connector
called P1 connector.
c) In AT SMPS, when we shut down the computer by proper command then system gives the message as “It is
now safe to turn off your computer.” But in ATX SMPS, system doesn‟t give any message.
How the SMPS is situated in a case:
AT SMPS:

ATX SMPS:

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Different types of Output connector of SMPS:

a) Connector for mother board:

In AT-SMPS, the connector for mother board is two 6-6 pins connector called P8 & P9
connector.

One thing we have to remember that when we connect P8 & P9 connectors the black wires must be in
centre.

In ATX-SMPS, the connector for mother board is single 20 pin or 24 pin connector called P1
connector.

b) Connector for IDE devices:

SMPS has connector for IDE devices like CD-ROM drive, DVD-ROM drive, HDD which has
4 pins and is called Molex connector.

c) Connector for FDD:

SMPS has connector for FDD which has 4 pins but it is smaller & different than Molex
connector. It is called Mini Molex Connector.

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d) Extra Connector for mother board:
Latest mother board like P4 mother board, needs extra power to run and it is provided by extra
connector of SMPS called P4 connector which is square in shape with (2x2) pins that is 4 pins or 6 pins
connector which has 6 pins similar to P8 & P9 connector.

INTRODUCTION OF COMPUTER

Computer is advanced electronic devices which takes raw data & information as Input from user, stores then
process these data under control of set of instructions and gives meaningful result as Output.
In working principle of computer it can be summarized as “INPUT-PROCESS-OUTPUT” Cycle.

1) INPUT DATA:
INPUT is the raw data & information entered into a computer from the Input devices. It is the collection of
letters, numbers, images, sound/voices, etc. Keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphones, joystick, etc are some of the
examples of Input devices.
2) PROCESSING UNIT:
It process data as per given instructions and sends processed data to the Output devices. Processing unit consists
of mother board, processor, memory, storage devices, etc.
3) OUT PUT:
Out put is the processed data or result given by the processor after data processing. There are two types of
output devices:
i) Permanent Output Device: Printer is permanent output device. It provides us Hard copy of data as output.
ii) Temporary Output Device: Monitor, projector, speaker are temporary output devices. They provide us Soft
copy of data as output.
1000 nano seconds = 1 micro second
1000 micro seconds = 1 milli second
1000 milli seconds = 1 second
1 second = 109 nano second.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER:
1) Speed
2) Storage capacity
Single binary digit (0 or 1) = 1 bit
4 bits = 1 Nibble
2 Nibble (8 bits) = 1 Byte
1024 Bytes = 1 KB
1024 KB = 1 MB
1024 MB = 1 GB
1024 GB = 1 TB (Terabyte)

3) Accuracy
4) Versatility
5) Diligence
6) Communication

TYPES OF COMPUTER:

a) On the basis of size:

i. Super computer
-> Used in Space research, weather forecasting, designing complicated machines as
supersonic jet.
-> The largest, fastest and the most expensive computer.
ii. Mainframe computer:
-> Large in size, very high speed.
-> More than 100 people can work at a time through more than 100 terminals.

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-> Used in large scale organization, government offices, institute of engineering, etc.
iii. Mini computer:
-> Medium in size.
-> Used in data processing, programming.
-> Upto 10 terminals.
iv. Micro computer:
-> Personal or home computer.
-> Used in home & offices
-> Desktop, Laptop, Palmtop, etc.

b) On the basis of function or working principle:

i. Analog computer
ii. Digital computer
iii. Hybrid computer (Combination of Analog & Digital)

c) On the basis of Brand/Manufacturer:

ii. IBM Computer (International Business Machine)
-> Windows, Linux, UNIX
ii. IBM Compatible Computer
-> Dell, Compaq, Acer, Sony, Toshiba, HP, etc.
iii. Apple/Macintosh Computer
-> Mac OS
iv. Assembled computer

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COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER

a. Major components:
1. Case & SMPS
2. Motherboard
3. Processor with processor fan
4. RAM
5. Monitor
6. HDD
7. FDD
8. CD/VCD ROM Drive
9. Keyboard
10. Mouse

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b. Optional Components:
1. Speaker
2. Modem
3. NIC (Network Interface Card)
4. Printer
5. Scanner
6. Web camera (Web-cam)
7. Headphone & microphone
8. TV card, etc.

Keyboard:
It is the most important Input device of a computer.
Types of keyboard:
a. On the basis of number of keys:
-> 83 keys Keyboard
-> 84 keys Keyboard
----- ---- ----- ---- ---- ----
----- ----- ---- ---- ------ ---
----- ----- ---- ---- ------ ---
-> 101 keys Keyboard
-> 104 keys Keyboard
-> 118 keys Keyboard
----- ---- ----- ---- ---- ----
----- ----- ---- ---- ------ ---
----- ----- ---- ---- ------ ---
-> Multimedia Keyboard
-> Internet Keyboard
-> Window Keyboard
b. On the basis of connector:
i. DIN (Dutch Industry Norm) connector Keyboard:
-> Big round connector having 5 pins.

ii. PS2 (Personal System 2) connector Keyboard:

-> Small round connector having 6 pins.

iii. USB (Universal Serial Bus) connector Keyboard:

-> Flat connector with 4 pins.

c. On the basis of cable:

i. With wire keyboard (Normal Keyboard)
ii. Wireless Keyboard

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Components of Keyboard:
Key cap
Key switch
Key grid
Logic board of keyboard
IC
Cable & connector
Case of keyboard.
MOUSE:
It is also one of the most common & important Input device.
Types of Mouse:
Mechanical mouse
Opto mechanical mouse
Optical mouse
Mouse uses three types of connectors:
Serial connector (D9 pins)

PS2 connector (Small round with 6 pins)

USB connector (Flat with 4 pin)

Components of mouse:
Ball
Roller with shraft
Diode & sensor
Button
Optical encoding disc
IC
Logic board
Cable & connector
Case of mouse
MEMORY
Data storage unit of computer is called Memory. There are 2 types of memory used in a computer:
* Primary Memory:
Though the CPU has calculating capability, it needs some space in which it can actually store the data to
perform calculation. This space in a computer is called Primary memory. It is also known as main memory. There are
two types of Primary memory i.e. RAM & ROM.
* Secondary Memory:
Secondary memory or data storage devices hold/save files that are not currently being used.

Difference between Primary memory & Secondary memory:

1. Volatile: Primary memory
Non volatile: Secondary memory.
2. Size: Primary memory is very less flexible as well as limited but secondary memory is unlimited.
3. Access: It takes few nanoseconds for CPU to access RAM but it takes several milliseconds to access
secondary storage device due to distance and mechanical operation. And Secondary memory takes more power.

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On the basis of material used in memory, it is of 3 types:
i. Semi conductor memory: RAM, ROM
ii. Magnetic memory: Hard disk & Floppy disk
iii. Optical memory: CD, DVD ROM,

Semiconductor memory Vs Optical & Magnetic memory:

i. Semiconductor memory is very fast & expensive as compared to other 2 types of memory.
ii. Semiconductor memory consumes less power as compared to other memory.
iii. Semiconductor memory has no rotating/mechanical parts but other do have.
iv. Semiconductor memory is light in weight as compared to others.

PRIMARY MEMORY:
RAM- It stands for Random Access Memory. It is used as primary memory of the computer. It is the main
working memory of the computer. RAM is a volatile memory because it stores data only when power is on. If the power
goes off, the contents of the RAM is deleted or flashed out or erased automatically.
Its capacity is measured in Byte. Its speed is measured in Hertz (Hz).
Hertz - One calculation or transfer cycle per second is equal to 1 Hertz.
1000 Hz = 1 KHz
1000 KHz = 1 MHz
1000 MHz = 1 GHz (Giga Hertz)
There are 2 types of RAM on the basis of function, i.e. SRAM & DRAM.

Difference between Static RAM & Dynamic RAM:

i. SRAM is used as Cache memory of the computer but DRAM is used as main memory of the computer.
ii. SRAM is faster as compared to DRAM.
iii. SRAM is expensive as compared to DRAM.
iv. SRAM is refreshed when data is written in it but DRAM is refreshed with in a nanosecond. To refresh
the DRAM, processor sends the refresh cycle. Thus DRAM is slower as compared to SRAM. SRAM is
no need to be refreshed by other. SRAM is auto refreshed.
RAM has 3 blocks:
1. Conventional memory (Base Memory)
2. Upper memory (Hidden memory)
3. Extended memory.

Conventional memory:
It consists of the first 640 KB of RAM. This block is used for OS. It is used to run DOS (Disk Operating
System). It is also called Base memory.

Upper memory:
It is also called Hidden memory. This block consists of 640 KB onwards to 1 MB of size i.e. 384 KB. It is also
known as Expanded memory as it helps to run DOS.

Extended memory:
It is a block of a RAM that is used for data storing and application files. It holds 1 MB onwards to rest space of
the RAM size.

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Types of RAM (DRAM) on the basis of module:
i. DIP (Dual Inline Packaging)

ii. SIMM (Single Inline Memory Module)

 SIMM is older module of RAM stick.
 This memory stick was in 30 pins & 72 pins
a. 30 pin SIMM:
-> 8 bits of data at a time.
-> 1 MB – 16 MB in size.

b. 72 pin SIMM:
-> 3/4 inch longer than 30 pin SIMM
-> 32 bits of data at a time.
-> Upto 64 MB in size.

iii. DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module)

 Latest module
a. SDRAM ( Synchronous Dynamic RAM)
-> 168 pins
-> 8-10 nanosecond access time.
-> 60 MHz, 100 MHz & 133 MHz speed.
-> 64 bit of data at a time
-> 8 MB & above.

b. DDR (Double Data Rate) SDRAM

-> 184 pins
-> 266 MHz – 333 MHz of speed
-> 128 MB & above
-> 64 bit of data at a time

c. DDR2 SDRAM
-> 184 pin – 240 pin
-> Upto 800 MHz

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iii. RIMM (Ram bus Inline Memory Module)
-> 184 Pins
-> Data transfer rate -> 800 MHz

OTHER TYPES OF MEMORY

a) VRAM (Video RAM) – It is very fast type of DRAM. It is used to store display
Images for the monitor.
b) WRAM (Window RAM) – It is also a type of VRAM developed by Samsung Company but it is faster than
VRAM.
c) FLASH MEMORY – It is a special type of EEPROM that can be erased and reprogrammed. A Flash memory
uses both technology of RAM and ROM. We can change & update any information on this memory. It can
also store data permanently like Pen-drive, memory chips, memory card.

TROUBLE SHOOTING OF RAM

If RAM is failure then,
 Computer maximum hangs.
 Computer maximum restarts.
 Computer maximum hangs & message is displayed on the blue screen with white text like as “If this is the
first time ………..being dump of Physical memory.”
 Continuous long beep sound.
 No display at last.

CAUSES OF FAILURE OF RAM

 Improper installation.
 Overheating – If the program is run for a long time on less than recommended memory size.
 Sudden power off.
 Voltage fluctuation.

HOW TO SEE THE SIZE OF RAM

 Right click on My Computer.
 Click on PROPERTIES option
OR
 Click on START menu on Task bar.
 Click on RUN option.
 Type “dxdiag”
 Click on YES button.
OR
 Click on START menu.
 Click on PROGRAM.
 Click on ACCESSORIES.
 Click on SYSTEM TOOLS.
 Click on SYSTEM INFORMATION.

VIRTUAL MEMORY (Page/File Memory)

VIRTUAL MEMORY means space of hard disk but treats as RAM (Volatile memory).
 Non actual memory but it works like RAM.
 It is created by the Operating System on the system root drive (usually that drive/partition) tat
contains the Operating System.
 It can also be created on the other drives.
 Usually it is created 1.5 to 3 times of RAM size and 20% of the hard disk drive space.

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TO CONFIGURE OR TO SEE VIRTUAL MEMORY
 Right click on MY COMPUTER.
 Click on PROPERTIES.
 Click on ADVANCED tab.
 Click on SETTING button from the PERFORMANCE option.
 Click on ADVANCED tab.
 Click on CHANGE button.
 Change the maximum size as per your requirement.
But don‟t change the Initial size.
Note: Increasing it too much and for a long time is not good. Increasing RAM is better.
 Click on SET button.
 Click on OK.

ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY)

ROM stands for READ ONLY MEMORY. That mean in ROM memory, we can‟t write anything. This
memory is also used as primary memory of the Computer. This is non volatile memory. It starts the Startup
necessary to start the system. The contents inside the ROM, is fed by manufacturer. This memory is also called
CMOS (COMPLEMENTARY METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR).
ROM :-> ROM is the special memory chip that stores the BIOS program.
BIOS :-> BIOS is the collective name of the hundreds of tiny programs that tell your computer everything from
what time it is to what kind of computer it is.

CMOS :-> The CMOS setup utility, stored in the system ROM which enables you to control important aspects
of your PC configuration such as the Boot device sequence and port assignment.

TYPES OF ROM
1) PROM 2) EPROM 3) EEPROM
1) PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
This is basically a blank ROM chip that can be written to, but only once, i.e. when the programming is
done, it can‟t be changed/edited later again.

2) EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

In this type of ROM, we can update programming with the help of ultra violet rays. During this
process, the chip must be removed from the mother board.

3) EEPROM (Electrically or Electronically Erasable Programmable ROM)

In this type of ROM, any information can be updated with the help of electricity by using machine
level language. We can change or update any information as per our need. Modern system uses this type of
ROM.

SECONDARY MEMORY

HARD DISK DRIVE (HDD)

It is a secondary data storage unit of the computer. Since it stores data permanently, it is also called permanent
memory of the computer. Since it reads/writes data with the basis of magnet, it is also called Magnetic memory of the
computer. Since disk is fixed in the drive, it is also called Fixed Disk Drive (FDD).
Hard Disk Drive is not on invention of micro computer. The first HDD which was invented for Mainframe
computer had 20 inches diameter and stored only few megabytes of data on it. Later, it was used in micro computers.
Before the HDD, Floppy Disk Drive was in use to store data permanently. Now-a-days, we find each computer having at
least one HDD.

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF HDD

1) Disk platters
2) Spindle and spindle motor
3) Read & Write head
4) Head actuator motor & arm
5) Jumper & Connector
6) Logic board
7) Bezzle

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1) DISK PLATTER
It is a circular disk where the data is stored in the form of magnetic bits. No of platters varies in different Hard
disks. It is made up of several type of materials mainly glass & aluminum.

2) SPINDLE & SPINDLE MOTOR

It rotates the disk platter. The speed of the HDD depends upon the speed of Spindle motor. It is measured in
RMP (Revolution or Round per Minute).

3) READ/WRITE HEAD
Head us used to read/write data on disk platter.

4) HEAD ACTUATOR MOTOR & ARM

It moves the head from outermost to inner most & from innermost to outermost part of the disk platter with the
help of Head actuator arm.

5) JUMPER & CONNECTOR

There are two types of connectors used in a HDD. One is called Power Connector which is of 4 pins in PATA
HDD and of 15 pins in SATA HDD where we connect Molex connector provided by SMPS through which it takes the
power. Another is called Data Cable Connector which has 40 pins in PATA HDD and 7 pins in SATA HDD where we
connect one end of the data cable & another end of the data cable with IDE (Integrated Device Electronics) port for
PATA HDD and with SATA port for SATA HDD.
IDE – DATA CABLE
IDE- Data cable has three connectors whose one end is connected to the Mother board and rest ends to the two
devices like HDD, CDROM drive, etc.

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In SATA HDD, we don‟t need to configure the jumper as its cable has only 2 connectors.
In PATA HDD, when we connect single device through a single data cable we don‟t need to configure the
jumper. But when we connect two IDE devices through a single data cable we must configure the jumper and must make
one device as Master and another as Slave.

6) LOGIC BOARD
It is a main control unit of the HDD. Logic board of the HDD controls overall performance of HDD. Most of the
HDD is damaged due to the damage of Logic board. If logic board of the HDD is damaged then we can easily replace it
but in practice we simply replace the HDD.
To replace the logic board of HDD, we must consider:
- The size (Capacity)
- The company
- The model of the HDD.

7) BEZZLE
It is an indicator light which shows whether HDD is working or not. The function of the Bezzle is done by HDD
(IDE) led which is situated on the front panel of the casing.

LOGICAL DISTRIBUTION OF HDD

OR
HARD DISK GEOMETRY
Any disk must be formatted before being used. Formatting means creating imaginary tracks and sectors which
are marked on the disk surface.

TRACKS
Tracks are concentric circles where data is recorded. They are numbered from outermost to innermost starting
with zero (0). Each track contains the same number of bytes.

SECTORS
Sectors are imaginary pie slices. It is the smallest data storage unit that can hold 512 bytes of data.

CLUSTER
It can be a group of sectors or a part of a sector. Size of cluster depends on the file system.

CYLINDER
Logical vertical group of tracks is called Cylinder.

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TYPES OF HDD

1) IDE ( Integrated Device Electronics)/PATA ( Paralleled Advanced Technology Attachment)

2) SATA ( Serial Advanced Technology Attachment)
3) SCSI ( Small Computer System Interface)
 8 HDD can be connected through a single data cable.
HDD0 HDD1, HDD2, .…, HDD7
4) FCAL (Fiber Channel Arributed Loop)
 This HDD can be connected 1 KM far from the system.
5) SDD/SSDD (Solid Disk Drive/Solid State Disk Drive)
 Semi conductor HDD.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SATA AND PATA HDD

i) Data transfer rate of SATA (i.e. 150-300 MBPS) is higher than that of PATA (i.e. 133 MBPS)
ii) Data cable for PATA HDD has 40 pins where as for SATA HDD has 7 pins.
iii) Power cable for PATA HDD has 4 pins and for SATA HDD has 15 pins.
iv) SATA supports Hot Plug facility but PATA HDD doesn‟t.
v) Cable length may be unto 1 meter for SATA but cables can be unto a maximum of 45 cms.
vi) SATA drive doesn‟t need to use jumper as PATA need because SATA cable can connect only one device
where as PATA cable has 2 ends which can be used to connect 2 devices at a time using jumper.

CD ROM DRIVE
It is also a secondary data storage unit of the computer. Since, it reads/writes the data with help of light; it is also called
Optical Memory of the computer.

Major components of CD-ROM DRIVE:

1) CD or Media
2) CD tray
3) CD tray motor
4) Spindle motor
5) Stepper motor
6) Head Assembling Section
7) Jumper and Connector
8) Logic board
9) Bezzle
10) Button (Eject)

MOTHER BOARD
It is a metallic integrated printed circuit board where all the components of the computer are directly or
indirectly connected. Mother board is also called Main board or System board or Planner of the computer.

TYPES OF MOTHER BOARD

With the basis of form factor mother board is of 2 types.
[Form factor means Power port which is AT or ATX]
a) AT Mother board
b) ATX Mother board
a) AT Mother board:
The Mother board which has the Power port for AT-SMPS which is of 12 pins in single row is called AT
Mother Board.

b) ATX Mother board:

The Mother board which has the Power port for ATX-SMPS which is of 20/24 pins (10+10/12+12) is called
ATX Mother Board.
But some Mother board, has both types of Power port. In that case, the mother board which has DIN port for
key board is called AT mother board and which has no built in DIN port, is called ATX mother board.

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COMPONENTS OF MOTHER BOARD
1) Ports
2) Slots
3) Sockets
4) IDE Connector
5) ROM BIOS-Chip
6) CMOS Battery
7) Jumper
8) FDD Connector
9) System buses
10) Main controller chip

1) PORTS
Ports are the main components of the mother board where we connect different types of Input/Output (I/O)
devices.
Different types of ports are as follows:
a) Serial port
b) Parallel port
c) Keyboard port
d) Mouse port
e) Display port
f) Sound port
g) Game port
h) Modem port
i) Network port
j) USB port

a) SERIAL PORT
-> It is also called COM port (Communication port).
-> No. of pin = D9 pin (5+4 pins) - Male port
-> Indication on mother board = COM1, COM2
-> Data transfer rate = 1 bit at a time
-> Maximum throughput = 115 Kbps (Kilo bit per second)
-> Serial mouse, external modem, digital camera are connected to this port.

[Note: throughput means Input/Output & Kbps- Kilo bits per second.]

b) PARALLEL PORT
-> Also called Printer port.
-> No. of pin = D25 (13+12 pins) - Female port.
-> Indication on mother board = LPT/Printer/ Parallel.
-> Usually this port is Pink in color.
-> Data transfer rate = 1 Byte at a time
-> Maximum throughput = 115 KBPS (Kilo Byte Per Second)
-> Printer and scanner are connected to this port.

c) KEYBOARD PORT
Keyboard port is of 2 types:
* DIN (Dutch Industry Norm) port.
-> Big round port having 5 pins
-> With Purple color.
* PS/2 (Personal System 2) port.
-> Small round port having 6 pins.
-> With purple color.

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d) MOUSE PORT
-> 9 Pins Serial port
-> 6 pins PS/2 port
-> Green in color.
-> Indication on mother board

e) DISPLAY PORT
* For CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) & LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) monitors:
-> No. of pin = 15 pins (5+5+5) – Female port.
-> Indication on mother board = VGA (Video Graphic Array)
* LCD monitor
-> No. of pin = 24 pins (8+8+8) – Female port.
-> Monitors and projectors are connected
-> Indication on mother board = VGA.

f) SOUND PORT
-> No. of pin = 3 pin – Female port
-> Sound related devices like woofer, speaker, microphones, headphones are
connected.
-> Indication on mother board = Games/Sound/Audio

g) GAMES PORT
-> No. of pins = D15 pin (8+7) – Female port.
-> Yellow in color.
-> Game device like joystick is connected.
-> Indication on mother board = Game/Sound/Audio.

h) MODEM PORT
-> No. of pins = 4 pins.
-> Connector = RJ 11, RJ 14
-> Used for Internet (Dialup Connection)

i) NETWORK PORT
-> No. of pins = 8 pins
-> Connector = RJ 45

j) USB PORT (Universal Serial Bus)

-> No. of pin = 4 pins
-> All the devices having USB interface can be connected.
-> 127 devices can be connected at a time through a single USB port. It is possible by USB hub & the
connecting process is called Daisy chain.

USB has 2 types of version or flavor:

i) 1.1 Version or flavor
-> Oldest & outdated version or flavor.
-> 12 MbPS data transfer rate.
ii) 2.0 Version or flavor
-> Latest version or flavor.
-> 480 MbPS data transfer rate.

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2) SLOTS
Slot is a component of the mother board where we install different types of cards. The slot is also called
Expansion slot and the card is called Expansion card.
The different types of slots are as follows:
a) AGP slot – Accelerated Graphic Port
b) PCI slot – Peripheral Component Interconnect
c) CNR slot – Communication Network Riser
d) AMR slot – Audio Modem Riser
e) ISA slot – Industry Standard Architecture
f) EISA slot – Extended Industry Standard Architecture
g) VESA slot – Very Extended Standard Architecture
h) PCIE slot – Peripheral Component Interconnect Express
i) Memory slot or Memory bank

A) AGP slot:
-> Brown in color.
-> 32-64 bit of data at a time.
-> Used only for Graphic cards / 3D cards, AGP cards to run 3D application like MAYA, AUTOCAD,
etc.

B) PCI slot:
-> Latest & maximum in use.
-> White in color.
-> 32-64 bit of data at a time.
-> Various cards like NIC, Modem, graphic/sound/TV cards, SCSI cards, etc are installed.

C) CNR slot:
-> Brown in color.
-> Smaller than AGP slot (about of 2 inches)
-> It has 2 rows of 30 pins making 60 pins in total (30+30)pins.
-> Supports special type of NIC, Audio and telephony equipments.
-> It contains both network & modem port.
-> It is built on older type of P4 mother board.
-> It compresses 128 bits of data at a time.

D) AMR slot:
-> Brown in color, same as CNR slot.
-> Built in P3 mother board.
-> It has 2 rows of 23 pins making 46 pins in total. (23+23) pins

E) ISA slot:
-> Oldest & outdated slot.
-> Black in color.
-> All types of cards are connected.
-> Compresses 16 bits of data at a time.
-> It is built on P1 & older types of mother board.

F) EISA slot:
G) VESA slot:
-> Both these slots compresses 16 bit of data at a time.
-> Black + Brown in color.
-> Outdated slots & even rarely seen before also.

H) PCIE slot:
-> The PCI Express slot supports the PCI Express Interface expansion cards.
-> The PCI Express-16 slot supports 4.0 GB/S transfer rate.

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I) Memory slot or Memory bank:
-> Memory card (RAM) is installed.
Types of Memory Slot:
* SIMM slot – 30 pin SIMM
- 72 pin SIMM

* DIMM slot – 168 pin DIMM (SDRAM)

- 184 pin DIMM (DDR1/DDR2)
-240 pin DIMM (DDR2)

* RIMM – 184 pin

3) SOCKET
It is also a component of mother board where we install different types of Processors. The number of sockets
defines which processor can be installed on the socket.
The type of processor that we install on socket is PGA (Pin Grid Array), LGA (Lang Grid Array) and
MPGA (Micro Pin Grid Array).
Note: We install SECC (Single Edge Contact Cartridge) type of processor on Slot 1. It has 242 pins.
How to identify types of mother board on the basis of module?

Connectors P1 P2 P3 P4
Power Connector AT AT/ATX AT/ATX ATX
Processor Package Socket 4 PGA 370 MPGA 423
If there is SECC
Socket 5 Slot1 MPGA 478
then, there will be
Socket 7 PGA 370 also. LGA 775

4) IDE Connector
It establishes communication between IDE controller and IDE devices. IDE controller means main controller
chip and IDE devices are either CD ROM or Hard Disk.
Primary IDE (IDE1/Pri) – Primary Master
- Primary Slave
Secondary IDE (IDE2/Sec) – Secondary Master
- Secondary Slave

5) ROM BIOS-chip:
It is a special memory chip that stores the BIOS program. It stores the START UP information of the computer
which is necessary to start the system.

6) CMOS battery:
It is used to keep the hardware information updated. It can be removed for sometime according to the board, to
remove BIOS Setup i.e. to reset the BIOS configuration.

7) JUMPER:
It is used to clear the CMOS memory of data, time, system setup parameters, system setup information such as
BIOS password or it is used to make a device (IDE) either master or slave.
In mother board:

Process:
-> Turn off the computer and unplug the power cord.
-> Move the jumper cap from 1-2 i.e. Default to pins 2-3. Keep the cap on pin for about 5-10 seconds,
then move the cap to 1-2.
-> Plug the power cord and turn on the computer.

8) FLOPPY DISK DRIVE CONNECTOR:

It establishes communication between Floppy disk drive and Floppy disk drive controller. It has 34 pins.

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9) SYSTEM BUSES:
BUS: Bus is a group of parallel wires which refers to the path between the components of the computer. There
are 2 types of Buses:
a) Internal Bus (System Bus)- For processing.
-> Internal Bus is bus between North Bridge IC, Processor and Ram.
b) External Bus (Expansion Bus) – For Input/Output.
-> External Bus is bus South Bridge IC and Expansion Slots.

a) System buses: 2 types:

* Front Side Bus (FSB)
* Back Side Bus (BSB)
* FRONT SIDE BUS (FSB):
FSB consists of 2 parts i.e. Data Bus and Address Bus.
* Data Bus: The Data Bus is the channel that the CPU uses to access data in RAM.
* Address Bus: The Address Bus is the pathway that the CPU uses to talk to the North Bridge
Chip.
b) Back Side Bus: The Back Side Bus refers to the pathway that connects the CPU and L2 Cache/(L1 Cache & L2
Cache) memory.
Note: In older Mother board, L2 Cache is not located at processor but is on mother board. But now-a-days, L1 & L2
Cache memory both are located on Processor.
L1- Level 1 & L2 – Level 2
10) MAIN CONTROLLER CHIPS:
a) North Bridge Chip – It directly communicates with Processor and Main Memory as well as South Bridge
Chip.
b) South Bride Chip – It communicates with IDE devices, USB, PS/2 and other Input/Output devices as well as
with PCI cards and other cards.

Architecture of Mother Board:

MCH – Main Controller

Hub
ICH – Input/Output Hub
FPU – Floating Point
Unit

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PROCESSOR
Processor or microprocessor is the main processing unit of the computer. The CPU has the ability to fetch
(take), decode (interpret/translate) and execute (perform/complete/accomplish) instructions and transfer information to
and from other resources over the computer‟s main data transfer path, the bus. By definition, the CPU is the chip that
functions as the brain of the computer.
The main unit inside the computer is the CPU. This unit is responsible for all events inside the computer. It
controls all internal & external devices, performs arithmetical and logical operations. The CPU is the device that
interprets and executes instruction.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Or Microprocessor

1. Control Unit:
The control unit of the processor is the main control unit of the computer. It not only controls the processor but
also controls memory & I/O devices or the computer. The role of control unit of processor is just like the role of manager
of the organization which controls overall activities of the organization.
When system reads the data it generates memory read signal and when system writes the data it generates
memory write signal.

2. ALU:
It stands for Arithmetical Logical Unit. The ALU of the processor performs all types of arithmetical and logical
operations. But ALU of the processor cannot perform vast or complex types of mathematical calculation like the
trigonometric calculation, exponential calculation, etc. To do these complex or vast types of mathematical calculation,
processor uses another unit called FPU (Floating Point Unit). FPU is also called Co-processor or Mathematical processor
of the computer.

3. Register memory or MU:

MU or Register memory is the temporary memory unit of the processor. It stores the data or information within
processing period. It cannot store data before & after processing the data. Before & after processing, the data is stored on
the RAM memory.

4. Cache memory:
Cache memory is also called Static Random Memory (SRAM) which is located inside processor. When the
processor processes any data, it uses Cache memory to store it on.
The Level 1 (L1) cache memory is the first & the fastest cache memory and has been built into the CPU since
even before Pentium. L1 Cache tends to run rather small, around 8-32 KB.
The Level 2 (L2) cache memory is the second cache memory. It is always larger than L1 cache, around 128 KB
to 4MB in size.

Different terms used in processor:

Speed: There are two types of Speed of the processor, i.e.
ii. Clock speed (Internal speed)
iii. Bus speed (External speed)

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i. Clock speed:
The CPU Clock speed is a measurement of how much calculation cycle a CPU executes per second. One
calculation cycle per second is equal to 1 Hz.
1000 Hz = 1 KHz
1000 KHz = 1 MHz
1000 MHz = 1 GHz

Q// If your processor clock speed is 2.6 GHz then how many calculation it can perform in a second?
Ans: 2.6x1000x1000x1000
= 2.6x10^9
= 2600000000 calculations in a second.
Q// If a 32 bit processor has a clock speed of 3.0 GHz then how much data it can process per second.
Ans: 3.00×1000×1000×1000×32
=96,000,000,000bit

ii. Bus speed:

It is used to transfer data from processor to different parts of the computer. Bus speed is always smaller than
Clock speed.

Multiplier:
It is the ratio of Clock speed and Bus speed.
Multiplier = Clock speed
Bus speed
Q// If your processor speed is 2.6 GHz & Bus speed is 133 MHz, find the multiplier?
Ans. M=CS =2.6 GHz
BS 133 MHz
= 2.6x1000 MHZ
133 MHZ
= 19.54 times

PROCESSOR PACKAGE:
The term „Package‟ defines what type of processor can be installed on that mother board. There are 2 types of
processor package:
1. PGA ( Pin Grid Array)
2. SECC ( Single Edge Contact Cartridge)
1. PGA Processor Package:
PGA CPU packages are flat, square & roughly 2inches wide and long. We install ZIF (Zero Insertion Force)
type of processor on this package. This package is also known as Socket. We install different types of processor on
different types of sockets.

PGA processor socket

2. SECC Processor Package:
The SECC CPU package is rectangular, roughly 5 inches wide & 2 -1/2 inches tall with all contact pins mounted
on the bottom edge. SECC packages are either fully or partially incased in a protective plastic cover. Intel SECC CPU
packages use the „Slot1‟ mother board socket.

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INTEL PENTIUM FAMILY
CPU PENTIUM PENTIUM PENTIUM II PENTIUM III PENTIUM IV
PRO
1. External (50-66)MHz early (60-66) MHz (66-100) MHz (100-133) MHZ (100-133) MHZ
(66-75) MHz later Or Higher
speed range
2. Internal (60-200) MHz (150-200) (233-450) MHz 450 MHz to 1.26 1.3 GHz
(166-200) MHz MHz GHz and above
speed range
3. Voltage 5V, 3.3 V 3.3V 3.3V 3.3V 3.3V
4. L1 Cache 16 KB – Early 16 KB 32 KB 32 KB 128 KB
32 KB – Later
5. L2 Cache None 256 KB, 512 512 KB 256 KB 256 KB – 8MB
KB, 1 MB
6. Package PGA PGA SECC SECC/PGA mPGA, LGA
7. Socket Socket4 Socket 8 Slot 1 Slot1, PGA370 mPGA423
Socket5 mPGA478
used Socket7 LGA775
8. Maximum 4 GB 4 GB 4 GB 4 GB 4 GB & above
RAM support

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INTEL CELERON FAMILY:
CPU Celeron (PII based) Celeron (PIII based) Celeron (PIV based)
1. External speed range 66 MHz (60-100) MHz 100 MHz & higher
2. Internal speed range (266-450) MHz 450 MHz to 1.26 GHz 1.3 GHz & Higher
3. Voltage 3.3 V 3.3 V 3.3 V
4. L1 Cache 32 KB 32 KB 32 KB
5. L2 Cache None – Early 128 KB 128 KB
128 KB – Later
6. Package SECC SECC/PGA mPGA, LGA
7. Socket used Slot 1 Slot 1, PGA 370 mPGA 423
mPGA 478
LGA 775
8. Maximum RAM support 4 GB 4GB 4GB & above

COMPUTER ASSEMBLING GUIDELINES:

Step – 1 (Precaution)
 Collect all necessary components of computer like Case & SMPS, Mother Board, RAM, Processor with fan,
Hard disk drive, CD-ROM drive, Monitor, Keyboard, Mouse, etc.
 Go through manual of each of the components.
 Use anti-static devices like gloves, anti-static wrist & ankle straps, anti-static mat.
 Use proper screw & screw driver.
 If possible, do not use magnetic screw driver.
 Collect necessary software CD, like Operating System Software, Application software, Driver software, etc.
Step – 2
 Open the case and check SMPS is ok or not.
 Fix the motherboard on the chassis of the case.
 Install RAM & Processor with processor fan.
 Plug the monitor on suitable port.
 Power on the system & check the POST (Power On Self Test) tone or display. If the POST tone is normal or
display is present then we see everything is ok, otherwise check the individual device in another running system.
Step – 3
 Fix the HDD, CD-ROM drive, FDD, etc as required.
 Plug suitable data cable & power cable in suitable port.
 Plug & fix expansion cards like sound card, modem card, NIC, etc. Also connect keyboard.
 Power on the system & check the POST tone. If POST tone is normal then go through the next step, otherwise
check individual devices.
Step – 4
 Go inside the BIOS and set its necessary settings.
 If necessary then also set optional setting of the BIOS.
Step – 5
 Install suitable OS.
 Install suitable or required Application Software.
 Install driver software.
 If necessary install & configure utility software.
Now the system is complete and ready to use.

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BIOS
It stands for Basic Input Output System. Sometimes it is used as Binary Input Out put System. It stores the
Startup information of the computer which is mecessary to start a system. BIOS is also called CMOS or ROM.
After assembling the computer and before installation of Operating System (OS), we must set some necessary
settings of BIOS. We can also set some optional settinghs of BIOS.
There are several companies which manufacture BIOS, it depends upon the motherboard. Some of them are
AMI BIOS, AWARD BIOS, PHOENIX BIOS, etc.

How to run BIOS?

After assembling the computer, power on the system & then press the suitable key/s provided by the
manufacturer company. There can be several keys to enter the CMOS setting depending upon the motherboard:
AMI BIOS -> DEL Key
AWARD BIOS -> DEL Key
PHOENIX BIOS -> “F2” Key
COMPAQ BIOS -> “F10” Key
ACCER BIOS -> “CTRL” + “ALT” + “ESC” Keys

Necessary settings of BIOS:

1. Auto Configuration with Optional Setting.
2. Auto Detect Hard Disk.
3. Make Boot Sequence
 Set First Boot Device as CD-ROM or CD-ROM must be before Hard Disk in Boot Sequence.
4. Save Settings & Restart your computer.

Some Optional necessary settings of BIOS:

1. If system displays the error message for CPU speed then must set suitable CPU speed. Here we must set only
one step higher value.
2. If system displays the error message for Date & Time then set suitable date & time.
3. Make “Boot Sector Virus Protection” option disabled.

Some optional Settings of BIOS:

1. Set System Date & Time.
2. Change background color.
3. Enable/Disable Port.
4. Set Password.

Don‟t change these settings:

1. Advanced Chipset Setup.
2. Power Management Setup.
3. PCI/Plug & Play Setup.
Or PCI/PaP Setup.

OPERATING SYSTEM:
An operating system (OS) is an integrated set of programs that controls the resources like CPU, memory, I/O
devices etc of a computer system. It acts an intermediate between the user and the computer hardware.

Main functions of OS:

1. Communication with hardware.
2. Provides a user interface.
3. Provides a structure for access to application.
4. Enables users to manipulate data & programs.

Types of OS:
1. GUI (Graphic User Interface)
OS which have graphics. Eg Windows
2. CUI (Character User Interface)
OS which have characters only. Eg. DOS

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FILE SYSTEM
An Operating System uses a file system to determine that how to manage files on a disk. A file system is used to
breakdown the sectors into a cluster or combines the clusters into a sector.

A Partition:
-> must be recognized by a Drive Letter.
-> must be formatted with a file system.
Disk Drive letters File system
Floppy A: FAT16, FAT32
B:
Hard Disk C: FAT16, FAT32, NTFS, HPFS
D:
E:
CD F: CDFS
DVD G: UDFS
Pen Drive H: FAT32

FAT- File Allocation Table

NTFS- Network Technology File System or New Technology File System
HPFS- High Power File System.

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No. of partition in a Hard disk:

Structure of no. of partitions which can be created:

Primary Partition Extended Partition Logical partition
4 nos. of primary No extended No logical
C: D: E: F:
3 nos. of primary partition One extended partition 20 nos. of logical partitions
C: D: E: (G: ,H: ,I: , ….)
2 nos. of primary partition One extended partition 21 nos. of logical partitions
C: D: (F:, G:, H:, …..)
Only one primary partition One extended partition 22 nos. of logical partitions
C: (E:, F:, G:, ….)

How to check which drive is using which file system?

 Open My Computer.
 Right Click on the drive of whose file system you want to see.
 Click on Properties
Now you can see the required information.

FAT 16:
This file system is used by the Microsoft Operating System. It supports upto 2047 MB (2.1GB) for each
partition. It uses 11 characters in DOS (8 Primary & 3 Secondary) & 111 characters in Windows to write file name. It
creates cluster size of 16 bits (2 Bytes).
No of cluster in a sector = Size of Sector
Cluster Size
Using FAT16, no. of cluster in a sector = 512 bytes = 512 bytes = 256 clusters
16 bits 2 bytes
FAT 32:
It is the enhanced/upgraded version of FAT file system which supports upto 2 TB of partition. It uses 128
clusters in a sector. (32 bits/2bytes of cluster size).

NTFS:
It is the Network Technology File System which also supports a larger disk space & this file system provides us the
facility for file folder security & quota management. It uses single cluster in a sector (512 bytes of a cluster size).

HPFS:
This file system was introduced by IBM for its own branded PCs for the OSs. Later Microsoft also added support to this
file system for Windows NT operating system.

CDFS/UDFS:
The CDFS file system is used for CD and UDFS file system is used for DVD.

Installation of Operating Software:

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* Installation of Windows 98
Steps:
1. Create partitions
2. Format partitions
3. Run Setup

How to create Partition using WIN 98?

To create partition using WIN 98 OS, we have “FDISK” command. This command is an external DOS
command. This command is used to create partition, delete partition and set active partition.

How to run “FDISK” command?

Creating Partitions
1. After assembling the computer system, go inside the BIOS and set its necessary settings.
2. Insert bootable CD of the WIN98 OS in CD-ROM drive and restart the computer.
3. Select “Boot from CD-ROM”.
Then System gives 3 options as below:
i) Start Window98 Setup from CD-ROM.
ii) Start Computer with CD-ROM support.
iii) Start Computer without CD-ROM support.
4. Select the ii option i.e. “Start Computer with CD-ROM support”.
5. Then the system displays the virtual drive i.e. drive A for working.
6. Type “fdisk” and press Enter key. i.e. A:\>fdisk
7. Then a message will be displayed as “Do you want to enable large disk support? [Y/N]
Note: Here by pressing “Y” we enable FAT32 file system and by pressing “N” we enable FAT16 file system which
support a partition size upto 2047 MB.
8. Select “Y” and press Enter key.
9. Then the “fdisk options” menu will be displayed as under:
i) Create DOS partition or Logical DOS drive
ii) Set active partition.
iii) Delete partition of logical DOS drive.
iv) Display partition information.
Notes:
While creating partitions, always create primary partition at first then extended partition and then logical
partition.
While deleting the partitions, delete logical partition at first then extended partition and then primary
partition.
Windows 98 OS doesn‟t support NTFS file system. So, it detects such type of drives as “Non-DOS
partition”.
Select the option “ Delete Non DOS Partition” to delete the NTFS Primary partition. It cannot detect and
delete NTFS Logical partition by Windows 98 OS.
Always save the activities like as Create partition, Set active partition and delete partition by pressing
“ESC” key until you get A:\> (A prompt or A drive. And then press “CTRL” + “ALT” + “DEL” keys.
Always make “Set active” only Primary Partition.
Always define the total available space for the Extended partition.

Formatting:
Formatting is a process to create the logical structure of the disk after creating partition. To format a partition,
we need a file named “FORMAT.COM” which is an external DOS command file. If we don‟t have this file, we can‟t
format a disk.
Process of Formatting;
1) After creating partition and making primary partition Set active, restart the computer with CD-ROM support.
In the CD of Win98 OS, the “FORMAT.COM” file is available inside the “Win98” directory of folder. So after
booting the system with CD-ROM support, change the directory prompt as Win98 of CD-ROM i.e.
A:\>
A:\>F:
F:\>CD WIN98
F:\WIN98>DIR/P
F:\WIN98>

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2) To format the drive, give the command as
F:\WIN98>FORMAT C:
Syntax:
Format drive letter followed by colon sign. Here, drive letter means the drive which you want to format.
3) Press “Y” to begin or start the formatting.
4) Provide volume label of upto 11 character when asked or simply press for making volume label empty.

LOW LEVEL FORMATTING

Low level formatting can be done only in Seagate hard disk.
Steps:
1) Boot from CD-ROM support using windows 98 OS.
2) Insert the CD containing the software DM (Disk Manager).
3) Go to CD-ROM drive. i.e.
 A:\>D: (Here D: means CD-ROM drive)
 D:\>DIR/P (Shows all files and folders)
Here we get “DM_2000” folder/directory
 D:\>CD DM_2000
 D:\DM_2000>dir/p
Here we get DM.EXE and DM1.EXE files among many other files. We go through any one of these two files
i.e. DM.EXE or DM1.EXE
 D:\DM_2000> DM
It shows a dialog box.
4) Press
5) Select “Advanced Options” and press

Installation of Win98 OS
1) First of all create different partitions as required.
2) Set active the primary partition.
3) Format the primary partition.
4) Now on the CD-ROM prompt or WIN98 prompt, type the command “Setup” and press
e.g. F:\WIN98>Setup
5) Press to begin the setup.
6) Now on wards follow the screen messages.
Product key
HQ6K2-QPC42-3HWDM- BF4KJ-W4XWJ

Installations of WIN 2000 PROFESSIONAL, WIN 2000 SERVER, WIN XP, WIN VISTA & so on:

Steps:
1. Set the necessary settings of BIOS and save it.
2. Insert the CD of OS which you want to install and restart the computer.
3. Now after a while you will be prompt with “Press any key to boot from CD” with 5 dots symbol. Before
appearing 5th dot press any key.
4. Now system will start loading the necessary files in the main memory of the computer i.e. RAM, which are
required to create or delete the partition, format the partition, etc.
5. Now you will be prompt with the following options:
a) Press “Enter” key to run Setup.
b) Press “R” to Repair.
c) Press “F3” to Quit.
6. Here we have to install the OS. So press “Enter” key.
7. Now accept the license agreement by pressing “F8” key.
8. Now you will get different partitions list which are already created.
a) To create partitions:
 Highlight the un partitioned space.
 Press “C” key to create.
 Delete (Remove) the existing space and specify the new space to allocate for the drive and then press
“Enter” key.

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9. To delete the partitions:
 To delete the partition, press “D” then “Enter” key and then press “L” key for the primary partition which is
previously created and formatted.
Press “D” and then press “L” key for deleting logical partitions.
10. Now to install, select the partition in which you want to install the OS and then press “Enter” key.

Note: If you have selected the different partition than “C:” then first of all it will format C: to create MBR
(Master Boot Record) location and copies the bootable files (NTLDR, NTDETECT.COM, BOOT.INI,
COMMAND.COM, IO.SYS, etc.) there in MBR location.
After formatting the C:, the system will prompt you to choose the file system to format the selected
drive. It is better to choose NTFS.
11. Now after formatting the drive, it will start copying the files that are needed to install the OS. After copying the
files the system will be restarted automatically.
12. Again you will be prompt with “Press any key to boot from CD”. Here let the system boot from Hard disk drive
afterwards.
13. Now on wards, follow the screen messages.
Note: Do not take out the CD with OS until you get the Desktop Screen on the monitor of your system.
14. At last you are asked to type the Product key of the OS.

Product key for the different OS:

Operating Software Product key

WIN 2000 PROFESSIONAL RBDC9 - VTRC8 - D7972 - J97JY - PRVMG
WIN XP PROFESSIONAL RHKG3 – 8YW4W – 4RHJG – 83M4Y – 7X9GW
WIN 2000 SERVER VX926 – WHFCF – DVFMV – HJD48 – P4678
WIN 2003 SERVER JB88F – WT2Q3 – DPXTT – Y8GHG – 7YYQY

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