Tapas Paul Department of Economics

2010 Pearson Addison-Wesley

Kautilya

Adam Smith

Alfred Marshall

2010 Pearson Addison-Wesley

 2010 Pearson Addison-Wesley

Definition of Economics
All economic questions arise because we want more than we can get. Our inability to satisfy all our wants is called scarcity. Because we face scarcity, we must make choices. The choices we make depend on the incentives we face. An incentive is a reward that encourages an action or a penalty that discourages an action.

Definition of Economics
Economics is the social science that studies the choices that individuals, businesses, governments, and entire societies make as they cope with scarcity and the incentives that influence and reconcile those choices. Economics divides in to main parts:

Microeconomics Macroeconomics

Definition of Economics
Microeconomics Microeconomics is the study of choices that individuals and businesses make, the way those choices interact in markets, and the influence of governments. Macroeconomics Macroeconomics is the study of the performance of the national and global economies.

Two Big Economic Questions

Two big questions summarize the scope of economics:
How

do choices end up determining what, how, and for whom goods and services get produced?

When do

choices made in the pursuit of self-interest also promote the social interest?

Two Big Economic Questions

What, How, and For Whom? Goods and services are the objects that people value and produce to satisfy human wants. What? Agriculture accounts for less than 1 percent of total U.S. production, manufactured goods for 20 percent, and services for 80 percent. In China, agriculture accounts for 10 percent of total production, manufactured goods for 50 percent, and services for 40 percent.

Two Big Economic Questions

Figure 1.1 shows these numbers for the United States and China. It also shows the numbers for Brazil. What determines these patterns of production? How do choices end up determining the quantity of each item produced in the United States and around the world?

Two Big Economic Questions

Figure: Sectoral Contribution in Bangladesh (FY1973 FY2012)

What do you think from this trend?

Two Big Economic Questions

How? Goods and services are produced by using productive resources that economists call factors of production. Factors of production are grouped into four categories: Land Labor Capital Entrepreneurship

Two Big Economic Questions

The gifts of nature that we use to produce goods and services are land. The work time and work effort that people devote to producing goods and services is labor. The quality of labor depends on human capital, which is the knowledge and skill that people obtain from education, on-the-job training, and work experience. The tools, instruments, machines, buildings, and other constructions that businesses use to produce goods and services are capital. The human resource that organizes land, labor, and capital is entrepreneurship.

Two Big Economic Questions

Figure 1.2 shows a measure of the growth of human capital in the United States over the last centurythe percentage of the population that has completed different levels of education. Economics explains these trends.

Two Big Economic Questions

For Whom? Who gets the goods and services depends on the incomes that people earn. Land earns rent. Labor earns wages. Capital earns interest. Entrepreneurship earns profit.

Two Big Economic Questions

When is the Pursuit of Self-Interest in the Social Interest? Every day, 304 million Americans and 6.7 billion people in other countries make economic choices that result in What, How, and For Whom goods and services are produced. Do we produce the right things in the right quantities? Do we use our factors of production in the best way? Do the goods and services go to those who benefit most from them?

Two Big Economic Questions

You make choices that are in your self-interestchoices that you think are best for you. Choices that are best for society as a whole are said to be in the social interest. An outcome is in the social interest if it uses resources efficiently and distributes goods and services fairly. The Big Question Is it possible that when each one of us makes choices that are in our self-interest, it also turns out that these choices are also in the social interest?

Two Big Economic Questions

Self-Interest in the Social Interest Five topics that generate discussion and that illustrate tension between self-interest and social interest are

Globalization The information-age economy Global warming Natural resource depletion

Economic instability

The Economic Way of Thinking

Choices and Tradeoffs The economic way of thinking places scarcity and its implication, choice, at center stage. You can think about every choice as a tradeoffan exchangegiving up one thing to get something else. The classic tradeoff is guns versus butter. Guns and butter stand for any two objects of value.

The Economic Way of Thinking

What, How, and For Whom Tradeoffs
The questions what, how, and for whom become sharper when we think in terms of tradeoffs.

What Tradeoffs arise when people choose how to spend

their incomes, when governments choose how to spend their tax revenues, and when businesses choose what to produce.

The Economic Way of Thinking

How Tradeoffs arise when businesses choose among
alternative production technologies.

For Whom Tradeoffs arise when choices change the

distribution of buying power across individuals. Government redistribution of income from the rich to the poor creates the big tradeoffthe tradeoff between equality and efficiency.

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The Economic Way of Thinking

Choices Bring Change What, how, and for whom goods and services get produced changes over time and the quality of our economic lives improve. But the quality of our economic lives and the rate at which they improve depends on choices that involve tradeoffs. We face three tradeoffs between enjoying current consumption and leisure time and increasing future production, consumption, and leisure time.

The Economic Way of Thinking

If we save more, we can buy more capital and increase our production. If we take less leisure time, we can educate and train ourselves to become more productive. If businesses produce less and devote resources to research and developing new technologies, they can produce more in the future. The choices we make in the face of these tradeoffs determine the pace at which our economic condition improves.

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The Economic Way of Thinking

Opportunity Cost Thinking about a choice as a tradeoff emphasizes cost as an opportunity forgone. The highest-valued alternative that we give up to get something is the opportunity cost of the activity chosen.

The Economic Way of Thinking

Choosing at the Margin People make choices at the margin, which means that they evaluate the consequences of making incremental changes in the use of their resources. The benefit from pursuing an incremental increase in an activity is its marginal benefit. The opportunity cost of pursuing an incremental increase in an activity is its marginal cost.

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The Economic Way of Thinking

Responding to Incentives Our choices respond to incentives. For any activity, if marginal benefit exceeds marginal cost, people have an incentive to do more of that activity. If marginal cost exceeds marginal benefit, people have an incentive to do less of that activity. Incentives are also the key to reconciling self-interest and the social interest.

The Economic Way of Thinking

Human Nature, Incentives, and Institutions Economists take human nature as given and view people as acting in their self-interest. Self-interested actions are not necessarily selfish actions. But if human nature is given and people pursue selfinterest, how can the social interest be served? Economists answer by emphasizing the role of institutions in creating incentives to behave in the social interest. Paramount: the rule of law that protects private property and facilitates voluntary exchange in markets.

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Economics: A Social Science and Policy Tool

Economics as Social Science Economists distinguish between two types of statement:
What ispositive statements

What ought to benormative statements

A positive statement can be tested by checking it against facts. A normative statement cannot be tested.

Economics: A Social Science and Policy Tool

Unscrambling Cause and Effect The task of economic science is to discover positive statements that are consistent with what we observe in the world and that enable us to understand how the economic world works. Economists create and test economic models. An economic model is a description of some aspect of the economic world that includes only those features that are needed for the purpose at hand.

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Economics: A Social Science and Policy Tool

A model is tested by comparing its predictions with the facts. But testing an economic model is difficult, so economists also use

Natural experiments Statistical investigations Economic experiments

Economics: A Social Science and Policy Tool

Economics as Policy Tool Economics is a way of approaching problems in all aspects of our lives. Three broad areas are

Personal economic policy Business economic policy Government economic policy

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