UNIT IV

BOILING AND CONDENSATION

INTRODUCTION
v Boilers and condensers which are used as heat exchangers posses unique
characteristics of heat transfer mechanism on the condensing and boiling side.
v When a vapour strikes a surface maintained at a temperature below the
corresponding saturation temperature the vapour will immediately condense into
the liquid phase.
v The process of condensation may take place into two different types.

1. Film wise condensation

If the condensation takes place continuously over the surface and the surface is
kept cooled by some means the condensed liquid is removed from motion resulting from
gravity, then the condensing surface is covered by means of a thin layer of liquid. This
process is known as film wise condensation.

2. Drop wise condensation

v If the traces of oil are present during the condensation of steam on a highly
polished surface, the film of condensate formed is broken into droplets. This
process is known as drop wise condensation.
v The rate of heat transfer in case of drop wise condensation is more as it offers
much less resistance to heat flow on the vapour side than the film wise
condensation. If the vapour contains some non condensable gas, this gas will
collect on the condensing side and acts as resistance to heat flow on the
condensing side.
v When a liquid is in contact with a surface that is maintained at a temperature above
the saturation temperature of the liquid, boiling will occur.
v The boiling phenomenon is very complicated as it involves a large number of
variables and complex hydrodynamic developments.

NUSSELT THEORY OF FILM CONDENSATION ON VERTICAL SURFACES

v Vapour condensation is the most commonly observed phenomenon in many

engineering applications like steam condensation in condensers etc.
v When a liquid wets a surface, condensation occurs in the form of a smooth film,
which flows down the surface by gravitational force. The liquid film thus formed
offers resistance to heat flow reducing rate of heat transfer.
v Numerous experimental and theoretical investigations have been conducted to
determine the heat transfer coefficients during film wise condensation of pure
vapour over surfaces.

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 v Consider the condensation of a vapour on a vertical plane surface as shown in Fig.
1 Let x is the axial coordinate which is measured in the downward direction along
the plate and y is the coordinate normal to the condensing surface.

Fig.1: Film wise condensation on a vertical plane surface

Considering the force acting on a volume element we can equate the force acting upward
to the buoyancy force acting downward.

Where δ δ (x) is the thickness of the condensate at x

µ Viscosity and subscripts l and v refer to liquid and vapour phases.

At the wall surface liquid velocity is zero. u = 0 and y = 0

Integrating the equation subject to boundary condition

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The mass flow rate / unit width of plate at any point x, is

Differentiating equation w.r.to δ,

The heat rate dQ during condensation of dm is

kl = Thermal conductivity of liquid

Tv = Vapour saturation temperature
Tw =Wall surface temperature.
Substituting equations

Integrating equation [ ] with condition =0 for x =0, thickness of the condensate layer as a
function of position x is given by

If hx is the local heat transfer coefficient, then we can equate heat convected to heat
conducted.

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Local Nusselt s number,

As the local heat transfer coefficient hx varies with the distance x, the average heat transfer
coefficient is given by,

Where the physical properties are evaluated at the film temperature,

Condensation on Inclined surfaces

For an inclined surface having an inclination with the horizontal, the local heat
transfer coefficient is given by,

Fig. 2: Condensation on inclined surfaces

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Condensation on a Horizontal tube
According to Nusselt's analysis for laminar film wise condensation on a horizontal
tube surface, average heat transfer coefficient is given by,

Where L and D are length of vertical surface and diameter of horizontal tube respectively.

Condensation on Horizontal Tube Banks

In the horizontal tube banks arranged in vertical tiers as shown in Fig 3, the condensate
from one tube drains onto the tube just below it. Assuming smooth flow of drainage from
one tube to the there, for a vertical tier of N tubes each of diameter D, the average heat
transfer coefficient is given by

Fig. 3: Condensation on horizontal tube banks

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REYNOLDS NUMBER FOR CONDENSATE FLOW
v Even though the chances of transition from laminar to turbulent flow in case of a
single horizontal tube are very less, turbulence may start at the lower portions of a
vertical tube.
v Due to turbulence, the average heat transfer coefficient increases. Hence the
Reynolds number for condensate flow for transition from laminar to turbulent flow is
to be defined.
If um = Average velocity of condensate film
Dh = Hydraulic diameter for condensate flow,

If m is the mass flow rate of the condensate, then Reynolds number at the lowest part of
the condensing surface is expressed as

Experimentally it is shown that the transition occurs at Re of about 1800.

CORRELATIONS USED IN FILM WISE CONDENSATION

LAMINAR FLOW
Vertical surface
McAdams equation for determining the average heat transfer coefficient is as follows.

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On rearranging the above equation,

For Re < 1800

Horizontal Tube
For a single horizontal tube, average heat transfer coefficient is given by,

TURBULENT FLOW
Kirk bride proposed the following empirical correlation for film condensation on a vertical
plate after the start of turbulence

All the physical properties are evaluated at film temperature in all the above equations.

FILM CONDENSATION INSIDE HORIZONTAL TUBES

It is practically noticed that the vapour condensing inside horizontal tubes of
condensers of refrigeration and air conditioning system have significant velocity. Chato has
recommended the following correlation at low vapour velocities inside horizontal tubes

This equation holds good for inlet conditions and inside diameter D of the tube.

Akers, Dean s et.al. have recommended the following correlation at higher flow rates.

For Rev> 20,000 Rei > 5000

ml and mv are the mass flow rate of liquid and vapour respectively.

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DIFFERENT REGIMES OF BOILING MECHANISM

v When a liquid is in contact with a surface maintained at a temperature above the

saturation temperature of the liquid, boiling occurs.
v The mechanism of heat transfer in boiling systems is better understood by
considering pool boiling. Fig 4 shows the characteristics of pool boiling for water at
atmospheric pressure. The boiling curve illustrates the variation of heat transfer
coefficient as a function of temperature difference between wire and water
saturation temperatures.
v Three different regimes can be explained from the curve by immersing an electric
resistance wire into a body of saturated water and initiating boiling on the surface of
the wire by passing current through it.

1. Free convection regime

v In this regime, the energy transfer from the heater surface to the saturated liquid
takes place by free convection.
v Even though the surface is only a few degrees above the liquid saturation
temperature, free convection currents produced in the liquid are sufficient enough to
remove heat from the surface.
v As heat transfer takes place by free convection we can use all the correlations for
free Convection in the form.

Hence heat flux in this regime

2. Nucleate boiling regime

v In this regime bubbles are formed on the surface of the heater. This regime can be
separated into two distinct regions.
v In the region II, bubbles start to form on heater surfaces at specific point and as
soon as they detach from the surface they are dissipated in the liquid.
v In the region III, the rate of generation of bubbles at numerous nucleation sites
result in the Formation of continuous columns of vapour and high heat fluxes.
v Due to large heat fluxes obtainable with small temperature differences, the nucleate
boiling regime is most desirable.

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 Fig 4: Pool boiling regimes
In the nucleate boiling regime heat flux increases rapidly until a peak value. This location is
known as burnout point or departure from nucleate boiling (DNB), or the critical heat flux
(CHF). Beyond this point a large temperature difference is needed to realize the resulting
heat flux. This high temperature difference may burn or melt the heating element. The
following empirical relation is used to correlate the heat flux in the entire nucleate as Boiling
regime.

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Zuber and Tribus have given the following empirical relation used to determine the
maximum or peak or critical heat flux.

3. Film boiling regime

v From the figure 4 it is evident that after reaching the critical value the heat flux
reduces. This is due to the formation of mm of vapour which covers the heating
element. The film boiling regime can be separated into three more regions.
v The region IV is unstable film boiling region, where the unstable vapour film
collapses and reforms due to convective currents & surface tension.
v As the average wetted area of the heater surface decreases the heat flux
decreases due to increased surface temperature. The region V is stable film boiling
region in which heat flux drops to a minimum due to continuous formation of vapour
film on the heater surface.
v In the region VI the high surface temperature of the heater gives way to thermal
radiation effect and hence the heat flux begins to increase.
The average heat transfer coefficient ho for stable film boiling on the outside of a horizontal
tube or cylinder in the absence of radiation is given by,

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In the presence of radiation, the average heat transfer coefficient is given by,

Where ho = Heat transfer coefficient without the radiation effects.

hr =Radiation heat transfer coefficient.

Where
=Absorptivity of liquid
=Emissivity of hot tube
=Stefan - Boltzman constant

HEAT EXCHANGERS

INTRODUCTION
v The devices that are used to facilitate heat transfer between two or more fluids at
different temperatures are known as heat exchangers.
v Different types and sizes of heat exchangers are used in steam power plants,
chemical processing units, building heating and air conditioning, house hold
refrigerators, car radiators, radiators for space vehicles etc.
v This chapter deals with classification of heat exchangers, the overall heat transfer
coefficient, LMTD, NTU method and Effectiveness of heat exchangers.
CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat exchangers are broadly classified based on the following considerations.
1. Classification based on Transfer Process
Based on heat transfer process heat exchangers are classified as direct contact and
indirect contact

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a) Direct contact
In direct contact heat exchangers, heat transfer takes place between two immiscible fluids
like a gas and a liquid coming into direct contact.
e.g.: Cooling towers, jet condensers for water vapour, and other vapors utilizing water
spray.

b) Indirect contact
In indirect - contact type of heat exchangers the hot and cold fluids are separated by an
impervious surface. There is no mixing of the two fluids and these heat exchangers are
also known as surface heat exchangers.
e.g: Automobile radiators.

2. Classification based on Compactness

The ratio of the heat transfer surface area on one side of the heat exchanger to the volume
is used as a measure of compactness. The heat exchanger having a surface area density
on anyone side greater than about 700 m2/m3 is known as a compact heat exchanger.
e.g.: Automobile radiators (1100 m2/m3),Gas turbine engines (6600 m2/m3),
Human lungs (20,000 m2/m3)

3. Classification based on type of construction

Based on the type of construction heat exchangers are classified as follows.

a) Tubular heat exchangers

v Tubular heat exchangers are available in many sizes, flow arrangements and types.
They can withstand a wide range of operating pressures and temperatures.
v A commonly used design is shell-and-tube heat exchanger which consists of round
tubes mounted on cylindrical shells with their axes parallel to that of the shell.
v The combination of fluids may be liquid-to-liquid, liquid-to -gas or gas-to-gas.

b) Plate heat exchangers

v In these types thin plates are used to affect heat transfer. The plates may be either
smooth or corrugated.
v These heat exchangers are suitable only for moderate temperature or pressure as
the plate geometry restricts the use of high pressure and temperature differentials.
v The compactness factor for plate exchangers ranges from 120 to 230 m2/m3.

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c) Plate fin heat exchangers
v These heat exchangers use louvered or corrugated fins separated by flat plates.
Fins can be arranged on each side of the plate to get cross-flow, counter-flow or
parallel-flow arrangements.
v These heat exchangers are used for gas-to-gas applications at low pressures (10
atm.) and temperatures not exceeding 800°C.
v They also find use in cryogenic applications. The compactness factor for these heat
exchangers is upto 6000 m2/m3.

d) Tube-fin heat exchangers

v Such heat exchanges are used when a high operating pressure or an extended
surface is needed on one side. The tubes may be either round or flat.
v Tube-fin heat exchangers are used in gas- 252 Heat and Mass Transfer turbine,
nuclear, fuel cell, automobile, airplane, heat pump, refrigeration, Cryogenics etc.
v The operating pressure is about 30 atm. and the operating temperature ranges from
low cryogenic temperatures to about 870 Dc.
v The maximum compactness ratio is about 330 m2/m3

e) Regenerative heat exchangers

v Regenerative heat exchangers may be either static type or dynamic type.
v The static type has no moving parts and consists of a porous mass like balls,
pebbles, powders etc. through which hot and cold fluids pass alternatively.
e.g.: air preheaters used in coke manufacturing and glass melting plants.
v In dynamic type regenerators, the matrix is arranged in the form of a drum which
rotates about an axis in such a manner that a given portion of the matrix passes
periodically through the hot stream and then through the cold stream.
v The heat absorbed by the matrix from the hot stream is transferred to the cold
stream during its run.

4. Classification based on flow Arrangement

Based on flow arrangement heat exchangers are classified into the following
principal types.

a) Parallel-flow
In this heat exchanger, the hot and the cold fluids enter at the same end of the heat
exchanger and flow through in the same direction and leave together at the other end as
shown in Fig 5(a).

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b) Counter flow
In this heat exchanger hot and cold fluids enter in the opposite ends of the heat
exchanger and flow in opposite directions as shown in Fig 5(b).

c) Cross flow
v In this heat exchanger, the two fluids flow at right angles to each other as shown in
Fig 5 (c).
v In this arrangement the flow may be mixed or unmixed.
In general, in a cross flow exchanger, three idealized flow arrangements are possible
1. The fluids are unmixed
2. One fluid is mixed, and the other is unmixed
3. Both fluids are mixed.

d) Multipass flow
v Since multi passing increases the overall effectiveness over
individual effectiveness they are frequently used in heat exchanger
design.
v Different multipass flow arrangements are "One shell pass, two tube
pass" known as "one - two" heat exchanger, "two shell pass, two
tube pass", etc. as shown in Fig 6.

Fig. 5: Classification by flow arrangement

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 Fig. 6: Multi pass flow arrangement

5. Classification based on heat transfer mechanism

Heat exchangers are classified based on the following modes of heat transfer.
1. Single phase forced or free convection.
2. Phase change due to boiling and condensation.
3. Radiation or combined convection and radiation.

FOULING FACTOR
v In heat exchanger applications, the heat transfer surface is fouled with the
accumulation of deposits.
v Due to this accumulation thermal resistance in the path of heat flow
increases reducing heat transfer rate.
v The factor which is introduced to include the effect of fouling is known as
fouling factor, F. It is expressed in m2. C / W.

III effects
1. Due to fouling, the size of the heat exchanger considerably increases
resulting in higher capital cost.
2. Due to fouling thermal efficiency of the heat exchanger reduces which
results in energy loss.
3. Fouling necessitates periodic cleaning of heat exchangers which increases
the maintenance cost.
4. For periodic cleaning the heat exchangers are shut down which means loss
of production during this period.

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Types of Fouling
1. Scaling or precipitation fouling
It occurs mainly due to crystallization from solution of dissolved substance on to the
heat transfer surface.
2. Particulate fouling
It occurs due to accumulation of finely divided solids suspended in the process fluid
on to the heat transfer surface.
3. Chemical reaction fouling
It occurs due to the formation of deposits on the heat transfer surface by chemical
reaction.
4. Corrosion fouling
It occurs due to the accumulation of corrosion products on the heat transfer surface.
5. Biological fouling
It occurs due to the attachment of microorganisms onto the heat transfer surface.
6. Solidification fouling
It occurs due to the crystallization of a pure liquid or one component from the liquid
phase on a sub cooled heat transfer surface.

MECHANISM OF FOULING

v Mechanism of fouling is very much complicated and its prediction is also very
difficult.
v When a new heat exchanger is put into service its efficiency decreases
progressively due to the build up of fouling resistance.
v The rate at which fouling occurs is mainly dependent of fluid velocity and
temperature.
v Higher velocity decreases both the rate of deposit and the amount, whereas higher
temperature increases both the rate of deposit and the amount.
v The fouling factors in heat transfer calculations are prepared by the Tubular
Equipment Manufacturers Association (TEMA) and are available in the heat transfer
tables.

OVER ALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

v For the analysis of heat exchangers it is necessary to combine the various thermal
resistances in the path of heat flow from the hot to the cold fluid.
v These combined resistances are expressed in terms of overall heat transfer
coefficient, U.

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The total thermal resistance R to the heat flow across a tube, between the inside and the
Outside flow is given by,
R = Thermal resistance of (Inside flow + Tube material + Outside flow)

Where Ao, Ai = Surface areas of tube outside and inside surfaces respectively, m2

hi, ho = Inside and outside heat transfer coefficients respectively.

k = Thermal conductivity of tube material W/mo.C
t = Thickness of tube material, m
The thermal resistance R in the above equation can be expressed either based on
inside or the outside surface area of the tube.

Based on outside surface area of the tube

Overall heat transfer coefficient

Based on inside surface area of the tube

Overall heat transfer coefficient

Where Di and Do are the inside and outside diameters of the tubes, respectively. When the
thermal conductivity of the tube is high but its thickness is small, equation [5] reduces to

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If Fi and Fo are the fouling factors on the inside and outside surfaces of the tube, then the
thermal resistance R in the heat flow path is given by,

Since in heat exchanger applications, the overall heat transfer coefficient is expressed
based on the outer tube surface, equation is expressed as

LMTD METHOD FOR PARALLEL AND COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGERS

Consider a single flow arrangement of heat exchangers as shown in Figure 5.3
Let A = Heat transfer area measured at inlet, m2.
mc = Mass flow rate of cold fluid, kg/h
mh = Mass flow rate of hot fluid
U = Local overall heat transfer coefficient between two fluids, W/m2°C.

Fig 7: LMTD method for analysis of heat exchangers

The rate of heat transfer dQ from the hot fluid to the cold fluid through an elemental strip of
area dA about location A is given by,

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The rate of heat transfer dQ is equal to the amount of heat lost by the hot fluid or the
amount of heat gained by the cold fluid. Hence,

-NTU METHOD FOR PARALLEL AND COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGERS

v For the analysis of the heat exchangers two problems that are mainly encountered
are rating and sizing of heat exchangers.
v The rating problem deals with the determination of the heat transfer rate, the fluid
outlet temperatures, and the pressure drops either for the existing or already sized
heat exchanger.
v The sizing problem deals with the determination of matrix dimensions to meet the
specified heat transfer and pressure drop requirements.
v If the inlet and outlet temperatures of the hot fluid and the cold fluid and overall heat
transfer coefficient are known then LMTD method is used to solve both rating and
sizing problems.
v However, if heat transfer coefficient is not known (with known inlet temperatures of
cold and hot fluids) determination of LMTD is very difficult due to tedious iterations
equations.
v This difficulty is overcome by using E-NTU method or effectiveness method.

Heat exchanger effectiveness is defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer rate
to maximum possible heat transfer rate .

v The maximum possible value Qmax is obtained by counter flow arrangement if the
temperature change of the fluid having minimum m.cp = Thi – Tci
v Minimum value of m.cp is because the heat lost by hot fluid must be equal to the
heat gained by the cold fluid.

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 v If maximum value of m.cp is considered, then the other fluid should undergo a
temperature change greater than the maximum available temperature difference.
i.e., T for other fluid > Thi – Tci . Which is not possible

Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger

Consider a parallel flow heat exchanger as shown in fig 8 (a)

Fig 8: LMTD method for analysis of heat exchangers

Physical Significance of NTU

We know that

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