Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Definition and Abbreviations for Physical Quantities ...........1 Chapter 2 Units of Physical Quantities .................................................3 Chapter 3 System of Units ..................................................................23 Chapter 4 General Mathematical Formulae........................................27
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Algebra .................................................................................. 27 Geometry............................................................................... 29 Trigonometry ......................................................................... 39 Logarithm .............................................................................. 40 Exponents ............................................................................. 42 Complex Numbers ................................................................ 42

Chapter 5 Engineering Concepts and Formulae ................................44

5.1 5.2 Electricity ............................................................................... 44 Applied Mechanics ................................................................ 57
5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.2.5 Newton's laws of motion........................................................... 57 Linear Velocity And Acceleration ............................................. 60 Force ........................................................................................ 61 Centripetal (Centrifugal) Force................................................. 62 Stress, Strain And Modulus Of Elasticity ................................. 64 Laws of Thermodynamics ........................................................ 64 Momentum ............................................................................... 65 Impulse ..................................................................................... 65 Elastic and Inelastic collision.................................................... 65 Center of Mass ......................................................................... 65 Angular Motion ......................................................................... 65

5.3

Thermodynamics................................................................... 64
5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4 5.3.5 5.3.6

5.3.7 5.3.8 5.3.9 5.3.10 5.3.11 5.3.12 5.3.13 5.3.14 5.3.15 5.3.16 5.3.17 5.3.18 5.3.19 5.3.20 5.3.21 5.3.22 5.3.23

Conditions of Equilibrium ......................................................... 65 Gravity ...................................................................................... 66 Vibrations & Waves .................................................................. 66 Standing Waves ....................................................................... 66 Beats ........................................................................................ 66 Temperature and Heat ............................................................. 67 Ideal Gases .............................................................................. 67 Elastic Deformation .................................................................. 68 Temperature Scales ................................................................. 68 Sensible Heat Equation............................................................ 68 Latent Heat............................................................................... 68 Gas Laws ................................................................................. 68 Specific Heats Of Gases .......................................................... 69 Efficiency of Heat Engines ....................................................... 70 Heat Transfer by Conduction ................................................... 71 Thermal Expansion of Solids ................................................... 72 Chemical Heating Value of a Fuel ........................................... 72 Discharge from an Orifice ........................................................ 77 Bernoullis Theory..................................................................... 78 Actual pipe dimensions ............................................................ 78

5.4

Fluid Mechanics .................................................................... 77

5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3

Chapter 6 References.........................................................................80
6.1 6.2 Periodic Table of Elements ................................................... 80 Resistor Color Coding ........................................................... 81

Formulas and Conversions

Chapter 1
Definition and Abbreviations for Physical Quantities
Symbol m kg s A K cd Quantity Plane angle Force Work, energy Power Frequency Viscosity: kinematic Viscosity: Dynamic Pressure Unit meter kilogram second ampere kelvin candela Unit radian newton heat watt hertz Quantity Length Mass Time Electric current Thermodynamic temp Luminous intensity Symbol rad N joule W Hz m2/s Ns/m2 Pa or N/m2 Equivalent kg m/s2 JNm J/s s-1 10 c St (Centistoke) 103 cP (Centipoise) pascal, Pa

Symbol T G M

Prefix Tera Giga Mega

Factor by which unit is multiplied 1012 109 106

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Formulas and Conversions

Symbol k h da d c m n p Prefix Kilo Hecto Deca Deci Centi Milli Micro Nano Pico Factor by which unit is multiplied 103 102 10 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12

Quantity Potential Resistance Charge Capacitance Electric field strength Electric flux density Quantity Magnetic flux Inductance Magnetic field strength Magnetic flux density

Electrical unit Volt Ohm Coulomb Farad -

Symbol V C F V/m C/m2

Derived unit W/A V/A As As/V -

Magnetic unit Weber Henry Tesla

Symbol Wb H A/m T

Derived unit Vs = Nm/A Vs/A = Nm/A2 Wb/m2 = (N)/(Am)

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Formulas and Conversions

Chapter 2
Units of Physical Quantities
Conversion Factors (general): 1 acre = 43,560 square feet 1 cubic foot = 7.5 gallons 1 foot = 0.305 meters 1 gallon = 3.79 liters 1 gallon = 8.34 pounds 1 grain per gallon = 17.1 mg/L 1 horsepower = 0.746 kilowatts 1 million gallons per day = 694 gallons per minute 1 pound = 0.454 kilograms 1 pound per square inch = 2.31 feet of water Degrees Celsius = (Degrees Fahrenheit - 32) (5/9) Degrees Fahrenheit = (Degrees Celsius) (9/5) + 32 1% = 10,000 mg/L Multiply by 0.3048 4047 9.294E-02 1.000E+04 6.452E-04 1000 16.02 2.767E+04

Name Acceleration Area Area Area Area Density Density Density

To convert from ft/sec2 acre ft2 hectare in2 g/cm3 lbm/ft3 lbm/in3

To m/s2 m2 m2 m2 m2 kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3

Divide by 3.2810 2.471E-04 10.7600 1.000E-04 1550 1.000E-03 6.243E-02 3.614E-05

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Formulas and Conversions

Multiply by 1.069E+07 515.40 1055 4.1859 1.000E-07 1.602E-19 1.3557 4.187E+12 3.600E+06 4.187E+15 1.000E-05 4.4484 0.2780 4188 5.6786 1.496E+11 0.3048 2.540E-02 1609 1853 3.085E+16 1.661E-27 0.4535 1200.00 14.59 1.260E-04

Name Density Density Energy Energy Energy Energy Energy Energy Energy Energy Force Force Force Heat capacity Heat transfer coefficient Length Length Length Length Length Length Mass Mass Mass Mass Mass flow rate

To convert from lbs2/in4 slug/ft3 BTU cal erg eV Ftlbf kiloton TNT KWhr Megaton TNT Dyne Lbf Ozf BTU/lbm F BTU/hrft2F AU ft in mile Nautical mile parsec amu lbm lbs2/in slug lbm/hr

To kg/m3 kg/m3 J J J J J J J J N N N J/kgC W/m2C m m m m m m kg kg kg kg kg/s

Divide by 9.357E-08 1.940E-03 9.478E-04 0.2389 1.000E+07 6.242E+18 0.7376 2.388E-13 2.778E-07 2.388E-16 1.000E+05 0.2248 3.5968 2.388E-04 0.1761 6.685E-12 3.2810 39.3700 6.214E-04 5.397E-04 3.241E-17 6.022E+26 2.2050 5.711E-03 6.853E-02 7937

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Formulas and Conversions

Multiply by 0.4535 1.3557 0.1130 7.062E-03 0.2931 745.71 3516 1.000E+05 0.1000 3377 248.82 9.807E+04 47.89 6897 100.00 0.1333 133.3 1.013E+05 4186 4186 0.5556 1.7307 0.1442 418.60 6.867E-03 8.640E+04

Name Mass flow rate Moment of inertia Moment of inertia Moment of inertia Power Power Power Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Specific heat Specific heat Temperature Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity Time

To convert from lbm/sec ftlbs2 inlbs2 ozins2 BTU/hr hp tons of refrigeration bar dyne/cm2 in. mercury in. water kgf/cm2 lbf/ft2 lbf/in2 mbar microns mercury mm mercury std atm BTU/lbmF cal/gC F BTU/hrftF BTUin/hrft2F cal/cmsC cal/fthrF day

To kg/s kgm2 kgm2 kgm2 W W W Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa J/kgC J/kgC C W/mC W/mC W/mC W/mC S

Divide by 2.2050 0.7376 8.8510 141.60 3.4120 1.341E-03 2.844E-04 1.000E-05 10.0000 2.961E-04 4.019E-03 1.020E-05 2.088E-02 1.450E-04 1.000E-02 7.501 7.501E-03 9.869E-06 2.389E-04 2.389E-04 1.8000 0.5778 6.9340 2.389E-03 145.62 1.157E-05

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Formulas and Conversions

Multiply by 3.156E+07 1.3557 0.1130 7.062E-03 5.079E-03 0.3048 0.2778 0.4470 1.000E-03 0.1000 47.87 1.4881 1.000E-06 9.294E-02 2.831E-02 1.639E-05 1.000E-03 3.785E-03 4.719E-04 6.309E-05

Name Time Torque Torque Torque Velocity Velocity Velocity Velocity Viscosity absolute Viscosity absolute Viscosity absolute Viscosity absolute Viscosity kinematic Viscosity kinematic Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume flow rate Volume flow rate

To convert from sidereal year ftlbf inlbf Inozf ft/min ft/s Km/hr miles/hr centipose g/cms lbf/ft2s lbm/fts centistoke ft2/sec ft3 in3 Liters U.S. gallons ft3/min U.S. gallons/min

To S Nm Nm Nm m/s m/s m/s m/s Ns/m2 Ns/m2 Ns/m2 Ns/m2 m2/s m2/s m3 m3 m3 m3 m3/s m3/s

Divide by 3.169E-08 0.7376 8.8504 141.61 196.90 3.2810 3.6000 2.2370 1000 10 2.089E-02 0.6720 1.000E+06 10.7600 35.3200 6.102E+04 1000 264.20 2119 1.585E+04

A.

DISTANCE (Length)
Multiply By LENGTH To obtain

Conversions

Centimeter Centimeter

0.03280840 0.3937008

foot inch

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Formulas and Conversions

Multiply Fathom Foot Foot Foot Inch Inch Inch Kilometer Meter Meter Meter Meter Meter Meter Microinch micrometer(micron) mile(USstatute) mile(USstatute) millimeter millimeter Rod Yard To Convert Cables Cables Cables By 1.8288* 0.3048* 30.48* 304.8* 0.0254* 2.54* 25.4* 0.6213712 39.37008 0.54680066 3.280840 0.1988388 1.093613 0.0006213712 0.0254* 39.37008 1,609.344* 1.609344* 0.003280840 0.0397008 5.0292* 0.9144* To Fathoms Meters Yards To obtain meter(m) meter(m) centimeter(cm) millimeter(mm) meter(m) centimeter(cm) millimeter(mm) mile(USstatute) Inch Fathom Foot Rod Yard mile(USstatute) micrometer(micron)(m) Microinch meter(m) kilometer(km) Foot Inch meter(m) meter(m) Multiply By 120 219.456 240

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Formulas and Conversions

To Convert Centimeters Centimeters Centimeters Centimeters Chains, (Surveyor's) Chains, (Surveyor's) Chains, (Surveyor's) Fathoms Fathoms Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Furlongs Furlongs Furlongs Furlongs Furlongs Hands (Height Of Horse) Hands (Height Of Horse) Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches To Meters Yards Feet Inches Rods Meters Feet Meters Feet Statute Miles Kilometers Meters Yards Inches Centimeters Statute Miles Meters Yards Feet Inches Inches Centimeters Meters Yards Feet Centimeters Millimeters Multiply By 0.01 0.01093613 0.0328084 0.3937008 4 20.1168 66 1.8288 6 0.00018939 0.0003048 0.3048 0.3333333 12 30.48 0.125 201.168 220 660 7920 4 10.16 0.0254 0.02777778 0.08333333 2.54 25.4

-8-

Formulas and Conversions

To Convert Kilometers Kilometers Leagues, Nautical Leagues, Nautical Leagues, Statute Leagues, Statute Links, (Surveyor's) Links, (Surveyor's) Links, (Surveyor's) Meters Meters Meters Meters Meters Meters Meters Microns Microns Miles, Nautical Miles, Nautical Miles, Statute Miles, Statute Miles, Statute Miles, Statute Miles, Statute Miles, Statute Miles, Statute To Statute Miles Meters Nautical Miles Kilometers Statute Miles Kilometers Chains Inches Centimeters Statute Miles Kilometers Yards Feet Inches Centimeters Millimeters Meters Inches Statute Miles Kilometers Kilometers Furlongs Rods Meters Yards Feet Inches Multiply By 0.621371192 1000 3 5.556 3 4.828032 0.01 7.92 20.1168 0.000621371 0.001 1.093613298 3.280839895 39.370079 100 1000 0.000001 0.0000394 1.1507794 1.852 1.609344 8 320 1609.344 1760 5280 63360

-9-

Formulas and Conversions

To Convert Miles, Statute Millimeters Mils Mils Paces (US) Paces (US) Points (Typographical) Points (Typographical) Rods Rods Rods Spans Spans Yards Yards Yards Yards Yards To Centimeters Inches Inches Millimeters Inches Centimeters Inches Millimeters Meters Yards Feet Inches Centimeters Miles Meters Feet Inches Centimeters Multiply By 160934.4 0.039370079 0.001 0.0254 30 76.2 0.013837 0.3514598 5.0292 5.5 16.5 9 22.86 0.00056818 0.9144 3 36 91.44

Conversion Length 1 ft = 12 in 1 cm = 0.3937 in 1 m = 3.281 ft 1 m = 1.0936 yd 1 km = 0.6214 mile 1 furlong = 40 rods 1 yd = 3 ft 1 in = 2.5400 cm 1 ft = 0.3048 m 1 yd = 0.9144 m 1 mile = 1.6093 km 1 fathom = 6 ft

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Formulas and Conversions

Conversion 1 statute mile = 8 furlongs 1 statute mile = 5280 ft 1 nautical mile = 6076 ft 1 league = 3 miles Area 1 ft2 = 144 in2 1 yd2 = 9 ft2 1 rod2 = 30.25 yd2 1 cm2 = 0.1550 in2 1 m2 = 10.764 ft2 1 km2 = 0.3861 mile2 Volume 1 cm3 = 0.06102 in3 1 m3 = 35.31 ft3 1 Litre = 61.024 in3 1 Litre = 0.0353 ft3 1 Litre = 0.2642 gal. (U.S.) 1 Litre = 0.0284 bu (U.S.) 1 Litre = 1000.000 cm3 1 Litre = 1.0567 qt. (liquid) or 0.9081 qt. (dry) 1 oz (US fluid) = 2.957 x 10-5 m3 Liquid Volume 1 gill = 4 fluid ounces 1 pint = 4 gills 1 quart = 2 pints 1 gallon = 4 quarts 1 barrel = 31.5 gallons 1 hogshead = 2 bbl (63 gal) 1 tun = 252 gallons 1 barrel (petrolum) = 42 gallons 1 in3 = 16.387 cm3 1 ft3 = 0.02832 m3 1 in3 = 0.0164 litre 1 ft3 = 28.32 litres 1 yd3 = 0.7646 m3 1 gallon (US) = 3.785 litres 1 gallon (US) = 3.785 x 10-3 m3 1 bushel (US) = 35.24 litres 1 stere = 1 m3 1 acre = 160 rod2 1 acre = 43,560 ft2 1 mile2 = 640 acres 1 in2 = 6.4516 cm2 1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2 1 mile2 = 2.590 km2 1 rod = 5.5 yd 1 in = 100 mils 1 light year = 9.461 x 1015 m 1 mil = 2.540 x 10-5 m

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Formulas and Conversions

Conversion Dry Volume 1 quart = 2 pints 1 peck = 8 quarts 1 bushel = 4 pecks 1 quart = 67.2 in3 1 peck = 537.6 in3 1 bushel = 2150.5 in3

B.

Area
Multiply By AREA acre acre centimeter2 centimeter2 foot2 foot2 foot2 hectare inch2 inch2 inch2 meter2 meter2 meter2 meter2 millimeter2 millimeter2 yard2 4,046.856 0.4046856 0.1550003 0.001076391 0.09290304* 929.03042 92,903.04 2.471054 645.16* 6.4516 0.00064516 1,550.003 10.763910 1.195990 0.0002471054 0.00001076391 0.001550003 0.8361274 meter2 (m2) hectare inch2 foot2 meter2 (m2) centimeter2 (cm2) millimeter2 (mm2) acre millimeter2 (mm2) centimeter2 (cm2) meter2 (m2) inch2 foot2 yard2 acre foot2 inch2 meter2 (m2) To obtain

Conversions

- 12 -

Formulas and Conversions

C.

Volume

Conversions Metric Conversion Factors: Volume (including Capacity) Multiply By VOLUME (including CAPACITY) centimeter3 foot3 foot3 gallon (UK liquid) gallon (UK liquid) gallon (US liquid) gallon (US liquid) inch3 inch3 inch3 Liter Liter Liter Liter meter3 meter3 meter3 meter3 meter3 meter3 millimeter3 Yard3 0.06102376 0.028311685 28.31685 0.004546092 4.546092 0.003785412 3.785412 16,387.06 16.38706 0.00001638706 0.001* 0.2199692 0.2641720 0.03531466 219.9692 264.1720 35.31466 1.307951 1000.* 61,023.76 0.00006102376 0.7645549 inch3 meter3 (m3) liter meter3 (m3) litre meter3 (m3) liter millimeter3 (mm3) centimeter3 (cm3) meter3 (m3) meter3 (m3) gallon (UK liquid) gallon (US liquid) foot3 gallon (UK liquid) gallon (US liquid) foot3 yard3 liter inch3 inch3 meter3 (m3) To obtain

D.

Mass and Weight

Conversions

- 13 -

Formulas and Conversions

To Convert Carat Drams, Avoirdupois Drams, Avoirdupois Drams, Avoirdupois Drams, Troy Drams, Troy Drams, Troy Drams, Troy Grains Grains Grains Grains Grains Grains Grains Grains Grains Grains Grains Grams Grams Grams Grams Grams Grams Grams

To Milligrams Avoirdupois Ounces Grams Grains Troy Ounces Scruples Grams Grains Kilograms Avoirdupois Pounds Troy Pounds Troy Ounces Avoirdupois Ounces Troy Drams Avoirdupois Drams Pennyweights Scruples Grams Milligrams Kilograms Avoirdupois Pounds Troy Pounds Troy Ounces Avoirdupois Ounces Avoirdupois Drams Grains

Multiply By 200 0.06255 1.7718452 27.344 0.125 3 3.8879346 60 6.47989E-05 0.00014286 0.00017361 0.00208333 0.00228571 0.0166 0.03657143 0.042 0.05 0.06479891 64.79891 0.001 0.002204623 0.00267923 0.032150747 0.035273961 0.56438339 15.432361

- 14 -

Formulas and Conversions

To Convert Grams Hundredweights, Long Hundredweights, Long Hundredweights, Long Hundredweights, Long Hundredweights, Long Hundredweights, Short Hundredweights, Short Hundredweights, Short Hundredweights, Short Hundredweights, Short Kilograms Kilograms Kilograms Kilograms Kilograms Kilograms Kilograms Kilograms Kilograms Kilograms Kilograms Milligrams Ounces, Avoirdupois Ounces, Avoirdupois Ounces, Avoirdupois Ounces, Avoirdupois To Milligrams Long Tons Metric Tons Short Tons Kilograms Avoirdupois Pounds Long Tons Metric Tons Short Tons Kilograms Avoirdupois Pounds Long Tons Metric Tons Short Tons Short Hundredweights Avoirdupois Pounds Troy Pounds Troy Ounces Avoirdupois Ounces Avoirdupois Drams Grams Grains Grains Kilograms Avoirdupois Pounds Troy Pounds Troy Ounces Multiply By 1000 0.05 0.050802345 0.056 50.802345 112 0.04464286 0.045359237 0.05 45.359237 100 0.0009842 0.001 0.00110231 0.02204623 2.204622622 2.679229 32.15075 35.273962 564.3834 1000 15432.36 0.015432358 0.028349523 0.0625 0.07595486 0.9114583

- 15 -

Formulas and Conversions

To Convert Ounces, Avoirdupois Ounces, Avoirdupois Ounces, Avoirdupois Ounces, Troy Ounces, Troy Ounces, Troy Ounces, Troy Ounces, Troy Ounces, Troy Ounces, Troy Ounces, Troy Pennyweights Pennyweights Pennyweights Pounds, Avoirdupois Pounds, Avoirdupois Pounds, Avoirdupois Pounds, Avoirdupois Pounds, Avoirdupois Pounds, Avoirdupois Pounds, Avoirdupois Pounds, Avoirdupois Pounds, Avoirdupois Pounds, Avoirdupois Pounds, Avoirdupois Pounds, Troy Pounds, Troy To Avoirdupois Drams Grams Grains Avoirdupois Pounds Troy Pounds Avoirdupois Ounces Troy Drams Avoirdupois Drams Pennyweights Grams Grains Troy Ounces Grams Grains Long Tons Metric Tons Short Tons Quintals Kilograms Troy Pounds Troy Ounces Avoirdupois Ounces Avoirdupois Drams Grams Grains Kilograms Avoirdupois Pounds Multiply By 16 28.34952313 437.5 0.06857143 0.0833333 1.097143 8 17.55429 20 31.1034768 480 0.05 1.55517384 24 0.000446429 0.000453592 0.0005 0.00453592 0.45359237 1.215278 14.58333 16 256 453.59237 7000 0.373241722 0.8228571

- 16 -

Formulas and Conversions

To Convert Pounds, Troy Pounds, Troy Pounds, Troy Pounds, Troy Pounds, Troy Pounds, Troy Quintals Quintals Quintals Scruples Scruples Scruples Tons, Long (Deadweight) Tons, Long (Deadweight) Tons, Long (Deadweight) Tons, Long (Deadweight) Tons, Long (Deadweight) Tons, Long (Deadweight) Tons, Long (Deadweight) Tons, Metric Tons, Metric Tons, Metric Tons, Metric Tons, Metric Tons, Metric Tons, Metric Tons, Metric To Troy Ounces Avoirdupois Ounces Avoirdupois Drams Pennyweights Grams Grains Metric Tons Kilograms Avoirdupois Pounds Troy Drams Grams Grains Metric Tons Short Tons Long Hundredweights Short Hundredweights Kilograms Avoirdupois Pounds Avoirdupois Ounces Long Tons Short Tons Quintals Long Hundredweights Short Hundredweights Kilograms Avoirdupois Pounds Troy Ounces Multiply By 12 13.16571 210.6514 240 373.2417216 5760 0.1 100 220.46226 0.333 1.2959782 20 1.016046909 1.12 20 22.4 1016.04691 2240 35840 0.9842065 1.1023113 10 19.68413072 22.04623 1000 2204.623 32150.75

- 17 -

Formulas and Conversions

To Convert Tons, Short Tons, Short Tons, Short Tons, Short Tons, Short Tons, Short To Long Tons Metric Tons Long Hundredweights Short Hundredweights Kilograms Avoirdupois Pounds Multiply By 0.8928571 0.90718474 17.85714 20 907.18474 2000

E.

Density
To Parts/million Parts/million Pounds/million gal Pounds/mil-foot Pounds/cu. in Pounds/cu. ft Pounds/cu. ft Pounds/1000 gal Grains/gal Parts/million Pounds/mil-foot Pounds/cu in Grams/cu cm Pound/cu ft Parts/million Pounds/mil-foot Pounds/cu in Multiply By 14.286 17.118 142.86 3.405E-07 0.03613 62.43 0.062427 8.345 58.417 1000 3.405E-10 0.00003613 0.001 0.06243 1 5.456E-09 0.0005787

Conversions To Convert Grains/imp. Gallon Grains/US gallon Grains/US gallon Grams/cu. Cm Grams/cu. Cm Grams/cu. Cm Grams/liter Grams/liter Grams/liter Grams/liter Kilograms/cu meter Kilograms/cu meter Kilograms/cu meter Kilograms/cu meter Milligrams/liter Pounds/cu ft Pounds/cu ft

- 18 -

Formulas and Conversions

To Convert Pounds/cu ft Pounds/cu ft Pounds/cu in Pounds/cu in Pounds/cu in Pounds/cu in To Grams/cu cm Kgs/cu meter Pounds/mil-foot Gms/cu cm Pounds/cu ft Kgs/cu meter Multiply By 0.01602 16.02 0.000009425 27.68 1728 27680

F.

Relative Density (Specific Gravity) Of Various Substances

Substance Water (fresh) Mica Water (sea average) Nickel Aluminum Oil (linseed) Antimony Oil (olive) Bismuth Oil (petroleum) Brass Oil (turpentine) Brick Paraffin Calcium Platinum Carbon (diamond) Relative Density 1.00 2.9 1.03 8.6 2.56 0.94 6.70 0.92 9.80 0.76-0.86 8.40 0.87 2.1 0.86 1.58 21.5 3.4

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Formulas and Conversions

Substance Sand (dry) Carbon (graphite) Silicon Carbon (charcoal) Silver Chromium Slate Clay Sodium Coal Steel (mild) Cobalt Sulphur Copper Tin Cork Tungsten Glass (crown) Wood (ash) Glass (flint) Wood (beech) Gold Wood (ebony) Iron (cast) Wood (elm) Iron (wrought) Relative Density 1.42 2.3 2.6 1.8 10.57 6.5 2.1-2.8 1.9 0.97 1.36-1.4 7.87 8.6 2.07 8.77 7.3 0.24 19.1 2.5 0.75 3.5 0.7-0.8 19.3 1.1-1.2 7.21 0.66 7.78

- 20 -

Formulas and Conversions

Substance Wood (lignum-vitae) Lead Magnesium Manganese Mercury Lead Magnesium Manganese Wood (oak) Wood (pine) Wood (teak) Zinc Wood (oak) Wood (pine) Wood (teak) Zinc Mercury Relative Density 1.3 11.4 1.74 8.0 13.6 11.4 1.74 8.0 0.7-1.0 0.56 0.8 7.0 0.7-1.0 0.56 0.8 7.0 13.6

G. Greek Alphabet
Name Alpha Beta Gamma Delta Epsilon Zeta Lower Case Upper Case

- 21 -

Formulas and Conversions

Lower Case and Upper Case

Name Eta Theta Iota Kappa Lambda Mu Nu Xi Omicron Pi Rho Sigma Tau Upsilon Phi Chi Psi Omega

- 22 -

Formulas and Conversions

Chapter 3
System of Units
The two most commonly used systems of units are as follows: SI Imperial SI: The International System of Units (abbreviated "SI") is a scientific method of expressing the magnitudes of physical quantities. This system was formerly called the meter-kilogramsecond (MKS) system. Imperial: A unit of measure for capacity officially adopted in the British Imperial System; British units are both dry and wet

Metric System
Exponent value Tera Giga Mega Unit quantity Micro Nano Pico 1012 109 106 1 10-6 10-9 10-12 Numerical equivalent 1000000000000 1000000000 1000000 1 0.001 0.000001 0.000000000001 n p Representation T G M Example Thz (Tera hertz) Ghz (Giga hertz) Mhz (Mega hertz) hz (hertz) F (Farads) F (Micro farads) nF (Nano farads) pF (Pico farads)

Conversion Chart
Multiply by To convert Kilo Into Milli 106 Into Centi 105 Into Deci 104 Into MGL* 103 Into Deca 102 Into Hecto 101 Into Kilo 1

- 23 -

Formulas and Conversions

Multiply by To convert Hecto To convert Deca To convert MGL* To convert Deci To convert Centi To convert Milli Into Milli 105 Into Centi 104 Into Deci 103 Into MGL* 102 Into Deca 101 Into Hecto 1 Into Kilo 10-1

104

103

102

101

10-1

10-2

103

102

101

10-1

10-2

10-3

102

101

10-1

10-2

10-3

10-4

101

10-1

10-2

10-3

10-4

10-5

10-1

10-2

10-3

10-4

10-5

10-6

MGL = meter, gram, liter

Example:

To convert Kilogram Into Milligram (1 Kilo X 106 ) Milligrams

Physical constants
Name Avogadro's number Bohr magneton Boltzmann's constant Stefan-Boltzmann constant Characteristic impedance of free space Electron volt Electron charge Symbolic Representation N B k d Zo eV e Numerical Equivalent 6.023 x 1026 /(kg mol) 9.27 x 10-24 Am 252 1.380 x 10-23 J/k 5.67 x 10-8 W/(m2K4) (o/Eo)1/2=120 1.602 x 10-19 J 1.602 x 10-19 C

- 24 -

Formulas and Conversions

Symbolic Representation me e/me F 0 Eo h mp mp/me g G Ro C
0

Name Electronic rest mass Electronic charge to mass ratio Faraday constant Permeability of free space Permittivity of free space Planck's constant Proton mass Proton to electron mass ratio Standard gravitational acceleration Universal constant of gravitation Universal gas constant Velocity of light in vacuum Temperature Temperature Speed of light in air Electron charge Mass of electron Planck's constant Universal gravitational constant Electron volt Mass of proton

Numerical Equivalent 9.109 x 10-31 kg 1.759 x 1011 C/kg 9.65 x 107 C/(kg mol) 4 x 10-7 H/m 8.85 x 10-12 F/m 6.626 x 10-34 J s 1.672 x 10-27 kg 1835.6 9.80665 m/s2, 9.80665 N/kg 6.67 x 10-11 N m2/kg2 8.314 kJ/(kg mol K) 2.9979 x 108 m/s 5/9(0F - 32) 5/9(0F + 459.67), 5/90R, 0C + 273.15 3.00 x 108 m s-1 -1.60 x 10-19 C 9.11 x 10-31 kg 6.63 x 10-34 J s 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2 1.60 x 10-19 J 1.67 x 10-27 kg

K c e me h G 1 eV mp

- 25 -

Formulas and Conversions

Symbolic Representation g gM RE ME RS MS RM MM c e me h G 1 eV mp g gM 1 ton

Name Acceleration due to gravity on Earth Acceleration due to gravity on the Moon Radius of the Earth Mass of the Earth Radius of the Sun Mass of the Sun Radius of the Moon Mass of the Moon Earth-Moon distance Earth-Sun distance Speed of light in air Electron charge Mass of electron Planck's constant Universal gravitational constant Electron volt Mass of proton Acceleration due to gravity on Earth Acceleration due to gravity on the Moon Ton

Numerical Equivalent 9.80 m s-2 1.62 m s-2 6.37 x 106 m 5.98 x 1024 kg 6.96 x 108 m 1.99 x 1030 kg 1.74 x 106 m 7.35 x 1022 kg 3.84 x 108 m 1.50 x 1011 m 3.00 x 108 m s-1 -1.60 x 10-19 C 9.11 x 10-31 kg 6.63 x 10-34 J s 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2 1.60 x 10-19 J 1.67 x 10-27 kg 9.80 m s-2 1.62 m s-2 1.00 x 103 kg

- 26 -

Formulas and Conversions

Chapter 4
General Mathematical Formulae
4.1 Algebra A. Expansion Formulae
Square of summation

(x + y) 2 = x2 + 2xy + y2 (x y) 2 = x2 2xy + y2 x2 y2 = (x + y) (x y) (x + y) 3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3 x3 + y3 = (x + y) (x2 - xy + y2) (x y) 3 = x3 3x2y + 3xy2 y3 x3 y3 = (x y) (x2 + xy + y2) If ax2 + bx + c = 0,

Square of difference

Difference of squares

Cube of summation

Summation of two cubes

Cube of difference

Difference of two cubes

B. Quadratic Equation

b b 2 4ac Then x = 2a
The basic algebraic properties of real numbers a, b and c are:
Property Closure Commutative Associative Distributive Description a + b and ab are real numbers a + b = b + a, ab = ba (a+b) + c = a + (b+c), (ab)c = a(bc) (a+b)c = ac+bc

- 27 -

Formulas and Conversions

Identity Inverse Cancellation Zero-factor Negation

a+0 = 0+a = a a + (-a) = 0, a(1/a) = 1 If a+x=a+y, then x=y a0 = 0a = 0 -(-a) = a, (-a)b= a(-b) = -(ab), (-a)(-b) = ab

Algebraic Combinations
Factors with a common denominator can be expanded: a+b a b = + c c c Fractions can be added by finding a common denominator: a b ad + bc + = c d cd Products of fractions can be carried out directly: a b ab = c d cd Quotients of fractions can be evaluated by inverting and multiplying: a b = a d = ad c b c bc d

Radical Combinations
n

ab = n a n b a = a1 / n a = b
a
m

n n

a b
m n

=a

n m

a = mn a

- 28 -

Formulas and Conversions

4.2 Geometry
Item Circumference / Perimeter Area Surface Area Volume Figure

Square

4s

NA

NA

Rectangle

2 (L + B)

(Length)(Breadth) = LB

NA

NA

- 29 -

Formulas and Conversions

Circumference / Perimeter

Item

Area

Surface Area

Volume

Figure

Triangle

s1 + s2 + s3 where s1, s2, s3 are the 3 sides of the triangle

1 B H 2

NA

NA

Right triangle

s1 + s2 + s3

1 B H 2

NA

NA

- 30 -

Formulas and Conversions

Circumference / Perimeter

Item

Area

Surface Area

Volume

Figure

s ( s a )( s b)( s c)
Generic triangle s1 + s2 + s3 where

s=

a+b+c 2

NA

NA

Equilateral triangle

3s where s is the length of each side

A=

1 bh 2

NA

NA

- 31 -

Formulas and Conversions

Circumference / Perimeter

Item

Area

Surface Area

Volume

Figure

Trapezoid

where and are the 2 base angles

a +b A= h 2

NA

NA

Circle

C = 2r C = d

A = r2 NA NA

- 32 -

Formulas and Conversions

Circumference / Perimeter

Item

Area

Surface Area

Volume

Figure

Circle Sector

2r + (arc length)

arc r 2 r 2 A= 360 A= A=

NA

NA

r 2
2

(1/4)Dd Ellipse where D and d are the two axis

A=

Dd
NA NA

D is the larger radius and d is the smaller radius

- 33 -

Formulas and Conversions

Circumference / Perimeter

Item

Area

Surface Area

Volume

Figure

Trapezoid

Sum of all sides

A=

1 (b1 + b2 )h 2

NA

NA

Hexagon

6s

A = 2.6s2 Where s is the length of 1 side

NA

NA

- 34 -

Formulas and Conversions

Circumference / Perimeter

Item

Area

Surface Area

Volume

Figure

Octagon

8s

A = 4.83 s2 Where s is the length of 1 side

NA

NA

Cube

NA

NA

6s

s3

- 35 -

Formulas and Conversions

Circumference / Perimeter

Item

Area

Surface Area

Volume

Figure

Rectangular solid

NA

NA

2 l h + 2wh + 2

l w h

Right cylinder

S = 2rh + 2r2 NA NA

V = r2h

- 36 -

Formulas and Conversions

Circumference / Perimeter

Item

Area

Surface Area

Volume

Figure

Sphere

NA

NA

S = 4r2

4 3 r 3

Pyramid

NA

NA

.perimeter slant height + B

perpendicular height

1 base area 3

- 37 -

Formulas and Conversions

Circumference / Perimeter

Item

Area

Surface Area

Volume

Figure

Rectangular prism

NA

NA

2lh+2lw+2wh

V = lwh

Cone

NA

NA

pir(r+sh)

1 2 r h 3

- 38 -

Formulas and Conversions

4.3 Trigonometry A. Pythagoras' Law

c2 = a2 + b2

B. Basic Ratios

Sin = a/c Cos = b/c Tan = a/b Cosec = c/a Sec = c/b Cot = b/a A circle in degree contains 360 degrees A circle in radians contains 2 radians

a b

Degrees versus Radians

hypotenuse opposite

adjacent

Sine, Cosine and Tangent

sin =

opposite hypotenus

cos =

adjacent hypotenus

tan =

opposite adjacent

Sine, Cosine and the Pythagorean Triangle

[sin ]2 + [cos ]2 = sin 2 + cos2 = 1

- 39 -

Formulas and Conversions

Tangent, Secant and Co-Secant

sin cos 1 sec = cos 1 csc = sin tan = C. Trigonometric Function Values
Eulers Representation

e j = cos( ) + j sin( ) e j = cos( ) j sin( )

e jn = cos(n ) + j sin(n )
cos = e j + e j 2

e j e j sin = 2j
4.4 Logarithm
Definition

The logarithm of a number to a particular base is the power (or index) to which that base must be raised to obtain the number. The number 8 written in index form as 8 = 23 The equation can be rewritten in logarithm form as log 2 8 = 3
Logarithm laws

The logarithm laws are obtained from the index laws and are:
loga x + loga y = loga xy

- 40 -

Formulas and Conversions

loga x loga y = loga (x/y) loga xy = y loga x loga (1/x) = -loga x loga 1 = 0 loga a = 1

a (log a x ) = x

Note: It is not possible to have the logarithm of a negative number. All logarithms must have the same base.
Euler Relationship

The trigonometric functions are related to a complex exponential by the Euler relationship: e jx = cos x + j sin x e jx = cos x j sin x From these relationships the trig functions can be expressed in terms of the complex exponential:
e jx + e jx 2 jx e e jx sin x = 2

cos x =

Hyperbolic Functions

The hyperbolic functions can be defined in terms of exponentials. Hyperbolic sine = sinh x =
e x e x 2 e x + e x 2

Hyperbolic cosine = cosh x =

Hyperbolic tangent = tanh x =

sinh x e x e x = cosh x e x + e x

- 41 -

Formulas and Conversions

4.5 Exponents Summary of the Laws of Exponents

Let c, d, r, and s be any real numbers.
c r c s = c r+s

(c d ) r = c r d r
cr c = r , d 0 d d
c r = 1 cr
r

cr = c rs , c 0 s c
( c r ) s = c r s

Basic Combinations Since the raising of a number n to a power p may be defined as multiplying n times itself p times, it follows that

n p1 + p 2 = n p1 n p 2
The rule for raising a power to a power can also be deduced (na)b = nab (ab)n = anbn am/an = am-n

where a not equal to zero

4.6 Complex Numbers

A complex number is a number with a real and an imaginary part, usually expressed in Cartesian form

a + jb where j = -1 and j j = -1

Complex numbers can also be expressed in polar form

Aej where A = a2 +b2 and = tan-1 (b/a)

The polar form can also be expressed in terms of trigonometric functions using the Euler relationship ej = cos + j sin
Euler Relationship The trigonometric functions are related to a complex exponential by the Euler relationship ejx = cos x + j sin x

- 42 -

Formulas and Conversions

e-j = cos x - j sin x

From these relationships the trigonometric functions can be expressed in terms of the complex exponential: e jx + e jx 2 jx e e jx sin x = 2 cos x =
This relationship is useful for expressing complex numbers in polar form, as well as many other applications. Polar Form, Complex Numbers The standard form of a complex number is a + jb where j = -1 But this can be shown to be equivalent to the form

Aej where A = a2 +b2 and = tan-1 (b/a)

which is called the polar form of a complex number. The equivalence can be shown by using the Euler relationship for complex exponentials. b b Ae j = a 2 + b 2 (cos tan 1 + j sin tan 1 ) a a

Ae j = a 2 + b 2 (

a a2 + b2

+ j

b a2 + b2

) = a + jb

- 43 -

Formulas and Conversions

Chapter 5
Engineering Concepts and Formulae
5.1 Electricity Ohm's Law
I=
Or V = IR Where I = current (amperes) E = electromotive force (volts) R = resistance (ohms)

V R

Temperature correction
Rt = Ro (1 + t) Where Ro = resistance at 0C (.) Rt = resistance at tC (.) = temperature coefficient which has an average value for copper of 0.004 28 (/ C)

R2 = R1

(1 + t2 ) (1 + t1 )

Where R1 = resistance at t1 R2 = resistance at t2 Values of alpha Copper Platinum Nickel Tungsten / C 0.00428 0.00358 0.00672 0.00450

- 44 -

Formulas and Conversions

Aluminum 0.0040

Current, I =

nqvtA = nqvA t

Conductor Resistivity
R=

L
a

Where = specific resistance (or resistivity) (ohm meters, m) L = length (meters) a = area of cross-section (square meters) Quantity Resistance R of a uniform conductor Resistors in series, Rs Resistors in parallel, R p Equation

R=

L A

Rs = R1 + R2 + R3

1 1 1 1 = + + R p R1 R2 R3
P = VI = I 2 R =
V=IR

Power dissipated in resistor:

V2 R

Potential drop across R

Dynamo Formulae
Average e.m.f. generated in each conductor =

2NpZ 60c

Where Z = total number of armature conductors c = number of parallel paths through winding between positive and negative brushes Where c = 2 (wave winding), c = 2p (lap winding) = useful flux per pole (webers), entering or leaving the armature p = number of pairs of poles N = speed (revolutions per minute) Generator Terminal volts = EG IaRa Motor Terminal volts = EB + IaRa

- 45 -

Formulas and Conversions

Where EG = generated e.m.f. EB = generated back e.m.f. Ia = armature current Ra = armature resistance

Alternating Current
RMS value of sine curve = 0.707 of maximum value Mean Value of Sine wave = 0.637 of maximum value Form factor = RMS value / Mean Value = 1.11 pN Frequency of Alternator = cycles per second 60 Where p is number of pairs of poles N is the rotational speed in r/min

Slip of Induction Motor

[(Slip speed of the field Speed of the rotor) / Speed of the Field] 100
Inductors and Inductive Reactance Physical Quantity Inductors and Inductance Inductors in Series: Inductor in Parallel: Equation VL = L

di dt

LT = L1 + L2 + L3 + . . . .

1 1 1 1 = + + + ..... L T L1 L 2 L 3
At v L ( t) = E e
t

Current build up (switch initially closed after having been opened)

v R ( t) = E(1 - e )

R L = R
Current decay (switch moved to a new position)

i(t) =

(1 e

i(t) = I o e

vR(t) = R i(t) vL(t) = RT i(t)

- 46 -

Formulas and Conversions

Physical Quantity Equation ' = Alternating Current Complex Numbers:

L RT

f = 1/T =2f C=a+jb C = M cos + j M sin

M = a 2 + b2 b = tan -1 a
Polar form: Inductive Reactance Capacitive Reactance Resistance Impedance C=M |XL| = L |XC| = 1 / ( C) R Resistance: ZR = R 0 Inductance: ZL = XL 90 = L 90 Capacitance: ZC = XC -90 = 1 / (C) -90

Quantity Ohms Law for AC Time Domain Phasor Notation Components in Series Voltage Divider Rule

Equation V=IZ v(t) = Vm sin ( t ) i(t) = Im sin ( t ) V = Vrms V = Vm ZT = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 + . .

Vx = VT

Zx ZT

Components in Parallel

1 1 1 1 = + + + ... Z T Z1 Z 2 Z 3

- 47 -

Formulas and Conversions

Quantity Current Divider Rule Equation

Ix = IT ZT =

ZT Zx

Two impedance values in parallel

Z1 Z 2 Z1 + Z 2

Capacitance Capacitors Capacitor in Series

C=

Q V

[F] (Farads)

1 1 1 1 = + + + ..... C T C1 C 2 C 3 C T = C1 + C 2 + C 3 + ..... E i(t) = e RC R v R ( t) = E e

= RC
t RC t RC t

Capacitors in Parallel Charging a Capacitor

v C ( t) = E(1 - e
Discharging a Capacitor
t

V i(t) = o e R

v R ( t) = Vo e v C ( t) = Vo e
' = RTC
t

Quantity

Equation

Capacitance

C=

Q V

- 48 -

Formulas and Conversions

Quantity Equation

Capacitance of a Parallel-plate Capacitor

C=

A
d V d

E =
Isolated Sphere

C = 4r

Capacitors in parallel

C = C1 + C2 + C3

Capacitors in series

1 1 1 1 = + + C C1 C 2 C 3
W = Q
2

Energy stored in a charged capacitor If the capacitor is isolated If the capacitor is connected to a battery For R C circuits Charging a capacitor Discharging a capacitor

2C
Q
2

1 1 CV 2 = QV 2 2

W = W =

2C 1 CV 2 2

Q = Qo (1 - e-t/RC); V = Vo (1 - e-t/RC) Q = Qo e- t/RC V = Vo e-t/RC

If the capacitor is isolated, the presence of the dielectric decreases the potential difference between the plates If the capacitor is connected to a battery, the presence of the dielectric increases the charge stored in the capacitor. The introduction of the dielectric increases the capacitance of the capacitor

- 49 -

Formulas and Conversions

Current in AC Circuit
RMS Current In Cartesian form

I=

1 R j L C 2 1 R + L C V
2

Amperes In polar form

I=

V 1 [ R 2 + L ] C
2

s Amperes

1 L C where s = tan 1 R
Modulus

I =

V 1 R 2 + L C
2

Amperes

Complex Impedance In Cartesian form In polar form

1 Z = R + j L Ohms C

1 Z = R 2 + L s Ohms C 1 L C Where s = tan 1 R 1 Z = [ R 2 + L ] Ohms C

2

Modulus

- 50 -

Formulas and Conversions

Power dissipation Average power, Power dissipation in a resistor Rectification Controlled half wave rectifier Controlled full wave rectifier Average DC voltage = Volts Average DC voltage = Volts Power Factor DC Power AC Power Power in ac circuits Quantity Resistance Inductance The mean power Capacitance The mean power Formula for a.c. power Equation The mean power = P = Irms Vrms = Irms2 R The instantaneous power = (Io sin wt) (Vo sin (wt + )

P = VI cos Watts
P = I R Watts
2

Vm (1 + cos ) 2 Vm

(1 + cos )

Pdc = VI = I 2 R =

V2 R

Pac = Re(V .I ) = VI cos

P =0
The instantaneous power = (Io sin (wt + /2)) (Vo sin wt )

P =0
The mean power = P = Irms Vrms cos

- 51 -

Formulas and Conversions

Three Phase Alternators

Star connected Line voltage = 3 Phase Voltage Line current = phase current Delta connected Line voltage = phase voltage Line current = 3 Phase Current Three phase power P = 3 EL IL Cos

Where: P is the active power in Watts EL is the Line Voltage in Volts IL is the line current in Amperes Cos is the power factor
Electrostatics Quantity Instantaneous current, Permittivity of free space Equation

I=

dq dv =C Amperes dt dt
10 9 = 8.85 10 12 Farads 36

0 =

(meters)-1 Energy stored in a capacitor

1 CV 2 Joules 2

Quantity

Equation

Coulombs law

F =k

Q1Q2 r2

Electric fields

E= E=

F q Q
4 o r 2

Due to a point charge

- 52 -

Formulas and Conversions

Quantity Equation

Due to a conducting sphere carrying charge Q Inside the sphere Outside the sphere

E=0

E=
E =

Q
4 o r 2
o

Just outside a uniformly charged conducting sphere or plate

An electric field E is a vector The electric field strength is directly proportional to the number of electric field lines per unit cross-sectional area, The electric field at the surface of a conductor is perpendicular to the surface. The electric field is zero inside a conductor.

Quantity

Equation

Suppose a point charge Q is at A. The work done in bringing a charge q from infinity to some point a distance r from A is Electric potential

W =

Qq
4 o r
W q

V =

Due to a point charge

V = V =

Q
4 o r

Due to a conducting sphere, of radius a, carrying charge Q: Inside the sphere Outside the sphere

Q
4 o a

V =

Q
4 o r

If the potential at a point is V, then the potential energy of a charge q at that point is

U = qV

- 53 -

Formulas and Conversions

Quantity Equation

Work done in bringing charge q from A of potential VA to point B of potential VB Relation between E and V

W = q (VB VA)

E=

dV dx

For uniform electric field

E =

V d

Magnetostatics
Physical Quantity Magnetic flux density (also called the Bfield) is defined as the force acting per unit current length. Force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field Equation

B=

F I

F = I BF = I B And Magnitude of F = F = I B sin F=q v B

Force on a moving charged particle in a magnetic field Circulating Charges

mv 2 qvB = r

Calculation of magnetic flux density Physical Quantity Magnetic fields around a long straight wire carrying current I Equation

B=

where a = perp. distance from a very long straight wire. Magnetic fields inside a long solenoid, carrying current Hall effect At equilibrium I: B = o n I, where n = number of turns per unit length.

o I 2a

VH = QvB and d

VH = B v d

- 54 -

Formulas and Conversions

Physical Quantity The current in a material is given by The forces between two current-carrying conductors Equation I = nQAv

F21 =

o I1 I 2 2a

Physical Quantity The torque on a rectangular coil in a magnetic field If the coil is in a radial field and the plane of the coil is always parallel to the field, then Magnetic flux

Equation T = F b sin = N I B b sin = N I A B sin T = N I A B sin = N I A B sin 90o =NIAB = B A cos and Flux-linkage =

Current Sensitivity

SI =

NAB c

Lenz's law The direction of the induced e.m.f. is such that it tends to oppose the flux-change causing it, and does oppose it if induced current flows. EMF Equations E.m.f. induced in a straight conductor E.m.f. induced between the center and the rim of a spinning disc E.m.f. induced in a rotating coil

= N

d dt

=BLv = B r2f = N A B w sin wt Equation

Quantity Self-induction

L=

dI / dt

- 55 -

Formulas and Conversions

Quantity Equation N =LI Energy stored in an inductor: Transformers:

U=

1 2 LI 2

VS N S = VP N P

The L R (d.c.) circuit: When a great load (or smaller resistance) is connected to the secondary coil, the flux in the core decreases. The e.m.f., p, in the primary coil falls.

I=

E (1 e Rt / L ) R VP p R

Vp -p = I R; I =

Kirchoffs laws
Kirchoff's first law (Junction Theorem) At a junction, the total current entering the junction is equal to the total current leaving the junction. Kirchoff's second law (Loop Theorem) The net e.m.f. round a circuit is equal to the sum of the p.d.s round the loop.

Physical Quantity Power Electric current Work Ohms Law Resistances in Series Resistances in Parallel

Equation

P= I=

W = VI t q t

W = qV V = IR

R T = R1 + R 2
1 1 1 = + R T R1 R 2

- 56 -

Formulas and Conversions

Magnetic flux Electromagnetic induction

= BA
Emf = N

( 2 1 ) t emf = l v B

Magnetic force Transformer turns ratio

F=I l B
Vs Vp = Ns Np

Electromagnetic spectrum
Wavelength (m) 10
2

10

10

-1

10

-2

10

-3

10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11

radio frequencies

X-rays

visible

Area of Spectrum

microwaves

ultraviolet radiation

infrared radiation

gamma rays

f(Hz)

106

107

108

109 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020 Frequency

Note: 1. Shaded areas represent regions of overlap. 2. Gamma rays and X-rays occupy a common region.

5.2 Applied Mechanics 5.2.1 Newton's laws of motion

Newton' first law of motion

The inertia of a body is the reluctance of the body to change its state of rest or motion. Mass is a measure of inertia.
Newton's second law of motion mv-mu ; F= t

- 57 -

Formulas and Conversions

F=ma

Impulse = force time = change of momentum Ft=mvmu

Newton's third law of motion

When two objects interact, they exert equal and opposite forces on one another. "Third-law pair" of forces act on two different bodies.
Universal Law F = Gmsmp/d2

ms is the mass of the sun. mp is the mass of the planet. The Universal law and the second law must be consistent

Newtons Laws of Motion and Their Applications Physical Quantity Average velocity Acceleration Momentum Force Weight Work done Kinetic energy Gravitational potential energy Equations of motion Equations

v av =

s v+u = t 2 v-u t

a=

p = mv F = ma weight = mg W = Fs
1 Ek = 2 mv 2

E p = mgh a= vu ; t
1 s = ut + 2 at 2 ;

v 2 = u 2 + 2as

Centripetal acceleration

v2 a= r F = ma = mv 2 r

Centripetal force

- 58 -

Formulas and Conversions

Physical Quantity Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation Gravitational field strength Equations

F=G

m1m2 r2 M r2

g=G

Physical Quantity Moment of a force Principle of moments Stress Strain

Equations

M = rF

M = 0
Stress = Strain = Y= F A

l l

Youngs Modulus

F/A l/ l

Scalar: a property described by a magnitude only Vector: a property described by a magnitude and a direction Velocity: vector property equal to displacement / time

The magnitude of velocity may be referred to as speed In SI the basic unit is m/s, in Imperial ft/s Other common units are km/h, mi/h Conversions: 1m/s = 3.28 ft/s 1km/h = 0.621 mi/h Speed of sound in dry air is 331 m/s at 0C and increases by about 0.61 m/s for each C rise. Speed of light in vacuum equals 3 x 108m/s
Acceleration: vector property equal to change in velocity time.

In SI the basic unit is m/s2

- 59 -

Formulas and Conversions

In Imperial ft/s2
Conversion:

ft m = 3.28 2 2 s s

Acceleration due to gravity, g is 9.81 m/s2

5.2.2 Linear Velocity and Acceleration

Quantity If u initial velocity and v final velocity, then displacement s, If t is the elapsed time If a is the acceleration Angular Velocity and Acceleration Quantity angular displacement (radians) 1 = initial, 2 = final angular acceleration (radians/s2) Linear displacement Linear velocity Linear, or tangential acceleration Tangential, Centripetal and Total Acceleration Quantity Equations Equations Equations

v+u s= 2
s = ut + 1 2 at 2

v 2 = u 2 + 2as

1 + 2
2

angular velocity (radians/s);

= 1t + t 2

1 2

2 2 = 1 2 + 2
s=r v=r aT = r

- 60 -

Formulas and Conversions

Tangential acceleration aT is due to angular acceleration Centripetal (Centrifugal) acceleration ac is due to change in direction only Total acceleration, a, of a rotating point experiencing angular acceleration is the vector sum of aT and ac aT = r ac = v2/r = r 2 a = aT + ac

5.2.3 Force
Vector quantity, a push or pull which changes the shape and/or motion of an object In SI the unit of force is the newton, N, defined as a kg m In Imperial the unit of force is the pound lb Conversion: 9.81 N = 2.2 lb
Weight

The gravitational force of attraction between a mass, m, and the mass of the Earth In SI weight can be calculated from Weight = F = mg, where g = 9.81 m/s2 In Imperial, the mass of an object (rarely used), in slugs, can be calculated from the known weight in pounds weight m= g ft g = 32.2 2 s
Torque Equation

T = I where T is the acceleration torque in Nm, I is the moment of inertia in kg m2 and is the angular acceleration in radians/s2 Vector quantity, symbol p, p = mv [Imperial p = (w/g)v, where w is weight] in SI unit is kgm / s

Momentum

Work

Scalar quantity, equal to the (vector) product of a force and the displacement of an object. In simple systems, where W is work, F force and s distance W=Fs In SI the unit of work is the joule, J, or kilojoule, kJ 1 J = 1 Nm In Imperial the unit of work is the ft-lb
Energy

Energy is the ability to do work, the units are the same as for work; J, kJ, and ft-lb

- 61 -

Formulas and Conversions

Kinetic Energy

1 mk 2 2 2 Where k is radius of gyration, is angular velocity in rad/s ER =

Kinetic Energy of Rotation

Er =

1 I 2 2

Where I = mk2 is the moment of inertia

5.2.4 Centripetal (Centrifugal) Force

mv 2 r Where r is the radius Where is angular velocity in rad/s Fc =
Potential Energy Quantity Energy due to position in a force field, such as gravity In Imperial this is usually expressed Equation Ep = m g h Ep = w h Where w is weight, and h is height above some specified datum

Thermal Energy

In SI the common units of thermal energy are J, and kJ, (and kJ/kg for specific quantities) In Imperial, the units of thermal energy are British Thermal Units (Btu)
Conversions

1 Btu = 1055 J 1 Btu = 778 ft-lb

Electrical Energy

In SI the units of electrical energy are J, kJ and kilowatt hours kWh. In Imperial, the unit of electrical energy is the kWh
Conversions

1 kWh = 3600 kJ 1 kWh = 3412 Btu = 2.66 x 106 ft-lb

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Formulas and Conversions

Power

A scalar quantity, equal to the rate of doing work In SI the unit is the Watt W (or kW) J 1W = 1 s In Imperial, the units are: Mechanical Power (ft lb) / s, horsepower h.p. Thermal Power Btu / s Electrical Power - W, kW, or h.p.
Conversions

746W = 1h. p. 1h. p. = 550 ft lb s Btu s

1kW = 0.948
Pressure

A vector quantity, force per unit area In SI the basic units of pressure are pascals Pa and kPa
1Pa = 1 N m2

In Imperial, the basic unit is the pound per square inch, psi
Atmospheric Pressure

At sea level atmospheric pressure equals 101.3 kPa or 14.7 psi

Pressure Conversions

1 psi = 6.895 kPa Pressure may be expressed in standard units, or in units of static fluid head, in both SI and Imperial systems Common equivalencies are: 1 kPa = 0.294 in. mercury = 7.5 mm mercury 1 kPa = 4.02 in. water = 102 mm water 1 psi = 2.03 in. mercury = 51.7 mm mercury 1 psi = 27.7 in. water = 703 mm water 1 m H2O = 9.81 kPa Other pressure unit conversions:
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Formulas and Conversions

1 bar = 14.5 psi = 100 kPa 1 kg/cm2 = 98.1 kPa = 14.2 psi = 0.981 bar 1 atmosphere (atm) = 101.3 kPa = 14.7 psi
Simple Harmonic Motion

Velocity of P = R 2 x 2

m s

5.2.5 Stress, Strain And Modulus Of Elasticity

Youngs modulus and the breaking stress for selected materials Material Aluminium Copper Brass Iron (wrought) Mild steel Glass Tungsten Bone Young modulus x 1011 Pa 0.70 1.16 0.90 1.93 2.10 0.55 4.10 0.17 Breaking stress x 108 Pa 2.4 4.9 4.7 3.0 11.0 10 20 1.8

5.3 Thermodynamics 5.3.1 Laws of Thermodynamics

W = PV U = Q W W= nRT lnVf/Vi Q = CnT Cv= 3/2R Cp= 5/2R Cp/Cv = = 5/3 e = 1 Qc/Qh = W/Qh ec = 1 Tc/Th COP = Qc/W (refrigerators) COP = Qh /W (heat pumps) Wmax= (1-Tc/Th)Qh S = Q/T

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Formulas and Conversions

5.3.2 Momentum
p = mv F = p/t

5.3.3 Impulse
I = Fav t = mvf mvi

5.3.4 Elastic and Inelastic collision

miv1i + m2v2i = m1v1f + m2v2f () miv1i2 + () m2v2i2 = m1v1f2 + m2v2f2 miv1i + m2v2i = (m1 + m2)vf xcm = mx/M Vcm = mv/M Acm = ma/M MAcm = Fnet

5.3.5 Center of Mass

5.3.6 Angular Motion

s = r vt = r at = r ac = vt2/r = r2 = 2/T 1 rev = 2 rad = 360o

For constant = o + t 2 = o2 +2 = ot + t2 = (o + )t/2 I = mr2 KER = I2 = rF = I WR = L = I = I WR = L = I Li = Lf

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Formulas and Conversions

5.3.7 Conditions of Equilibrium

Fx = 0 Fy = 0 = 0 (any axis)

5.3.8 Gravity

F = Gm1m2/r2 T = 2 / r3 /GMs G = 6.67 x 10-11N-m2/kg2 g = GME / R2E PE = - Gm1m2 / r ve = 2GME / RE vs = GME / r ME = 5.97 x 1024 kg RE = 6.37 x 106 m F = -kx PEs = kx2 x = Acos = Acos(t) v = -Asin(t) a = -A2cos(t) = k / m f = 1 / T T = 2m / k E = kA2 T = 2L / g vmax = A amax = A2 v = FT/ v = f = m/L I = P/A = 10log(I/Io) Io = 1 x 10-12 W/m2 f = f[(1 v0/v)/(1 vs/v)] Surface area of the sphere = 4r2 Speed of sound waves = 343 m/s

5.3.9 Vibrations & Waves

5.3.10 Standing Waves

fn = nf1 fn = nv/2L (air column, string fixed both ends) n = 1,2,3,4. fn = nv/4L (open at one end) n = 1,3,5,7

5.3.11 Beats
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Formulas and Conversions

fbeats = | f1 f2 |

Fluids = m/V P = F/A P2 = P1 + gh Patm = 1.01 x 105Pa = 14.7 lb/in2 FB = fVg = Wf (weight of the displaced fluid) o/f = Vf /Vo (floating object) 3 water = 1000 kg/m
Wa=W-FB

Equation of Continuity: Av = constant Bernoullis equation: P + v2 + gy = 0

5.3.12 Temperature and Heat

TF= (9/5) TC+32 TC= 5/9(TF-32) TF = (9/5) TC T= TC+273.15 = m/v L = LoT A = AoT V = VoT =3 Q = mcT Q = mL 1 kcal = 4186 J Heat Loss = Heat Gain Q = (kAT)t/L, H = Q/t =(kAT)/L Q = eT4At P = Q/t P = AeT4 P net= Ae(T4-TS4) = 5.67 10-8 W/m 2K4

5.3.13 Ideal Gases

PV = nRT R = 8.31 J/mol K PV = NkT NA = 6.02 1023 molecules/mol k = 1.38 10-23 J/K M=NAm (KE)av=(1/2mv2 )av= 3/2kT U= 3/2NkT = 3/2nRT

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Formulas and Conversions

5.3.14 Elastic Deformation

P = F/A Y = FLo/AL S = Fh/Ax B = VoF / AV Volume of the sphere = 4r3/3 1 atm = 1.01 105 Pa C = 5/9 (F 32) F = (9/5) C + 32 R = F + 460 (R Rankine) K = C + 273 (K Kelvin) Q=mcT M=mass C=specific heat T=temperature chance

5.3.15 Temperature Scales

5.3.16 Sensible Heat Equation

5.3.17 Latent Heat

Latent heat of fusion of ice = 335 kJ/kg Latent heat of steam from and at 100C = 2257 kJ/kg 1 tonne of refrigeration = 335 000 kJ/day = 233 kJ/min

5.3.18 Gas Laws

Boyles Law

When gas temperature is constant PV = constant or P1V1 = P2V2 Where P is absolute pressure and V is volume
Charles Law

When gas pressure is constant, V = const. T or

V1 V2 = T1 T2

where V is volume and T is absolute temperature

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Formulas and Conversions

Gay-Lussac's Law

When gas volume is constant, P = const. T or P1 P2 = T1 T2 where P is absolute pressure and T is absolute temperature
General Gas Law

P1V1 P2V2 = = const. T1 T2 P V = m R T where P = absolute pressure (kPa) V = volume (m3) T = absolute temp (K) m = mass (kg) R = characteristic constant (kJ/kgK)

Also PV = nRoT where P = absolute pressure (kPa) V = volume (m3) T = absolute temperature K N = the number of kmoles of gas Ro = the universal gas constant 8.314 kJ/kmol/K

5.3.19 Specific Heats Of Gases

Specific Heat at Constant Pressure kJ/kgK or kJ/kg oC 1.005 2.060 0.825 1.051 Specific Heat at Constant Volume kJ/kgK or kJ/kg oC 0.718 1.561 0.630 0.751 Ratio of Specific = cp / cv 1.40 1.32 1.31 1.40

GAS

Air Ammonia Carbon Dioxide Carbon

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Formulas and Conversions

Specific Heat at Constant Pressure kJ/kgK or kJ/kg oC Specific Heat at Constant Volume kJ/kgK or kJ/kg oC

GAS

Ratio of Specific = cp / cv

Monoxide Helium Hydrogen Hydrogen Sulphide Methane Nitrogen Oxygen Sulphur Dioxide 5.234 14.235 1.105 2.177 1.043 0.913 0.632 3.153 10.096 0.85 1.675 0.745 0.652 0.451 1.66 1.41 1.30 1.30 1.40 1.40 1.40

5.3.20
Carnot Cycle

Efficiency of Heat Engines

T1 T2 T1 where T1 and T2 are absolute temperatures of heat source and sink

Air Standard Efficiencies

Spark Ignition Gas and Oil Engines (Constant Volume Cycle) 1 = 1 ( 1) rv rv= compression ratio = specific heat (constant pressure) / Specific heat (constant volume)
Diesel Cycle

rv ( R 1) Where r = ratio of compression R = ratio of cut-off volume to clearance volume

High Speed Diesel (Dual-Combustion) Cycle

=1

R 1)
1

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Formulas and Conversions

rv [(k 1) + k ( 1)] Where rv= cylinder volume / clearance volume k = absolute pressure at the end of constant V heating (combustion) / absolute pressure at the beginning of constant V combustion
1

=1

k 1

= volume at the end of constant P heating (combustion) / clearance volume Gas Turbines (Constant Pressure or Brayton Cycle)

=1
r

1
1 p

where rp = pressure ratio = compressor discharge pressure / compressor intake pressure

5.3.21 Heat Transfer by Conduction

Material Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity W/m C 0.025 104 0.85 0.043 1.0 70 60 0.076 206 0.6 380 0.038 0.04 0.04 0.15

Air Brass Concrete Cork Glass Iron, cast Steel Wallboard, paper Aluminum Brick Copper Felt Glass, fibre Plastic, cellular Wood

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Formulas and Conversions

5.3.22 Thermal Expansion of Solids

Increase in length = L (T2 T1) Where L = original length = coefficient of linear expansion (T2 T1) = rise in temperature Increase in volume = V (T2 T1) Where V = original volume = coefficient of volumetric expansion (T2 T1) = rise in temperature Coefficient of volumetric expansion = Coefficient of linear expansion 3
= 3

5.3.23 Chemical Heating Value of a Fuel

Chemical Heating Value MJ per kg of fuel = 33.7C + 144( H 2 C is the mass of carbon per kg of fuel H2 is the mass of hydrogen per kg of fuel O2 is the mass of oxygen per kg of fuel S is the mass of sulphur per kg of fuel
Theoretical Air Required to Burn Fuel Air (kg per kg of fuel) = C + 8( H 2 O2 ) + S 3 23 Air Supplied from Analysis of Flue Gases

O2 ) + 9 .3 S 8

100

Air in kg per kg of fuel =

Boiler Formulae

N2 C 33(CO2 + CO )

Equivalent evaporation =

m s (h1 h2 ) 2257kj / kg (h1 h2 ) Factor of evaporation = 2257kj / kg

Boiler Efficiency

m s (h1 h2 ) mf (calorificvalue)
Where

ms = mass flow rate of steam h1 = enthalpy of steam produced in boiler h2 = enthalpy of feedwater to boiler
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Formulas and Conversions

mf = mass flow rate of fuel

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Formulas and Conversions

P-V-T Relationships Name of process Value of n P-V T-P T-V Heat added Work done Change in Internal Energy Change in Enthalpy Change in Entropy

Constant Volume V=Constant Constant pressure P=Pressure

--

T1 P = 1 T2 P2
--

--

mc v (T2 T1 ) mc p (T2 T1 )
P 1 mRT log e P 2
1

mc v (T2 T1 ) mc v (T2 T1 )

mc p (T2 T1 ) mc p (T2 T1 )

T2 mc v log e T 1 T2 mc n log e T 1 P 1 mR log e P 2

0

--

T1 V1 = T2 V2

P(V2-V1)

Isothermal T=Constant

P V 1 = 2 P2 V1 V P 1 = 2 P2 V1

--

--

P 1 mRT log e P 2

Isentropic S=Constant Polytropic PVn = Constant

T1 P = 1 T2 P2

T1 V2 = T2 V1

0
n 1

mc v (T1 T2 )

mc v (T2 T1 )

mc p (T2 T1 )

V P 1 = 2 P2 V1

T1 P = 1 T2 P2

n l n

T1 V2 = T2 V1

mc n (T2 T1 )

mR (T1 T2 ) n 1

mc v (T2 T1 )

mc p (T2 T1 )

T2 mc n log e T 1

Thermodynamic Equations for perfect gases

*Can be used for reversible adiabatic processes cv = Specific heat at constant volume, kJ/kgK cp = Specific heat at constant pressure, kJ/kgK

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Formulas and Conversions

n cm = Specific heat for polytropic process = cv kJ / kgK 1 n H = Enthalpy, kJ = Isentropic Exponent, cp/cv n = polytropic exponent P = Pressure, kPa R = Gas content, kJ/kgK S = Entropy, kJ/K T = Absolute Temperature, K = 273+C U = Internal Energy, kJ V = Volume, m3 m = Mass of gas, kg

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Formulas and Conversions

Specific Heat and Linear Expansion of Solids Aluminum Antimony Bismuth Brass Carbon Cobalt Copper Glass Gold Ice (between -20 o C & 0 o C ) Iron (cast) Iron (wrought) Lead Nickel Platinum Silicon Silver Steel (mild) Tin Zinc Mean Specific Heat between 0 o C and 100 o C kJ/kgK or kJ/kg o C 0.909 0.209 0.125 0.383 0.795 0.402 0.388 0.896 0.130 2.135 0.544 0.465 0.131 0.452 0.134 0.741 0.235 0.494 0.230 0.389
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Coefficient of Linear Expansion between 0 o C and 100 o C (multiply by 10-6) 23.8 17.5 12.4 18.4 7.9 12.3 16.5 9.0 14.2 50.4 10.4 12.0 29.0 13.0 8.6 7.8 19.5 12.0 26.7 16.5

Formulas and Conversions

Specific Heat and Volume Expansion for Liquids Specific Heat (at 20 o C ) KJ/kgK or kJ/kg o C 2.470 0.473 1.138 3.643 0.139 1.633 2.135 2.093 1.800 4.183 12.0 9.4 3.7 12.4 1.82 1.80

Liquid Alcohal Ammonia Benzine Carbon Dioxide Mercury Olive oil Petroleum Gasoline Turpentine Water

Coefficient of Volume Expansion (Multiply by 10-4) 11.0

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Formulas and Conversions

5.4 Fluid Mechanics 5.4.1 Discharge from an Orifice

Let A = cross-sectional area of the orifice = And Ac = cross-sectional area of the jet at the vena conrtacta Then Ac = CcA

d2 dc
2

Or C c =

Ac d c = A d

Where Cc is the coefficient of contraction

At the vena contracta, the volumetric flow rate Q of the fluid is given by Q = area of the jet at the vena contracta actual velocity = AcV

Or Q = C c AC v 2 gh Typically, values for Cd vary between 0.6 and 0.65 Circular orifice: Q = 0.62 A 2gh 3 2 Where Q = flow (m /s) A = area (m ) h = head (m)
Rectangular notch: Q = 0.62 (B H) 2/3 2gh

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Formulas and Conversions

Where B = breadth (m) H = head (m above sill) Triangular Right Angled Notch: Q = 2.635 H5/2 Where H = head (m above sill)

5.4.2 Bernoullis Theory

P v2 H =h+ + w 2g
H = total head (meters) w = force of gravity on 1 m3 of fluid (N) h = height above datum level (meters) v = velocity of water (meters per second) P = pressure (N/m2 or Pa) Loss of Head in Pipes Due to Friction L v2 Loss of head in meters = f d 2g L = length in meters v = velocity of flow in meters per second d = diameter in meters f = constant value of 0.01 in large pipes to 0.02 in small pipes

5.4.3 Actual pipe dimensions

Nominal pipe size (in) 1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1 1 2 Outside diameter (mm) 10.3 13.7 17.1 21.3 26.7 33.4 42.2 48.3 60.3 Inside diameter (mm) 6.8 9.2 12.5 15.8 20.9 26.6 35.1 40.9 52.5 Wall thickness (mm) 1.73 2.24 2.31 2.77 2.87 3.38 3.56 3.68 3.91 Flow area (m2) 3.660 10-5 6717 10-5 1.236 10-4 1.960 10-4 3.437 10-4 5.574 10-4 9.653 10-4 1.314 10-3 2.168 10-3

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Formulas and Conversions

Nominal pipe size (in) 2 3 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 24 Outside diameter (mm) 73.0 88.9 101.6 114.3 141.3 168.3 219.1 273.1 323.9 355.6 406.4 457.2 508.0 609.6 Inside diameter (mm) 62.7 77.9 90.1 102.3 128.2 154.1 202.7 254.5 303.2 333.4 381.0 428.7 477.9 574.7 Wall thickness (mm) 5.16 5.49 5.74 6.02 6.55 7.11 8.18 9.27 10.31 11.10 12.70 14.27 15.06 17.45

Flow area (m2) 3.090 10-3 4.768 10-3 6.381 10-3 8.213 10-3 1.291 10-2 1.864 10-2 3.226 10-2 5.090 10-2 7.219 10-2 8.729 10-2 0.1140 0.1443 0.1794 0.2594

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Formulas and Conversions

Chapter 6
References
6.1 Periodic Table of Elements
A 1 1 H 1.00 8 2A 2 3A 13 4A 14 5A 15 6A 16 7A 17 8A 18 2 He 4.00 3

3 4 Be Li 6.94 9.01 2 1 11 12 Na Mg 22.9 24.3 9 1 3B 3 4B 4 5B 5 6B 6 7B 7 8B 8 8B 9 8B 10 1B 11 2B 12

5 6 7 8 9 10 B C N O F Ne 10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0 20.1 1 1 1 0 0 8 13 14 15 16 17 18 Al Si P S Cl Ar 26.9 28.0 30.9 32.0 35.4 39.9 8 9 7 7 5 5

30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 19 31 32 33 34 35 36 20 Zn Cu Ni Co Fe Mn Cr V Ti Sc Ca K Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 39.1 40.0 44.9 47.9 50.9 52.0 54.9 55.8 58.9 58.7 63.5 65.3 69.7 72.5 74.9 78.9 79.9 83.8 8 5 0 3 5 4 0 4 0 6 8 0 2 9 2 6 0 0 43 48 42 47 41 46 40 45 39 37 44 49 50 51 52 53 54 38 Tc Cd Mo Ag Nb Pd Zr Rh Y Ru Sr Rb In Sn Sb Te I Xe 85.4 87.6 88.9 91.2 92.9 95.9 97.9 101. 102. 106. 107. 112. 114. 118. 121. 127. 126. 131. 4 4 9 1 4 2 9 1 1 2 7 8 7 8 6 9 3 80 79 78 77 76 75 74 73 72 57 55 81 82 83 84 85 86 56 Hg Au Pt Ir Os Re W Ta Hf La Ba Cs Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn 132. 137. 138. 178. 180. 183. 186. 190. 192. 195. 197. 200. 204. 207. 209. (209) (210) (222) 6 0 1 2 2 2 8 9 5 9 3 9 4 2 0 104 105 106 107 108 109 89 87 88 Rf Ac Ra Db Sg Mt Fr Bh Hs (223) 226. 227. (261) (262) (266) (264) (265) (268) 0 0

66 61 65 60 64 59 63 58 62 67 68 69 70 71 Dy Pm Tb Nd Gd Pr Eu Ce Sm Ho Er Tm Yb Lu 140. 140. 144. (145) 150. 152. 157. 158. 162. 164. 167. 168. 173. 175. 5 9 2 3 9 0 1 4 9 3 9 0 0 94 93 92 91 90 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 Pu Np U Pa Th Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr 232. 231. 238. 237. (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262) 0 0 0 0

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