CHAPTER 15 HOW IS ELECTRICITY PUT INTO USE?

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS. Electric Current- is the movement of charged particles in a specific direction. Direct Current- it is the current that continues to flow in the same direction through the conducting wire all the time. Alternating Current- it is the current that periodically reverses the direction in which it is moving. Resistance- it is the opposition a material offers to current Resistivity- it allows comparison of abilities of different materials to conduct current. Electric Circuit- is a conducting loop in which a current can transfer electrical energy from a suitable source to a useful load. Load- is a device that converts electrical energy into some other useful form. Power- is the rate of energy transfer Series Circuit- has two or more loads but current flows through a single conducting path. Parallel Circuit- has more than one path for current to flow LAWS/THEORIES/PRINCIPLES The electric current I in a conductor is defined aswhere q is the charge that passes through a cross-section of the conductor in a time t. The SI unit of current is the ampere (A), where 1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb/ second.

The resistance R of a conductor is defined either in terms of the length of the conductor or in terms of the potential difference across it:

Where L is the length of the conductor, is the resistivity of the material of which it is made, and A is its cross-sectional area. Ohms law states that the resistance is directly proportional to the potential difference (or voltage) and is inversely proportional to the current passing through it. In mathematical termsWhere V is the potential difference or the voltage drop, I is the electric current. The SI unit of resistance is volts per ampere, which is defined to be 1 ohm, . ; that is, 1 = 1 V/A. If the resistance is independent of the applied potential difference, the conductor obeys Ohms law. Resistance, at least to some degree, exists in all electrical elements. The resistors might be light bulbs, heating elements, or components specifically manufactured for their resistance. It is assumed that the resistance in the connecting wires is negligible. The series connection of two resistors (R1 and R2) is shown in Figure 1 . What is the equivalent resistor for this combination?

Figure 1 Two resistors connected in series. The drawing (a) is equivalent to the schematic (b). Because there is only one pathway for the charges, the current is the same at any point in the circuit, that is, I = I1 = I2. The potential difference supplied by the battery equals the potential drop over R1 and the potential drop over R2. Thus,

When resistors are in series, the equivalent resistance is the sum of the individual resistances. Compare this result with adding capacitors in series. For series resistors, the current is the same; while

for series capacitors, the charge is the same. (Note that the equivalent resistance is a simple sum, but the equivalent capacitance is given by a reciprocal expression.) The parallel connection for two resistors (R1 and R2) is shown in Figure 2 . What is the equivalent resistance for this combination?

Figure 2 Two resistors connected in parallel. The drawing (a) is equivalent to the schematic (b). At point a for the circuit diagramsee Figure 2 (b)the current branches so that part of the total current in the circuit goes through the upper branch and part through the lower branch. The potential drop of the current is the same regardless of which path is taken; therefore, the voltage difference is the same over either resistor (V batt = V1 = V2). The currents sum to the total current:

from Ohm's law,

therefore, Thus, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistors in the parallel combination. Compare this result with adding capacitors in parallel. For parallel resistors, the voltages across the resistors are equal, and the same is true for parallel capacitors. (Note that the equivalent resistance is a reciprocal expression, but the equivalent capacitance for parallel combination is a simple sum.) APPLICATION The physics of safe electrical grounding. The figure below shows the same appliance connected to a wall socket via a three-prong plug that provides safe electrical grounding. The third prong connects the metal casing directly to a copper rod driven into the ground or to a copper water pipe that is in the ground. This arrangement protects against electrical shock in the event that a broken wire touches the metal casing. In this event, charge would flow through the casing, through the third prong, and into the ground, returning eventually to the generator. No charge would flow through the persons body, because the copper rod provides much less electrical resistance than does the body.

The physics of impedance plethysmography. In the figure on the left, this shows how the technique is applied to diagnose blood clotting in the veins (deep venous thrombosis) near the knee. A pressure cuff, like that used in blood pressure measurements, is placed around the midthigh, while electrodes are attached around the calf. The two outer electrodes are connected to a source that supplies a small amount of ac current. The two inner electrodes are separated by a distance L, and the voltage between them is measured. The voltage divided by the current gives the resistance. The key to this technique is the fact that resistance can be related to the volume Vcalf of the calf between the inner electrodes. The volume is the product of the length L and the calfs cross-sectional area A, or Vcalf = LA. And the resistance is solved by the equation-

Thus, resistance is inversely proportional to volume, a fact that is exploited in diagnosing deep venous thrombosis. Blood flows from the heart into the calf through arteries in the leg and returns through the system of veins. The pressure cuff in Figure 20.6 is inflated to the point where it cuts off the venous flow but does not alter the arterial flow. As a result, more blood enters than leaves the calf. Therefore, the volume of the calf increases, and the electrical resistance decreases. When the cuff pressure is removed suddenly, the volume returns to a normal value, and so does the electrical resistance. With healthy (unclotted) veins, there is a rapid return to normal values. A slow return, however, reveals the presence of clotting.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Current is a measure of: A. force that moves a charge past a point B. resistance to the movement of a charge past a point C. energy used to move a charge past a point D. amount of charge that moves past a point per unit time E. speed with which a charge moves past a point 2. A 60-watt light bulb carries a current of 0.5A. The total charge passing through it in one hour is: A. 120 C B. 3600 C C. 3000 C D. 2400 C E. 1800 C 3. A 10-ohm resistor has a constant current. If 1200C of charge flow through it in 4 minutes what is the value of the current? A. 3.0 A B. 5.0 A C. 11 A D. 15 A E. 20 A 4. A certain wire has resistance R. Another wire, of the same material, has half the length and half the diameter of the first wire. The resistance of the second wire is: A. R/4 B. R/2 C. R D. 2R E. 4R 5. Which of the following graphs best represents the current-voltage relationship for a device that obeys Ohms law? Answer: B

PROBLEMS. 1. How much current would a 10.4 bread toaster draw when connected to a 220 V outlet? Given: Required: R = 10.4 I=? V = 220 V Solution: From Ohms law-

2. A 4 , 8 , and 12 resistor are connected in series with a 24V battery. Finda. The total resistance b. the current in the circuit c. the current flowing in each resistor Given: Required: a) b) c) RT= ? IT =? I1, I2, I3

Solution: a) In series, the total resistance is the algebraic sum of all the individual resistances in the circuit.

b) From Ohms Law-

c) Then, in series, the total current is also the individual currents flowing in each resistor. So-