Chap8-112-121 21/06/02 9:02 Page 112

• 8 • Protection: Signalling
and Intertripping

Introduction 8.1

Unit protection schemes 8.2

Teleprotection commands 8.3

Intertripping 8.4

Performance requirements 8.5

Transmission media, interference and noise 8.6

Methods of signalling 8.7

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• 8 • P rotection: Signalling
and Intertripping

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Unit protection schemes, formed by a number of relays
located remotely from each other, and some distance
protection schemes, require some form of communication
between each location in order to achieve a unit protection
function. This form of communication is known as
protection signalling. Additionally communications
facilities are also required when remote operation of a
circuit breaker is required as a result of a local event. This
form of communications is known as intertripping.
The communication messages involved may be quite
simple, involving instructions for the receiving device to
take some defined action (trip, block, etc.), or it may be
the passing of measured data in some form from one
device to another (as in a unit protection scheme).
Various types of communication links are available for
protection signalling, for example:
i. private pilot wires installed by the power
authority
ii. pilot wires or channels rented from a
communications company
iii. carrier channels at high frequencies over the
power lines
iv. radio channels at very high or ultra high
frequencies
v. optical fibres
Whether or not a particular link is used depends on
factors such as the availability of an appropriate
communication network, the distance between
protection relaying points, the terrain over which the
power network is constructed, as well as cost.
Protection signalling is used to implement Unit
Protection schemes, provide teleprotection commands,
or implement intertripping between circuit breakers.

8 . 2 U N I T P R OT E C T I O N S C H E M E S
Phase comparison and current differential schemes use
signalling to convey information concerning the relaying
quantity - phase angle of current and phase and

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Power transmission line

Trip Trip
I V V I

Intertrip Intertrip

Permissive Permissive
trip trip

Blocking Communication Blocking

Protection Teleprotection link Teleprotection Protection
relay command command relay
scheme (send) (receive) scheme

Telemetry Telemetry
P rotection: Signalling and Intertripping

Telecontrol Telecontrol

Telephone Telephone

Data Data

Communication Communication
systems systems

Figure 8.1: Application of protection signalling and its relationship to other systems using communication
(shown as a unidirectional system for simplicity)

magnitude of current respectively - between local and piece of apparatus in sympathy with the tripping of other
remote relaying points. Comparison of local and remote circuit breakers. The main use of such schemes is to
signals provides the basis for both fault detection and ensure that protection at both ends of a faulted circuit
discrimination of the schemes. will operate to isolate the equipment concerned. Possible
circumstances when it may be used are:
Details of Unit Protection schemes are given in Chapter 10.
Communications methods are covered later in this Chapter. a. a feeder with a weak infeed at one end, insufficient
to operate the protection for all faults
• 8• 8 . 3 T E L E P R OT E C T I O N C O M M A N D S b. feeder protection applied to transformer –feeder
Some Distance Protection schemes described in Chapter circuits. Faults on the transformer windings may
12 use signalling to convey a command between local operate the transformer protection but not the
and remote relaying points. Receipt of the information feeder protection. Similarly, some earth faults may
is used to aid or speed up clearance of faults within a not be detected due to transformer connections
protected zone or to prevent tripping from faults outside c. faults between the CB and feeder protection CT’s,
a protected zone. when these are located on the feeder side of the CB.
Teleprotection systems are often referred to by their Bus-zone protection does not result in fault
mode of operation, or the role of the teleprotection clearance – the fault is still fed from the remote end
command in the system. of the feeder, while feeder unit protection may not
operate as the fault is outside the protected zone
d. some distance protection schemes use
8.4 INTERTRIPPING intertripping to improve fault clearance times for
Intertripping is the controlled tripping of a circuit some kinds of fault – see Chapters 12/13
breaker so as to complete the isolation of a circuit or Intertripping schemes use signalling to convey a trip

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command to remote circuit breakers to isolate circuits. 8.5 PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS

For high reliability EHV protection schemes, intertripping
Overall fault clearance time is the sum of:
may be used to give back-up to main protections, or
back-tripping in the case of breaker failure. Three types a. signalling time
of intertripping are commonly encountered, and are b. protection relay operating time
described below.
c. trip relay operating time
8.4.1 Direct Tripping
d. circuit breaker operating time
In direct tripping applications, intertrip signals are sent
directly to the master trip relay. Receipt of the command The overall time must be less than the maximum time for
causes circuit breaker operation. The method of which a fault can remain on the system for minimum
communication must be reliable and secure because any plant damage, loss of stability, etc. Fast operation is
signal detected at the receiving end will cause a trip of therefore a pre-requisite of most signalling systems.
the circuit at that end. The communications system Typically the time allowed for the transfer of a command
design must be such that interference on the is of the same order as the operating time of the
communication circuit does not cause spurious trips. associated protection relays. Nominal operating times
Should a spurious trip occur, considerable unnecessary range from 5 to 40ms dependent on the mode of
isolation of the primary system might result, which is at

P rotection: Signalling and Intertripping

operation of the teleprotection system.
best undesirable and at worst quite unacceptable.
Protection signals are subjected to the noise and
interference associated with each communication
8.4.2 Permissive Tripping medium. If noise reproduces the signal used to convey
the command, unwanted commands may be produced,
Permissive trip commands are always monitored by a
whilst if noise occurs when a command signal is being
protection relay. The circuit breaker is tripped when
transmitted, the command may be retarded or missed
receipt of the command coincides with operation of the
completely. Performance is expressed in terms of
protection relay at the receiving end responding to a
security and dependability. Security is assessed by the
system fault. Requirements for the communications
probability of an unwanted command occurring, and
channel are less onerous than for direct tripping
dependability is assessed by the probability of missing a
schemes, since receipt of an incorrect signal must
command. The required degree of security and
coincide with operation of the receiving end protection
dependability is related to the mode of operation, the
for a trip operation to take place. The intention of these
characteristics of the communication medium and the
schemes is to speed up tripping for faults occurring
operating standards of the particular power authority.
within the protected zone.
Typical design objectives for teleprotection systems are
not more than one incorrect trip per 500 equipment
8.4.3 Blocking Scheme years and less than one failure to trip in every 1000
Blocking commands are initiated by a protection element attempts, or a delay of more than 50msec should not
that detects faults external to the protected zone. occur more than once per 10 equipment years. To
Detection of an external fault at the local end of a achieve these objectives, special emphasis may be
protected circuit results in a blocking signal being attached to the security and dependability of the • 8•
transmitted to the remote end. At the remote end, teleprotection command for each mode of operation in
receipt of the blocking signal prevents the remote end the system, as follows.
protection operating if it had detected the external fault.
Loss of the communications channel is less serious for
8.5.1 Performance Requirements – Intertripping
this scheme than in others as loss of the channel does
not result in a failure to trip when required. However, Since any unwanted command causes incorrect tripping,
the risk of a spurious trip is higher. very high security is required at all noise levels up to the
maximum that might ever be encountered.
Figure 8.1 shows the typical applications of protection
signalling and their relationship to other signalling
systems commonly required for control and management 8.5.2 Performance Requirements – Permissive Tripping
of a power system. Of course, not all of the protection
Security somewhat lower than that required for
signals shown will be required in any particular scheme.
intertripping is usually satisfactory, since incorrect
tripping can occur only if an unwanted command
happens to coincide with operation of the protection
relay for an out-of-zone fault.

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For permissive over-reach schemes, resetting after a physical fibre connection and thus enables more
command should be highly dependable to avoid any comprehensive monitoring of the power system to be
chance of maloperations during current reversals. achieved by the provision of a large number of
communication channels.

8.5.3 Performance Requirements – Blocking Schemes 8.6.1 Private Pilot Wires and Channels
Low security is usually adequate since an unwanted Pilot wires are continuous copper connections between
command can never cause an incorrect trip. High signalling stations, while pilot channels are
dependability is required since absence of the command discontinuous pilot wires with isolation transformers or
could cause incorrect tripping if the protection relay repeaters along the route between signalling stations.
operates for an out-of-zone fault. They may be laid in a trench with high voltage cables,
Typical performance requirements are shown in Figure 8.2. laid by a separate route or strung as an open wire on a
separate wood pole route.
C Distances over which signalling is required vary
considerably. At one end of the scale, the distance may be
10-2
Sec
only a few tens of metres, where the devices concerned are
10-3
P rotection: Signalling and Intertripping

0.06 located in the same substation. For applications on EHV

0.05 10-4
0.04 10-5
lines, the distance between devices may be between 10-
0.03
10 100km or more. For short distances, no special measures
0.02
0.01 10 are required against interference, but over longer distances,
TOP
0 special send and receive relays may be required to boost
TOP
Analogue Intertrip signal levels and provide immunity against induced
Digital Blocking voltages from power circuits, lightning strikes to ground
Analogue Digital adjacent to the route, etc. Isolation transformers may also
Intertrip Intertrip
T - 0.04sec T - 0.04sec have to be provided to guard against rises in substation
PUC -1.00E-03 P ground potential due to earth faults.
P -1.00E-01 P
The capacity of a link can be increased if frequency
TOOP - 0.015sec T
P -1.00E-01 P T - Maximum operating time division multiplexing techniques are used to run parallel
PMC -1.00E-01 P -1.00E-01
signalling systems, but some Utilities prefer the link to be
ª - UC )%
T - 0.015sec T - 0.015sec PMC used only for protection signalling.
-2.00E-02
-1.00E-01 P Dependability ª 100(1-P
PMC )%
Private pilot wires or channels can be attractive to an
Figure 8.2: Typical performance requirements Utility running a very dense power system with short
for protection signalling when the
communication link is subjected to noise distances between stations.

8.6 TRANSMISSION MEDIA 8.6.2 Rented Pilot Wires and Channels

INTERFERENCE AND NOISE
These are rented from national communication
The transmission media that provide the communication authorities and, apart from the connection from the
• 8• links involved in protection signalling are: relaying point to the nearest telephone exchange, the
a. private pilots routing will be through cables forming part of the
b. rented pilots or channels national communication network.
c. power line carrier An economic decision has to be made between the use
d. radio of private or rented pilots. If private pilots are used, the
e. optical fibres owner has complete control, but bears the cost of
Historically, pilot wires and channels (discontinuous pilot installation and maintenance. If rented pilots are used,
wires with isolation transformers or repeaters along the most of these costs are eliminated, but fees must be paid
route between signalling points) have been the most to the owner of the pilots and the signal path may be
widely used due to their availability, followed by Power changed without warning. This may be a problem in
Line Carrier Communications (PLCC) techniques and protection applications where signal transmission times
radio. In recent years, fibre-optic systems have become are critical.
the usual choice for new installations, primarily due to The chance of voltages being induced in rented pilots is
their complete immunity from electrical interference. smaller than for private pilots, as the pilot route is
The use of fibre-optic cables also greatly increases the normally not related to the route of the power line with
number of communication channels available for each which it is associated. However, some degree of security

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and protection against induced voltages must be built in this respect that may limit transmission capacity
into signalling systems. Electrical interference from and/or transmission distance.
other signalling systems, particularly 17, 25 and 50Hz
With a power system operating at, say, 132kV, where
ringing tones up to 150V peak, and from noise generated
relatively long protection signalling times are acceptable,
within the equipment used in the communication
signalling has been achieved above speech together with
network, is a common hazard. Similarly, the signalling
metering and control signalling on an established control
system must also be proof against intermittent short and network. Consequently the protection signalling was
open circuits on the pilot link, incorrect connection of 50 achieved at very low cost. High voltage systems (220kV
volts d.c. across the pilot link and other similar faults. and above) have demanded shorter operating times and
Station earth potential rise is a significant factor to be improved security, which has led to the renting of pilot
taken into account and isolation must be provided to links exclusively for protection signalling purposes.
protect both the personnel and equipment of the
communication authority. 8.6.3 Power Line Carrier Communications Techniques
The most significant hazard to be withstood by a Where long line sections are involved, or if the route
protection signalling system using this medium arises involves installation difficulties, the expense of providing
when a linesman inadvertently connects a low physical pilot connections or operational restrictions

P rotection: Signalling and Intertripping

impedance test oscillator across the pilot link that can associated with the route length require that other
generate signalling tones. Transmissions by such an means of providing signalling facilities are required.
oscillator may simulate the operating code or tone
Power Line Carrier Communications (PLCC) is a technique
sequence that, in the case of direct intertripping
that involves high frequency signal transmission along
schemes, would result in incorrect operation of the
the overhead power line. It is robust and therefore
circuit breaker.
reliable, constituting a low loss transmission path that is
Communication between relaying points may be over a fully controlled by the Utility.
two-wire or four-wire link. Consequently the effect of a
High voltage capacitors are used, along with drainage
particular human action, for example an incorrect
coils, for the purpose of injecting the signal to and
disconnection, may disrupt communication in one
extracting it from the line. Injection can be carried out
direction or both.
by impressing the carrier signal voltage between one
The signals transmitted must be limited in both level and conductor and earth or between any two phase
bandwidth to avoid interference with other signalling conductors. The basic units can be built up into a high
systems. The owner of the pilots will impose standards pass or band pass filter as shown in Figure 8.3.

Line trap

To station
To line

• 8•
Series
tuning
unit
Capacitor VT

To E/M VT To E/M VT

Shunt filter unit

75 ohms Coaxial cable

To HF equipment

Figure 8.3: Typical phase-to-phase coupling equipment

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The attenuation of a channel is of prime importance in

the application of carrier signalling, because it
determines the amount of transmitted energy available
at the receiving end to overcome noise and interfering
voltages. The loss of each line terminal will be 1 to 2dB
through the coupling filter, a maximum of 3dB through
its broad-band trap and not more than 0.5dB per 100
metres through the high frequency cable.
An installation of PLCC equipment including capacitor
voltage transformers and line traps, in a line-to-line
injection arrangement, is shown in Figure 8.4.
The high frequency transmission characteristics of power
circuits are good the loss amounting to 0.02 to 0.2dB per
kilometre depending upon line voltage and frequency.
Line attenuation is not affected appreciably by rain, but
serious increase in loss may occur when the phase
P rotection: Signalling and Intertripping

conductors are thickly coated with hoar-frost or ice.

Figure 8.4: Carrier coupling equipment
Attenuations of up to three times the fair weather value
have been experienced. Receiving equipment commonly
The high voltage capacitor is tuned by a tuning coil to incorporates automatic gain control (AGC) to
present a low impedance at the signal frequency; the compensate for variations in attenuation of signals.
parallel circuit presents a high impedance at the signal
High noise levels arise from lightning strikes and system
frequency while providing a path for the power
fault inception or clearance. Although these are of short
frequency currents passed by the capacitor.
duration, lasting only a few milliseconds at the most, they
The complete arrangement is designed as a balanced or may cause overloading of power line carrier receiving
unbalanced half-section band pass filter, according to equipment. Signalling systems used for intertripping in
whether the transmission is phase-phase or phase-earth; particular must incorporate appropriate security features to
the power line characteristic impedance, between 400 and avoid maloperation. The most severe noise levels are
600 ohms, determines the design impedance of the filter. encountered with operation of the line isolators, and these
It is necessary to minimize the loss of signal into other parts may last for some seconds. Although maloperation of the
of the power system, to allow the same frequency to be associated teleprotection scheme may have little
used on another line. This is done with a 'line trap' or 'wave operational significance, since the circuit breaker at one end
trap', which in its simplest form is a parallel circuit tuned to at least is normally already open, high security is generally
present a very high impedance to the signal frequency. It is required to cater for noise coupled between parallel lines or
connected in the phase conductor on the station side of the passed through line traps from adjacent lines.
injection equipment. The complete carrier coupling Signalling for permissive intertrip applications needs
equipment is shown in Figure 8.4. special consideration, as this involves signalling through
• 8• The single frequency line trap may be treated as an a power system fault. The increase in channel
integral part of the complete injection equipment to attenuation due to the fault varies according to the type
accommodate two or more carrier systems. However, of fault, but most power authorities select a nominal
difficulties may arise in an overall design, as, at certain value, usually between 20 and 30dB, as an application
frequencies, the actual station reactance, which is guide. A protection signal boost facility can be employed
normally capacitive, will tune with the trap, which is to cater for an increase in attenuation of this order of
inductive below its resonant frequency; the result will be magnitude, to maintain an acceptable signal-to-noise
a low impedance across the transmission path, ratio at the receiving end, so that the performance of the
preventing operation at these frequencies. This situation service is not impaired.
can be avoided by the use of an independent 'double
Most direct intertrip applications require signalling over
frequency' or 'broad-band' trap.
a healthy power system, so boosting is not normally
The coupling filter and the carrier equipment are needed. In fact, if a voice frequency intertrip system is
connected by high frequency cable of preferred operating over a carrier bearer channel, the dynamic
characteristic impedance 75 ohms. A matching operating range of the receiver must be increased to
transformer is incorporated in the line coupling filter to accommodate a boosted signal. This makes it less
match it to the hf cable. Surge diverters are fitted to inherently secure in the presence of noise during a
protect the components against transient over voltages. quiescent signalling condition.

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8.6.4 Radio Channels A polluted atmosphere can cause radio beam refraction that
will interfere with efficient signalling. The height of aerial
At first consideration, the wide bandwidth associated
tower should be limited, so that winds and temperature
with radio frequency transmissions could allow the use
changes have the minimum effect on their position.
of modems operating at very high data rates. Protection
signalling commands could be sent by serial coded
messages of sufficient length and complexity to give
8.6.5 Optical Fibre Channels
high security, but still achieve fast operating times. In
practice, it is seldom economic to provide radio Optical fibres are fine strands of glass, which behave as
equipment exclusively for protection signalling, so wave guides for light. This ability to transmit light over
standard general-purpose telecommunications channel considerable distances can be used to provide optical
equipment is normally adopted. communication links with enormous information
carrying capacity and an inherent immunity to
Typical radio bearer equipment operates at the
electromagnetic interference.
microwave frequencies of 0.2 to 10GHz. Because of the
relatively short range and directional nature of the A practical optical cable consists of a central optical
transmitter and receiver aerial systems at these fibre which comprises core, cladding and protective
frequencies, large bandwidths can be allocated without buffer coating surrounded by a protective plastic
much chance of mutual interference with other systems. oversheath containing strength members which, in some

P rotection: Signalling and Intertripping

cases, are enclosed by a layer of armouring.
Multiplexing techniques allow a number of channels to
share the common bearer medium and exploit the large To communicate information a beam of light is
bandwidth. In addition to voice frequency channels, wider modulated in accordance with the signal to be
bandwidth channels or data channels may be available, transmitted. This modulated beam travels along the
dependent on the particular system. For instance, in optical fibre and is subsequently decoded at the remote
analogue systems using frequency division multiplexing, terminal into the received signal. On/off modulation of
normally up to 12 voice frequency channels are grouped the light source is normally preferred to linear
together in basebands at 12-60kHz or 60-108kHz, but modulation since the distortion caused by non-linearities
alternatively the baseband may be used as a 48kHz signal in the light source and detectors, as well as variations in
channel. Modern digital systems employing pulse code received light power, are largely avoided.
modulation and time division multiplexing usually provide The light transmitter and receiver are usually laser or LED
the voice frequency channels by sampling at 8kHz and devices capable of emitting and detecting narrow beams
quantising to 8 bits; alternatively, access may be available of light at selected frequencies in the low attenuation
for data at 64kbits/s (equivalent to one voice frequency 850, 1300 and 1550 nanometre spectral windows. The
channel) or higher data rates. distance over which effective communications can be
Radio systems are well suited to the bulk transmission of established depends on the attenuation and dispersion of
information between control centres and are widely used the communication link and this depends on the type
for this. When the route of the trunk data network and quality of the fibre and the wavelength of the
coincides with that of transmission lines, channels can optical source. Within the fibre there are many modes of
often be allocated for protection signalling. More propagation with different optical paths that cause
generally, radio communication is between major dispersion of the light signal and result in pulse
broadening. The degrading of the signal in this way can
• 8•
stations rather than the ends of individual lines, because
of the need for line-of-sight operation between aerials be reduced by the use of 'graded index' fibres that cause
and other requirements of the network. Roundabout the various modes to follow nearly equal paths. The
routes involving repeater stations and the addition of distance over which signals can be transmitted is
pilot channels to interconnect the radio installation and significantly increased by the use of 'monomode' fibres
the relay station may be possible, but overall that support only one mode of propagation.
dependability will normally be much lower than for PLCC With optical fibre channels, communication at data rates
systems in which the communication is direct from one of hundreds of megahertz is achievable over a few tens of
end of the line to the other. kilometres, whilst greater distances require the use of
Radio channels are not affected by increased attenuation repeaters. An optical fibre can be used as a dedicated link
due to power system faults, but fading has to be taken between two terminal equipments, or as a multiplexed
into account when the signal-to-noise ratio of a link that carries all communication traffic such as voice,
particular installation is being considered. telecontrol and protection signalling. In the latter case
the available bandwidth of a link is divided by means of
Most of the noise in such a protection signalling system
time division multiplexing (T.D.M.) techniques into a
will be generated within the radio equipment itself.
number of channels, each of 64kbits/s (equivalent to one

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voice frequency channel which typically uses an 8-bit Figure 8.5 illustrates the communication arrangements
analogue-to-digital conversion at a sampling rate of commonly encountered in protection signalling.
8kHz). A number of Utilities sell surplus capacity on their
links to telecommunications operators. The trend of
using rented pilot circuits is therefore being reversed, 8.7.1 D.C. Voltage Signalling
with the Utilities moving back towards ownership of the A d.c. voltage step or d.c. voltage reversals may be used
communication circuits that carry protection signalling. to convey a signalling instruction between protection
The equipments that carry out this multiplexing at each relaying points in a power system, but these are suited
end of a line are known as 'Pulse Code Modulation' only to private pilot wires, where low speed signalling is
(P.C.M.) terminal equipments. This approach is the one acceptable, with its inherent security.
adopted by telecommunications authorities and some
Utilities favour its adoption on their private systems, for
economic considerations. 8.7.2 Plain Tone Signals

Optical fibre communications are well established in the Plain high frequency signals can be used successfully for
electrical supply industry. They are the preferred means the signalling of blocking information over a power line.
for the communications link between a substation and a A normally quiescent power line carrier equipment can
telephone exchange when rented circuits are used, as be dedicated entirely to the transfer to teleprotection
P rotection: Signalling and Intertripping

trials have shown that this link is particularly susceptible blocking commands. Phase comparison power line
to interference from power system faults if copper carrier unit protection schemes often use such
conductors are used. Whilst such fibres can be laid in equipment and take advantage of the very high speed
cable trenches, there is a strong trend to associate them and dependability of the signalling system. The special
with the conductors themselves by producing composite characteristics of dedicated 'on/off' keyed carrier systems
cables comprising optical fibres embedded within the are discussed later. A relatively insensitive receiver is
conductors, either earth or phase. For overhead lines use used to discriminate against noise on an amplitude basis,
of OPGW (Optical Ground Wire) earth conductors is very and for some applications the security may be
common, while an alternative is to wrap the optical satisfactory for permissive tripping, particularly if the
cable helically around a phase or earth conductor. This normal high-speed operation of about 6ms is sacrificed
latter technique can be used without restringing of the by the addition of delays. The need for regular reflex
line. testing of a normally quiescent channel usually precludes
any use for intertripping.
Plain tone power line carrier signalling systems are
8.7 SIGNALLING METHODS particularly suited to providing the blocking commands
Various methods are used in protection signalling; not all often associated with the protection of multi-ended
need be suited to every transmission medium. The feeders, as described in Chapter 13. A blocking
methods to be considered briefly are: command sent from one end can be received
simultaneously at all the other ends using a single power
a. D.C. voltage step or d.c. voltage reversals
line carrier channel. Other signalling systems usually
b. plain tone keyed signals at high and voice require discrete communication channels between each
• 8• frequencies of the ends or involve repeaters, leading to decreased
dependability of the blocking command.
c. frequency shift keyed signals involving two or more
tones at high and voice frequencies Plain voice frequency signals can be used for blocking,
permissive intertrip and direct intertrip applications for
General purpose telecommunications equipment
all transmission media but operation is at such a low
operating over power line carrier, radio or optical fibre
signal level that security from maloperation is not very
media incorporate frequency translating or multiplexing
good. Operation in the 'tone on' to 'tone off' mode gives
techniques to provide the user with standardised
the best channel monitoring, but offers little security; to
communication channels. They have a nominal
obtain a satisfactory performance the output must be
bandwidth/channel of 4kHz and are often referred to as
delayed. This results in relatively slow operation: 70
voice frequency (vf) channels. Protection signalling
milliseconds for permissive intertripping, and 180
equipments operating at voice frequencies exploit the
milliseconds for direct intertripping.
standardisation of the communication interface. Where
voice frequency channels are not available or suitable,
protection signalling may make use of a medium or
specialised equipment dedicated entirely to the
signalling requirements.

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Pilot wires

Pilot channel

Voice
frequency
Power line
Protection carrier
relay communication
scheme channel Power line carrier
Carrier
frequency
shift

On/off
keyed
carrier

Frequency
division
multiplex

P rotection: Signalling and Intertripping

Radio Radio
transmitter

PCM
primary
multiplex Optical fibre
Digital
general purpose
Optical
transmitter

Optical fibre
dedicated
Optical

Protection Communication
signalling Transmission media
equipment
equipment

Figure 8.5: Communication arrangements commonly encountered in protection signalling

8.7.3 Frequency Shift Keyed Signals give the required degree of security in direct intertrip
schemes: the short operating times needed may result in
Frequency shift keyed high frequency signals can be
uneconomical use of the available voice frequency
used over a power line carrier link to give short
spectrum, particularly if the channel is not exclusively
operating times (15 milliseconds for blocking and
employed for protection signalling. As noise power is
permissive intertripping, 20 milliseconds for direct
directly proportional to bandwidth, a large bandwidth
intertripping) for all applications of protection
causes an increase in the noise level admitted to the
signalling. The required amount of security can be • 8•
detector, making operation in the presence of noise more
achieved by using a broadband noise detector to
difficult. So, again, it is difficult to obtain both high
monitor the actual operational signalling equipment.
dependability and high security.
Frequency shift keyed voice frequency signals can be
The signal frequency shift technique has advantages
used for all protection signalling applications over all
where fast signalling is needed for blocked distance and
transmission media. Frequency modulation techniques
permissive intertrip applications. It has little inherent
make possible an improvement in performance, because
security, but additional circuits responsive to every type
amplitude limiting rejects the amplitude modulation
of interference can give acceptable security. This system
component of noise, leaving only the phase modulation
does not require a channel capable of high transmission
components to be detected.
rates, as the frequency changes once only; the
The operational protection signal may consist of tone bandwidth can therefore be narrower than in coded
sequence codes with, say, three tones, or a multi-bit systems, giving better noise rejection as well as being
code using two discrete tones for successive bits, or of a advantageous if the channel is shared with telemetry
single frequency shift. and control signalling, which will inevitably be the case
Modern high-speed systems use multi-bit code or single if a power line carrier bearer is employed.
frequency shift techniques. Complex codes are used to

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