Chapter 28 Magnetic Fields

The Definition of
Electric field , charge , electric force acting on particle. (28-1)

torque due to forces and is then (28-32) ( ) ( ) loops, or turns. ( , the Suppose we replace the single loop of current with a coil of area enclosed by coil) ( ) (28-33) The common circular coil with radius r, we have ( ) (28-34)

(29-22)

turns and

Let n be the number of turns per unit length of solenoid, then the loop encloses ( ) Amperes law then gives us (29-23) or (ideal solenoid)

Magnetic field vector quantity that s directed along the zero-force axis. Magnitude of when is directed perpendicular to that axis.
| |

- Magnetic Field of a Toroid

Can be described as a solenoid that has been curved until its two ends meet, forming a sort of hollow bracelet. radius of Amperian loop and traverse it in the clockwise direction. Amperes law yields ( )( ) where is the current in the toroid windings and is the total number of turns (29-24) (toroid)

Magnetic Dipole Moment

A current loop gives rise to a magnetic field characteristic of a magnetic dipole; "An orbiting electron in an atom will have a magnetic dipole moment ( is number of turns in coil, is current through coil, is area enclosed by coil) ( ) (28-35) (magnetic moment) Using , we can rewrite Eq. 28-33 for the torque on the coil due to magnetic field as (28-36) in which is the angle between the vectors and . We can generalize this (28-37) A magnetic dipole in an external magnetic field has an energy that depends on the dipoles orientation in the field ( ) (28-38) If an applied torque (due to an external agent) rotates a magnetic dipole from an initial orientation to another orientation , then work is done on the dipole by the applied torque. If the dipole is stationary before and after the change in its orientation, then work is (28-39) where and are calculated with Eq. 28-38

(28-2) (28-3)

| |

and magnetic field .

is the angle between the directions of velocity SI unit for is:

( )( )( )

A Current-Carrying Coil as a Magnetic Dipole

A coil behaves as a magnetic dipole in that, if we place it in an external magnetic field , a torque given by (29-25) Here is the magnetic dipole moment of the coil and has the magnitude , where is the number of turns, is the current in each turn, and is the area enclosed by each turn.

(28-4)

(28-5) Opposite magnetic poles attract each other, and like magnetic poles repel each other.

Crossed Fields: Discovery of the Electron

Cathode ray tube is used to accelerate particles towards a screen, like an old television set. Deflection of the particle at the far end of the plate is: ( is speed, mass, charge, length of plates) (28-6)
| |

- Magnetic Field of a Coil

(29-26) in which ( )
( )

When the two fields are adjusted so that the two deflecting forces cancel, we have from Eqs. 28-1 and 28-3 | | | | | | ( ) (28-7) or Substituting Eq. 28-7 for (28-8)
| |

Chapter 29 Magnetic Fields Due to Currents

Calculating the Magnetic Field Due to a Current
The magnitude of the field produced at point P at distance r by a current-length element turns out to be (29-1) where is the angle between the directions of and , a unit vector that points from toward . Symbol is a constant, called the permeability constant (29-2) The direction of is that of the cross product . We can write Eq. 29-1 as (29-3) (Biot Savart law).

us the distance of the point in question from the center of the loop. Furthermore, the direction of the magnetic field is the same as the direction of the magnetic dipole moment of the loop. For the axial points far from the loop, we have in Eq. 29-26. With that approximation, the equation reduces to ( ) Recalling that is the area turns, we can write this as ( ) Further, because and have the same direction, we can write the equation in vector form, substituting from the identity : ( ) ( ) (29-27) of the loop and extending our result to include a coil of

is the radius of the cicular loop and

in Eq. 28-6 and rearranging yield

Crossed Fields: The Hall Effect

A Hall potential difference is associated with the electric field across strip width . From Eq. 24-42, the magnitude of that potential difference is (28-9) When the electric and magnetic forces are in balance, Eqs. 28-1 and 28-3 give us (28-10) From Eq. 26-7, the drift speed is ( current density of strip, cross-sectional area of strip, number density of charge carries per unit volume) (28-11) In Eq. 28-10, substitution for with Eq. 28-9 and substituting for obtain ( thickness of the strip) (28-12) with Eq. 28-11 we

- Proof of Equation 29-26

Let us resolve into two components: along the axis of the loop and perpendicular to this axis. From the symmetry, the vector sum of all the perpendicular components due to all the loop elements is zero. This leaves only the axial (parallel) components and we have The law of Biot and Savart (Eq. 29-1) tells us that the magnetic field at distance is We also have Combining these two relations, we obtain

- Magnetic Field Due to a Current in a Long Straight Wire

(29-4) ( )

- Proof of Equation 29-4

(29-5) and ( )

A Circulating Charged Particle

From Eq. 28-3, the force acting on the particle has a magnitude of | | second law ( ) applied to uniform circular motion (Eq. 6-18), (28-14) we have (28-15) | | Solving for , we find the radius of the circular path as (28-16) (radius) | | The period speed: (28-17) The frequency (28-18) (28-19)
| |

. From Newtons

(29-28) and are related to each other. Let us express each in terms of the variable , the distance between point and the center of the loop. These relations are (29-29) (29-30) and

With these substitutions and integral 19 in Appendix E, Eq. 29-5 becomes

( )

(29-6) (29-7)

[
( )

] (semi-infinite straight wire) for and for in Eq. 29-

Substituting Eqs. 29-29 and 29-30 into Eq. 29-28, we find

( )

(the time for one full revolution) is equal to the circumference divided by the
| | | |

- Magnetic Field Due to a Current in a Circular Arc of Wire

Central angle , radius , center , current . By substituting 1, we obtain (29-8) The total field at is simply the sum of all the differential fields . We use the identity to change the variable of integration from to and obtain Integrating, we find that (29-9) (use radians not degrees) For full circle substitute (29-10)
(

(period)

( the number of revolutions per unit time) is (frequency)

| |

Note that , , and have the same values for all elements integrate this equation, we find that
( )

around the loop; so when we

of the loop,

The angular frequency of the motion is then (angular frequency)

or, because

is simply the circumference ( )

( )

Cyclotrons and Synchrotrons

- The cyclotron
An apparatus in which charged atomic and subatomic particles are accelerated by an alternating electric field while following an outward spiral or circular path in a magnetic field. The frequency at which the proton circulates in the magnetic field must be equal to the fixed frequency of the electrical oscillator, or (28-23) (resonance condition) This resonance condition says that, if the energy of the circulating proton is to increase, energy must be fed to it at frequency that is equal to the natural frequency at which the | | proton circulates in the magnetic field. Combing Eqs. 29-18 ( ) and 28-23 allows us to write the resonance condition as (for the proton, and are fixed. The oscillator (we assume) is designed to work at a single fixed frequency ) | | (28-24)

(at center of circular arc) rad for

)

This is Eq. 29-26, the relation we sought to prove.

Chapter 30 Induction and Inductance

Inductors and Inductance
Faraday's law of induction is a basic law of electromagnetism relating to the operating principles of transformers, inductors, and many types of electrical motors and generators. The induced EMF in a closed circuit is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux through the circuit.

in Eq. 29-9, finding (at center of full circle)

Force Between Two Parallel Currents

Two long parallel wires carrying currents exert forces on each other. Separated by distance , and carrying currents and . The magnitude of at every point of wire is, from Eq. 294, (29-11) Eq. 28-26 tells us that the force on length is (29-12) of wire due to the external magnetic field

- A Quantitative Treatment
Magnetic flux is a measure of the amount of magnetic B field (also called "magnetic flux density") passing through a given surface (such as a conducting coil). (30-1) (magnetic flux through area A) (30-2) ( area , uniform) (30-3) 1 weber = 1 Wb = The magnitude of the emf induced in a conducting loop is equal to the rate at which the magnetic flux through that loop changes with time. (30-4) (Faradays law) If we change the magnetic flux through a coil of turns, an induced emf appears in every turn and the total emf induced in the coil is the sum of these individual induced emfs. If the coil is tightly wound (closely packed), so that the same magnetic flux passes through all the turns, the total emf induced in the coil is (30-5) (coil of N turns)

- The Proton Synchrotron

A cyclotron in which the magnetic field strength increases with the energy of the particles to keep their orbital radius constant

Amperes Law
there is an attractive or repulsive force between two parallel wires carrying an electric current. "The constant current that will produce an attractive force of 2 107 newton per metre of length between two straight, parallel conductors of infinite length and negligible circular cross section placed one meter apart in a vacuum. SI unit (Amperes law) The scalar product is equal to thus, (29-15) If currents are in opposite directions ( ) ( ) (29-16) (29-14)

Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire

Consider a length of wire. All the conduction electrons in this section of wire will drift past plane in a time . Thus in that time a charge given by will pass through that plane. Substituting this into Eq. 28-3 yields

(28-25) or If the magnetic field is not perpendicular to the wire, the magnetic force is given by a generalization of Eq. 28-25: (28-26) (force on a current) Here is a length vector that has magnitude and is directed along the wire segment in the direction of the (conventional) current. The fore magnitude is (28-27) where is the angle between the directions of and . The direction of is that of the cross product because we take current to be a positive quantity. Equation 28-26 tells us that is always perpendicular to the plane defined by vectors and If the wire is not straight or the field is not uniform, we can imagine the wire broken up into small straight segments and apply Eq. 28-26 to each segment. The force of the wire as a whole is then the vector sum of all the forces on the segment that make it up. In the differential limit, we can write (28-28)

Lenzs Law
An induced current has a direction such that the magnetic field due to the current opposes the change in the magnetic flux that induces the current.

- Magnetic Field outside a Long Straight Wire with Current

At every point the angle ( (29-17) or ) (outside straight wire) between and is , so ( )

Induction and Energy Transfers

The rate at which you do work moving a loop into a magnetic field is (30-6) To find the current, we first apply Faradays law. When is the length of the loop still in magnetic field, the area of loop still in the field is . From Eq. 30-2, the magnitude of the flux through the loop is (30-7) Dropping the minus sign in Eq. 30-4 and using Eq. 30-7, we can write the magnitude of this emf as (30-8) in which we have replaced with , the speed at which the loop moves. .

- Magnetic Field Inside a Long Straight Wire with Current

( ) (29-18) To find the right side of Amperes law, we note that because the current is uniformly distributed, the current encircled by the loop is proportional to the area encircled by the ) loop; that is ( (29-19) ( (29-20) or ( ) ) (inside straight wire)

Torque on a Current Loop

The net force on a loop is the vector sum of the forces acting on its four sides. The side 2 the vector in Eq. 28-26 points in the direction of the current and has magnitude . The angle between and for side 2 is . Thus, the magnitude of the force acting on this side is ( ) (28-31) Force acting on side 4 has the same magnitude as but in the opposite direction; thus canceling out exactly. Their net torque is zero and because their common line of action is through the center of the loop, their net torque is also zero. For sides 1 and 3, is perpendicular to , so they have common magnitude . Because they have opposite directions, they do not tend to move the loop up or down. They also do not have the same line of action so they do not produce a net torque. The magnitude of the

To find the magnitude of the induced current we can apply the equation (30-9)

Solenoids and Toroids

- Magnetic Field of a Solenoid
A cylindrical coil of wire acting as a magnet when carrying electric current (29-21) where is uniform within the solenoid and zero outside it, using the rectangular Amperian loop . We write as the sum of four integrals

Because three segment of the loop carry this current we know the deflecting force (30-10) Using Eq. 30-10 to obtain the magnitude of (30-11) Substituting Eq. 30-9 for in Eq. 30-11 then give us (30-12) Because , , and are constants, the speed at which you move the loop is constant if the magnitude of the force you apply to the loop is also constant.

By substituting Eq. 30-12 into Eq. 30-6, we find the rate at which you do work on the loop as you pull it from the magnetic field: (30-13) (rate of doing work) To find rate at which thermal energy appears in the loop as you pull at a constant speed can be calculated from Eq. 26-27 (30-14) Substituting from Eq. 30-9, we find (30-15) ( ) (thermal energy rate)

Here (30-42)

, the inductive time constant, is given by (time constant) ( ( ) has one dimension of time, we convert from henries per )( )

To show that the quantity ohm as follows:

Chapter 32 Maxwells Equations; Magnetism of Matter

Gauss Law for Magnetic Fields
The law asserts that the magnetic flux (32-1) through any closed Gaussian surface is zero: (Gauss law for magnetic fields) Contrast this with Gauss law for electric fields, (Gauss law for electric fields)

The physical significance of the time constant follows from Eq. 30-41. If we put in this equation it reduces to (30-43) Thus the time constant final equilibrium value . The differential equation that governs the decay can be found by putting (30-44) By analogy with Eqns. 27-38 and 27-39, the solution of this differential equation that satisfies the initial condition ( ) (30-45) is (decay of current) in Eq. 30-39: ( ) is the time it takes the current in the circuit to reach about 63% of its

Induced Electric Fields

- A Reformulation of Faradays Law
A particle of charge moving around a circular path; the work done on it in one revolution by the induced electric field is , where is the induced emf that is, the work done per unit charge in moving the test charge around the path. ( )( ) (30-16) where is the magnitude of the force acting on the test charge and is the distance which that force acts. Setting these two expressions equal for equal to each other and canceling , we find that (30-17) Next we write Eq. 30-16 to give a more general expression for the work done on a particle of charge moving along any closed path: (30-18) If we combine Eq. 30-19 with Faradays lay in Eq. 30-4 ( Faradays law as (30-20) (Faradays law) This equation says simply that a changing magnetic field induces an electric field. ), we can rewrite

Induced Magnetic Fields

(32-2) (Faradays law of induction) Here is the electric field induced along a closed loop by the changing magnetic flux encircled by that loop. Changing eclectic flux can induce a magnetic field (32-3) (Maxwells law of induction) Here is the magnetic field induced along a closed loop by the changing electric flux the region encircled by that loop. in

Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field

Resistor (30-46) Multiply each side of equation by , we obtain (30-47) (30-48) Thus We can write this as Integrating yields (30-49) or (magnetic energy) and inductor . Equation 30-39 described the growth of current in circuit:

- Ampere-Maxwell Law
(32-4) where (32-5) (Amperes law) is the current encircled by the closed loop. (Ampere-Maxwell law)

- Magnetic Field Induced By Changing Electric Field

A magnetic field can be set up by a current and by induction due to a changing electric flux; both effects are included in Eq. 32-5. There is no current between the capacitor plates, but the electric flux there is changing. Thus, Eq. 32-5 reduces to (32-6) We shall separately evaluate the left and right sides of this equation. Left side: We choose Amperian loop with radius - that is inside the capacitor. The integral , which simply gives us the circumference of the loop. ( )( ) Right side: The electric flux through the Amperian loop is , where is the area
( )

- A New Look at Electric Potential

Electric potential has meaning only for electric fields that are produced by static charges; it has no meaning for electric fields that are produced by induction. Recalling Eq. 24-18, which defines the potential difference between two points and in an electric field : (30-21) and If and in Eq. 30-21 are the same point, the path connecting them is a closed loop, are identical, and Eq. 30-21 reduces to (30-22) However, when a changing magnetic flux is present, this integral is not zero but is

which represent the total energy stored by an inductor carrying a current . Note the similarity in form between this expression and the expression for the energy stored by a capacitor with capacitance and charge ; namely, (30-50)

encircled by the loop within the electric field. Thus the right side of Eq. 32-6 is corresponds to , and the constant corresponds to ) Substituting our results for the left and right sides into Eq. 32-6, we get ( )( Because (32-7) ( )( ) )
( )

, as

(The variable (30-51)

Eq. 30-20 asserts. To calculate the field magnitude of a ring, we apply Faradays law in the form of Eq. 30-20. We use a circular path of integration with radius for inside circle ( ) (30-23) We need to evaluate the right side of Eq. 30-20. Because is uniform over the area encircled by the path of integration and is directed perpendicular to that area, the magnetic flux is given by Eq. 30-2: ( ) (30-24) Substituting this and Eq. 30-23 into Eq. 30-20 and dropping the minus sign, we find ( (30-25) or ) ( ) )

Calculating how much current is built up to its equilibrium value: (Total current at equilibrium) be satisfied. Using Eq. 30-49 twice allows us to How many time constants will half this equilibrium energy stored in the magnetic field; at what time will the relation rewrite this energy condition as ( ) (30-52) ( )

is a constant, we write (

) as

; so we have

The area that is encircled by the Amperian loop within the electric field is the full area of the loop because the loops radius is less than (or equal to) the plate radius . Substituting for in Eq. 32-7 leads to, for , (32-8) This equation tells us that, inside the capacitor, increases linearly with increased radial distance , from 0 at the central axis to maximum value at plate radius . Equation for : Use Amperian loop with radius that is greater than the plate radius , to evaluate outside the capacitor. The Electric field exists only between the plates, not outside the plates. Thus, the area that is encircled by the Amperian loop in the electric field is not the full area of the loop. Rather, is the only plate area . Substituting for in Eq. 32-7 and solving the result for give us, for , (32-9) This equation tells us that, outside the capacitor, decreases with increased radial distance , from a maximum value at the plate edges (where ).

Energy Density of a Magnetic Field

Solenoid length and cross-section area volume of the field is carrying current ; the energy stored per unit

(magnitude of electric field at any point

To calculate the field magnitude of a ring, we apply Faradays law in the form of Eq. 30-20. We use a circular path of integration with radius for outside circle ( ) (30-26) Substituting this and Eq. 30-23 into Eq. 30-20 (without the minus sign) and solving for yield (30-27) (magnitude of electric field at any point )

or, since we have (30-53) Here is the inductance of length of the solenoid. Substituting from Eq. 30-31

Inductors and Inductance

An inductor is a component in an electric or electronic circuit that possesses inductance. Current in the turns of the solenoid, the current produces a magnetic flux through the central region of the inductor, number of turns. The windings of the inductor are said to be linked by the shared flux, and product is called the magnetic flux linkage. The inductance is thus a measure of the flux linkage produced by the inductor per unit current. (30-28) (30-29) (inductance defined)

(30-54) where is the number of turns per unit length. From Eq. 29-23 ( energy density as (30-55) (magnetic energy density) ) we can write this

Displacement Current
If you compare the two terms on the right side of Eq. 32-5, you will see that the product ( (32-10) ) must have the dimension of a current (displacement current (displacement current) ).

This equation gives the density of stored energy at any point where the magnitude of the magnetic field is . This holds true for all magnetic fields, no matter how they are generated. This equation is comparable to Eq. 25-25, (30-56)

- Inductance of a Solenoid
A long solenoid of cross-sectional area , length near middle of solenoid, number of turns per unit length, and magnitude of the magnetic field within the solenoid. The flux linkage there is ( )( ) The magnitude is given by equation Eq. 29-23, and also from Eq. 30-28
( )( ) ( )( )( )

Mutual Induction
Two interacting coils. We define the mutual inductance (30-57) which has the same form as Eq. 30-28, (30-58) the definition of inductance. We can recast Eq. 30-57 as (30-59) If we cause to vary with time by varying , we have (30-60) The right side of this equation is, according to Faradays law, jus the magnitude of the emf appearing in coil 2 due to the changing current in coil 1. Thus, with a minus sign to indicate direction, (30-61) Let us now interchange the roles of coils 1 and 2; that is, we set up a current in coil2 by means of a battery, and this produces a magnetic flux that links coil 1. If we change with time varying , we then have, by the argument given above, (30-62) (30-63) and we can rewrite Eqs. 30-61 and 30-62 as (30-64) (30-65) of coil 2 with respect to coil 1 as

(32-11) (Ampere-Maxwell law) in which is the displacement current that is encircled by the integration loop. The charge on the plates at any time is related to the magnitude of the field between the plates at that time by Eq. 25-4: (32-12) in which is the plate area. To get the real current , we differentiate Eq. 32-12 with respect to time, finding (32-13) To get the displacement current , we can use Eq. 32-10. Assuming that the electric field between the two places is uniform, we can replace the electric flux in that equation with . Then Eq. 32-10 becomes (32-14)
( )

(30-30) Thus, the inductance per unit length near the center of a long solenoid is (30-31) (solenoid) can be expressed in the unit henry per meter:

Comparing Eqs. 32-13 and 32-14, we see that the real current charging the capacitor and the fictitious displacement current between the place have the same magnitude: (32-15) (displacement current in a capacitor)

- Finding the Induced Magnetic Field

The magnitude of the magnetic field at a point inside the capacitor at radius (32-16) ( ) (inside a circular capacitor) from the center

(30-32)

Self-Induction
If two coils (inductors) are near each other, a current in one coil produced a magnetic flux through the second coil. For any inductor, Eq. 30-28 tells us that (30-33) Faradays law tells us that (30-34) (30-35)
( )

Similarly, from Eq. 29-17, the magnitude of the magnetic field at a point outside the capacitor at radius is (32-17) ( ) (outside a circular capacitor) is being charged with a current . The

- Treating a Changing Electric Field as a Displacement Current

A circular parallel-plate capacitor with place radius magnitude between the plates (at from their center):

By combing Eq. 30-33 and 30-34 we can write (self-induced emf)

RL Circuits
If we suddenly introduce an emf into a single-loop circuit containing a resistor R and a capacitor C, the charge on the capacitor does not build up immediately to it final equilibrium value but approaches it in an exponential fashion: (30-36) ( )

- Mutual Inductance of Two Parallel Coils

To find M we shall assume a current in the smaller coil: (30-66) The flux through each turn of the smaller coil is, from Eq. 30-2, in the larger coil and calculate the flux linkage

The integral is given by Eq. 32-11, but because there is no real current between the capacitor plates, the equation reduces to (32-18)
( ( ) )

Substituting this into Eq. 32-18, we obtain (32-19) (from Eq. 32-15) and Magnitude of magnetic field (at
( )

The rate at which the charge builds up is determined by the capacitive time constant , defined in Eq. 27-36 as (30-37) If we suddenly remove the emf from this same circuit, the charge does not immediately fall to zero but approaches zero in an exponential fashion: (30-38) Initially, an inductor acts to oppose changes in the current through it. A long time later, it acts like ordinary connecting wire. The loop rule gives us

Where is the magnitude of the magnetic field at point within the small coil due to the ) is the area enclosed by the turn. Thus, the flux linkage in the smaller larger coil and ( coil (with its turns) is (30-67) To find at points within the smaller coil, we can use Eq. 29-26 ( )
( )

Now substituting

into Eq. 32-19 leads to

) inside the capacitor; treat area between parallel .

( )

circular plates as imaginary wire of radius R carrying imaginary current (32-20) (32-21) at for in Eq. 30-67 yields is ( ( ) )

With

set to 0 because the smaller coil is in the plane of the larger coil. That equation tells us at points within

that each turn of the larger coil produces a magnetic field with magnitude the smaller coil. Thus, the larger coil produces a magnetic field of magnitude (30-68) at points within the smaller coil. Substituting Eq. 30-68 for and

From Eq. 32-16, the maximum field magnitude

within the capacitor occurs at

Dividing Eq. 32-20 by Eq. 32-21 and rearranging the result, we find that the field magnitude

(30-39) or (30-40) ( ( ) )

(RL circuit)

which we can rewrite as (30-41) (rise of current) substituting this result into Eq. 30-66, we find

Maxwells Equations
Gauss law for electricity: Relates net electric flux to net enclosed electric charge

 Gauss law for magnetism: Relates net magnetic flux to net enclosed magnetic charge Faradays law: Relates induced electric field to changing magnetic flux Ampere-Maxwell law: Relates induced magnetic field to changing electric flux and to current

Magnetism and Electrons

- Spin Magnetic Dipole moment
An electron has an intrinsic angular momentum called its spin angular momentum ; associated with this spin is an intrinsic spin magnetic dipole moment . Related by (32-22) in which ( is the elementary charge ( ) and is the mass of an electron ). The minus sign means that and are oppositely directed.

Let us assume that the component of spin is measured b along the axis of a coordinate system. Then the measured component can have only the two values given by (32-23) where Planck constant. When up. When for is called the spin magnetic quantum number and is parallel to the axis, is is ( ) is the and the electron is said to be spin

is antiparallel to the axis,

and the electron is said to be spin down. by rewriting Eq. 32-22

We can relate the component Substituting for (32-24)

measured on the axis to

from Eq. 32-23 then gives us

Where correspond to being parallel or antiparallel to axis, respectively. The quantity on the right side of Eq. 32-24 is called Bohr magneton : (32-25) (Bohr magneton) For an electron, the magnitude of the measured component of is | | (32-26) When an electron is placed in an external magnetic field , an energy

can be associated with the orientation of the electrons spin magnetic dipole moment just as an energy can be associated with the orientation of the magnetic dipole moment of a current loop placed in . From Eq. 28-38, the orientation energy for the electron is (where the axis is taken to be in the direction of ). (32-27)

- Orbital Magnetic Dipole Moment

When it is in an atom, an electron has an additional angular momentum called its orbital angular momentum . Associated with is an orbital magnetic dipole moment ; related by (the minus sign means that and have opposite directions): (32-28) The component along, say, a axis can only have values given by (32-29) , for , , ,, ( ) in which is called the orbital magnetic quantum number and limit refers to some largest allowed integer value for . By writing Eq. 32-28 for a component along the same axis as above and then substituting for from Eq. 32-29, we can write the component of the orbital magnetic dipole moment as (32-30) and, in terms of the Bohr magneton, as (32-31) When an atom is placed in an external magnetic field , an energy can be associated with the orientation of the orbital magnetic dipole moment of each electron in the atom. Its value is (where the axis is taken in the direction of ): (32-32)

- Loop Model for Electron Orbits

We imagine an electron moving at a constant speed in a circular path of radius , counterclockwise. The motion of the negative charge of the electron is equivalent to a conventional current (of positive charge) that is clockwise. The magnitude of the orbital magnetic dipole of such a current loop is obtained from Eq. 28-35 with , where is the area enclosed by the loop. (32-33) With (32-34) Substituting this and the area (32-35) of the loop into Eq. 32-33 gives us ( ).

To find the electrons orbital angular momentum , we use Eq. 11-18, Because and are perpendicular, has the magnitude

(32-36) Combing Eqs. 32-35 and 32-36, generalizing to a vector formulation, and indicating the opposite directions of the vectors with a minus sign yield