Global Positioning System

Title: GPS: Global Positioning System

Name: Megan Martig, Beth Dauwalter, Tyler Scott Major: Computer Science Management Information Systems Expected graduation year: Spring 2005, Spring 2005, Fall 2005

Associated class or project: COMS 362 Data Communications and Networking Professor sponsoring this work: Dr. Christophe Veltsos

Date of submission: May 10, 2005

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Introduction: When hand-held GPS was new, an avid deer hunter in South Texas brought one of the devices on his hunting trip and bragged about its potential value. His hunting partners, who were sick of listening to him, devised a plan to shut him up. This group of hunters drives an old truck to their hunting spot, split up in different directions, and meet back at the truck hours later. The man with the GPS unit always bragged that hed always be the first back to the truck by using this slick new unit to mark the trucks position and use its precise directions to get back. Everyday he parked the truck and disappeared in the woods to hunt. However, one of the guys in the group would move the truck off its original spot. Never thinking that a truck without keys (they had a spare set) could move itself, the man blamed a faulty GPS unit. After this, the man returned his GPS unit several times claiming that it needed recalibration, but the manufacturer said it was always working perfectly. However, for two hunting seasons, it couldnt find its way back to the truck. This story shows that GPS can be very accurate, unless someone is playing a joke on you! Global Positioning System, most commonly known as GPS, is a satellite navigation system that is used for a variety of purposes all around the globe. In this paper we will give a brief background of GPS, how it works, and its satellite system. We will also discuss differential GPS, common uses of GPS, and future implementations (Pike, p.1). Brief History of GPS: The Global Positioning System (GPS) dates back to the 1960s when the U.S. Navy and Air Force created a satellite based on radio-positioning systems to provide highly accurate navigation support and positioning for submarine activities such as ballistic missile shooting. In the years between 1964 and 1966, aerospace scientists and engineers conducted a series of satellite navigation studies and arrived at the operational concept for GPS (GPS Timeline, P.1). In the 1970s, the Navy and Air Force systems were combined by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) to provide one comprehensive system that would provide accurate data on position, velocity, and time for both military and civilian users. (Spencer, P.26) GPS started as a military system to provide continuous positioning and timing information and later became available for civilian users. It can be used anywhere in the world, during any weather conditions, and 24 hours a day. GPS is a one-way ranging system meaning that users can only receive the satellite signals. The GPS constellation is known as the Initial Operational Capability (IOC) constellation (El-Rabbany, P.1). It consists of 24 operational satellites and the satellites are

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arranged so that four satellites are placed in six orbital planes. The orbits are almost circular and have an inclination of about 55 degrees to the equator. It makes two complete orbits in less than 24 hours, traveling at speeds of about 7,000 miles per hour. At any point in time, four to ten GPS satellites are visible anywhere in the world if the elevation angle is 10 degrees (El-Rabbany, P.2). To provide positioning information, GPS needs only four satellites. GPS satellites are powered by solar energy and have a battery backup for solar eclipses. They have small rocket boosters on each satellite to keep them flying in the correct path (Garmin, P.2). GPS Segments: GPS consists of three component segments. The first one is the space segment which consists of a 24-satellite constellation in six orbital planes, each of them with four satellites. See appendix E for a visual of this constellation. Each of these satellites transmits a signal and the signal has a number of components, such as two sine waves (carrier frequencies), two digital codes, and a navigation message (El-Rabbany, P.2). The digital codes and navigation message are added to the carrier as binary biphase modulations (El-Rabbany, P.2). Binary biphase modulation is where the phase changes by either 0 or 180 degrees on a constant frequency carrier, which represents a binary 0 or 1 respectively (Glossary of GPS terms, P.1). Navigation messages contain coordinates of the satellites as a function of time along with some other information. The signals transmitted are controlled onboard the satellites by highly accurate atomic clocks (El-Rabbany, P.3). In the space segment, each satellite broadcasts radio signals that the receivers can use to calculate the position of the satellite and send out information on satellite health, as well as data that can be used to determine the satellite time. The control segment is the second segment of GPS. It consists of a network of tracking stations that is worldwide. It has a master control station (MCS) that is located in Colorado Springs, Colorado (Spencer, P.28). This station is responsible for monitoring the satellite positions in space because the system relies on the satellites precisely maintaining their orbit. MCS has five associated monitoring stations around the world and is staffed and operated by the U.S. Air Force 24 hours a day. Appendix A shows the five monitoring stations and where they are located. The control segment is used for tracking the GPS satellites in order to predict and determine all the satellite locations, system integrity, the behavior of the atomic clock in each satellite, atmospheric data, the satellite almanac, and many other considerations. When the information is gathered, it is then packed and uploaded through an S-band link to the GPS

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satellites (El-Rabbany, P.3). An S-band is part of the microwave band of the electromagnetic spectrum, a 10 centimeter radar short-band (wikipedia.com). See Appendix B get a visual of how the control segment works. The last segment of GPS is the user segment. This segment includes all the users of GPS, either military or civilian. A user can use a GPS receiver, which contains an antenna, to receive GPS signals to determine their location in the world. Some of the users consist of social science researchers, the aviation industry, transportation, agriculture, consumers, and the public service sector (Spencer, P.29). The user segment can also perform two basic measurements of GPS signals. The first basic measurement is called pseudorange, which compares the C/A or P code that it is receiving with a locally generated copy in order to compute the transmission delay between a satellite and a receiver (Martin Mur, P.2). To determine the position of the user once the position of the GPS satellites has been obtained using the ephemeredes of the navigation message, pseudoranges to four or more satellites can be used. The second measurement, called the carrier phase observable, which is used to obtain the difference in phase between the received carrier signal and the receiver generated signal at the same frequency. It has good precision and can reach a millimeter. However, it lacks the accuracy of the pseudorange because the phase when tracking is started can only be known with an ambiguity of an unknown number of times the carrier wavelength (Martin Mur, P.2). How GPS Works: GPS works by satellites circling the earth twice a day in their orbit, sending information to earth. GPS receivers on earth receive this information and use triangulation to calculate the exact location of the user. The receiver works by comparing the time a signal was transmitted by a satellite with the time it was received. The difference in time tells the receiver the distance it is away from the satellite. When a receiver gets distance measurements from a few more satellites, it can then determine the users position and display it on the unit electronic map. With the users position determined, the unit can then calculate more information for the user, such as speed, bearing, track, trip distance, distance to a destination, sunrise and sunset times, and more (How it works, P.1). Knowing how fast the GPS is traveling and how long it takes to arrive, the distance it travels, can be calculated using the simple mathematic equation, distance = rate x time. The GPS traveling is a radio signal that travels at the speed of light. Each receiver has its own internal clock which is mathematically adjusted to resolve the clock bias between the

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satellites clock and itself (Spencer, P.30). GPS is extremely accurate, but there are a few factors that can have an affect on it, such as certain atmospheric factors and some other sources of errors. To get a visual of how GPS works, see Appendix C. It gives a detailed description of what happens at each step in the process. GPS Positioning: GPS positioning has two modes, such as point positioning and relative positioning. One GPS receiver is used in point positioning which measures the code pseudoranges to determine the users position instantaneously, so long as there are four or more satellites that are visible at the receiver (El-Rabbany, P. 69). It determines the coordinates with respect to the center of the earth. Point positioning is used mainly when a relatively low accuracy is required. Relative positioning on the other hand employs two GPS receivers that simultaneously track the same satellites. One receiver is designated as a reference, or base, and remains stationary at a site with precisely known coordinates. The second receiver is known as the rover or remote receiver (ElRabbany, P.71). It has unknown coordinates and may or may not be stationary, depending on the type of the GPS operation. A positioning accuracy level of the order of a subcentimeter to a few meters can be obtained if both receivers track at least four common satellites. Relative positioning uses carrier-phase and/or pseudorange measurements which can be used depending on the accuracy requirements. It is mainly used for high-accuracy applications. Satellite System: The satellite constellation that is the basis of GPS is located in the space segment. There are at least 24 satellites in 6 orbital planes inclined 55 degrees from the equatorial plane, and they are orbiting the earth about 12,000 miles above Earth. Appendix D gives a visual of what the satellites look like. The first picture shows the satellite in detail while the second picture shows a satellite in relation to Earth. Appendix E gives a visual of where these satellites are located in relation to Earth. This diagram shows only 24 satellites, which is the minimum number there can be. However, there can be more than 24 operational satellites at any given time. This is mainly because new ones are launched to replace the old ones. The first block, Block I, of satellites was launched on February 22, 1978. These were mainly built for experimental needs. These satellites are no longer in service. Block II/IIA satellites were launched in 1989. There are still currently 23 of these still in service. The newest generation of blocks, called Block IIR, was launched in 2002. Satellites in this block have much more functionality than the other blocks.

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Another block of satellites is scheduled to be launched sometime in 2005. (El-Rabbany, p. 4-5). Each satellite is built to last about 10 years and then it needs to be replaced. According to Wikepedia free encyclopedia, it costs approximately $400 million per year to maintain the GPS system; this cost includes the replacement of ageing satellites. The GPS satellites are constantly moving. Each satellite makes two complete orbits in less than one day. They are powered by solar energy, but have backup batteries inside of them to ensure they keep running when there is a solar eclipse. The satellites are constantly broadcasting position and time data to users in all parts of the world. GPS satellites transmit at two main frequencies. These are called L1 at 1575.42 MHz and L2 at 1227.6 MHz (Leick, p1). The L1 frequency is mostly used for civilian use. These signals use line of sight to travel which means they will not be able to go through solid objects such as buildings or mountains, but they will be able to pass through clouds, glass, or other such objects. L1 frequencies are deliberately degraded so that civilians do not get the full capability. The L2 frequencies are mostly used for the military and are encrypted so only authorized users can access them. These two frequencies are modulated with two types of codes and with a navigation message. The first code is the C/A Code (Coarse Acquisition). It modulates the L1 carrier phase. This code is a repeating 1 MHz Pseudo Random Noise (PRN) Code. There is a different C/A code PRN for each satellite. The C/A code is the basis for the civil Standard Positioning System. The second type of code is the P-Code (Precise). It modulates both the L1 and L2 carrier phases. It is a very long 10 MHz PRN code. In the Anti-Spoofing (AS) mode of operation used by the military and government, the P-Code is encrypted into the Y-Code. This can only be used by authorized users who hold the decryption device or key. The P(Y) Code is the basis for the Precise Positioning Service mostly used by the military. Finally, the L1-C/A code signal uses a Navigation Message, which is a 50 Hz signal consisting of data bits that describe the GPS satellite orbits, clock corrections, and other system parameters (Dana, p. 2-4). A GPS signal has three different parts to it. First, it contains a pseudorandom code which is just an ID that identifies which satellite is sending the information. Second, it contains ephemeris data, which is important information about the status of the satellite and current date and time that is used to determine a position. Finally, its last part is the almanac data. This tells the GPS receiver where each satellite should be at any given time throughout the course of the day. (What is GPS, p. 2) GPS satellites are constantly transmitting signals to stay up-to-date.

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Differential GPS: GPS receivers have their own built-in clocks that make all of their distance measurements. This means that the distances may be proportionally incorrect since the clock in the receiver and the atomic clock in the satellites may not match exactly, so the receiver calculates the needed adjustments to make the distances correct. However, even though the GPS receivers try to sync their clocks with the satellites atomic clock, inaccuracies can still arise. The regular GPS system works fairly well, but there are still errors that can be corrected to make the Global Positioning System even more accurate. There are five main types of errors that regular GPS receivers may experience. They are: Selective Availability Error: errors that may be intentionally introduced into the satellite signals by the military to prevent full-accuracy capability by the civilian community; these are typically about 30m delays. Ionospheric Delays: delays that occur because of ionized particles; these can be as much as 20-30m delays during the day to 3-6m delays at night. Tropospheric Delays: delays that lengthen the propagation path due to refraction from dry gases and water vapor; these are typically3-6m delays. Ephemeris Errors: the difference between the actual satellite location and the location predicted by satellite orbital data; these are typically less than 3m delays and will become smaller as satellite tracking technology improves Satellite Clock Errors: the difference between the actual satellite clock time and that predicted by the satellite data. Multipath Errors: errors caused by tall buildings and other geographic elements Receiver Errors: errors caused by faulty receivers (Grewal, p. 90).

Appendix F shows three different GPS signals. The first one is a blocked signal. The signal ran into a building and so the GPS receiver was unable to get it. The second one shows a multipath error. The signal hits a building but is able to bounce off and eventually make it to the receiver. The third signal is a correct signal; it goes right to the receiver without any problems. Differential GPS, more commonly known as DGPS, can be used to correct the above errors and inaccuracies that arise using basic GPS. Now we will take a deeper look into what differential GPS really is and how well it works to correct the above errors.

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Differential GPS is a technique used to eliminate the errors in a GPS receiver. It does this by gauging GPS inaccuracy at a stationary receiver station with a known location. The receivers inaccuracy can easily be calculated since the DGPS receiver at this station knows its own position. The station then broadcasts a radio signal to all DGPS-equipped receivers in the area, providing signal correction information for that area (Differential GPS, p.1). The users receiver then takes this information and applies the corrections when it is determining its position. It is the access to this correction information that makes differential GPS so much more accurate than basic GPS. DGPS helps in correcting errors, but the level of correction varies depending on the type of error. The following are the results that can be achieved from using DGPS:
Some error sources are canceled completely: o o Selective availability Satellite ephemeris and clock errors

With other error sources, cancellation degrades with distance: o o Ionospheric delay error Tropospheric delay error

Still other error sources are not canceled at all: o o Multipath errors Receiver errors (Grewal, p. 265)

There are two main types of Differential Global Positioning Systems. They are LocalArea DGPS (LADGPS) and Wide-Area DGPS (WADGPS). In Local-Area DGPS, the users GPS receiver receives real-time pseudorange and, possibly, carrier phase corrections from a reference receiver generally located within the line of sight (Grewal, p. 266). This means that the user receiver needs to be able to see the reference receiver in order for it to receive the error corrections from the reference receiver. In Wide-Area DGPS, the users GPS receiver receives corrections determined form a network of reference stations distributed over a wide geographical area. Separate corrections are determined for the different types of error sources. The corrections are usually supplied in real time by geostationary communications satellites or through ground-based transmitters and are then applied in the users receiver (Grewal, p. 266). There is another form of DGPS called Wide Area Augmentation System or WAAS. It is basically a continental Differential GPS system. WAAS was developed by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA); its primary focus is to provide navigation for all phases of flight in the National Airspace System. WAAS has reference receiver stations scattered across the United Page 8 of 18

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States that collect correction data from GPS receivers. This data is then forwarded to wide-area master stations that process the data, determine its validity, and then passes it on to GEO satellites, which in turn downlinks it to FAA airway facilities. This information is then used to track airplanes from departure, en route, and to arrival. The WAAS system provides real-time location data about flights so air traffic controllers can have a better idea of what is going on at all times. (Grewal, p. 266-267) (All About GPS). Uses of GPS: Since 1996 when the Global Positioning System (GPS) was announced that it would be a free satellite navigation service to be available for civilian use, the GPS service really took off. In 2003, GPS equipment sales was reported to be around US $3.5 billion worldwide, and that the annual market could grow to US $10 billion after 2010, according to a report published by a market research firm. The market for GPS is growing very rapidly as GPS receivers are installed in various forms of transportation and means of communication. Basically anything that is on the move and would be helpful to have a tracking system, GPS is enabled on it. There are many different applications or uses for this positioning satellite system such as: military, aviation, marine, communications, vehicle navigation, machine control, people and animal tracking, recreation, surveying and mapping, timing and synchronization, vehicle tracking, and asset management. A GPS device can come in many different forms such as a handheld receiver, cell phone enabled GPS, wrist watch, floating buoy or in-dash receiver for vehicle navigation whether it be on road, water or air. We will be covering the military uses, recreational uses, and vehicle navigation. GPS was first used as a military device during the Gulf War. The GPS handheld device basically took over the soldiers compasses and added a lot more functions. Now a soldier can be tracked and know where they are at all times even if they are in the black of night and in a totally unfamiliar area. They can plan a whole attack, by knowing the latitude and longitude of specific points that are of interest and be sure that the soldiers are in the right position at the right time. The soldiers can sneak into enemy territories to find attack areas, mark the position on the GPS device and could be sent to base as an attack zone. These coordinates are then sent to the attacking device such as guided missiles, smart bombs, other attacking soldiers or whoever would need to know exactly where to attack.

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The US has military stations all over the world and must have the most current layout of the land (various types of maps). Using GPS combined with a Geographic Information System enables their maps to be updated in real-time. For example, the modern mapping techniques such as remote sensing and GIS will now constantly use the DGPS technology to register the images into absolute geocoordinates (Kelly, 2001). This gives the military many different types of maps with a lot more precision. One of the fastest growing areas of GPS is vehicle navigation. As the price drops for invehicle navigation systems the demand for them is going to grow drastically. The navigation systems are being installed into all types of cars especially family cars, not just luxury cars anymore. The navigation systems are a combination of GPS and mapping software. Most of todays in-vehicle navigation systems are voice activated, which means that the driver can ask the device how to get to a certain point and the device will respond with directions. It is basically having a really good navigator sitting right next to you so that you always know which direction to head to meet your destination. Beyond just knowing the current position and direction the vehicle is heading; features are also being added such as emergency contacts, color screens, alternative routes, real-time traffic reports, and the list of features is still growing. The use of the GPS in recreational activities is a growing necessity for todays active world. I know from personal experience on how handy it is to have a GPS receiver when traveling to the wild outdoors. When planning a trip people can download the coordinates of where they would like to travel to, including specific landmarks of interest, then upload the whole trip onto their GPS receiver and know exactly where they are going at all times with extreme accuracy. It is like having an interactive map, compass, odometer, and speedometer all in one little handheld device. This can be very helpful especially if people will be canoeing through the wild outdoors and are not that familiar with the area. One place, in particular that I know of is the Boundary Waters Canoe Area (BWCA) which is located at the Minnesota and Canada boundary. This is a huge area of forest and lakes that can only be traveled through on canoes and is very easy to get lost (the first year that I traveled there) because it is hard to tell which way you are heading and close to impossible to find your way back. The following years I had a GPS handheld, which made navigation a lot easier because I wasnt guessing on a map which way to canoe, I actually knew where I was and never got lost again.

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Another great feature of these devices is being able to mark a certain position when traveling such as a good fishing spot in the middle of the lake or a marvelous site seeing spot in the middle of the woods. It is hard to know exactly where that secret spot is at, when everything looks the same (water and woods) without having something to mark it. Putting in the coordinates of a position will help people get back to that special spot for walleyes at night or spot in the woods when it is hard to see. GPS is becoming more and more important in business today because of the growing need to support people and inventory tracking. Asset management software can be combined to GPSs to track where exactly there supplies are at and where they are going.

The asset management system developed by MaxSys and LASA incorporates the following technologies, according to gisdevelopment.net: Geographic Information System (GIS) based digital maps, high-resolution satellite imagery (up to 5 m), digital elevation models based on satellite imagery and appropriate data base management system; Global Positioning System (GPS) based Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) hardware units with programmable micro processor to collect x-y-z coordinates at pre-determined intervals along road and railway networks, including storing the waypoints until requested to transmit them wirelessly; Wireless data transmission hardware units that can operate in a seamless dual mode over terrestrial (GSM) and satellite (Iridium) based infrastructures, capable of transmitting GPS data on demand or as programmed via the microprocessor.(GIS and GPS based asset management for Road and Railway Transportation Systems)

This is just one example of many different types of software available for GPS asset management. GPS being used in business is growing very rapidly since the need to track inventory is every growing in this fast-paced world. Future of GPS in the US: In 1998 the US Government started an effort to improve the current GPS. This has been called GPS Modernization, which would constantly have an effort to improve functions of GPS for reception and accuracy. For the past five years GPS III is slowly being developed, a new system designed because of the GPS Modernization effort of the government. This new and improved system will add new functionality and more accurate information for both the military and for civilian use. Some additional features of the future GPS system may include an

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enhanced L1 civil signal that would be similar to the Galileo open service design, integrity monitoring of all signals -- not just military -- signals, expansion of the ground monitoring stations to incorporate National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (formerly, National Imagery and Mapping Agency), and incorporation of a Distress Alerting Satellite System (DASS) as a component of the international Cospas-Sarsat search and rescue system (GPS JPO Rethinks GPS III Strategy, 2005). Galileo is being developed by the European Commission because they what to have more functionality and control over their own navigation system. It is planned that the Galileo satellite system will be full functioning in the year 2008. Galileo is similar to GPS III and both be compatible with each other to add the most effective system possible for the whole globe. The military had cut off most of its initial funding for this new improved GPS, but now the Department of Defense has picked up the funding once again for this project. For now there are only two main companies running for the contract of designing this system, which are, Boeing and Lockheed Martin. The companies completed two system architecture and requirements definition (SARD) and SARD extension contracts from 2001-2003 and are finishing parallel Phase A contracts scheduled to lead to a system requirements review (SRR) late this year (GPS JPO Rethinks GPS III Strategy,, 2005). There are problems arising though, with the plans for this project because of all the requests for functionality of this system are getting too complex and expensive. Since these functions are growing so much there are talks of dividing up this project into different space and control contracts. Meanwhile, the prospective launch date for the first GPS III satellite has slipped back to 2013 under the President's Fiscal Year 2006 budget proposal from the 2012 date that was the target last year (GPS JPO Rethinks GPS III Strategy,, 2005). Conclusion: GPS is a satellite navigation system that is used for a variety of purposes all around the globe. You should now have a good understanding of what GPS is, how it works and what different functions it serves. There are constant efforts from all around the globe to improve this navigation system and implement future systems that would allow for extreme accuracy and more functionality. From this we have seen the improvements made to the current GPS for instance Differential GPS, and plans in process for future enhanced systems such as GPS III and Galileo. With these plans in place we can see that GPS is growing very rapidly and will continue

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to be implemented in more and more devices to help people communicate with the location their objects. GPS is a fairly new technology, but is becoming an essential system for all of todays functions whether it is for tracking inventory, tracking soldiers or tracking yourself. Do you know where your GPS is?

Appendix A

Appendix B

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Appendix C

Appendix D:

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Appendix E

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Appendix F:

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Bibliography: All About GPS Trimble. 18 April 2005. <http://www.trimble.com/gps/dgps.html>. Dana, Peter H. Global Positioning System Overview. Dept. of Geography, University of Texas, Austin. 17 April 2005. <http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/ gps/gps.html>. Differential GPS. How Stuff Works. 17 April 2005. <http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/ gps5.htm>. Dow, J.M, Martin Mur, T.J. Satellite Navigation Using GPS. Orbit Attitude Division, European Space Operations Centre (ESOC). 13 April 2005. <http://nng.esoc.esa.de/ gps/refs/ESA_Bulletin.GPS_nav.pdf> El-Rabbany, Ahmed. Introduction to GPS: The Global Positioning System. Norwood: Artech House, Inc, 2002. GIS and GPS based asset management for Road and Railway Transportation Systems GIS Development. April 18 2005 <http://www.gisdevelopment.net/ application/Utility/transport/mi03187.htm>. Global Positioning System. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 16 April 2005. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS>. Glossary of GPS Terms. Montanta State University, Bozeman. 15 April 2005. <http://www.montana.edu/places/gps/lres357/glossary.html>. GPS JPO Rethinks GPS III Strategy GPS World. April 18 2005 <http://www.gpsworld.com/gpsworld/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=153609>. Grewal, Mohinder S., Lawrence R. Weill, and Angus P. Andrews. Global Positioning Systems, Inertial Navigation, and Integration. New York, John Wiley & Songs Inc., 2001. How Does GPS Work? Smithsonian Institution. 14 April 2005. <http://www.nasm.si.edu/ exhibitions/gps/work.html>.

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Kelly J, Bogensberger E, Heitz S, Beckman K, Emery J, Rambo J, Development of the first Military GPS Handheld Survey System: Initial Report. Rockwell Collins Government Systems USA, 2001. Leick, Alfred. GPS: Satellite Surveying, Second Edition. New York, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1995. Pike, Doug. Getting Pointed in the Right Direction; GPS Devices Go Out of this World to Help you Find your Way Back. The Houston Chronicle. 14 April 2005. S-Band. Wikipedia. 15 April 2005. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-band>. Spencer, John, Brian G. Frizzelle, Philip H. Page, and John B. Vogler. Global Positioning System: A Field Guide for the Social Sciences. Australia, Blackwell Publishing, 2003. The Aerospace Corporation. GPS Timeline. 14 April 2005. <http://www.aero.org/education/ primers/gps/gpstimeline.html>. What is GPS? Garmin Ltd.. 14 April 2005. <http://www.garmin.com/aboutGPS/>. What is GPS? USCG Navigation Center. 13 April 2005. <http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/faq/gpsfaq.htm>.

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