1

Traffic Characterization
Dr. Christos Drakos
University of Florida
Topic 4 Traffic Characterization
1. Introduction
Traffic is the most important factor in pavement design;
thickness is based on the number of load repetitions (traffic)
a. Fixed Traffic:
Thickness governed by single-wheel load (use the highest anticipated
load for design)
Used for heavy load / low volume pavements (i.e. airfields)
b. Fixed Vehicle Traffic:
Thickness governed by # of repetitions of a standard vehicle or axle-
load
Convert all traffic to 18-kip single axle loads
c. Variable Traffic and Vehicle:
Loads are divided into groups (load spectra) and the corresponding
stresses and strains are used for design
More appropriate for mechanistic design methods
1.1 Traffic Characterization Procedures
2
Topic 4 Traffic Characterization
Fixed Vehicle Traffic
Design is based on the total number of passes of the standard
axle load (18-kip Equivalent Single Axle Load ESAL) during
the design period
Covert all traffic to the standard axle load (ESAL)
How many ESAL does a 24-kip axle amount to?
( ) ( )
3.291 0.854
f t 1
N 0.0796 E

=
( )
4.477
9
d c
N 1.365 10

=
N
d
, N
f
= Load cycles to failure
= ESAL
Basic premise:
Must determine how many 18-kip single axle loads would cause
the same damage as one X-kip load
Topic 4 Traffic Characterization
1.2 Equivalent Axle Load Factor (EALF) a.k.a. (LEF)
Defines the damage per pass to pavement by the axle in
question relative to the damage per pass of a standard 18-k
axle
Load Equivalence Factor (LEF) Depends on:
Type of pavement
Thickness / structural capacity
Terminal conditions (definition of failure)
20% of lane area with fatigue cracking
inch rutting
Theoretical analysis N
f
(18)/N
f
(X)
Based on experience (AASHO Road Test)
Table 6.4 (flexible pavements)
Table 6.7 (rigid pavements)
3
Topic 4 Traffic Characterization
For the same structure
apply 24- & 18-kip load
KENLAYER:
(18-Kip)
t
= 200 N
f
(18) = 1,612,000
(24-Kip)
t
= 267 N
f
(24) = 623,000
So, we can get an equivalent damage factor
N
f
(18)/N
f
(24) = 2.59
It would take 2.59 18-kip load single axles to cause the same
damage as one 24-kip axle
24-kip
AC
BASE
SUBGRADE

18-kip
AC
BASE
SUBGRADE

1.3 Theoretical Analysis to get LEF (Mechanistic)

Topic 4 Traffic Characterization
LEF =
No. of 18
k
Single Axle Load to cause specific damage
No. of X
k
Single Axle Load to cause specific damage
1.3 Theoretical Analysis to get LEF (Mechanistic)
Due to the many factors that influence the LEF, it is almost
impossible to select an appropriate a single value that applies
to all situations. For a truly mechanistic design method, each
load group should be analyzed separately.
Issues with theoretical analysis:
Does the LEF change if we modify structural configuration
(thickness, modulus, etc.)?
Which one is more critical fatigue cracking or rutting
analysis?
4
Topic 4 Traffic Characterization
[ ]
33 . 4
x 2 G
G
79 . 4
x 2 x
s 2 18
18
x
L
10
10
L L
L L
W
W
18
x

+
+
=

Where:
W
x
= axle applications inverse of equivalency factors
W
18
= No of 18kip single axle loads
L
x
= axle load being evaluated (kips)
L
18
= 18 (standard axle load in kips)
L
2s
= code for standard axle = 1 (single axle)
L
2x
= code for axle load being evaluated
L
2x
= 1 for single axle
L
2x
= 2 for tandem axle
L
2x
= 3 for triple axle (added in the 1986 AASHTO Guide)
1.3 AASHTO Equivalent Factors (Empirical)
x
18
W
W
EALF =
Topic 4 Traffic Characterization
function of the ratio of loss in serviceability at time, t, to
the potential loss taken at a point where pt = 1.5

=
5 . 1 2 . 4
p 2 . 4
Log G
t
( )
( )

+
+
+ =
23 . 3
x 2
19 . 5
23 . 3
x 2 x
L 1 SN
L L 081 . 0
4 . 0
function which determines the relationship
between serviceability and axle load applications
Where:
p
t
= "terminal" serviceability index (point at which the
pavement is considered to be at the end of its useful life)
1.3 AASHTO Equivalent Factors (Empirical)
[ ]
33 . 4
x 2 G
G
79 . 4
x 2 x
s 2 18
18
x
L
10
10
L L
L L
W
W
18
x

+
+
=

x
18
W
W
EALF =
5
Topic 4 Traffic Characterization
1.4 AASHTO Equivalent Factors Example 1
Calculate the LEF for a 30,000 lb single-axle load. The structural number (SN) is equal to three
(3) and the terminal serviceability is 2.5.
L
18
18 := L
2s
1 :=
W
18
= predicted number of 18-kip single axle load applications
W
x
= predicted number of 30-kip single axle load applications
L
x
= L
30
= 30
L
2x
= 1 (single axle)
L
x
30 := p
t
2.5 :=
L
2x
1 := SN 3 :=

18
0.4
0.081 L
18
L
2s
+ ( )
3.23
SN 1 + ( )
5.19
L
2s
3.23

+ :=
x
0.4
0.081 L
x
L
2x
+ ( )
3.23
SN 1 + ( )
5.19
L
2x
3.23

+ :=
G log
4.2 p
t

4.2 1.5
|

\
|
|

:=
EALF
W
18
W
x
W
x
W
18
L
18
L
2s
+
L
x
L
2x
+
|

\
|
|

4.79
10
G

x
10
G

18
|

\
|
|
|
|
|

L
2x
( )
4.33
EALF
L
18
L
2s
+
L
x
L
2x
+
|

\
|
|

4.79
10
G

x
10
G

18
|

\
|
|
|
|
|

L
2x
( )
4.33

1
:= EALF 7.935 =
Topic 4 Traffic Characterization
1.5 AASHTO Equivalent Factors Example 2
Calculate the LEF for a 40,000 lb tandem-axle load. The structural number (SN) is equal to f ive
(5) and the terminal serviceability is 2.5.
L
18
18 := L
2s
1 :=
W
18
= predicted number of 18-kip single axle load applications
W
x
= predicted number of 40-kip tandemaxle load applications
L
x
= L
40
= 40
L
2x
= 2 (tandem axle)
L
x
40 := p
t
2.5 :=
L
2x
2 := SN 5 :=

18
0.4
0.081 L
18
L
2s
+ ( )
3.23
SN 1 + ( )
5.19
L
2s
3.23

+ :=
x
0.4
0.081 L
x
L
2x
+ ( )
3.23
SN 1 + ( )
5.19
L
2x
3.23

+ :=
G log
4.2 p
t

4.2 1.5
|

\
|
|

:=
EALF
W
18
W
x
W
x
W
18
L
18
L
2s
+
L
x
L
2x
+
|

\
|
|

4.79
10
G

x
10
G

18
|

\
|
|
|
|
|

L
2x
( )
4.33
EALF
L
18
L
2s
+
L
x
L
2x
+
|

\
|
|

4.79
10
G

x
10
G

18
|

\
|
|
|
|
|

L
2x
( )
4.33

1
:= EALF 2.081 =
6
Topic 4 Traffic Characterization
Where:
ADT
0
= Initial Average Daily Traffic
T = Percent Trucks (decimal)
TF = Truck Factor (decimal)
G = Growth Factor
Y = Design Period
L = Lane Distribution Factor (decimal)
D = Directional Distribution Factor (decimal)
ESAL = Equivalent Single Axle Load
ESALs = Cumulative ESALs for all vehicles over the entire design
period (we can also calculate ESAL for specific vehicle type)
2. Computation of Design ESALs
ESALs = (ADT
0
)(T)(TF)(G)(Y)(D)(L)*365
Topic 4 Traffic Characterization
2. Computation of Design ESALs
Design ESALs:

=
=
m
1 i
(i)
ESAL ESALs m = vehicle types
Must calculate ESALs for
each vehicle type
2.1 Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
Unless otherwise stated, ADT is in all lanes & both directions
Also, ADT includes:
Cars
Single-unit trucks & buses
Multiple-unit trucks
ESAL
(i)
= (ADT
0
)(T)(T
i
)(TF
i
)(G)(Y)(D)(L)*365
New terms:
T
i
= Distribution of specific type of truck within all trucks (decimal)
TF
i
= Truck factor for the specific truck type (decimal)
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Topic 4 Traffic Characterization
2.2 Average Daily Truck Traffic (ADTT) or (T)
Minimum traffic information required for pavement design;
everything else can be found in tables
Very important in pavement design
Effort to collect actual data
Table 6.9; guide to distribution of truck types among total amount of
trucks
2.2.1 Example:
4000 ADT ; 20% Trucks; Rural System/Principal
Find the # of 2-axle, 4-tire trucks
# 2-axle, 4-tire trucks =
(4000) (0.2) (365)
ADT T
Topic 4 Traffic Characterization
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Topic 4 Traffic Characterization
2.2 Average Daily Truck Traffic (ADTT) or (T)
Minimum traffic information required for pavement
design; everything else can be found in Tables
Very important in pavement design
Effort to collect actual data
Table 6.9; guide to distribution of truck types among total
amount of trucks
# 2-axle, 4-tire trucks =
(4000) (0.2) (365)
ADT T
(0.6)
Table 6.9
=175,000/year
2.2.1 Example:
4000 ADT ; 20% Trucks; Rural System/Principal
Find the # of 2-axle, 4-tire trucks
Topic 4 Traffic Characterization
2.3 Truck Factor (TF)
TF =
ESALs
# of Trucks
Sum of ESALs divided by the number of trucks weighed (count
of trucks, not axles)
What is the importance of TF?
Single TF can be applied to all trucks (weighed average); or
separate for each truck type if the growth rates are different
Table 6.10 (Truck Factors)
If we use all trucks, we do not have to calculate ESALs
for each truck type
For the same ESALs; if TF increases Less # of trucks
If less # of trucks produce the same ESALs More severe loads
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Topic 4 Traffic Characterization
Topic 4 Traffic Characterization
2.4 Directional Distribution (D)
Usually assume D = 0.5
Function of ADT & # of lanes (Table 6.14)
Where could that be different?
2.5 Lane Distribution (L)
Outer traffic
Center traffic
Inner traffic
We design for Outer Lane, but
everything is built the same
Inner Lane usually under-
loaded
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Topic 4 Traffic Characterization
2.6 Growth Rate Factor (G)
Assuming a yearly rate of growth (r)
( ) [ ]
Y
r 1 1
2
1
G + + =
Asphalt Institute (Table 6.13); (G)(Y) combined
Topic 4 Traffic Characterization
4-lane Rural/Principal
4000 ADT
20% Trucks
20-year design; r=4%
Determine the ESALs for
2-axle, 6-tire trucks
ESAL
(i)
= (ADT
0
)(T
i
)(TF
i
)(G)(Y)(D)(L)*365
Distribution of trucks (Table 6.9)
T
i
= 10% (for 2-axle, 6-tire) * 20% (trucks) = 0.02
Truck factor (Table 6.10)
TF
i
= 0.25
Growth (Table 6.13)
GY = 29.78
Lane Distribution (Table 6.14)
L = 0.94
ESAL
(i)
=4000*0.02*0.25*29.87*0.5*0.94*365
= 102,175 ESALs/20 years
2.7 Example 1
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Topic 4 Traffic Characterization
4-lane Rural/Principal
4000 ADT
20% Trucks
20-year design; r=4%
Determine the total ESALs
ESALs = (ADT
0
)(T)(TF)(G)(Y)(D)(L)*365
Trucks
T = 20% (trucks) = 0. 2
Truck factor (Table 6.10)
TF = 0.38
ESALs = 4000*0.2*0.38*29.87*0.5*0.94*365
= 1.55*10
6
ESALs/20 years
2.8 Example 2