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REMOTE SENSING & GIS

Introduction
1.1.1 REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing is the process of acquiring information about any object without physically contacting it in anyway regardless of whether the object is immediately adjacent to the object or millions of miles away.

Remote sensing techniques are the science and art of obtaining information about an object, area or phenomenon through the analysis of data acquired by a device that is not in contact with object area, or phenomenon under investigation. Remote sensing data provides reliable accurate baseline information for land use mapping. Remote sensing observations provide data on earths natural resources in a spatial format. The remote sensing (RS) data has the advantage of synoptic view and large area coverage. The information required in the field of civil engineering is derived mainly from analysis of image patterns present in the data. These patterns reflect the influence of the type of parent material, geological processes undergone, the climatic, biotic and physiographic environment and mans activity. Thus applications of remote sensing to engineering involve the recognition of basic landforms as indicated by the pattern elements on the image.

Electromagnetic energy sensors that are currently being operated from airborne and space borne platforms to assist in inventorying, mapping and monitoring earth resources.

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Remote sensing provides land resource data in the form of digital magnetic types and in different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. Availability of such a data in different bands make it very useful for delineation of land use/land cover classes distinctly. Land use/land cover mapping both by visual interpretation and digital analysis is possible by satellite remote sensing techniques. The land use / land cover categories can be expanded or reduced to any degree and be made more responsive to the information the user needs. In order to secure uniformity for the whole country a master land use/land cover classification system must be adopted after very careful consideration of all the factors drawn up.

The basic processes involved are:

a) Data acquisition b) Data Analysis c) Reference data.

With the aid of location, and condition of the various resources over which the senor data were collected. This information is then compiled generally in the forms of hardcopy maps and tables or as computer files that can be merged with other "layers" of information in a geographic information system (GIS). The role that reference data play in the data analysis procedure and describe how the spatial location of reference data observed in the field is often determined using global positioning systems (GPS) methods.

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1.1.2 Types:
With respect to the type of energy resources:

Passive Remote Sensing: Makes use of sensors that detect the reflected or emitted electro-magnetic from natural sources. Active Remote Sensing: Makes use of sensors that detect reflected responses from objects that are irradiated from artificially generated energy sources, such as RADAR.

With respect to wavelength regions: Remote Sensing is classified into three types in respect to the wavelength regions: Visible and Reflective Infrared Remote Sensing. Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing. Microwave Remote Sensing.

1.1.3 Bands used in Remote Sensing:

Emission of EMR (Electro-Magnetic Radiation) from gasses is due to atoms and molecules in the glass. Atoms consist of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons, which have discrete energy states. Transition of electrons from one energy state to the other leads to emission of radiation at discrete wavelengths. The resulting spectrum is called line spectrum. Molecules possess rotational and vibrational energy states. Transition between which leads to emission of radiation in a band spectrum. The wavelengths, which are emitted by atoms/molecules, are also the ones, which are absorbed by them. Emission from solids and liquids occurs when they are heated and results in a continuous spectrum. This is called thermal emission and it is an important source of EMR from the viewpoint of Remote Sensing.

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1.1.4

Electro-Magnetic Remote Sensing of Earths Resources process &

Elements:
The following are Major components of Remote Sensing System: Energy Source: Passive System: Sun, Irradiance from earths materials. Active System: Irradiance from artificially generated energy sources such as Radar. Platforms: (Vehicle to carry the sensor) (truck, aircraft, space shuttle, satellite, etc.) Sensors: Device to detect electro-magnetic radiation Camera, Scanner. Detectors: Handling signal data Photographic, Digital, etc. Processing: Handling signal data Photographic, Digital, etc. Institutionalization: Organization for execution at all stages of Remote Sensing technology: International and National organizations, centers, universities, etc.

Remote sensing involves processing of remotely sensed data in digital form using image-processing techniques, which creates a new and wider dimension in analysis and interpretation. Remote sensing enables one to acquire information about an object or phenomena from a distance through detection or measurement of electromagnetic energy coming from the object. The use of remote sensing techniques for the study of natural resources has been found to be of considerable value. The information derived from the remote sensing is compatible with topographic maps of Survey of India on 1:50,000 or 1:25,000 scale. With the use of high-altitude sensor platform, it is now possible to record extensive areas on a single image, which covers a maximum of 34,000 sq. km (185x185km) and minimum of 3600-sq.km area. Thus one can have a synoptic view over large area and also an integrated picture of the landscape. By using the satellite imagery it is possible to conduct surveys in areas, which are difficult to access. Some of the advantages of utilizing remote sensing techniques are given below: Satellite image serves as a permanent record of a landscape at a point of time from which land use changes can be monitored and evaluated.

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Satellite data is cost effective when compared to conventional methods. It can be obtained quickly; its information is accurate, reliable and up to date.

Preparation of thematic layers by using satellite imagery is time saving when compared to conventional method.

Satellite data can be effectively integrated with the conventional data for analysis, planning and decision-making.

1.1.5 Visual Interpretation

The study of land use, land cover has been a focus of interest. Since the early days of aerial photography with the availability of new remote sensing techniques using aircrafts and spacecraft as platforms with a capacity for operating outside the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrums. The limitations of photo interpretation have now been changed to broad spectrum of image interpretation. Success in image interpretation varies with the training and experience of the interpreter, the nature of the objects or phenomena being interpreted and the quality of the image being utilized.

The various aspects of image interpretation are listed below in simpler form:

Detection: Picking out an object or element from photo or image through interpretation techniques. Recognition and Identification: It is a process of classification or trying to distinguish an object by its characteristics or patterns, which are familiar on the image. Analysis: It is resolving or separating a set of object or features having similar set of characterizes. Classification: It is a process of identification of grouping of objective or features resolved in and analysis. Deduction: It is a process where references are drawn about the objects based on direct or indirect evidence of the information or phenomenon under study. Deductions may be firmly

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confirmed by ground checks to avoid misspecification Idealization: It is a process of drawing ideal or standard representation from what is actually identified and interpreted from the image or map.

1.1.6 Basic Elements of Visual Interpretation

The exact characteristics useful for any specific work and the manner in which they are considered depend on the field of application.

Shape: Refers to the general form, configuration, or outline of individual objects. Size and Shape are interrelated.

Size: Size of objects on image must be considered in the context of the image scale.

Pattern: Relates to the spatial arrangements of objects. The repetition of certain general forms or relationships in characteristics of many objects, both natural and constructed.

Tone (or hue): Refers to the relative brightness or color of objects on an image. Different surface objects reflect and emit certain amounts of radiant energy. The true color or false color imagery increase the interpretability by providing a subtle tonal contract between them.

Texture: Is the frequency of tonal change on an image. Texture is produced by an aggregation of unit features that may be too small to be discerned individually on the image, such as tree leaves and leaf shadows. It is a product of their individual shape, size, pattern, shadow and tone. It determines the overall visual "smoothness" or "coarseness" of image features. It is dependent on scale.

Site / Location: Refers to topographic or geographic location and is a particularly important aid in the identification of vegetation types. It also provides the due for identifying objects and understanding their genius.

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Shadow: They are cast due to sun's illumination size, and shape of the objective or sensor vectoring angle. The shape and profile of shadows help in aspect of image in interpretation.

Association: Refers to the occurrence of certain features in relation to them and neighboring features.

Resolution: Depends on many factors, but it always places a practical limit on interpretation because some objects are too small or have too little contrast with their surroundings to be clearly seen on the image.

It is of two types: Spatial

- Direct and distinguish the smallest objective on the Ground

Spectral

- Refers to picture elementary the image of smallest Area resolvable or identifiable on ground

Aspect: It refers to the direction in which a mountain / hill slope faces particularly with reference to possible amounts of sunshine and shadow. Aspects here marked effect on the sitting of vegetation, settlements and cultivation.

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1.2 Geographic Information System (GIS)

GIS is an acronym for Geographic Information Systems. In detail GIS is decision support computer based system for collecting, storing presenting and analyzing spatial information.

An information system, a set of process, executed on raw data, to produce information, which will be useful in decision making. GIS is a general-purpose technology for handling geographic data in digital form, and satisfying the following specific needs, among others.

The ability to preprocess data from large stores into a form suitable for analysis including operation such as reformatting, change of projection, resampling and generalization. Direct support for analysis and modeling such that, form of analysis calibrations of models, forecasting and prediction all handled through instructions to the GIS. Posts processing of results, including such operations are reformatting tabulations, report generation and mapping.

GIS is a convergence of technological fields and traditional disciplines. GIS has been called an "Enabling Technology" because of the potential it offense for the wide variety of disciplines which must deal with spatial. Many related fields of study provide techniques, which make up GIS many of these related fields emphasis data collection and together by emphasizing integrations, modeling and analysis. This GIS often claims to be the science of spatial information.

Spatial data can be efficiently handled using Geographic Information System (GIS), a tool which allows synergism of map data and tabular data. GIS also allows the integration of these data sets for deriving meaningful information and outputting the information derivatives in map format or tabular format.

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Geographical Info System (Geographic) features: The GIS or geographic features are combined from map futures

Point Polygon Line

And attribute (descriptive information)

Map Features

Map features are holding the spatial information of the geographic features, i.e., the spatial location (latitude, longitude and shape points-like churches, post box, wells) line like roads, railway tracks and polygon - blocks of land and playground.

Attribute

Attribute is the characteristics of the map features, and holding the descriptive information about the geographic features. The GIS attributes are represented using colors, textures, and liner or graphic symbols. The actual value of the attributes that has been measured (sampled) and stored in the database is called attribute value.

Entity

An entity is the element in reality and is a phenomenon of interest in reality that is not further subdivided into phenomena of the same kind.

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Objective

An object is the element as it is represented in the database and is a digital representation of all or part of an entity.

Layers

Spatial objects can be grouped into layers also called overlays coverages or themes.

1.2.1 Components of a GIS

Geographical information systems have important components. a) Computer hardware b) Software modules c) The organization aspects

1.2.1. a) The Computer Hardware

The Hardware components of a GIS include - control processing unit (CPU) which is linked to mass storage units such as hard disk drives and tape drives, peripherals such as digitizer or scanner, printer or plotter and visual display unit (VDU) shows the major hardware components of a GIS.

1.2.1. b) GIS Software Modules

The software package for a GIS consists of four basic technical modules.

Data input and verification Data storage and Database Management Data transformation and manipulation Data out put and presentation.

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Data Structures

In GIS the Data Structure are of Raster and Vector Data Structures:

Raster data Structure:

It is the cellular organization of spatial data. consists of an array of grid cells. a) Simple Raster Array b) Hierarchical Raster structures.

The simplest raster data structure

Vector Data Structure:

Vector representation is mainly based on the three main geographical entities, points, lines and polygon.

1.3 Overview of GIS for Environmental Problem Solving

In all of these operations, the typical GIS user now expects to be able to define requirements and interact with the system through a "user friendly", intuitive interface that makes me of such contemporary concepts as graphic icons and desktop metaphors. GIS applications now span a wide range, from sophisticated analysis and modeling of spatial data to simple inventory and management.

GIS has a broadly based community of interest, drawn together by a common concern for the computerized handling of geographic data. It includes established disciplines like surveying, RS, Geocoding and cartography which see GIS as another valuable digital technology with capabilities that increase those of GPS, Image processing, digital

cartography etc. In some sense GIS is the common ground between all these, the broad technology that attempts to integrate data from a no. of acquisition system, and provide it to the user with appropriate analytical tools.

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Geographical reality is enormously complex and it can be represented in digital form in a rich variety of ways. More ever the set of GIS factions is long and growing, as user are found for a greater and greater variety of forms of spatial analysis.

1.4 Advantages of GIS

1) Data consistency can be maintained 2) Data redundancy can be reduced. 3) Multisource data can be extended and integrated. 4) Data update can be easily undertaken and flexible in operation and easy retrieval.

1.5 Integration of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System

Remote sensing data can be readily merged with other sources of geocoded information in GIS. One of the most important benefits of a GIS is the ability to spatially interrelate multiple types of information stemming from a range of sources. This permits the overlapping of several layers of information with the remotely sensed data, and the application of a virtually unlimited number offers of data analysis On the other hand, the data in a GIS might be used to aid in image classification. In the other hand, the land cover data generated by a classification might be used in subsequent guesses and manipulation of the GIS database. Remotely sensed data is almost always processed and stored in master data structures. When working simultaneously with an image processing system and raster geographic information system, it usually easy to move data between them. The most common application of this is the land cover mapping In addition to aerial photographs; it also provides a synoptic view of the surface features

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1.5.1 Role of Remote Sensing and GIS:

Remote sensing and GIS are the modern techniques of terrain analysis and information extraction. They not only ensure faster and easier analysis / interpretation but also help to modify / manipulate the data so as to meet the objective of the study. In civil engineering projects, RS and GIS techniques can become potential and indispensable tools. Various civil engineering application areas include regional planning and site investigation, terrain mapping and analysis, water resources engineering, town planning and urban infrastructure development, transportation network analysis, landslide analysis, etc.

1.6 Use of remote Sensing and GIS in the Project

Implementation of entire project is designed in different phases:

1. Acquisition and derivation of baseline data products. 2. Creation of baseline digital database on GIS platform. 3. Types of data products. 4. Overlay analysis Techniques.

1.6.1 Acquisition and derivation of baseline data products

Toposheets from survey of India. Four toposheets 56 k/6, k/7, k/10, k/11 are acquired from SOI Scale: 1:50000. Satellite data from NRSA, Hyderabad. It is fused Imagery of IRS-IC PAN and IRSID LISS III Imagery. The main objective is to derive the relevant data from different source and analysis of primary data to extract the layered information as required in project.

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Processing of Satellite data for better Resolution and FCC Moderate Resolution Land Satellites
IRS System

The republic of India has success fully launched, and operated several moderate resolution satellite systems. The Indian Remote Sensing (1RS) program has began with the launch of IRS IA in 1988. This system was extended with the launch of an identical follow-on system IRS-IB in 1991.

A second generation of IRS Satellite operation began with the launch of IRS-IC and IRS1D in 1995 and 1997 respectively. These systems are identical in design and earn,- three sensors.

LISS-III with 23 m. Resolution (70 m in the mid-lR band) A panchromatic sensor resolution (5.8m resolution) And wide field sensor resolution (188 m resolution)

Panchromatic Camera (PAN)

The panchromatic camera provides data with a spatial resolution of 5.2-5.8 (at nadir) and a ground swath between 63 Km -70 Km (at nadir). It operates in the 0.50 0.75 microns spectral band. This camera can be steered upto 26 deg (storable upto 398 Km across the track from nadir), which in turn increases the revisit capability to 3 days for most part of the cycle and 7 days in some extreme cases.

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Linear Imaging and Self Scanning Sensor (LISS-III)

The LISS-III sensor provides multi spectral data collected in four bands of the visible, near infra-red (VNIR) and short wave infra-red (SVVIR) REGIONS. While the spectral resolution and swath in the case of visible (two bands) and NIR (one band) regions are between 21.2 m to 23.5 m and 127 Km-141 Km. respectively, they are between 63.6 m to 70.5 m and 133 Km to 148 Km for the data collected in SWIR region.

1.6.2 Creation of Base Line Digital Database on GIS Platform

Scanning a digital image of the map is produced by moving an electronic detector across the map surface. The size of the map area viewed by the detector and scanning should be processed or edited to improve quality and convert the raster to vector after digitization.

Digitizing of all scanned maps using automated digitizing process by AutoCAD It is a process of converting the spatial features on a map into a digital format point line and area features that for a map are converted into x, y coordinates. Thus digitizing is proceeded by capturing series of points and lines.

Editing of the digitized data, detection, and correction of errors in digital data so that is ready for spatial analysis on GIS platform. GIS software used here is Arc, info developed by (ESRI) Redlands, California, USA. It is a vector-based GIS package, capable of handling both spatial and non-spatial data.

Execution of project is done keeping all inputs in view and its implementation.

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1.6.3 Types of Data products obtained

Data types with their relevance in digital database are classified based on source of acquisition and creation for the preparation of Base line digital database, three different types of data are defined. a) Topographical data b) Thematic data. c) Collateral data.

a) Topographical Data

Comprises of all the topographical details available on soil 1:50000 toposheet. The important topographical data layers: Road Network Water bodies Drainage Settlements

b) Thematic Data

It mainly comprises of land use / land cover map. thematic layered data from satellite data are:

The steps involved in deriving

Image Rectification and Registration Geo coding / Geo referring. Image enhancement Image classification / Analysis Ground central points (GCP) Supervised classification Visual analysis of classified output Landuse / Landcover map generation

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A digital color plot output will be developed using all above steps and VIP (visual interpretation techniques) techniques can be applied to prepare land use / land cover map by incorporating the results of field survey.

Satellite data used is fused imagery of IRS-IC PAN and IRS I-D LISS III Imagery.

Software used EASI/PACE: It is a remote sensing software developed by PCI geomatic, Ontario Canada. It is designed for remote sensing, image processing, data

visualization and GIS support. The functional components are:

i) Image works: Image classification and image enhancements.

ii) GCP works: Georeferencing and Image registration, projections and mosaic king.

iii) PCI Models: Analysis, data interchange, image correction, image processing radar analysis PACE packages.

iv) ACE: Advanced cartographic environment is for cartographic functions.

c) Collateral Data:

It consists of water quality maps These maps show the spatial distribution of ground water quality. Software used is 3D analyst of ARC/INFO package.

1.6.4 Overlay Analysis Technique:

It is the common technology of structuring the digital baseline data of the real world.

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1.7 Applications of Remote Sensing and GIS

a) Regional Planning and Site Investigations b) Terrain mapping and analysis c) Water resources engineering d) Town Planning and Urban Infrastructure Development e) Transportation network Analysis f) Landslide Analysis. g) Land use/ Land cover Remote sensing observations provide data on earths natural resources in a spatial format. The remote sensing (RS) data has the advantage of synoptic view and large area coverage. The information required in the field of civil engineering is derived mainly from analysis of image patterns present in the data. These patterns reflect the influence of the type of parent material, geological processes undergone, the climatic, biotic and physiographic environment and mans activity. Thus applications of remote sensing to engineering involve the recognition of basic landforms as indicated by the pattern elements on the image.

Spatial data can be efficiently handled using Geographic Information System (GIS), a tool which allows synergism of map data and tabular data. GIS also allows the integration of these data sets for deriving meaningful information and outputting the information derivatives in map format or tabular format.

a) Regional Planning and Site Investigations

Site investigations in general require topographic and geologic considerations. Remote sensing data permits such an assessment. In case of dam site investigation, information on topography is essential. Geological consideration involves the different soil and rock types and physical properties.

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In selecting river-crossing sites for bridges and pipelines, an important consideration is the stability of slopes leading down to and up from the water crossing. Such slopes include riverbanks, terrace faces and valley wall. History of river erosion and sedimentation would give clues needed for locating the sites where scour is likely to occur. High spatial resolution satellite data with stereo vision capability can facilitate depth perception in the above said investigations and also for regional planning of large commercial airports, harbors, industrial towns and recreational sites. The hydro geological and geomorphologic information along with geological structures derived from satellite data are very useful in sitting the ground water bore holes.

b) Terrain Mapping and Analysis

Assessment of the performance of the terrain for specific developmental activities can be made through terrain evaluation. For this, terrain information can be acquired from RS data and by generating the Digital Terrain Model (DTM). A DTM is an ordered array of numbers representing the spatial distribution of terrain characteristics stored in a computer so as to enable the determination of any quantitative data pertaining to terrain. DTMs facilities investigation of a number of alternative horizontal and vertical alignments of canals, roads, pipelines or corridors for any such applications. In engineering construction like dam, the knowledge of material comprising the terrain is essential for proper planning, location, construction and maintenance of engineering facilities. For computation of hydrograph parameters like peak runoff rate, time of concentration and time to peak, the height and slope information derived from Digital Elevation Model (DEM) are useful.

The information on regional engineering soils is essential for general planning and site evaluation purposes. High spatial resolution satellite data can be analyzed to delineate various landforms, mapping of soil classes of significance to engineering construction, delineation of landforms engineering, soil relationships and grouping of landforms with various physiographic setting or terrain associations.

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Remote sensing based inventory of construction material such as boulders, quarry rock, sand clay mixtures etc., would help to locate suitable sites of construction materials for building up of water resources engineering projects like dams, bridges, etc., across the rivers.

c) Water Resources Engineering

By analyzing multidate RS data, it would be possible to monitor the effects of dam construction. Remotely sensed data of pre and post dam construction can reveal the forest and other land at different water levels. This would also help in preliminary investigation of finding suitable areas for human resettlement.

To study the feasibility of inter basin transfer of surplus flood flows, RS data can be cost effective. In large area reconnaissance studies, various technically feasible and economically viable alternatives in locating surplus flow diversion routes to water deficient basins can be arrived at. Also, reservoir sites to store the surplus flows in these basins could be identified. Such projects of large dimensions require considerations of land use / land cover, soil and geological mapping, terrain evaluation, construction material inventory etc. the latter are derived from satellite remote sensing data of particular resolution depending upon the scale on which such information is required.

The water storage built in through reservoirs, tanks, etc., are often reduced due to sedimentation. Remotely sensed data can be used to monitor the water bodies over time and assess the silting condition. In case of gauged reservoirs of medium to large sizes, RS data can provide an assessment of sediment volume and reduction in the capacity of sediment volume and reduction in the capacity of the reservoir. In case of small water bodies such as tanks, it is possible to come out with a list of problematic tanks with symptoms of heavy siltation and loss of water holding capacity. The condition of tank bunds, fore shore encroachment, etc., also can be analyzed with the help of high spatial resolution RS data.

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Characterization of water bodies in terms of geological, geomorphological, hydro geological, soil and land use / land cover parameters carried out using RS data enables conservation of land and water resources. The RS based input integrated with ground based information through GIS is useful for broad reconnaissance level interpretation of land capability, irrigation suitability, potential land use, water harvesting areas, monitoring the effects of soil and water conservation measures, estimation of run off and sediment yields and monitoring land use change including land degradation.

The commercial areas of irrigation projects are fed by different sources of irrigation like reservoir, tanks, ponds and wells. Assessment of command areas and crops would be highly useful in water release policy or conjunctive use of water in the overall project command area. Satellite data has been advantageously used to obtain such information on surface irrigation projects.

In case of floods, appropriate flood management work has to be executed to reduce the damages and utilize the floodwaters. For this purpose satellite RS provides comprehensive, reliable and timely information (multidate) on flood inundated and drainage congested areas, extent of damage to crops, structure etc., river configuration, silt deposits and vulnerable areas of bank erosion. Flood mapping and damage assessment, using satellite data, is being done in India for more than two decades.

Satellite derived snow cover assessment is being extensively used as an important input in snow melt runoff prediction models to assist in multi purpose reservoir operations. Seasonal snow melt inflow forecasts for Bhakra reservoir in Sutlej basin are being operationally issued every year with the accuracy better than 90% to Bhakra Beas Management Board.

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d) Town Planning And Urban Development

The unprecedented growth of urbanization in India has given rise to problems of housing, sanitation, power, water supply, disposal of effluents and environmental pollution. Systematic mapping and periodic monitoring of urban land use is therefore necessary for proper planning, management and policy making (with the help of RS and GIS optimal master plan for development and management of urban settlements can be prepared).

For sustainable development of urban agglomeration, optimal urban land use plans and resources development models need to be generated by integrating the information on natural resources, demographic and socio economic data in a GIS domain with the currently available satellite data.

e) Transportation Network Analysis

With the help of high spatial resolution data, mapping of road and rail network can be accomplished. This facilitates in deciding optimal routing for transport of construction materials. Even, identification of village roads is possible in certain cases.

f)

Landslide Studies

Landslides are the most common and recurring hazards in mountainous areas causing enormous loss of life and property every year. The parameters that contribute directly or indirectly include litho logy and structure, landform, slope, aspect, relief, vegetation cover, climatic and human activities. Information on these aspects can be collected and integrated for preparing a landslide hazard zone map that can be done through RS and GIS.

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2. LANDUSE / LANDCOVER

2.1 LAND USE

Land use is the human modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as fields, pastures, and settlements. The major effect of land use on land since 1750 has been deforestation of temperate regions . More recent significant effects of land use include urban sprawl, soil erosion, soil degradation, salinization, and desertification. Land-use change, together with use of fossil fuels, are the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide, a dominant greenhouse gas. It has also been defined as "the total of arrangements, activities, and inputs that people undertake in a certain land cover type".

The earth is constantly under observation from dozens of satellites orbiting the earth and collecting image data of the earths surface and environment. Airplanes also provide platforms for remote sensing. Remote sensing is a technique that can be used in a variety of disciplines, but is not a discipline or subject on its own. Remote sensing has various applications. Some fields that use remote sensing agriculture, geology, oceanography, architecture etc.

2.1.1 MUNICIPAL LAND USE

Each designation, known as a parcels zoning, comes with a list of approved uses that can legally operate on the zoned parcel. These are found in a governments ordinances or zoning regulations.

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2.1.2 LANDUSE AND LAND MANAGEMENT

Land use and land management practices have a major impact on natural resources including water, soil, nutrients, plants and animals. Land use information can be used to develop solutions for natural resource management issues such as salinity and water quality. For instance, water bodies in a region that has been deforested or having erosion will have different water quality than those in areas that are forested.

2.1.3 LAND USE PLANNING

Land use planning is the term used for a branch of public policy which encompasses various disciplines which seek to order and regulate the use of land in an efficient and ethical way, thus preventing land use conflicts. Land use planning means the scientific, aesthetic, and orderly disposition of land, resources, facilities and services with a view to securing the physical, economic and social efficiency, health and well-being of urban and rural communities.

At its most basic level land use planning is likely to involve zoning and transport infrastructure planning. In most developed countries, land use planning is an important part of social policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and population as well as to protect the environment.

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Land use planning encompasses the following disciplines:

Architecture Environmental planning Geography Landscape architecture Regional Planning Spatial planning Sustainable Development Transportation Planning Urban design Urban planning Urban Renaissance Urban renewal

Architecture, urban design, urban planning, landscape architecture and urban renewal usually address the selection of physical layout, scale of development, aesthetics, costs of alternatives and selection of building materials and impact upon landscape and species.

Environmental planning, will often address the implications of development and plans upon the environment, for example Strategic Environmental Assessment. At the very local level environmental planning may imply the use of tools to forecast impacts of development decisions, including roadway noise, and pollution, surface runoff and flooding assessments.

Because of the many disciplines and knowledge domains involved, land use planners are increasingly making use of Information Technology, such as Geographic Information Systems, and Spatial Decision Support Systems, to assist with analysis and decision-making.

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2.2 LAND COVER

Land cover is the physical material at the surface of the earth. Land covers include grass, asphalt, trees, bare ground, water, etc. There are two primary methods for capturing information on land cover: field survey and analysis of remotely sensed imagery.

The terms land use and land cover are often used interchangeably, whose meanings are quite distinct. It is important to distinguish this difference and the information that can be ascertained from each source. Land-cover mapping is one of the most important and typical applications of remote sensing data. Land cover corresponds to the physical condition of the ground surface, for example, forest, grassland, etc. while land use reflects human activities such as the use of the land, for ex, industrial zones, residential zones, agricultural fields etc. Land cover refers to the features of land surface which maybe natural, semi-natural, managed or manmade. They are directly observed by a remote sensor.

Land use on the other hand refers to activities on land or classification of land according to how it is used such as, residential, industrial, commercial, agricultural, recreational, urban, rural etc. Not always directly observable inferences about land use can often be made from land cover. A reason for developing and maintain a land cover monitoring study is to provide a consistent view of stock and state of our natural and built resources as they change through time. Land use denotes the human employment of land, so that a change in land use at any location may involve a shift to a different type of use, for instance, from farming to residential or a change in the intensity of use.

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Land cover denotes the physical state of land such as, the quantity and type of surface vegetation, water and earth materials. Generally land cover does not coincide with land use and a land use class is composed of several land covers. For ex, a residential land use class on not only contains built up class but also contains, vegetation class, water class etc. Remote sensing data can provide land cover information rather than land use information. The properties measured with remote sensing techniques relate to land cover, from which land use can be inferred particularly with secondary data or an already known knowledge.

Identifying, delineating and mapping land cover is important for global studies, resource management and planning activities. Identification of land cover establishes the baseline from which monitoring activities can be performed, and provides the ground cover information for baseline thematic maps.

Land use applications include both baseline mapping and subsequent monitoring, since timely information is required to have knowledge on the state of use of the current quantity of land and to identify the land use changes from time to time. This knowledge helps in developing strategies to balance conservations, conflicting uses, and developmental pressures. Issues driving land use studies include the removal or disturbance of productive land, urban encroachment, and depletion of forests.

Land cover / use studies are multi disciplinary in nature and thus the participants involved in such work are numerous and varied, ranging from international wildlife and conservation foundations to governments researchers and forestry companies. Regional government agencies have an operational need for the land cover inventory and land use monitoring, as it is within their mandate to manage the natural resources of their respective regions. In addition to facilitate additional facilities sustainable management of the land, land cover and land use information may be used for planning, monitoring, evaluation of development, industrial activity, or reclamation.

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Changes in land cover are examined by environmental monitoring researchers, conservation authorities and departments of municipal affairs, with interests varying from tax assessments to reconnaissance vegetation mapping. Detention of long term changes in land cover may reveal a response to a shift in local or regional climatic conditions, the basis of terrestrial, global monitoring. Governments are also concerned with the general protection of natural resources and become evolved in publicly sensitive activities involving land use conflicts. The present study was focused on demarcating boundaries of different land use/land cover units from an analysis of different types of colour registrations of land use/land cover units from satellite imagery. Based on visual image interpretation techniques, author divides the study area into forest, Land under cultivation (Cultivated area), Land not suitable for cultivation (Waste Land), Land not available for cultivation classes. Future land-use and land-cover change goals include : (1) Very accurate biomass estimates, thus refining knowledge of carbon storage in vegetation, (2) Understanding regional land-use changes that affect biomass, (3) Quantifying linkages and feedbacks between land-use and land-cover change, climate change forcings, climate change, and other related human and environmental components.

2.3 LAND USE APPLICATIONS

Natural resource management Wildlife habitat protection Rooting and logistics planning for seismic/exploration/ resource extraction activities Baseline mapping for geographic information system(GIS) input Urban expansion/encroachment Damaged delineation (tornadoes, flooding, volcanic, seismic, fire, and terrorist activities) Legal boundaries for tax and property evaluation. Target detection identification of landing strips, roads, clearings, bridges, and land/water interface.

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2.4 LAND USE OR LAND COVER CHANGE

As the population increases and national economies continue to move away from agriculture based systems, cites grow and spread. The Urban sprawl often infringes upon viable agricultural or productive forest land,neither of which can resist nor deflect the overwhelming movement of urbanization.City growth is an indicator of industrialization(development) and generally has a negative impact on the environmental health of a region.

The change in land use from rural to urban is monitored to estimate populations, predict and plan the direction of urban sprawl for developers , and monitor adjacent environmentally sensitive areas or hazards. Temporary refugee settlements and tents can be monitored and population amounts and densities estimated .

In developing countries that often do not have reliable population data bases, interpretation of high-resolution imageries can be used to estimate housing density. By calculating the housing density for representative sample areas with an image, reliable estimates of housing density can be obtained for other similar areas in the image. If information is available on the average house hold size this method can be extended to produce estimates of population density.

High-resolution images have often been used in transportation studies and can be used to identify vehicle types, estimate traffic flows, identify parking problems on city streets, estimate parking lot usage , and even to measure the speed of vehicles on a high way.

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Analyzing agricultural versus urban land use is important for ensuring that development does not encroach on valuable agricultural land, and to likewise to ensure that agriculture is being done on the most appropriate land and does not degrade due to improper adjacent development or infrastructure.

Municipalities can use images to identify building code violations and enforce compliance with permitting procedures. Most municipalities require building for any construction project larger than a small backyard shed. New construction can be identified on an aerial photograph or on a very high resolution satellite image ,and permit records can be checked to verify that a building permit was issued for the project. This type of application requires largescale imagery such as 1:5000.

Remote sensing images have often been used to aid in locating businesses or public facilities such as schools, fire stations or libraries. By specifying a set of criteria that represent desirable locations for the business or public facility, image interpretation can be used to identify sites that satisfy project requirements. In a similar manner, remote sensing images can be used to perform avoidance screening. The objective here is to identify areas wherein there is no scope for development. This could include areas of steep slopes, organic soils, buffer zones around marshes, rivers, shorelines or top of steep slopes, ecologically sensitive areas , conflicting land uses , good agricultural land or gravel deposits ,An experienced interpreter can quickly identify these constant areas on an image.

The key elements for rural to urban land use change in the ability to discriminate between rural uses (farming and pasture forests) and urban use, (residential commercial and recreational). Remote sensing methods can be employed to classify type of land, use over large area in practical, economical and repetitive fashion.The change is usually detected by comparison between multi data images, or sometimes between an old map and updated remote sensing image.

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2.5 URBAN SPRAWL

Rapid urban development and increasing land use changes due to population and economic growth in selected landscapes is being witnessed of late in India and other developing countries. The cities are expanding in all directions resulting in large-scale urban sprawl and changes in urban land use. The spatial pattern of such changes is clearly noticed on the urban fringes or city peripheral rural areas, than in the city centre. In fact, this is reflected in changing urban land use patterns. There is an urgent need to accurately describe land use changes for planning and sustainable management. In the recent times, Remote Sensing and GIS is gaining importance as vital tool in the analysis and integration of spatial-temporal data.

In India, unprecedented population growth coupled with unplanned developmental activities has resulted in urbanization, which lack infrastructure facilities. This also has posed serious implications on the resource base of the region. The urbanization takes place either in radial direction around a well-established city or linearly along the highways. This dispersed development along highways, or surrounding the city and in rural countryside is often referred as sprawl. Some of the causes of the sprawl include population growth, economy and proximity to resources and basic amenities. Patterns of infrastructure initiatives like the construction of roads and service facilities (such as hotels, tea shops, etc.) also often encourage the regional development, which eventually lead to urbanization. Identification and analyses of the patterns of sprawl in advance would help in effective infrastructure planning in urban area. In order to estimate and understand the behavior of such urban sprawls, which is crucial for sound environmental planning and resource management, studies are undertaken.

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The pattern of urban sprawl is identified and modeled using remotely sensed data. This helped in identifying the linear and radial pattern of growth and its rate. The analyses involved were land cover, land use, spatial and temporal changes and urbanization growth pattern recognition in a buffer zone of 4 km wide on either side of the highway. The spatial and temporal analyses techniques such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing are used to analyze and interpret the changes in the study region. The cadastral data comprises of the characteristics of land use / land cover, drainage network, roads and railway network and the administrative boundaries of 1972 from the toposheets of scale 1:50,000. Each character was digitized separately as vector layers. The remote sensing data was classified for land use, based on themes -built up, transportation (road and rail network), water bodies (sea, rivers, streams, etc.), agriculture and barren (uncultivable and waste land). For the change detection, temporal data between 1972 and 1999 (IRS platform) were used. This helped to identify the patterns of the change with respect to time.

The entropy approach was applied for quantifying the urban sprawl. Modeling of the sprawl was done considering both spatial and statistical parameters - land use, built-up, watershed, transportation and population. Sensitivity analysis was carried out considering the causal factors and their growth rates. The population growth rate and population density increase, are based on the demographic data for the period 1951- 2001, which is incorporated in the Decision Support System. The decisions were based on various alternatives arising under a given set of criterion for a given objective. These also help to predict the sprawl in the subsequent years.

Remote sensing and GIS can be used separately or in combination for application in studies of urban sprawl. In the case of a combined application, an efficient, even though more complex approach is the integration of remote sensing data processing, GIS analyses, database manipulation and models into a single analyses system.

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Such an integrated analyses, monitoring and forecasting system based on GIS and database management system technologies requires an understanding of the problem and the application of available technologies. The integration of GIS and remote sensing with the aid of models and additional database management systems (DBMS) is the technically most advanced and applicable approach today.

Remote sensing applications are growing very rapidly with the availability of highresolution data from the state of the art satellites like IRS-1C/1D/P4 and LANDSAT. The advancement in computer hardware and software in the area of remote sensing also enhances the remote sensing applications. IRS-1C/1D/P4 provides data with good spectral resolution (LISS data) and the spatial resolution of 5.6 m in panchromatic mode. The remote sensing satellites with high-resolution sensors and wide coverage capabilities provides data with better resolution, coverage and revisit to meet the growing applications needs. The image processing techniques are also quite effective in identifying the urban growth pattern from the spatial and temporal data captured.

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3. VISHAKHAPATNAM
3.1 Brief profile of city
Visakhapatnam, popularly known as Vizag, is a coastal, port city, often called "The Jewel of the East Coast", situated in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, located on the eastern shore of India, nestled among the hills of the Eastern Ghats and facing the Bay of Bengal to the east. It is the administrative headquarters of Visakhapatnam District and is also home of the Eastern Naval Command of the Indian Navy. It is a fast developing port city. With a population of 15,00,000 in 2001 and a land area of 530 sq.km , Visakhapatnam is the countrys largest city in terms of land and Andhra Pradeshs second largest urban agglomeration in population. On account of rapid industrialization, there has been significant migration into the city.

Visakhapatnam (Vizag) is second largest city of Andhra Pradesh with an area of 550 km. It is primarily an industrial city, apart from being a port city. It is also home to the Eastern Naval Command. The city sometimes goes by its now mostly defunct colonial British name, Waltair. During the colonial era, the city's hub was the Waltair railway station, and that part of the city still is still called Waltair. It is sometimes referred to as the "City of Destiny

The city was originally a small fishing village but due to its natural harbor it developed into a major port. It has experienced rapid industrialization with the growth of major industries, including steel, petroleum refining and fertilizer. With the formation of Greater Visakhapatnam in 2005 the citys development is set for a quantum leap.

Visakhapatnam is home to several state-owned heavy industries, one of the most advanced steel plants and has one of the country's largest ports and its oldest shipyard. It has the only natural harbour on the eastern coast of India.

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3.2 History of the city

This beautiful city is said to have derived its name from the deity 'Visakha' - the God of Valour. The history of the town can be traced back to Ashoka the Great (273-232 B.C.) when this was a small fishing village of the Kalinga empire. Later on this port town successively passed from the Andhra Kings of Vengi to the Pallavas, Cholas and the Gangas. In the 15th century Visakhapatnam became a part of Vijayanagar Empire.

The British took charge of this beautiful land and transformed this into a busy and flourishing port town. Today it has emerged as an important port on the east coast of India. The Vizag port handles the maximum cargo in the country and promises to become one of Asia's major ports.

3.3 Location, Geographical Area & Topography

Vishakapatnam is located on the east coast of India, in 17o42' North latitude and 82o02' East range of hills. Greater Visakhapatnam, once a small fishing village, has evolved into a major port city over the decades. It is also the administrative headquarters of the Visakhapatnam district. The city is located at a distance of 712kms from the state capital of Hyderabad. The city is strategically located midway between Calcutta and Chennai.

The Municipal Corporation of Visakhapatnam, prior to its constitution as Greater Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation in 2005 has a jurisdiction of 111 square kilometers with a population of 9.69lakhs as per the 2001 census while the Visakhapatnam Urban Agglomeration covered approximately 5.3 square kilometers with a population of 13.62lakhs. The government of Andhra Pradesh has reconstituted the Municipal Corporation of Visakhapatnam in the year 2005 by extending the jurisdiction and by merging the adjoining municipality and Panchayats.

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The reconstituted Greater Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation has an area of 515 square kilometers with a population of 14.5 million. Thus the GVMC is representative of the urban agglomeration in terms of area as well as population. The Visakhapatnam Urban Development Authority has a jurisdiction of 1701 square kilometers and covers a population of 22.02lakhs.

Population by Major Geographical Units

Source: census 2001

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Based on topographical conditions, the city and its environs can be divided into four categories viz., Hilly region, Upland tracks, Rolling plains and Plains. The Kailasa and Yarada are the major hill ranges in the city. The Kailasa hill range stretches from Simhachalam to MVP Colony on the north flank of the city.

The city, which appears like a small basin, is surrounded by the Yarada hill popularly known as Dolphins nose (358m) on the side of the Kailasgiri hills on the north, with the Bay of Bengal forming the eastern wall. The coastal line runs from north- east to south west over a distance of six kilometres. On the west there is an extensive tidal basin called Upputeru, now under reclamation. Beyond Yarada there is a valley followed by another range of hills.

3.4 Demography:
Visakhapatnam is currently ranked as the second largest urban agglomeration in Andhra Pradesh. The Greater Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation (GVMC) consists of the Municipal Corporation of Visakhapatnam (MCV), 32- merged Villages and the erstwhile Gajuwaka Municipality. The population of Vizag urban agglomeration increased from 1.05 million in 1991 to 1.32 million in 2001.

The growth of population was more than 80% during 1971-81 and 37.11% during 19912001. Due to formation of GVMC and merger of surrounding villages, several well established urban components of the city are located within the GVMC. The details of population of the Municipal Corporation Visakhapatnam and now functioning as the Greater Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation is given in the following table.

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Population Trends Greater Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation

The Visakhapatnam city is growing faster than any other city in the state over the last two decades. The Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation has grown faster than Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and Hyderabad between the years 1991- 2001. The population density is more than Chennai. A distinctive feature of population growth is that it is taking place both within and outside the core area. Thus, the population growth in Vishakapatnam is quite high as given in Figure 2 and this would necessitate long term planning and significant investments for improved service delivery.

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Decadal population growth in major Urban Cities

A key feature of population growth in Greater Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation is that the people living in surrounding areas, especially from the nearby districts are migrating in search of livelihoods owing to rapid fast growth of industrialisation to the city of Visakhapatnam. Comparative to other surrounding Municipalities of Vijayanagaram, Anakapalli and Bhimunipatnam the decadal population growth in Vishakapatnam City is phenomenal during the year 1991-01 at 75% compared to other surrounding municipalities.

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3.5 Future Growth:

The growth rate of population experienced by VMC during 1991 and 2001 will continue in future though at a lesser rate. The projections indicate that the Greater Visakhapatnam City area would have a population of 16.61 lakhs in 2011 and 20.99 lakhs in 2021.

Population Projections

3.6 Components of Growth:

An analysis of composition of population growth indicates that natural growth contributed about 70 percent while migration contributed 30 percent between the years 19811991. However, the contribution of natural growth has come down significantly in the years 1991-2001 to 47 percent, mainly due to jurisdictional change. The contribution of migration has come down from 30 to 20 percent. This indicates that the urban growth in GVMC will take place even if measures are taken to control migration. Hence long term and strategic planning is necessary to promote equitable economic growth and service delivery. Table 4.4 gives the details on composition of population growth.

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Composition of Growth

3.7 Sex Ratio:

Sex ratio in Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation is 971 in 2001, which is substantially higher than the sex ratio in the year 1991. However, the sex ratio in 2001 is below the state average of 978.

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3.8 Literacy:
Census figures for 1991 & 2001 for Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation and the rest of the state reveal that general literacy and female literacy have improved. Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation leads in literacy in Andhra Pradesh, with 76.60% in 2001. Male literacy in the agglomeration is approximately 83.46%, while female literacy is considerably lower at 69.59%.

Demography: Emerging Issues and Concerns

Visakhapatnam has experienced high growth in population and the same trend is expected to continue over the next two decades. It is projected that by 2021 Visakhapatnam would emerge as one of the major cities in the country. Most of this growth would take place in Greater Visakhapatnam area away from the city core. However, this has serious implications for service delivery both for city core as well as peripheral areas. This calls for integrated planning of Greater Visakhapatnam with a focus on Smart growth.

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3.9 The Activity Pattern

The city has developed itself as a cluster of differentiated zones which could be broadly categorized as follows:

Area wise activities in Visakhapatnam city

The distribution of major activities centers which equally attracts tourists and the local people is polarized more towards the southern part of the core area. The employment potential in the southern part of the core is high for both the skilled and unskilled laborers. The development of land use pattern in the core is integrated directly with the various institutions present in the core; this has created an identity to its markets.

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3.10 City level activities:

Visakhapatnam Port handling a cargo of 44 MT highest by any port in India is located in this zone. Fishing is one of the major activities in Visakhapatnam. The export value of the fishing products in India is in crores of rupees, 70% of which is from Andhra Pradesh and major portion of this is from Visakhapatnam. It is estimated that around 1.5 lakh people depend on fishing activity in Visakhapatnam. The Visakhapatnam coast is always a hub of fishing activity. A fishing harbor exists to facilitate marine fishing. There are 22 fish / prawn processing units in and around the City. Owing to a high degree of industrial concentration, the complementary sectors such as commercial, institutional and services sectors have also developed rapidly.

The total number of commercial establishments in the city is about 20,000 units. The work force engaged in this sector is about 40,000 persons. The major categories of commercial establishments are related to food products (Rice, Tirana, Chicken, Poultry, Hotels, Restaurants and Parlours, Cloth Shops, Electronic and Consumer Products, Construction Materials, Hardware, Automobiles and Personal Services.

The growing population and economy have resulted in the revamping of the real estate prices with prices at some prime locations in the city quadrupling over the past couple of years. Various real estate companies are setting up housing projects in the outskirts of the city which is being touted as the future I.T. destination of the country. Multiple Special Economic Zones(SEZ) have been sanctioned for the city. Reliance, Brandix and HPCL have purchased huge areas in the SEZ for setting up their industries. Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC) plans to set up its second research facility in the country after Trombay in this region. The city was one of the five in the country selected to hold strategic crude reserves for the nation in times of national emergency.

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The important commercial areas in the city are Velampeta, Daba gardens, Suryabagh, Dwarakanagar and Gajuwaka. Similarly the important market in the city is Poorna Market, Kurupam Market, and RTC. & TSR. Complexes. There is notable shift of commercial business district (CBD) from the then hub of the city (now old city) towards North.

3.11 Economy:
From being a tiny hamlet of local fishing communities during the early days of the Indian Independence Struggle and for a few decades later, the city exploded economically; in fact the rise has been so dramatic that the city was identified as one of the ten fastest growing cities in the world economically and demographically. Various factors contributed to the city's growth economically, including the natural harbor, its location between Madras and Calcutta, access to the NH5 (a major National Expressway) and the developed network of railways which metamorphosed the village into a burgeoning industrial city.

The availability of a highly educated workforce allowed the entry of many B.P.O. companies such as HSBC, thus providing the roots for the beginning IT/ITES industry in the city. The city registered over 100% growth in the I.T. sector over the last year, contributing millions of dollars to the economy. The city has around 50 small and medium software and call centre units, of which about 10 units started their operations during the year 2005-07. Software exports from the Visakhapatnam in 2007 were worth Rs. 245 crores - an increase of over 100% over the previous year. Various national and international I.T. and banking giants have set up or will be setting up offices in the city.

The sectors contributing to this tremendous growth in its economy are agriculture and fishing (primary sector), large, medium and small scale industries (secondary sector) and services (tertiary sector) that include trade and commerce, transport, telecommunications, City has experienced rapid industrialization with the onset of major industries viz., Oil Refinery; fertilizer factory, Hindustan Zinc Smelter and Visakhapatnam Steel Plant. Other heavy industries include Hindustan Zinc Limited, Synergies Castings Ltd., Rain Calcining Limited, Coromandel

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Fertilizers, Hindustan Ship Yard and Bharat Heavy Plate and Vessels Limited (B.H.P.V.). These industries provide employment to hundreds of thousands of people and pump billions of dollars into the state's economy. On account of rapid industrialization, there has been tremendous amount of migration into the city. Today the tourism, services and information technology contribute significantly to the economy.

3.11.a Occupational Structure:

According to 2001 census, the work force in Visakhapatnam city is about 3,44,729 of which maximum proportion of workers is found to be in tertiary services which includes services and trade and commerce. The services sector is the largest sector contributing 30 percent of the workforce while a significant and equal proportion of workers are found in three sectors viz. trade and commerce, manufacturing and transport and communications with 13 percent. A significant feature of the occupational structure is that the work force in primary sector constitutes nearly 20 percent of the total workforce. This significant presence is due to the merging of nearby villages and fishing related activities.

Economic Base Occupational Distribution, 2001

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3.11.b Major and Minor Economic generators:

The industrial activities are one of the prime economic activities of the city. The total number of industrial units in the city stood at 1,775.Tthe total investment of this sector is about Rs. 8,021.77 crores, of which about 8,005.32 crores (99.79 per cent) is in large and mediumscale industries alone and the rest is in small-scale industries. The total work force engaged in industrial activities is about 44,275 persons, of which 30,110 per sons (68.01 per cent) are found in large and medium-scale industries and the rest in small-scale industries.

Of the 55 large and medium manufacturing industries, 8 units are in the public sector, 42 in the private sector and 5 in the cooperative sector. Public sector dominates in investment and employment accounting for 85% of the investment and 68% of employment. Major public sector undertakings like Visakhapatnam Steel Plant, National Thermal Power Corporation, Hindustan Petroleum Corporation, Hindustan Zinc, Hindustan Shipyard, Bharat Heavy Plates and Vessels are located in and around the city. Other projects in city periphery are Divi Pharmaceuticals, Thermal Power project of NTPC, Cement plants, Ancillaries of Visakhapatnam Steel Plant, Jindal Petrochemicals and Marine based industries.

There are 23 medium to major ones in the pipeline. These basic Industries themselves have played a decisive role in facilitating the expansion of the private sector industries such as Coramandal Fertilizers, LG Polymers India Pvt. Ltd, Essar Iron Ore Pelletisation Plant, East India Petroleum Limited and Rain Calcining Limited in recent years. The minor industries include manufacturing units of rubber and plastics, coal products, gas and steam units, automobile workshops, beverages, ship breaking units, export processing zone, fishing trawlers, communications, aqua culture units, airport, and port conveyer belt across the city and a host of rail lines connecting the industries for wagon movement.

Around 100,000 workers live in the proximity of the industrial units. The city has one of the oldest industrial estates in the state providing sites and services for establishment of small and medium scale industries. In tune with time, APIIC has developed an Industrial Area of about 1200 acres in five Blocks in Visakhapatnam.

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3.12 Types of areas 3.12.a Commercial Areas:

The work force engaged in this sector is about 40,000 persons. The major categories of commercial establishments are related to food products (Rice, Tirana, Chicken, Poultry, Hotels, Restaurants and Parlours, Cloth Shops, Electronic and Consumer Products, Construction Materials, Hardware, Automobiles and Personal Services. Besides this, the wholesale trading activities also have developed substantially.

The important commercial areas in the city are Velampeta, Dabagardens, Suryabagh, Dwarakanagar and Gajuwaka. Similarly the important market in the city is Poorna Market, Kurupam Market, and RTC & TSR Complexes. There is notable shift of commercial business district (CBD) from the then hub of the city (now old city) towards North.

3.12.b Institutional Areas:

Visakhapatnam is considered a centre for education in Andhra Pradesh. There are several primary, high school and college institutions in the city. Apart from state-run schools for the poor, there are many private institutions, missionary schools and colleges.

The city has all types of services and institutional activities such as Administration, Health, Education, Transport and Communication, Financial and Defence Services. The total institutional and services employment in the city is around 50,000 persons. The major institutions found in the city are: Collectorate, Zillaparishad and Municipal Corporation, King George Hospital, C.D.R. Hospital, Apollo Hospital and Seven-Hills Hospital, Andhra University, GITAM, Port Trust, Railways, R.T.C., Airport, Postal and Telecommunications, Life Insurance and Major Zonal and Regional Offices of various Banks and Corporate Offices and Head Quarters of the Eastern Naval Command in Defence Services.

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3.12.c Residential Areas:

The development of the housing have their roots in the beginning of the settlement the traders communities and descendants of original settlers still have most of their housing intact or on original foot print these are still served by narrow winding lanes. This is prevalent mostly in the southern quadrant of the core area. The maximum new development have happened towards the northern quadrant towards the National Highway where large parcels of vacant land is available and are capable of adopting itself to plotted development. Subsequently in these areas squatter settlements have come- up.

In localities such as the CBM Compound; Waltair Uplands. Dwaraka Nagar; Ram Nagar etc the initial residential plots for single dwelling units have transformed into Apartments owning to huge demand for housing in view of the large number of educational and hospitals in these areas which often pressurize the existing infrastructure.

Some of the educational institutions have mushroomed in and around the Assillemetta area in the residential Apartments adding to the traffic woes. Squatter settlements are seen in the hill slopes; nallas; adjacent to the railway tracks and low lying areas. Demand for new housing is especially difficult to achieve. Alternatives have to be identified to satisfy the ever raising demand and arrest the sky-shooting land prices.

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3.13 Tourism and Recreation:

The town of Vizag is one of the rare towns, where the hills and the sea can be found side by side. Some spectacular views can be seen within the town. Vizag, sandwiched between the promontory called Dolphins nose and the Kailashgiri Hills, is one sea together and that makes for a spectacular view from even within the city. The beaches of Vizag Rama Krishna, Lawsons Bay, Rishikonda and Gangavaram are amongst the best kept secrets of India attract domestic as well as foreign tourist. Rishikonda beach within the zone is a bit far away from the city but has spectacular view. With their vast golden stretches, ringed by the hills of the ghats, they make beautiful wide bays.

Head north up to the Simhachalam hills is simhachalam temple, a 11th Century temple dedicated to Lord Narasimha. Recently, many Buddhist ruins have been discovered in and around Vizag. A more fascinating site to visit is the village of Sankaram, where numerous images of Buddha are seen carved in caves of the hills. Vizag is home to the Eastern Fleet of the Indian Navy and the naval presence has cast its influence over the city. Overlooking the port in all its majesty is the 358 meters high promontory of Dolphins Nose so called because of its uncanny resemblance to the mammal.

The lighthouse atop, which can be visited with permission, is the highest in India. Its beams can be seen far out at the sea and it directs the traffic in the busy shipping lanes of the Bay of Bengal as well as the entrance to Vizag port. Tourism is one of the emerging areas in the city in terms of attracting national and international tourists. The sector also contributes to the increasing employment opportunities. Marketing of local products, Hospitality and transport services, etc. are some of the areas of employment generation in connection with tourism.

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3.14 Traffic and Transportation Current Situation:

The citys importance and ranking in terms of economic development, industrialization, specifically of port activities, steel plant with large scale imports and exports signifies the inter city/ international connectivity of the city through roadways, railways, water ways and road ways. The vast area under the city limits of Greater Visakhapatnam emphasizes the importance of intra city transportation and regular commuting facilities.

Due to the rapid Industrialisation in the last two decades, It is striving to manage the growing transportation requirements. The transportation network in the city area is dominated by three major arteries, one along beachfront, and another along the Northern Hill flank and the third which runs through the city. Visakhapatnam is ideally situated to become the national and international logistics hub. The city is linked through roads, ports and airports to the key economic centres. To leverage this geographic advantage, the city will have to create the link infrastructure required for providing smooth connections and ensure timely completion of ongoing infrastructure projects such as the airport up gradation project and the Gangavaram port project and more particularly in the Greater Visakhapatnam. NH- 5 and NH 43 of the National Highway (NH) network and the State Highways connect the city area to the vast hinterla Around 7.88 % of the total area is covered by roads,

2.13% by railways and 0.85% by the Port authorities. More than 125.77 tones of goods are moved in a year, 76.57% is by rail, 23.4% by road. Public transport comprises buses, which are used by 20% of the total commuters in the city. Only 0.25% of the population use auto rickshaws. The citys transportation requirement is met by the following modes of transport:

Bus transport is the major public transport with modal share of 20% Three seated autos acting as the Para transit contributing to nearly 15% of the transport demand. Private vehicles comprising two and four wheelers.

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Many agencies are involved in supporting and facilitating traffic and transportation mechanism in Visakhapatnam. Provision of road infrastructure is done by GVMC and VUDA will take care of the roads that are to be developed in the outer periphery of the city. The public transport is taken care by APSRTC. The traffic regulation has been the responsibility of the police department. The NHAI, R&B, AP Transco. Etc, are the other agencies that contribute to the facilitation of transport system. No single agency is solely responsible and accountable for traffic and transport management. This is giving rise to functions and spatial and functional fragmentation.

3.14.a Traffic Flows and Travel Demand:

Multi wheeled transport vehicles with heavy cargo plying between the important corridors (steel city, Visakhapatnam port trust, HPCL and other industrial corridors) of the city and the national high ways are contributing to traffic problems and increased accidents. They run between the steel city and the port causing huge environmental degradation. There is an urgent necessity to regularize and streamline the transport cargo so that it does not create problems to the non transport/ commuting traffic. In addition the non transport vehicles specifically private vehicles multiplied during the last decade.

The two wheelers have multiplied by 11.2%, four wheelers by 8.1%. Explosive growth of the surrounding areas and the concentration of substantial economic activity within the GVMC area have resulted in heavy radial flows being pumped into the central core which has limited road capacity leading to traffic bottle necks. In absence of convenient by pass roads, these flows are being funneled through existing travel corridors of GVMC area, thus accentuating the problem.

Peak hour flows on major travel corridors carry heavy and high traffic volumes. The mixed traffic conditions present additional problems in maintaining lane discipline and hence the lane capacities are far less than those observed in car traffic flows. This has resulted in the reduction of average speeds of the vehicles over a period of time. The present average speed is just 15 km per hour and it is still likely to reduce if there is no improvement in the situation.

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Per Capita Trip Rate (PCTR):

The growing population and increase in the spending power of the residents has resulted in greater demand for travel. This is very well indicated by the increasing per-capita trip rate (PCTR) projections shown in Table 4.8. The ever-increasing size of the city is also expected to result in longer trip lengths, which means that the total travel miles will increase faster than the PCTR and the population growth rates.

Per Capita Growth Rate (PCTR)

3.14.b Visakhapatnam Road Network

The city has radial form of road network development. The major road network in the city area extends over a length of 126Km. The total road length is 1007kms. In addition to these major roads, the reaches of three major R & B roads, which are state highways passing through have also been taken up for development In addition to this network, nine new roads have been opened and nine master plan roads have been taken up for widening. The recent growth trend is more in the North / south and west directions of the city.

Two National Highways, NH5 connecting Chennai on south and Kolkata on East, and NH43 connecting Raipur. There are state highways also start from the city and diverge radially connecting several towns and district head quarters within the State in all three directions. The road network of Visakhapatnam is very dense and congested due to narrow carriage ways, high pedestrian traffic and slow moving vehicle concentration. As per the existing land use plan, the area under road and railways is about 6% only and inadequate as a whole with insufficient pedestrians and other road infrastructure.

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3.14.c Vehicular Growth and Composition

As per the Regional Transport Authority statistics, the total number of non transport vehicles registered in Visakhapatnam city is about 2.85 lakhs in the year 2005. Of which about 2.43 lakhs (85.00%) are 2-wheelers, 0.27 lakh motor cars (9.4%), 0.14 lakh 3- wheelers (5.1%), 0.05 lakh (0.18%) buses vehicles. Commensurate with the growth in population, the number of vehicles also grew at a rapid pace within the urban area. The private transportation has also become the preferred mode of transportation in Visakhapatnam like any other cities in India.

The growth of cars/jeeps has grown up at an annual growth rate of 8% and that of two wheelers 10.5% over the last decade. The deficiency in frequency of APSRTC buses and noncoverage of suburban train services is one of the reasons for the growth of private vehicles. Overall, there is an attitudinal shift of people to use private vehicle rather than public transport.

Annual Vehicular composition

All these vehicles are plying on a near static road length of 420 km in GVMC area resulting enormous strain on the road network and leading a situation of endless transportation gridlocks.

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3.14.d Public Transport System

Public Transport System (PTS) in Visakhapatnam is primarily road-based bus transport. PSRTC buses capture about 85% of all the trips made by public transport whereas para transit services hare the balance 15% in commuting passengers. The total share of public transport is less than 20% against the minimum desired 50% share for Visakhapatnam, as per the guidelines issued by the Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India.

Share of Public Transport

Sl No. City with Population in Millions Desired Share of Public 1 2 3 4 5 0.1 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 5.0 5.0 plus 30-40 40 50 50 60 60 - 70 70 85 Desired Share of Public

Aware of this situation, the National Policy of Urban Transport (NUTP) recommends to encourage and support investments in facilities that would meander people away from the use of personal vehicles rather than build facilities that would encourage greater use of personal motor vehicles in order to promote sustainable development of the urban areas. The existing PTS may not be able to keep its present mode share under the current scenario unless pro-active policy changes in favor of public transport are implemented and complementing them with improved the PTS infrastructure. The NUTP document also further states that the Central Government would, therefore, recommend the adoption of measures that restrain the use of motor vehicles through market mechanisms such as higher fuel taxes, higher parking fee, reduced availability of parking space, longer time taken in travelling by personal vehicles vis--vis public transport, etc.

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Bus Transport
Currently, the city division of APSRTC is operating its services in about 17 sectors in between Scindia-Anakapalli, Maddipalem to Kurmannapalem, Old Gajuwaka to Collectors Office, arilova to OHPO, RK Beach to Simhachalam, and OHPO to Madhurwada etc. The total number of assengers travelled in APSRTC services are about 2.9 lakh passengers per day. At present, there are about 600 buses that are operating in the above routes of the city and likely to increase to 850 nos in the next 5 to 10 years. All the buses ply on the same carriageway as that of other private vehicles and thus the level-of-service offered by the bus system is severely limited by the heavily congested road-network.

This manifests in a situation where the bus system is unable to cater to the peak hour passenger demand, resulting in over-crowded buses, longer waiting times and slower speeds. The patronage of buses has remained stable over the years while population is increasing each year. The important reason for this could be deteriorating service especially in the peak hours and a concomitant proliferation of seven seated Para transit modes providing convenient accessibility.

Modal Split

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Para transit
The Para-transit operators, mainly in the form of auto rickshaws (3-seater and 7-seater) have mushroomed in the recent years to capture the peak hour demand and are emerging as unhealthy competitors to the APSRTC buses. A total of 15,000 auto-rickshaws ply on the city roads and cater to an estimated 10% of the 71lakh person trips each day. While a proper integration of Para-transit can actually complement the bus system, this has not happened due to the much unorganized nature of the sector with too many independent owners of auto-rickshaws. The high degree of maneuverability of the auto rickshaws and frequent stopping on the carriageway to serve the passengers has resulted in severe problems to the free flow of road traffic in the city.

3.14.e Traffic and Transport Safety

The transport safety is the important component of traffic and transportation mechanism. About 10% of the accidents were fatal and remaining 90% were injurious. It was observed that about 40% of the accidents occurring in the city involve pedestrians as the victims. This can be attributed to the poor pedestrian facilities in city road network the fatal accidents involving pedestrians were observed to occur during the road crossings.

Number of Accidents in Visakhapatnam

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Number of Accidents in Visakhapatnam

3.14.f Key Issues and Challenges

Streamlining the heavy cargo transport. Institutional accountability Declining Share of Public Transport resulting in traffic menace and environmental degradation. Integration of land use plan and transportation planning. Inadequate Road Infrastructure narrow carriageways, junctions, signage, traffic management, etc. Safety Lack of awareness and non-compliance of the commuters to traffic regulations.

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3.15 Dynamics of land in Visakhapatnam City

Land in Visakhapatnam City and its core has transformed over the decades both in terms of intensity of use and nature of use. In 1700AD Visakhapatnam started as a small fishing settlement near the sea. Until 1900AD the city was primarily based around the Port and hardly expanded to about 3-4kms. Later on in 1950AD with the laying down of Railways and Roads the city started to expansion towards the northern side towards the highway. But after 1960 AD with the setting of steel plant and other industries the city expanded enormously. And by 2006 AD the city has crossed all its natural barriers and new satellite towns have emerged away from the parent city.

Similarly the city core which was near the Harbour has moved towards the new areas in the northern direction towards the highway. Factors contributing to the growth of the city are rapid development of Industrial Commercial and Service activities in the Health Education and Tourism Sectors. In 1884 then fishing cum trading center; Visakhapatnam occupied a tiny 6sqkm area and was home for 30000 people. The area expanded relatively slowly for several decades and was just 11sq.km in 1960- 61 & population 0.18 million. Physical growth and population growth since then is phenomenal: area of GVMC reaching 540sqkm and population 14.5lakhs (2006).

The city core which was near the Harbour has moved towards the new areas in the northern direction towards the highway. With changing times and further growth; the old city core fail to cater to the needs as there is no scope for expansion with natural barriers on its three sides. The new city core has been undergoing rapid growth and change since last 5 years. There is large scarcity of serviced urban land. As a result of which the high rent paying capacity land uses have been replacing the lower.

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The residential single ownership plots have transferred into group housing / Apartments. The land use in the core area has changed from the residential use to commercial use or multiple uses. And the single and double storied buildings have been replaced by high rise. Scarcity of land is aggravated due to huge extents of land under the possession of the Central and State Government public organization such as the Railways Navy Hospitals etc. and the Natural barriers inherit ant to the city.

Many corporate colleges have come up in and around the Assillemetta area. In addition to the increase in the traffic this has increased the land values to the highest in the city and the residential area adjacent to it has transformed from single ownership to group ownership. The educational institutions in this area cater not only the city but also the people from the neighbouring districts and state.

The commercial activities are also very intense in this area. HSBC call centre and the Dutt Island have transformed the Siripuram Junction into a lively place with many food courts Ice-cream parlours and Departmental stores coming up. The new city core has high rise shopping malls and its residential areas have been converted to house offices and commercial establishments and the ownerships have been transformed into group ownerships. And every inch of vacant space has being exploited for the maximum generation of money.

The old city core which used to meet the various needs and requirement; failed to keep in pace with the changing needs of the people due to various reasons such as lack of adequate infrastructure poor maintenance of the available infrastructure and lack of proper financing mechanism for developing infrastructure and last but not the natural barrier inherit ant to the city. Hence the old city core consists mainly of traditional jewellery shops, goldsmith and wholesale shops such as vegetables fruits wholesale dealers of automobile spare parts and small industrial workshops and establishments. But this area could revive its olden charm given proper management of traffic concerns infrastructure facilities and modification of building bye-laws.

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3.16 Delineation of city core:

There are six zones in GVMC area. Of the Six zones of GVMC Zone -1; Zone -V and Zone -VI are Madhurwada area Gajuwaka area and Vepagunta area respectively. These zones are in the out skirts of Visakhapatnam city. For this study purpose only the wards in Visakhapatnam city have been taken i.e.; Wards 1 to 50 which cover the Visakhapatnam city. For each of these 50 wards the Core functions & Non core functions and the open spaces and vacant areas are marked the percentages worked out. Core Functions are those functions and services which cater to the needs of not only the population of the wards but also the neighboring wards and at the city level. Some of the core functions are listed below:

Education: Schools and Colleges;

Health: Hospitals Polyclinics Diagnostics centers Government offices and establishments

Private offices: IT firms and other private establishments;

Commercial: Shopping malls furniture sops jewelry etc

Financial Institutions: Banks and insurance companies.

Shops: Fruits vegetables food grains etc. Electronic goods Bus terminus and bus Depot & Railway station, Travel agencies, Printing press, Hardware, Sanitary etc.

Go downs, Repair shops, Function Halls, Religious Buildings, Automobiles, Paints, Building material, Saw mills; Food grain ware houses and workshops; Petrol bunks Hotels and lodges & Restaurants Slaughter houses Wholesale markets etc.

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For delineation of core area the assumptions have been adopted: 3.16.a Wards Excluded:
50% area: Hills; Reservoirs; Forests Railway tracks and Mechanical sheds Satellite townships Ward No -44 : 95% Industrial Use Percentages based on Plotted area. Open Spaces and Parks Residential Quarters of the Central and State Public Agencies not taken as Core functions

Based on the percentage of area covered under the core functions to total plotted area; the wards are delineated as core or otherwise. Ward Boundary is taken as the basic unit as it would be easier to obtain the corresponding secondary data. The wards with 50% of their area under core functions are included in the core area and below 50% are excluded in the core area.

3.16.b Exceptions:
Ward no-17 although it has area under core functions below 50% (42.43%) is included in the core as it a very potential area with upcoming core functions and moreover to maintaina continuity. Based on the above assumptions there are 11 wards in the Visakhapatnam core area covering an area of 8.4 sqkms.

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Wards in Visakhapatnam Core Area and their extents

3.16.c The major indicators for the core area

1. % of area under core functions 2. % of High rise Buildings (Above 15 mts) 3. % of Mixed and Commercial land use 4. Land Values 5. No. of persons Employed 6. Traffic Flow 7. Population Density 8. % of Open Spaces

Based on the compliance of the core wards to the above indicators; they are arranged according to the descending order in the table.

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3.17 Visakhapatnam core area Core:

3.17.a Perceptions and Expectations

Residents local traders and visitors perceptions form the basis for effective implementation of the core area Redevelopment proposal.

3.17.b Visitors
The core area is the most important destination for the visitors and tourists. Hence emphasis must be given to upgrade the quality of environment in and around the Jagadamba. Redevelopment of the core being our main objective improvement of Jagadamba area from the tourists perspective becomes important. The following are the positive and negative features of the core as observed by them: The main purpose of visit to Jagadamba area being shopping improvement of the retail commercial streets and making them convenient for shopping should be given priority. Jagadamba area ranks first amongst the shopping centers in Visakhapatnam. Therefore it needs to receive priority in terms of improvement of infrastructure amenities and linkages compared to other destinations. Shopping; the food joints; traditional festivals and rituals recreation are the major attractions and hence need to be enhanced. Congestion; vehicular traffic and pollution are the weak points of the area and need to be tackled introducing better traffic management and planning interventions to improve the same.

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Ranking of important destinations in Visakhapatnam

3.17.c Residents
Policy level decision need to incorporate the residents perceptions about their place in order to boost their morale; sense of belonging and civic pride. Likes Dislikes: Most of the people (about 93%) presently residing in the core prefer to stay in the same area. The main reasons for this are the locality and favorable conditions for ancestral business; shopping accessibility; cultural importance and their attachment to the place. The aspects which are disliked by the residents are lack of infrastructure facilities; heavy vehicular traffic and the resulting pollution and congestion. If these issues are addressed in policy level decisions; it will definitely improve the living standards and morale of the residents.

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3.17.d Local shopkeepers and Traders:

Redevelopment of the core area calls for a proposal which is acceptable to all the users. Since local residents and traders form the major portion of the users; their perceptions about the place hold importance. Likes Dislikes Majority of the people; like the core area and hence its maintenance should be given priority. Also; business and shopping are the major attractions of the area and need to be improved by providing convenient shopping atmosphere; which can be achieved by traffic management; Pedestrianisation and by providing sufficient parking facilities. The most disliked aspects of the core are the vehicular traffic; pollution and poor infrastructure especially in terms of roads and sanitation. Road widening needs to be given attention.

3.17.e. Population; Housing and Employment Population

The Core area of Visakhapatnam has a population of nearly 1 Lakh. There was a slight decline in population in 1991 from the year 1981 but since then there has been an increase in the population.

Population of the Visakhapatnam Core Area

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Decadal Population growth Rate (%)

Decadal Population growth Rate (% )Density (PP/Hectare)

The density in the core area is not very high compared to the Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation as there are large extents of land owned by Andhra University; Railways and Military Engineering Service etc which have very low densities.

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3.18 Housing
In the old city core; about 79% residential units are privately owned. These are mostly ancestral houses. Rental housing is about 10%. In the old city core; in some of the houses; apart is given on rented basis and thus serves as the source of income to the owner. Squatter settlements areas observed in the core area: Poorna market; Kurupam market and Chengalraopeta as well as in the Akkeyya palem; Seethammapeta and Saraswati Park areas and form 11% of the total. Majority of the dwelling units fall in the age group of 10-25 years and are in good condition. These houses are seen in the newer areas which do not have any specific character and do not call for special conservation.

About 10% of the units are in the age group of 5-10 years and 19% of units are in the age group of less than 5 years which indicates lot of reconstruction. High proportion of houses is in the age group of 25 - 50 years and above and need to be either repaired or replaced. These old traditional houses are seen in the older areas. These houses have a specific character and need to be conserved. The period of residence varies with the spatial location. It varies from less than 5 years to as high as 50 years and above. The period of residence is long in the old areas like Poorna Market; Daba gardens and short for the newer areas on the periphery of the core area.

Ownership Pattern in Visakhapatnam core area

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Age of Residential buildings in Visakhapatnam core area

3.18.a Commercial Setup

Visakhapatnam core area like any other traditional CBD has a mix of residential; institutional and commercial uses. The activity mix; built character and type of commercial activity vary with the location. Six main locations were identified with reference to road hierarchy.

3.18.b Commercial Establishments

The overall breakup of the age of commercial buildings shows that considerable percentages of the buildings fall in the range of either 25 50 years or less than 5 years. This shows that the old buildings are being demolished and substituted by new ones. For old commercial areas like Poorna market; Saraswati Park areas about 50% buildings are in the age group of 20 60 years or even > 100 years. Rest of them fall in the category of 0 10 years which is indicative of demolition and reconstruction of old ones. This is observed especially as we go to the interiors of the main streets.

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There are different types of commercial buildings. This includes traditional shopping stretches (chowks and bazaars) with residential use on the upper floors; modern shopping cum office complexes; Departmental stores; and Family craft shops with residential units. About 52% of the commercial use is in the form of traditional Bazaar Streets. Overall built up area variation is seen with the change in use. It varies from a minimum of 50sft to a maximum of 5000sqft. Average ranging between 180sqft to 300sqft. On an average employment of 4persons per unit is generated. Frontage varies with the location characteristics of the units but the variation is negligible. It varies from a minimum of 3 ft to a maximum of 48 ft. the average frontage is in the range of 14 15 ft. Land values for the commercial area vary in the range of Rs 3750/- to Rs 18750/- per sq yd.

Commercial setup in Visakhapatnam Core Area

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Age of commercial buildings in the Visakhapatnam Core Area

Existing Parking Facilities in commercial area of the Core.

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3.19 Issues
Heavy vehicular traffic; less parking space and encroachment by informal commercial has lead to severe shortage of parking spaces in the central business area and resulting haphazard onstreet parking making the streets more congested and inconvenient for circulation. The availability and form of parking facility varies with location characteristics of commercial units. Offices are mostly located along the inner main streets and few on the busy streets. Most of the wholesale establishments are in the interiors of the central areas; main bazar streets and the main streets parallel to the central areas. These are particularly concentrated in southwest in the old city core area. Retail shops are mostly along the central spine and main bazaar streets with smaller units along the main streets. At the junctions of the central spine and main bazaar streets predominantly on-street parking is observed. On the central spine some of the stretches are served by basement parking and parking lots; but is very less in proportion. Most of the basements have been converted to commercial units. On street parking is the predominant parking facility in almost all locations on the main bazaar streets. The main street show better proportion of basement parking facilities but is still deficient.

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Employment Characteristics:
Since the proportion of retail commercial and service establishment is high most of the employment comes from that sector. Average employment / unit are 4 persons which mean that most of the establishments are small scale.

Pattern of visitors inflow:

The breakup of tourist origin shows that majority of tourists coming to Visakhapatnam are from within Andhra Pradesh followed by Orissa and West Bengal. The main mode of travel to Visakhapatnam is by train and bus. Most of the tourist visit Visakhapatnam for sightseeing; work purpose; religious purpose and shopping. Maximum numbers of visitors stay between 7- 10 days. Very few visitors opt for a month long stay. More than half of the tourists coming to Visakhapatnam stay with either relatives or friends. Amongst those who go for hotels and guest houses most of them prefer non A.C. rooms attached toilets. Most of the visitors coming to Visakhapatnam use buses and intermediate transportation (auto rickshaws) for moving within the city. Very few prefer to walk.

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Visitors to the commercial Areas:

Most of the visitors to the Visakhapatnam are visitors to the Bazaars as well. This is a main retail market for all types of goods; other than the traditional crafts. Looking across the areas with major commercial establishments; Jagadamba emerges as the major attraction to the local visitors as well as tourists. Also, its important to see which type of commercial use attracts maximum visitors. During the peak season the\ visitors per employee is maximum in retail followed by retail cum wholesale. There is deficit of employees (retail attendants) during peak season. If peak hours and associated visitors inflow is known; it becomes easier to propose appropriate mode of transport and efficient user friendly traffic management system. The peak time and visitors inflow for different commercial areas differs but then the broad range is morning 10- 12noon and evening 6-8 P.M. Also peak hours vary with the type of commercial use. If varies in the range of morning 7-10 and evening 5-6. Visitors to the commercial areas comprise of a mix of locals and tourists. During most of the year the proportion of locals is higher compared to tourists; its only during peak seasons JuneJuly; November- December that the proportion of tourists increases. Compared to the other areas; areas like Jagadamba and Poorna market which have a mix of activities show higher percentages of tourists even in off peak season. The ratio of tourists to local visitors is 40:60. Similarly; retail and wholesale attract good proportion of visitors even in off peak seasons.

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3.20 Physical Environment

At present, Visakhapatnam is the second largest city in Andhra Pradesh, a sprawling industrial city and one of the emerging metropolises. Some of the internal dynamics in terms of its thrust on Industrial development; IT technology; Education and Health Market etc are getting converted into spatial dynamics. And recently the growing pressure for a separate state of Telangana; are the pressures of ever expanding cities.

The race between Economic developments; urban development need to be met; to create appropriate Physical environment. The core has the potential to grow and met the growing needs and requirements. The study focuses to terms of improving important public arcades; improving the quality of life of the residents; increasing means of access to community spaces; commerce freeing it from inundation of traffic.

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Land use Statement:

The predominant land use is Institutional and social facilities. Area under Institutional and social facilities form 35% of the total area. The major institutional areas are the Andhra University; Railways; Eastern Naval Command; K.G. Hospital etc. Residential and partially Mixed land use are found mostly in the Dwaraka Nagar; CBM Compound; Akkeyyapalem; Saraswati Park areas. In the southern part of the core area the residential units are traditional multiple family dwellings and area for each family in less. Recreational places are fewer in number, except for cinema theaters. One park (Dykes tank) which was recently developed around an old neglected tank exists in the core area. Public open spaces are limited. The per capita open space 2.45 per person is just sq mts against the requirement of at least 3 sq mts / person. The beach front and the Kailash Hill Park and Rushikonda & Thotla konda hills cater to the Regional level recreational needs. The small open spaces in the residential layouts cater to neighborhood level open spaces. But there is a huge gap in intermediate level open spaces i.e.; the city level open spaces. Area under commercial all categories is about 18%. The major share is under retail commercial which constitute the traditional bazaars. The wholesale vegetable & fruits and automobile; building material etc are located in the southern part of the core area. The larger commercial establishment and institutions which provide higher employment are located in the northern quadrant. The space under roads is 24%. But the roads in the old core area are lack of adequate width and large parts of the area which are mainly served by narrow lanes.

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There is a need to increase the open spaces and road network area to create a pollution free environment. Underutilized areas under institutions such as the Railways etc can be brought into effective utilization. Locating parking lots; on-street parking facilities etc need to be done. Locating visitors amenities etc to serve the increased on flow of persons to the public spaces.

Land use distribution of Core Area

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Land under Major And Minor Activities.

Land use under various Institutional Categories

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3.21 Built form and Open Spaces Network

The eastern edge is well defined by the Bay of Bengal abutted by the residential apartments and guest houses of various institutions. There is a strong contrast to the beach front 5- storied apartments to the inner old city core with single storied or double storied buildings with shops in the ground floor and residences on the upper floors. Narrow and winding roads in the old city area are in contrast to wide and planned road network in the new core area. The localities in the new city core are mostly planned plotted development neighborhoods. In the recent times have been transformed into apartments? Open spaces are hardly seen in both old and new city core. Few Tot lot in the layout are seen.

Intensity Heights and FSI

In old city core most of the structures are G+1structures or 2-stories high constituting 62% G+5 structures are seen in the new city core abutting the main roads which have mostly new and come into existence in last 10 years. The gross FSI is not high about 1.2 in the old city core and in the new developments it is about 1.5. There is a possibility of increasing area under public open spaces through development controls.

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3.22 The Road Network Hierarchy

In the old city core the major connections have remained and continued as major activity spines in the absence of secondary spines that should have developed over the years to cater to the growth of the city it has more and more pressures on the only one that exists.

The central Spine:

The main Jagadamba road North- South connecting the National Highway and the southern quadrant of the city core is the principal spine of the core. It is a commercial road containing mainly retail activity. The road gets narrower towards the south of the core are. On-street parking and heavy vehicular traffic adds to the problems of the commuters. Traffic on this street needs to be diverted. Secondary spines needs to be developed and areas identified of this stretch for parking lots.

Cross Roads:
These roads define entry and exist to and from neighborhoods or territories into the central activity spine forming secondary activity stretches. The road from the Railway station to Siripuram junction is the longest cross road. It is aligned on a steep gradient. This road connects most of the institutional areas of the core area on its way. This road needs to be widened as it is insufficient to carry the present load of vehicular traffic.

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Peripheral Roads:
Beach road along the beach on the eastern side and the Bowdara road were made to decongest the inner city core from the through traffic. The beach road also serves as a place for recreation with parks and sand beaches etc along the stretch. There scope for further developing it a more beautiful place catering to needs of all.

Major Roads:
These are invariably roads running parallel to the main spine.

Connector Lanes:
These are predominantly links between the blocks internally in a locality.

Dead end streets:

These cater to localized; predominantly pedestrian traffic. These form the oldest part of the network.

The Movement System:

All types of traffic from buses to cycles and pedestrians move in the central spine causing the hustle bustle. 60% of the primary cross roads cannot carry existing traffic.

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3.23 Issues:
Through traffic can be diverted to alternative routes. Inadequate road widths - need widening of critical road stretches. Proliferation of slow moving mixed traffic. Inadequate and haphazard parking Informal sector activity Concentration of pedestrian flow in old city core area. Increasing the accessibility through restructuring the road network.

3.24 Examine the various aspects of Urban Renewal in the context of Core Areas
1) The old city core area (downtown) is blighted and this leads to shifting of the activities to a new location. As a result this area is neglected and starts to decay. Then the area starts to nourish crime and atrocities. Finally this area can no more be left as it is and hence the renewal process is taken up. There are two methods adopted for renewal. All the structures in the area are demolished and the area is cleared and new development takes place as per the approved Master plan. This method is mostly followed in countries abroad. Example: Baltimore. The downtown area is redeveloped retaining the existing structures which are sound and removing dilapidated structures within the existing fabric. Adaptive reuse is incorporated if the use for which the structure was built is obsolete in the new generation. Example: Udaipur palaces as star hotels etc.

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Sketch showing the emerging of new core areas

2) Traditional neighborhoods exist but the kind of activities which used to take place then are different from the present. There is an increase in the population and the existing infrastructure is not able to bear the pressure. And above all is the heritage concerns which have to be safe guarded. Example: The walled city of Ahmedabad where the old factories are present and people commute every day to the city core for employment and other needs. But the infrastructure needs to be improved.

3) The structures and the spaces designed in the earlier days need to be redefined in the present context and the essence of the spaces need to be persevered. Example: The Charminar area of Hyderabad.

4) The city core needs to be redeveloped as the activities and functions performed earlier are no more in use due to technological advancements or the activities are shifted to a new location. And huge extent of land is available for utilization. Example: Mumbai mills lands.

5) The plots / area earmarked for a certain land use or bulk of development undergoes alterations. Example: In most of the Indian cities the residential plots along the major roads undergo change to commercial land use.

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3.25 Identify planning interventions undertaken by various cities

The planning interventions taken up in various cities in India and abroad are: Road systems and Traffic Management. Public transportation Use by Pedestrians Infrastructure Water supply Sewerage and Storm water drainage Electricity and Telecommunications Municipal Services Solid waste Management Fire services Heritage Resources Open Spaces Land development; Development controls and use of Municipal properties Regulating signage and hoarding etc.

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3.26 Land use comparisons

Different categories of land uses of Visakhapatnam; Hyderabad and as per UDPFI guidelines are as following:-

Land use comparison of Visakhapatnam City with Hyderabad and UDPFI guidelines.

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3.26 a) Issues:
Public open spaces are limited. The per capita open space 2.45 per person is just sq mts against the requirement of at least 3sqmts / person. The beach front and the Kailash Hill Park and Rushikonda & Thotlakonda hills cater to the Regional level recreational needs. The small open spaces in the residential layouts cater to neighborhood level open spaces. But there is a huge gap in middle level open spaces i.e.; the city level open spaces.

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4. PROPOSALS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4.1 Approach

The approach to solving the existing problems and formulation of proposals and recommendations is a two way. Firstly the urban sprawl has to be arrested through formulation new development control regulations which encourage high density mixed use construction. Secondly the problems in the core area have to be effectively addressed and developed as more lively and pleasant places. By improving the quality of life of the people in these areas the decay in large urban areas and sprawl effect can be addressed.

The Core Area comprises of three major spatial entities

Public Spaces Private Lands Residential Commercial Connectivity Transport Systems Natural features Hills; Water bodies etc.

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Each of these foundations makes a distinct contribution to the physical setting and layout of the Visakhapatnam city core. Hence the recommendations and policies have been made based on these spatial entities. The recommendations for each of these spatial entities are made by defining the goal which is attempted to be achieved in the particular entity.

Then the contexts in which the recommendations are made are examined. Opportunities and the issues are identified for that particular entity in the given context. Finally the policies formulated based on the goals; context and the opportunities & issues identified for that particular spatial entity.

4.2 General Recommendations for Public Lands:

Goal: Well connected for easy accessibility and effective / efficient utilization of area and creating a good ambience within and the surroundings.

Context: The public spaces such as the Andhra University; Andhra Medical College; Divisional Railway Manager of south- eastern Railways; Eastern Naval Command (H.Q.); King George Hospital; Collectorate; Z.P.;GVMC; VUDA; District sessions court; Mental Hospital; Chest & ID Hospital; Regional Eye Hospital and many other Administrative and Public office located in Visakhapatnam makes it different from any other Metropolitan city. Other than these Administrative and public offices; the city has prominence because of the Port and its allied activities and Industries.

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Presence of industries such as Visakhapatnam Steel Plant(VSP), Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL), National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC), and Export Processing Zone etc and the ship building yard, the Eastern Naval Commands Dockyard has only added to its prominence. The other large industries include Bharat Heavy Plates and Vessels, Hindustan Zinc Smelter, Hindustan Petroleum, Chittivalsa Jute Mills, Andhra Petro Chemicals, Aluflouride, Heritage foods. In the private sector Coromandel Fertilizers, McDowells and other large and medium scale industrial Units have come up.

The most important among them are steel fabrication units, as ancillary to Ship Building Yard, Bharat Heavy Plates and Vessels and latter to the steel plant. Gangavaram port; Fishing Harbour etc. make it important place administratively; industrially & politically. Hence the city has a wide area of influence starting from Vijayawada to Srikakulam and beyond to the neighboring state (Orissa).

4.3 Opportunities and Issues:

The under utilized lands under the Railways; Eastern Naval Command and the Andhra University can be effectively utilized. The Collectorate and the Z.P. locations can be shifted to a new location away from the AMC. Circulation in the area surrounding AMC to be improvised.

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Policies:
Direct land planning efforts to support appropriate development within employment centers, recognizing that a strong economic and industrial base is needed to provide revenue, job opportunities, and sustainable communities. Work to ensure that the development and redevelopment of the Governments employment centers contributes to the stability of surrounding communities.

4.4 General Recommendations for Private Lands:

Goals: Proper Management and regulation of private land so as to make available serviced land to all sections of the people to meet the various needs and improving their standards of living and quality of life.

Context: The private lands are broadly consists of two categories: Residential Areas

Commercial Areas including the Shopping Malls; Showrooms; Departmental Stores; Corporate Colleges; Corporate Hospitals; Star Hotels; Restaurant; IT Institutes etc.

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Visakhapatnam being an urban center in the region attracts people or various concerns economic; commercial; employment; education; health facilities; recreation; entertainment etc. Meeting the residential requirements of people of all sections of the society is a challenging job. And the commercial areas too have to be adequately provided for such wide variety of population for their varied requirements.

4.5 Opportunities and Issues:

Land Pooling and plot amalgamation in the potential areas. Rationalization of DCR Providing housing for the poor migrated population in the lands available. Providing boarding facilities to coming from near villages and areas. Providing proper infrastructure and parks/ greenery etc in the residential localities and their maintenance strategy etc. Encouraging mixed land use patterns. Circulation and Road network improvisation. Space Standards and DCRS.

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Policies

A. Residential Areas

Target resources for the maintenance and upgrading of neighborhood streets, parks, schools, and other facilities. Facilitate the consolidation and redevelopment of abandoned and under used properties for uses that enhance these areas. Enhance and market the positive attributes of the older neighborhoods. Nurture community stability by actively promoting home ownership. Encourage property owners to update existing homes to increase their future marketability. Encourage attractive and well-maintained rental housing. Ensure that the permitted use and density of infill parcels enhances established communities. Preserve or create open space parcels in established communities, particularly those with higher densities. Ensure that community services address community needs and are accessible to residents. Foster civic pride, appreciation for diversity, and community involvement.

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B. Commercial Areas:

Reduce potential land use conflicts between commercial corridors and nearby residential areas. Implement strategies to address common traffic and parking issues in business areas. Promote safe pedestrian access to shopping areas from neighborhoods and between shopping areas. Provide or enhance a sense of identity and place by improving the appearance of commercial corridors. Assist existing businesses with current and future needs. Institute strategies to strengthen the overall well being of the Commercial areas. Promote regulatory mechanisms that improve the Commercial areas. Attract new investment and compatible development. Continue existing relationships, resources, and mechanisms to stimulate quality development, and investigate establishing others. Enhance the physical capacity of the Commercial areas through capital improvements, streetscape enhancements, and infrastructure upgrades.

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4.6 General Recommendations for Connectivity:

Goals:

Well connected Road Network between the public spaces and private lands and the natural features. Treating the roads not only the means of passage but more like a place to be by making it interesting and enjoyable.

Context:

Visakhapatnam being the administrative and industrial center witnesses people coming from different parts of the Region / Country for wide ranging concerns- from job; employment; recreation etc. Hence for an efficient and smooth functioning of the city its public transportation and Road Network should be properly planned.

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4.7 Opportunities and Issues:

Parking spaces in the commercial zones. Traffic movements / Parking in the areas approved for educational institutes. Traffic Management in areas near hospitals; schools. Loading and unloading in markets especially the old town. Pedestrianisation Connectivity to the various tourists and heritage places. Beach Road improvement. Problems due National highway passing through the city. Circulation pattern in the old town. Signage and Hoardings. Street Furniture Informal sector.

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Policies

Target resources to community conservation areas for the maintenance and upgrading of neighborhood streets, alleys, parks, schools, and other facilities. Facilitate the consolidation and redevelopment of abandoned and under used properties for uses that enhance these areas. Enhance and market the positive attributes of the older neighborhoods. Nurture community stability by actively promoting home ownership. Encourage property owners to update existing homes to increase their future marketability. Encourage attractive and well-maintained rental housing. Ensure that the permitted use and density of infill parcels enhances established communities. Preserve or create open space parcels in established communities, particularly those with higher densities. Ensure that community services address community needs and are accessible to residents. Encourage the development of housing for the elderly close to town and community centers. Encourage the accommodation of citizens with disabilities in new housing design. Foster civic pride, appreciation for diversity, and community involvement.

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4.8 General Recommendations for Natural Features:

Goals:
To enhance and protect the natural features- beach front; hills; forests and the water bodies which makes the city a unique place to be and bring the nature close to the people and at the same time sustainable existence and development of both nature and people.

Context:
People come to Visakhapatnam for various concerns- from job; employment; recreation etc and simultaneously go for site seeing. Hence an integration of the recreation spaces with the other spaces is important

Opportunities and Issues:

Beach front development. Protection and development of hills as tourists spots. Regulations Integration of the recreation spaces with the other spaces.

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Policies
Preserve and protect the natural heritage of Visakhapatnam and make the scenic and natural beauty of the place more enjoyable and accessible to people.

4.9 Specific Proposals: Proposals for the improving of the quality of life and accessibility of land are:

Consolidation of Open Spaces

The mandatory open spaces in form of setback and small Totlots in an apartment of 450sqmts which does not serve the purpose need to be addressed. Usually these spaces are laid under with concrete flooring due to reluctance for maintenance of greenery. This leads to serious problems.

Cities turning into concrete jungles; which in turn pollutes our environment. The surface runoff without percolation leads to decrease in water table. It causes floods in large cities due to inadequate infrastructure.

No place for children to play. This leads to playing roads in unsafe conditions. Using setbacks for parking and in turn using the cellar and basement for other uses. Hence the building byelaws and development regulations have to aim at consolidation and meaningful use of these so called open spaces which does not serve the purpose.

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Land Polling and plot amalgamation

Small plots sizes and even smaller setbacks leads to very unhygienic conditions and congestion. Due to insufficient light and ventilation and poor infrastructure facilities and amenities makes life dreadful in the older core areas. And it becomes difficult for the government to provide and maintain the infrastructure to growing cities. Hence it is recommended at the building regulation are modified so as encourage plot amalgamation and land pooling.

The minimum size of the plots may fixed at a 1000 - 1500sqmts so that providing infrastructure can provide at a lesser cost. The valuable land is used economically and efficiently. The urban sprawl is restricted. And providing other services and amenities becomes convenient and economical.

Addressing the traffic and parking problems in the core area:

1) The parking problems in the core areas need to addressed through providing incentives which encourage the following

Encouraging multi level parking Incentive for exclusive parking blocks by a private owner Incentives for provision of parking within the commercial blocks

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2) Other than providing incentives; proper implementation and strict measures to ensure spaces provided for parking to its meaningful use is necessary. 3) Identify spaces for parking in vacant sites. 4) Providing organized space for the informal sectors. 5) Providing efficient public transportation. 6) Discouraging use of private transports in the core areas in peak times. 7) Encouraging pedestrian zones in the core areas. 8) Providing proper time and place for loading and unloading. Of goods in the core areas. 9) Enforcement of codes for hoardings and redundant signage.

Strengthening the secondary spines in the core area and providing parking spaces. Improving the whole sale market at Poorna market area. Shifting RTC Complex from the Asillemetta junction and improving the junction. Development of the old jail Complex area to fulfill dearth of the city level park Encouraging mixed use land uses. Better utilization of the underutilized land under public agencies.

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4.10 Future areas of Research:

Sustainable cities & Tools to Restrict Urban sprawl Sustainable cities & need of Farm lands Core areas & Land management Core areas; causes of decay & Redevelopment Zoning regulation in core areas