EE 336 Lab Report # 2

Linear and Non-Linear Resistance Load Line Analysis

Student Name: Evan M. Norris Lab Partner Name: Siti Nur Aqidah Muhammad Azmi

Performed on September 14, 2010 Submitted on September 21, 2010

Lab Instructor Name: Claudia M. Ehringer de Lucas

Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Daytona Beach, FL 32114

I.

Abstract This lab introduces both linear and non-linear circuit components: a basic resistor, a light bulb, and a light emitting diode (LED). The objective of this lab is to test for the operating point of a non-linear device by carrying out a process of load line analysis. This is done by recording the voltages and currents of an 820 resistor, a light bulb, an 820 resistor with a light bulb, an LED, an 820 resistor with an LED along a specified range of voltages. The process is then repeated using 1 K and 2 K resistors respectively. Voltage and current values obtained are used to plot respective I-V graphs to find the operating point. Actual and theoretical operating point values are then compared. Theoretically, the voltage and current at the operating point obtained from the circuit containing both a non-linear device and a linear device should have the same response to a circuit containing only the non-linear device.

II.

Introduction/Research/Theory Ohms Law states that V = IR. When the I-V graph of this linear relationship is drawn, the gradient gives the value of the reciprocal of R. Thus, the value of R can be obtained. Unlike the resistor that obeys this linear relationship, devices such as the light bulb and the light emitting diode (LED) are examples of non-linear devices.

Figure 1: Light Bulb

Figure 2: Properties

An incandescent light bulb as shown in Figure 1, is a non-linear device because it has a non-linear relationship between voltage and current. This is due to the fact that the resistance of a light bulb being a function of the temperature of the filament.

Figure 4: Different types of LEDs

Figure 3: Polarity

Figure 5: An LED

An LED as shown in Figure 5, is an electric source of light that operates differently from a standard light bulb. It is a two-terminal electronic device that conducts current if a voltage is applied with one polarity, and will not conduct current when the voltage is applied with the opposite polarity. The positive terminal is called the anode and the negative terminal is called the cathode as shown in Figure 3. LEDs have a non-linear relationship between voltage and current which can be expressed as an exponential function. Some advantages of LEDs include its efficiency to produce more light per watt than incandescent bulbs, its small size, and the possibility of emitting different colored lights without the use of filters. Load line analysis is a graphical concept that is used in the analysis of non-linear devices experiencing a direct current. First, a circuit containing the non-linear device is analyzed by varying the source voltage and measuring the corresponding voltage and current readings, which is then plotted on an I-V graph. The non-linear device is then placed in series with the linear device (the resistor), which is then analyzed using KVL, resulting in a load line equation. By Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL): VS = IR + VNLD The load line equation gives a relationship between the source voltage and the voltage across the non-linear device, the voltage across the linear device, and the voltage across the non-linear device at a location that is yet to be determined. By applying two boundary conditions i.e. when the current in the non-linear device is zero and when the voltage across the non-linear device is zero, two sets of current and voltage values are obtained. At boundary condition 1 where I = 0: VNLD = VS At boundary condition 2 where VNLD = 0: I = VS/R Points yielded: (VS, 0) and (0, VS/R)

These two points connected result in the load line, which is then plotted on the I-V graph of the non-linear device. The point of intersection between these two resulting lines is called the operating point, which is the location where the responses from the non-linear device alone are equal to that of the responses from the combination of the linear and nonlinear device. III. Circuit Diagrams and Pictures

Figure 7: Measuring IR Figure 6: Part 1

Figure 8: Part 2

Figure 9: Measuring ILamp

Figure 11: Part 4 Figure 10: Part 3

Figure 12: Part 5 Figure 13: Part 6

Figure 14: Part 7

Figure 15: Question

Figure 16

Figure 17

Figure 18

Figure 19

Figure 20

Figure 21 Figure 22

Figure 23

Figure 24

Figure 25 IV. Lab Description/Procedure

Figure 26

Process of Load Line Analysis Table 1 Repeated Step B 1.

Repeated Step A

Repeated Step C Set up the circuit as shown (GIVEN FIGURE) Measure the actual (OPERATING POINT) Record the value of I and V throughout the circuit. Find the % error between the actual values and the theoretical (OPERATING POINT) values. Change the resistor to a 1 K AND A 2 K and repeat the load line analysis.

1. Solve the circuit as 1. Set up the circuit as shown (GIVEN shown (GIVEN FIGURE) FIGURE) mathematically by 2. Vary the battery voltage applying Kirchoffs (IN SPECIFIED Voltage Law and write RANGE IN the Load Line Equation. SPECIFIED 2. Use this equation to INCREMENTS) and determine two points to measure the develop your load line corresponding values for analysis. Label the two the current and voltage points. of the (ELECTRICAL 3. Plot these points on the COMPONENT) in each I-V curve of the instance. (ELECTRICAL 3. Plot the I-V graph for the COMPONENT) and (ELECTRICAL draw a line between COMPONENT) these points. Find and label the Operating Point i.e. point of intersection.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Part 1: 1. Assemble the circuit as shown in Figure 6. 2. Measure the resistor R1 using the DMM and record its value. 3. Vary the power supply from 0 to +10.0 V in increments of 1 Volt and record the corresponding values of VR and IR in the closed circuit, where VR and IR are the voltage and current values of the resistor respectively). 4. Plot the data as an IR vs. VR graph, where the gradient is equivalent to 1/R. 5. Determine the slope and calculate the resistance. 6. Compare with the measured value and calculate the % error. Part 2: 1. Carry out Repeated Step A from Table 1 2. Electrical component: Light Bulb 3. Given figure: Figure 8. 4. Voltage range: 1 V to 20 V in increments of 1 V. 5. I-V values: ILamp, VLamp Part 3: 1. Carry out Repeated Step B from Table 1 2. Given Figure: Figure 10 3. Label of two points: A and B 4. Label of corresponding point of intersection: Q1 Part 4: 1. Carry out Repeated Step C from Table 1 2. Given Figure: Figure 11 3. Operating Point: Q1 Part 5: 1. Carry out Repeated Step A from Table 1 2. Electrical Component: Light Emitting Diode (LED) 3. Given Figure: Figure 12 4. Voltage range: 0 V to 3.0 V in increments of 0.1 V. 5. I-V values: IDiode, VDiode Part 6: 1. Carry out Repeated Step B from Table 1 2. Given Figure: Figure 13 3. Label of two points: C and D 4. Label of corresponding point of intersection: Q2 Part 7: 1. Carry out Repeated Step C from Table 1 2. Given Figure: Figure 14 3. Operating Point: Q2

V.

Result Analysis R1 = 853 Voltage (V) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Table 2 Vr (V) 0.03 1.16 2.20 3.23 4.19 5.25 6.30 7.29 8.28 9.23 10.2 Table 3 VLamp 1.10 2.16 3.21 4.18 5.25 6.27 7.27 8.25 9.25 10.26 11.25 12.18 13.12 14.11 15.01 15.93 16.80 17.70 18.69 19.75 Ir (mA) 0.02 1.38 2.54 3.70 4.88 6.04 7.19 8.34 9.50 10.6 11.8

Voltage(V) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

ILamp 2.91 4.27 5.47 6.44 7.40 8.25 9.10 9.87 10.62 11.33 12.03 12.66 13.27 13.89 14.41 14.94 15.48 16.02 16.56 17.17

Resistor () 820 1000 2000 VDiode (when it first lights up) = 1.17 V

Table 4 VQ1 10.7 10.6 6.0

IQ1 11.4 10.8 7.42

Voltage (V) 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0

Table 5 VDiode 0.02 0.10 0.21 0.30 0.41 0.51 0.61 0.70 0.81 0.91 1.05 1.13 1.21 1.35 1.44 1.55 1.66 1.77 1.82 1.94 1.99 2.16 2.19 2.35 2.38 2.52 2.58 2.71 2.79 2.87 3.0

IDiode 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.4 5.4 7.9 15.6 20.5 29.2 32.3 38.8 46.5 53.6 61.6 64.6 71.3

Resistor () 820 1000 2000 Part 1 Calculations: From Figure 16: Gradient of graph = 1.151 x 10-3 R1 = 1/Gradient = 869 % error = (869 853/853) x 100% = 1.88% From Figure 17: Gradient of graph = 1.022 x 10-3 R2 = 1/Gradient = 978

Table 6 VQ2 1.90 1.87 1.80

IQ2 2.69 2.37 1.19

% error = (978 1000/1000) x 100% = -2.20% From Figure 18: Gradient of graph = 0.5003 x 10-3 R3 = 1/Gradient = 1998 % error = (1998 2000/2000) x 100% = -0.10% Part 3 Calculations: For R1: By KVL: VS = IR + VNLD At boundary condition 1 where I = 0: VNLD = VS = 20.0 V At boundary condition 2 where VNLD = 0: I = VS/R = 20/820 = 24.4 mA Points yielded: A (20.0, 0) and B (0, 24.4) Q1 obtained from Figure 20 (10.5, 11.5) Comparing values from Table 4 % error in V = (10.5 10.7/10.7) x 100% = -1.87% % error in I = (11.5 11.4/11.5) x 100% = 0.87% For R2: By KVL: VS = IR + VNLD At boundary condition 1 where I = 0: VNLD = VS = 20.0 V At boundary condition 2 where VNLD = 0: I = VS/R = 20/1000 = 20.0 mA

Points yielded: A (20.0, 0) and B (0, 20.0) Q1 obtained from Figure 21 (10.3, 10.7) Comparing values from Table 4 % error in V = (10.3 10.6/10.6) x 100% = -2.8% % error in I = (10.7 10.8/10.8) x 100% = -0.93% For R3: By KVL: VS = IR + VNLD At boundary condition 1 where I = 0: VNLD = VS = 20.0 V At boundary condition 2 where VNLD = 0: I = VS/R = 20/2000 = 10.0 mA Points yielded: A (20.0, 0) and B (0, 10.0) Q1 obtained from Figure 22 (5.2, 7.1) Comparing values from Table 4 % error in V = (5.2 6.0/6.0) x 100% = -13.3% % error in I = (7.1 7.42/7.42) x 100% = -4.31% Part 6 Calculations: For R1: By KVL: VS = IR + VNLD At boundary condition 1 where I = 0: VNLD = VS = 4.0 V At boundary condition 2 where VNLD = 0: I = VS/R = 4/820 = 4.9 mA Points yielded: C (4.0, 0) and D (0, 4.9) Q2 obtained from Figure 24 (1.8, 2.5) Comparing values from Table 6 % error in V = (1.8 1.90/1.90) x 100% = -5.2% % error in I = (2.5 2.69/2.69) x 100% = -7.06% For R2: By KVL: VS = IR + VNLD At boundary condition 1 where I = 0: VNLD = VS = 4.0 V At boundary condition 2 where VNLD = 0: I = VS/R = 4/1000 = 4.0 mA Points yielded: C (4.0, 0) and D (0, 4.0) Q2 obtained from Figure 25 (1.8, 2.0) Comparing values from Table 6

% error in V = (1.8 1.87/1.87) x 100% = -7.00% % error in I = (2.0 2.37/2.37) x 100% = -15.6% For R3: By KVL: VS = IR + VNLD At boundary condition 1 where I = 0: VNLD = VS = 4.0 V At boundary condition 2 where VNLD = 0: I = VS/R = 4/2000 = 2.0 mA Points yielded: C (4.0, 0) and D (0, 2.0) Q2 obtained from Figure 26 (1.7, 1.0) Comparing values from Table 6 % error in V = (1.7 1.80/1.80) x 100% = -5.56% % error in I = (1.0 1.19/1.19) x 100% = -15.9% VI. Discussion and Conclusion 1. Do the characteristic curves of each non linear component agree with the theoretical behavior predicted? Elaborate your answer. Yes. Both curves obtained prove the non-linearity of both devices. The LED curve obtained also followed an exponential function where there is very little increase at the beginning voltages, which then increased exponentially with increase in voltage. The graph obtained from the light bulb, shows that initially there was a great change in temperature as the temperature changed from cool to hot (shown from the steep gradient in Figure 19). As the voltage increased, the change in resistance became smaller because the bulb was reaching a constant temperature. 2. The circuit as shown in Figure 15 contains a non linear element. The voltage across the element (VA) is equal to the current through the element (I) squared. Write KVL and solve for VA. By KVL: (-Vs) + (+IR) + (+VA) = 0 (-12) + I + I2 = 0 I2 + I 12 = 0 (I + 4)(I 3) = 0 Therefore, I = 3. I = -4 is rejected because that will make the value of VA to be equivalent to 16 V, which has a greater voltage than the voltage source. By using voltage divider rule, the voltage across the 1 resistor has a voltage of 3 V across it. Therefore, VA = 9 V

3. What size resistor will result in the current I = 2A? (-Vs) + (+IR) + (+VA) = 0 (-12) + (2R) + (4) = 0 2R = 8 R=4 4. What happens to the voltage drop across the LED if the resistor values were changed and how would it affect the current in the circuit? There would be a greater voltage drop if the resistance in the circuit were increased. This results in a smaller current to pass throughout the circuit. VII. Statement The lab assistant was very helpful with all the questions that students had, but the lab was too long and tedious and was not properly designed to be completed within the allocated time frame.