Elec4240/9240

Power Electronics

Lectures 6 & 7 - Uncontrolled (diode) rectifier circuits

Single-phase center-tapped rectifier The rectifier uses the center-tap of the ac supply as the load current return path. The output voltage waveform has two positive voltage pulses per cycle of ac input (pulse number, p = 2).
Vd = 2Vmax

6.1

Converter voltage drop = one diode drop ( 0.7 - 1.5 V). Hence high efficiency. Peak reverse voltage across each diode = 2Vmax
i1 D1 iL R ip Vmax sint vs vo L

6.2
v

iL

ip
i2

D2

Figure 6.1(a) Figure 6.1(b) A. Output voltage harmonics

The output voltage waveform can be expressed in a Fourier series

vo = ao +
In this case,

( an cos n t + bn sin n t ) n=1,2 ,3,...

6.3

ao =Vd =

V cos ( t )d ( t ) = max
2

2Vmax

6.4
F. Rahman

Lectures 6 & 7 - Diode rectifier circuits

6&7-1

Elec4240/9240

Power Electronics

bn =

Vmax cos ( t ) sin ( n t ) d ( t ) = 0

4Vmax

6.5

and

an =

V cos ( t ) cos ( n t ) d ( t ) = max

2

n = 2,4 ,6 ,...

1 ( 1 + n )( 1 n )
6.6

Hence,

the output voltage waveform can be expressed in a Fourier series as

vo =

2Vmax

4Vmax 4V 4V cos 2 t max cos 4 t max cos 6 t ... 3 15 35

6.7

The first term on the RHS is the DC value. The second term is the dominant output ripple, which in this case is at twice the supply frequency, the third and other terms are the higher order ripples. The amplitudes of these ripples reduce as the harmonic number increases. All ripple components are unwanted. Input Current Harmonics If ripple-free load current in the steady-state is assumed, the input current waveform of the above rectifier may then be indicated as in figure 6.2 for an ideal input transformer. The diodes D1 and D2 carry each half cycle of the load current and input current i p is a squarewave ac waveform. The actual input current waveform includes the transient behaviour of the load in each half cycle (see figure 6.1) and its harmonics are the quite difficult to obtain analytically. With the assumption of perfectly smooth and ripple free load current, which implies an infinitely large load inductance, it is quite straightforward to obtain an analytical expression for the input current harmonics.

Id -Id 0

Figure 6.2

Thus,

ip =

4I d / N

sin t +

4I d / N 4I / N sin ( 3 t ) + d sin ( 5 t ) + ...... 3 5

6&7-2
F. Rahman

Lectures 6 & 7 - Diode rectifier circuits

Elec4240/9240

Power Electronics

n = 1,3,5

4I d / N sin ( n t ) n

6.8

where

bn =

I d
2

cos ( n t ) d ( t ) ; and an = 0

6.9

and N is the transformer turns ratio between primary and secondary windings. The transformer magnetising current has been neglected in this analysis. Note that in the above circuit, the input current waveform ip has zero dc value. The first term, for n = 1, is called the fundamental and the higher order terms are the harmonics, which are unwanted. The harmonic amplitudes reduce as the harmonic number n increases. Single-phase bridge rectifiers (p = 2) Bridge rectifiers (see figure 6.3) do not suffer from the problem of dc magnetisation and low device and transformer utilisation. They also offer higher dc output voltage for a given AC supply voltage, albeit at the cost of lower efficiency, since there are two diode drops between the load voltage and the ac supply voltage.

ip vs

iL D1 D3 Vd N:1 D2 D4 Load

Figure 6.3. A diode bridge rectifier

Lectures 6 & 7 - Diode rectifier circuits

6&7-3

F. Rahman

Elec4240/9240
vo

Power Electronics

iL

ip

Figure 6.4

vs = Vmax sin t
Vd = V sin ( t )d ( t ) = 0 max 1

2Vmax

6.10

where Vmax is the peak of the input AC voltage to the rectifier. Output voltage harmonics The rectifier output voltage contains only even order harmonics. The Fourier coefficients of this voltage are

an =

Vmax cos n td( t ) =

4Vmax

n = 2,4 ,6 ,...

1 ( n 1 )( n + 1 )

6.11

Thus

vo =

2Vmax

4Vmax 4V 4V cos 2 t max cos 4 t max cos 6 t 6.12 3 15 35

Vd

V2

V4

V6

V8

V10

Figure 6.5 Output DC and ripple voltage magnitudes

Lectures 6 & 7 - Diode rectifier circuits

6&7-4

F. Rahman

Elec4240/9240

Power Electronics

Input current harmonics

ip Id /N

Id /N
2
Figure 6.6 As before, assuming ripple-free load current, Fourier analysis of the square-wave input current waveform is given by,

ip =
I Drms =

n =1,3,5.....

4Id / N sin n t n
I Ddc = Id 2
;

6.13

Id

6.14
4I d / N 2 3

I prms =

Id ; N

I 1rms =

4I d / N 2

I 3rms =

and so on.

6.15

I1

I3

I5

I9

I11

Figure 6.7 RMS input current harmonics

Lectures 6 & 7 - Diode rectifier circuits

6&7-5

F. Rahman

Elec4240/9240

Power Electronics

3-phase center-tap diode rectifier (p = 3)

The three-phase center-tap rectifier uses the neutral connection of the supply as the return path for the load.
1 For this circuit, it can be shown that, Vd = 2 / 3

V max
6

sin td( t ) =

3 3Vmax 2

6.16

vcn

c D1 van
D2

van = Vmax sin t 2 vbn = Vmax sin t 3 4 vcn = Vmax sin t 3

n

iL
D3

b vbn

R vo L

Figure 6.8 where Vmax is the peak line-neutral voltage of the supply. The peak reverse voltage (PRV) across each diode = 3Vmax

Lectures 6 & 7 - Diode rectifier circuits

6&7-6

F. Rahman

Elec4240/9240
va va va vb vc

Power Electronics

vo

iL

ia

ib

ic

Figure 6.9 Input current waveform of 3-phase CT rectifier If we assume that the load is highly inductive, the load current can be taken to be smooth and ripple free. In that case, in the steady-state, the diode and the secondary current waveforms (ia ic) can be approximated as flat-topped waveforms of 120 of conduction followed by 240 of non conduction, as indicated in the above traces.

Lectures 6 & 7 - Diode rectifier circuits

6&7-7

F. Rahman

Elec4240/9240

Power Electronics

Note that the secondary windings of the supply transformer carry unidirectional currents, which leads dc magnetisation of the transformer core. This implies that the transformer cores have dc flux, so that for the same ac voltage and hence flux swing, it must have larger core size than is necessary. This problem of dc magnetisation is avoided in the hexa-phase rectifier circuit of figure 6.10. The output voltage waveform of this rectifier has six positive voltage pulses per ac cycle (a 6-pulse rectifier).

v'an Three Phase Ac Supply R Y B v'bn

van

vbn

vo iL

v'cn

vcn Vd Load

V'bn VRY VBR VYB Vcn V'an

Van V'cn Vbn

Figure 6.10 Hexa-phase diode rectifier with delta-connected primary The output dc voltage Vd is given by

Vd =

1 /3

/6
6

Vmax cos td( t ) =

3Vmax

6.17

where Vmax is the peak line-neutral voltage of the supply to the rectifier. Note that the PRV of the diodes is 2Vmax.

Lectures 6 & 7 - Diode rectifier circuits

6&7-8

F. Rahman

Elec4240/9240

Power Electronics

v'bn

van

v'cn

vbn

v'an

vcn

vo

ia iRY

iR

Figure 6.11 Waveforms in a hexa-phase rectifier The hexa-phase rectifier does not utilize the input transformer or the switches better. However, the conduction period for each winding and diode is only 60 per cycle. This is avoided in the rectifier of figure below in which two CT rectifiers operate independently and their output voltages add across an interphase reactor (inductor) which carries half of the load current and supports the potential difference between the two rectifiers.
Lectures 6 & 7 - Diode rectifier circuits

6&7-9

F. Rahman

Elec4240/9240

Power Electronics

v'an iR R Y B iY iB vYB vBR vRY v'bn i'b v'cn i'c i'a

van

ia

Id/2 Inter-phase reactor Id

vbn

ib

vcn

ic Vd Id/2 Load

VYB VRY

VBR

V'bn V'an V'cn

Vcn Van Vbn

Figure 6.12 Hexa-phase rectifier with inter-phase reactor The output voltage waveform is a 6-pulse waveform (i.e., six voltage pulses per cycle of the input ac waveform), the dominant ripple being at six times the supply frequency. The output DC voltage is given by,
Vd = 3Vmax

6.18

Note that each diode and each transformer secondary winding now conducts for 120. The interphase reactor has bi-directional currents, hence it also does not suffer any dc magnetisation.
' Note that iRY = ia ia

6.19 6.20 6.21

and

, iBR = ic ic iR = iRY iBR

Note that the voltage across the reactor is AC, a roughly triangular waveform of amplitude which is 0.5Vmax.

Lectures 6 & 7 - Diode rectifier circuits

6&7-10

F. Rahman

Elec4240/9240

Power Electronics

v'b

va

v'c vo

vb

v'a

vc

vo

v ipr

ia ib ic

i'a i'b i'c

iRY

iYB

iR

Figure 6.13 Waveforms in the hexa-phase rectifier of figure 6.12

6&7-11

Lectures 6 & 7 - Diode rectifier circuits

F. Rahman

Elec4240/9240

Power Electronics

Center -tap rectifiers with higher pulse numbers

12- and 24-pulse rectifiers can be formed by connecting six-pulse rectifier circuits, as shown in figure 6.14, in series or parallel. The circuit of figure 6.14 shows a parallel connected 12-pulse rectifier.

iR

iR1

Id /4

R Y B
n iR2 Id /4 Id / 2

Id /4

Id /2 Vd

Id Load

Id /4 n

Figure 6.14 Connection of two hexa-phase rectifier to form a 12-pulse rectifier One of the input voltage waveforms, van, and the output voltage vo are indicated in the figure 6.15(a). The input primary currents iR1, iR2 for converter groups 1 and 2 respectively, and the total primary input current waveform iR to the transformer are also indicated in figure 6.15(b).

Lectures 6 & 7 - Diode rectifier circuits

6&7-12

F. Rahman

Elec4240/9240

Power Electronics

vo van
van

vO

sec
Figure 6.15(a) Output and input voltage waveforms of a 12-pulse CT rectifier.

iR1

iR2

iR

Figure 6.15(a) Input current waveforms of the 12-pulse, center-tapped diode rectifier. The above waveforms for the 12-pulse rectifier show that the dc output voltage waveform now has much lower ripple and that the input current waveform iR is now more closer to a sinusoid.

Lectures 6 & 7 - Diode rectifier circuits

6&7-13

F. Rahman

Elec4240/9240

Power Electronics

Three-phase bridge rectifier (p = 6)

vo van ia vbn n vcn ib ic D4 D6 D2 D1 D3 D5 Vd L iL R Load

Figure 6.16 A 3-phase bridge rectifier Diodes 1, 3 and 5, whichever has a more positive voltage at its anode, conduct. Similarly, diodes 2, 4 and 6, whichever has a more negative voltage at its cathode, return the load current. With the numbering of diodes as indicated above, the conduction patterns is 12-23-34-45-56-61-12 for a positive voltage sequence a-b-c. For the negative voltage sequence a-c-b, the pattern is 16-65-54-43-32-21-16. When any of the diodes connected with the top (+ve) rail conducts, the potential of the rail is the corresponding AC line voltage. When any of the diodes connected with the bottom (-ve) rail conducts, the potential of the rail is the corresponding AC line voltage. The voltage across the load is the difference between the +ve and the ve rail potentials. Assuming that the load current is continuous (i.e., non zero) at all times, each diode conducts for 120 in each half cycle of the ac waveform, followed by 240 of non conduction. The supply current is bipolar, conducting for 120 in each half cycle, followed by 60 of non conduction. Clearly, there is no dc component in the supply current to the rectifier. The output voltage waveform contains harmonics of order 6, 12, 18, 24 and so on. Assuming ripple-free, smooth load current, the input current harmonics are of orders 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 25, 29, 31 and so on. Form the symmetry of the output voltage waveform,
1 Vd = 2 6

Vmax l l cos td( t ) =

3Vmax

l l

6.22

where Vmax ll is the peak value of the line-line voltage.

Lectures 6 & 7 - Diode rectifier circuits

6&7-14

F. Rahman

Elec4240/9240

Power Electronics

vo

van

vbn

vcn

vo iL

iD 1

ia v an

sec

vo

-/6

/6

Figure 6.17
Lectures 6 & 7 - Diode rectifier circuits

6&7-15

F. Rahman

Elec4240/9240

Power Electronics

12 and 24 pulse bridge rectifier circuits

6-pulse, three-phase bridge rectifier circuits can be connected in series or parallel to obtain rectifier circuits with 12, 24 or higher pulse numbers. The input voltages to each of these 6-pulse rectifier groups must be displaced by 2/6n degrees, where n is the number of 6-pulse rectifiers used to obtain a rectifier of pulse number 6n. The figures below show typical connections for a 12-pulse rectifier. The series connection is preferred for high-voltage applications, while the parallel connection using an interphase reactor is preferable for lower voltage, high current applications.

Id /2 3-phase AC Supply

Id

Id /2

Vd

Load

Figure 6.18 A twelve-pulse rectifier: parallel connection

+

Vd/2
_

Id Vd Load

3-phase AC Supply

Vd/2

Figure 19. A twelve-pulse rectifier: series connection

Lectures 6 & 7 - Diode rectifier circuits

6&7-16

F. Rahman

Elec4240/9240

Power Electronics

The input displacement factor of a diode rectifier

vL i L ip is v N:1 D2 D4 vo

D1

D3 C Vd Load

Figure 6.20. A diode rectifier with LC output filter The filter capacitor at the output, in conjunction with the ac source inductance or filter inductance if any, makes the input current waveform is as indicated in the figure below. vs

vL

iL

is

i1

sec rad

Figure 6.21. Waveforms in the circuit of figure 6.20.

Lectures 6 & 7 - Diode rectifier circuits

6&7-17

F. Rahman

Elec4240/9240

Power Electronics

The source current waveform can be rather peaky if the inductance L is small and the filter capacitor C is large. In many applications, a resistor replaces the filter inductance. It limits the large peak of the input current, while at the same time damping the resonant inrush current when the ac input is first switched on. This resistance is normally shorted by a mechanical relay once the capacitor charges up to a reasonable voltage. Note that the fundamental of the input current now lags the ac input voltage by angle . The input displacement factor is thus cos. The input power factor of the rectifier is given by PF = input power Vs I 1 cos I 1 = = cos input VA Vs I s Is 6.23

= Input Distortion Factor Input Displacement Factor where the input displacement angle is as indicated in figure 6.21.

Rectifier Output Filter

The rectifier output dc voltage is usually filtered to remove some of the ripples, before supplying it to load circuits. L-, RC- and LC filters are usually considered. Inductive filters are normally considered for inductive loads such as, electromagnet coil, motor field supplies and so on. Reduction of audible noise, machine torque and voltage ripple by reducing the ripples in the load currents are is normally concerns behind reducing ripples in load voltage and current. Capacitive filters are normally required to limit the fluctuations in the dc voltage during the period of capacitor discharging to some predefined limit. (Usually to 5% of the nominal value. This factor can be used to determine the required value of the filter capacitance). The resistor may not be used at all in very low power circuits. An LC filter allows both load voltage and current ripples to be reduced. Consider the LC filter circuit shown below where the rectifier is represented by a harmonic voltage source Vn(n), where n is the harmonic order of the rectifier output voltage at the filter terminals.
Lf XL= jnLf Vn(n)

R Cf L

jnCf

Figure 6.22. Harmonic representation of rectifier with LC filter

Lectures 6 & 7 - Diode rectifier circuits

6&7-18

F. Rahman

Elec4240/9240

Power Electronics

For good filtering, the impedance of the load to the n-th harmonic voltage should be large in comparison to the impedance offered by the filter capacitor to this harmonic. Thus,

{R
{R
2

+ ( n L )2 >>

1 n C f

6.24

+ ( n L )2 =

10 n C f

6.25

Using the voltage divider rule, the rms value of the n-th harmonic voltage across the load is Von =
1 n C f

n L f 1 1

( n C f )
Vn

Vn

6.26

( n ) L f C f 1

6.27

Cf can be found from 6.25. If the total ripple in the output, Vac, is specified, then using the Cf, Lf can be found. The total harmonic ripple voltage across the load is Vac =

n = 2,4,6 ,.....

(Von )2

6.28

A typical filter design example: The above computation can be simplified by specifying the performance of the filter to certain dominant (low order) harmonics of the rectifier. Consider the single-phase bridge rectifier in which the dominant output harmonic is of order 2. For this case
V2 = 4Vmax 3 2 2Vmax

6.29 6.30

Vdc =

Vo2 =

1 ( 2 )2 L f C f 1

V2

6.31

Lectures 6 & 7 - Diode rectifier circuits

6&7-19

F. Rahman

Elec4240/9240

Power Electronics 10 { R 2 + ( 2L )2 } = 2C f

From (6.25), Thus C f =

6.32 6.33

4f

{R

10
2

+ ( 2L )

}
= RF Vdc

Neglecting all higher order terms except the dominant (2nd order) ripple,
Vac = Vo2 = 4Vmax 3 2( 2 )2 L f C f 1

6.34

If the ripple factor RF is specified, and Cf has already been found from (6,32), Lf can be then be found from (6.34).

Rectifier Regulation Characteristic because of the LC filter

The filter inductance introduces a voltage regulation characteristic to the rectifier as shown in figure 6.23. When the load is an open circuit, i.e. with no load, the rectifier output voltage, or the capacitor voltage, is at the peak of the ac supply voltage to the rectifier. The inductor current is then zero at all times. As load current is drawn, the capacitor discharges into the load and the inductor current starts to increase. After the load current exceeds a certain value, the inductor current will become continuous. Thereafter, the mean capacitor voltage will not drop with load current. Before the onset of continuous conduction, the mean capacitor voltage drops significantly with load. The drop in the mean capacitor voltage with load dc current can be found as described below. Let us assume that Cf is sufficiently large so that the output voltage is ripple-free. We also assume that the diode currents fall to zero before the anode voltages become positive. In other words, discontinuous conduction is assumed. The angle at which conduction begins is then

b = sin 1

Vd Vmax

6.35

The voltage across the filter inductance is then

vL = Vmax sin t Vd = L f
i= 1 Lf

di dt

6.36

[Vmax sin t Vd ]d( t )

6.37

At t = , i = 0, which allows us to find . Once is found, we can determine the mean inductor current, Id, for the Vd chosen. These then define two points on the
Lectures 6 & 7 - Diode rectifier circuits

6&7-20

F. Rahman

Elec4240/9240

Power Electronics

VdId characteristic. By repeating the above procedure for a number of load dc voltages, Vd, the complete regulation characteristic of a rectifier-filter circuit can be found. The above analysis is approximate in assuming that the capacitor voltage remains constant. It also assumes no source inductance, which causes additional output voltage drop. Note that at light load, Vd is close to the peak of the input AC voltage and the filter inductor current is discontinuous. Note also that with discontinuous inductor current, Vd falls more with increase with load current (poor voltage regulation). When load current becomes continuous, Vd does not fall with load current (ideal rectifier behaviour). This is possible only if the source inductance is negligible.
Lf

Cf

Vd

vo

Vd

Id

iL

t
2Vl-l
Vd 1.35Vl-l
Discontinuous conduction Continuous conduction

Id
Figure 6.23 Rectifier voltage regulation with LC filter
Lectures 6 & 7 - Diode rectifier circuits

6&7-21

F. Rahman