E and V study guide (final)

Lava

Magma- molten hot liquid found beneath the earths surface Lava-magma that has reached the surface Viscosity- Low viscosity is thin, creates volcanoes with gentle slopes, High viscosity produces steep volcanoes. Pahoehoe- Hawaiin, on which one can walk, smooth ropy surface (like toothpaste), erupts at ~1100-1200 degrees Celsius higher than aa lava, faster flows due to the low viscosity, thinner, flows faster, traps less gas. Aa- Aa lava (blocky lava), stony with rough lava, rough and rubbly surface. Erupts at 1000-1100 degress (lower than pahoehoe lava), higher viscosity than pahoehoe lava: thicker, flows slower, traps more gas (lots of vesicles) Columnar joints- intrusive dike like features that vertically intrude in existing rock beds. Pillow basalts- These form when lava is erupted into water. They are pillow basalt in outcrop.

Why volcanoes erupt and why some eruptions are more violen than others Built up pressure from underground magma chambers Silica rich magma can cool underground due to its high viscosity, when this type of magma does reach the surface there tends to be a violent eruption because the high viscous magma traps in gases that builds up pressure

Volcanic types and features: Shield volcanoes- Gentle slopes between 2 and 10, basaltic and slow flowing magma 10 km high, 1,000 km wide. Composite volcanoes- slopes of 33 degrees or less, considerably larger than cinder cones. 1,000-4,000 meters. Violent explosions of volcanic ash as well as slower lava flows (Tuff, andesite, pumice). Cinder cones slopes greater than 33 degrees. Smallest of the three types. <500 meters. Small eruptions with lots of falling rock fragments (basalt scoria.) Craters-circular depression caused by volcanic activity.

Calderas- developing magma upper chamber, magma chamber grow it bulges the rock above, explosive eruption of pyroclastic flow, at the resurgance point it forms a caldera and dome. Geysers Mud pots-acidic hot spring with limited water. Lava tubes

Pyrcoclastic deposits Pyroclastic fall- material hurdled through the air by a volcano o Ash- dust or sand-sized particles <2mm o Lapilli- gravel sized particles (2-64 mm) o Bombs- cobble or boulder (>64 mm) Pyroclastic flow- mixtures of hot gas and pulverized rock that flow down the slopes of the volcano at high speeds under the influence of gravity. Speeds as great as 700 km/hr. temperatures as high as 1,000 degrees. Pyroclastic surge- high speed pyroclastic flows. Very high proportion of gas to rock. More turbulent and able to travel further. Volcanic breccia- Volcanic rock with angular fragments in a fine-grained matrix. Matrix can be ash or lava. Can be formed by four processes: 1) Movement of solidifying lava. 2) Pyroclastic fall (tuff breccia) 3) Pyroclastic flow (ignimbrite) 4) Reworking of volcanic material by landslides, mudflows (lahars), etc Ignimbrite- Type of volcanic breccia formed by a pyroclastic flow or uee ardante- Poorly sorted mixture of ash, pumice, fragmented crystals and/or volcanic glass that has been welded or hardened by high temperatures. Nuee ardante- very hot pyroclastic flows that glow red in the dark. Lahar- volcanic mudflow Famous volcanoes Vesuvias- Famous for burying Pompeii. Italy, (Last eruption 79 AD.) Kilaueea- active shield volcano. Hawaii, (1983-present) Mt. Pelee- worst volcanic disaster of the 20th century. Pyroclastic flows killed 30,000 people. Caribbean, (last eruption 1902). Mt. St. Helens- active stratovolcano, famous 1980 eruption. (Orgeon). Mt. Pinatubo- stratovolcano, largest volcanic eruption in history. Phillipines (last eruption 1991.) Yellowstone- Continental hotspot, produced the snake river. Wyoming, last eruption (1.3 million years ago.) Krakatoa- explosion heard 2,000 miles away. Massive tsunami killed 36,000 people. Sumatra, (1883).

Tambora- largest volcanic eruption in history, produced year without summer. Indonesia (1815). Black rock desert of utah- youngest basalt flow in Utah, filmore (1350 a.d.)

Methods for predicting volcanic eruptions Seismic monitoring (earthquakes) Ground deformation Magma composition Heat flow Magnetic field

How ocean basins develop Stages of ocean development 1. rift system 2. seaway 3. proto-ocean 4. ocean Wilson Cycle

1. continent rifts as it breaks up 2. as spreading continues and ocean opens, passive margin cools and sediments accumulate 3. convergence begins; an oceanic plate subducts; creating a volcanic chain at an active margin. 4. Terraine accretion from the sedimentary wedge welds material to the continent 5. As two continents collide orogeny thickens the crust and builds mountains 6. The continent erodes, thinning the crust 7. Goes back to the top Oceanic volcanic features White smoke=silica richj Black smoke=basaltic and iron rich

Ophiolite sequence

Deep sea sediment Basaltic pillow lavas Sheeted dike complex Gabbro/layered gabbro Peridotite (upper mantle)

5 4 3 2 1

Classic volcanic locations Cascades- range of mountains in north America Yellowstone- consistent run of geysers. Hawaii- around the plate which creates areas of active volcanism. Iceland- a high amount of active volcanoes, around the mid-atlantic ridge. ring of fire- range of hot spots which create active volcanoes. These occur in the basin of the pacific ocean. mid-atlatnic ridge- largest underwater moutain range. Rock deformation Three types of stress o Compression- grows larger vertically and smaller horizontal. o Tension (extension)- grows larger horizontally and smaller vertically. o Shear- causes displacements along stressful fault zones. Two types of deformation o Brittle deformation: object deforms a little then breaks o Ductile deformation: size and shape change without fracturing (slow flow.) How rocks deform Pressure temperature Type of rock o Crystalline rocks: composed of crystals with strong internal bonds tend to undergo brittle deformation. o Weakly cemented igneous and metamorphic: these undergo ductile flow.

Fault of fold terminology: o Folds- 2 types found below o anticline (frowny face,) which has oldest rock in the middle o syncline, (smiley face) which has the youngest rock in the middle

Fault- A fracture (or crack) in Earths crust where one side has been displaced relative to the other. Strike-sideways movement, dip, lateral movement upwards or downwards. Dip slip faults (up and down movement) Reverse fault- hanging wall moves upward relative to the foot wall. Associated with compressive forces. Normal fault-hanging wall moves down relative to the foot wall. Associated with tensional forces. Strike slip fault (mostly sideways)- associated with shearing forces. Moving along strike rather than dip. Horst- the uplift of a fault Graben- the downwsard valley of a fault

Causes of earthquakesEarthquake- shaking of ground caused by the sudden release of energy. o Elastic rebound theory o Original and unstressed position o Buildup of strain o Slippage (once the ruler breaks) o Strain released Wave measurements o Amplitude- height of the peak or trough of a wave. o Wavelength- distance between successive crests or troughs. o Frequency- number of whole waves that passed by a fixed point over a period of time. Earthquake terminology o Fault rupture surfaceo Focus- point at depth where fault starts to rupture. The rupture then spreads from the focus.

o Epicenter- point at earths focus directly above the focus. o Fault scarps- area of uplift where there were previously divides in the earth. Properties of seismic waveso S-second waves to arrive (body wave). Rock particles vibrate perpendicular to wave movement. Travels only through solids. Medium (3-5 km/sec). somewhat higher amplitude and lower frequency. o P-first waves to arrive (body wave). Rocks vibrate parallel to wave movement. Travels through liquids and solids. Fast (5-7 km/sec). low amplitude, high frequency. o Rayleigh waves- surface ripples (surface wave). Undulating ripples at ground surface. Rock particles move in circular paths. o Love waves- horizontal shearing (surface wave). Lateral back and forth motion at the surface. Particles vibrate perpendicular to wave direction. Very destructive. Global earthquake distribution- shallow, intermediate, and deep focus earthquakes. Divergent creates shallow earthquakes, and convergent can create intermediate as well as deep focus earthquakes. Intensity- based on subjective feeling of the earthquakes by individuals. Richter scale- based on the amplitude of the largest wave. Moment magnitude- based on a combination of measurements including rupture area, slip amount, and the elasticity of faulted rock. Earthquake hazards1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. falling objects building collapse- food frame can absorb movement. damaged infrastructure surface rupture fires amplification

The intensity of an earthquake (strength of ground shaking at a specified location) is related to three different factors: Magnitude of the earthquake. Distance from the earthquake source. Intensity generally decreases moving farther away from the earthquake focus. Type of sediment and soil that underlies structures. The intensity of shaking is influenced by the type of material that underlies an area: Deep deposits of soft, clay-rich sediment tend to amplify low frequency seismic waves. Shallow, firm soil tends to amplify higher-frequency seismic waves Shaking is generally less intense and more predictable in areas underlain by solid rock.

7. liquefaction 8. landslides 9. exposure, hunger, disease 10. tsunami

Before an Earthquake: Prepare

etc.)
Know where to shut off electricity, water, gas, etc. in your house. Secure bookshelves and other loose items within your home. Realize that earthquake insurance is not included in most

homeowners policies.

What To Do in an Earthquake
After the Earthquake Check for injuries and administer first aid. Get away from unstable structures. Be aware of the potential for aftershocks (or tsunamis in low-lying

areas). Check for damage causing dangerous conditions (fire, gas leaks, utility lines, damaged wiring, damaged masonry, etc). Shut off water or utilities if needed. If house is unsafe move to a shelter. What causes a tsunami o generation-earthquake vertically jolts seabed, lifting it several meters. Large waves begin moving through the ocean, away from the epicenter. o Propogation- transports seismic energy away from the source of the earthquake. o Inundation- flooding of current capacity. Higher wave length with shorter frequency lets the wave build upon itself. Frequency of earthquakes in utah 6 1 every 50 years 5 1 every 10 years 4 1 every 2 years 3 3 per year.

Famous earthquakes Lisbon-1955, 9, collapse, fire, and tsunami, 90,000 killed. San Francisco- 1906, 7.9, destroyed part of the city, 500 killed. Hansel valley- 1934, 6.6, largest earthquake ever. Valdevia, chile- 1960, 9.5, most powerful earthquake ever recorded. 5,000 plus killed. o Alaska- 1694, 9.2, most powerful earthquake ever recorded in the u.s.131 killed. o Indian ocean- 2004, 9.1-9.3, tsunami up to 125 feet high. 10,000+. o o o o

Internal structure of the earth:

Waves may also change direction as they move through different types of rock:
Reflection: wave bounces back from a boundary between two rocks

having different densities. Refraction: wave bends (curves) as it passes through rocks having different densities. Diffraction: wave bends (curves) as it goes around an obstacle it cannot pass through.