Fan Engineering Fundamentals

Part 1 (Air in Motion)

A fan is a power driven rotary machine which causes a continuous flow of air. A fan has a rotating bladed impeller. The blades exert force on air, raising its pressure and maintaining a continuous flow. Since the primary function of the fan is to provide a continuous flow of air, this first article will be devoted to an understanding of air in motion. In HVAC applications, air is moved from one place to another in a system of ducts which may contain other system elements such as filters, coils, dampers and diffusers. Air moving inside a ducted system has a certain amount of pressure associated with it. This pressure can be divided into two types Static and Velocity. Static Pressure Consider the cylinder / piston arrangement shown in Figure 1. A water filled U-tube manometer is connected to the cylinder wall through a small tapping to measure the pressure inside. This series of articles by Sushil Choudhury covers the fundamentals of fan engineering. The articles will serve as a source of reference for newcomers joining the industry as well as for experienced engineers wishing to brush up on fundamentals. pressure can thus be defined as the difference between the absolute pressure at a point of consideration and the atmospheric pressure. The normal atmospheric pressure, as we all know, is 750 mm of mercury or about 10,333 mm of water column. In normal HVAC applications, the gauge pressures encountered are rarely above 200 mm of water column. This means that the air is rarely pressurized by more than 2%. In such situations, it is quite reasonable to treat air as an incompressible fluid. This assumption is very important and makes life easy in HVAC design calculations. Both stationary and moving air may exhibit positive and negative static pressure. Figure 2 shows a fan with a duct connected both at its inlet and outlet and supplying fresh air to an enclosure. The static pressure on the inlet side is ve whereas on the outlet side it is +ve. Static pressure in the example considered is the pressure exerted by the moving air on the walls of the

Figure 1 : Static pressure.

Figure 1(a) shows the situation where the piston position is such that the pressure inside the chamber is the same as the barometric pressure of the surrounding atmosphere above the piston. This is indicated by the equal height of water levels in the two columns of the manometer. Now if the piston is pushed slightly down, we get the situation depicted in Figure 1(b). The pressure of air inside the chamber rises and the amount of rise is indicated as the difference in the water levels in the manometer (Ps mm). Here is a situation when we say that the air inside the chamber has a positive static pressure equal to Ps mm of water column. In Figure 1(c), the piston has been moved up from its original position shown in Figure 1(a) and now the pressure inside the chamber is below the surrounding atmosphere and we say that the air inside the chamber has a negative static pressure. Static pressure by definition is a relative term. It is always measured relative to the surrounding atmosphere. This relative pressure is called gauge pressure. Static

Figure 2 : A fan supplying fresh air to an enclosed space (ducted inlet, ducted outlet installation).

About the Author

Sushil K. Choudhury is a qualified engineer with over 15 years experience in the design, development and manufacture of fans. He obtained a bachelor's degree in electrical engineering in 1972 from Birla Institute of Technology & Science, Pilani and then moved to Canada. After obtaining a master's degree in electrical engineering in 1974 from the University of New Brunswick and then a master's in management science in 1977 from the University of Toronto, he worked in Canada for about 10 years in the areas of energy conservation and fan application engineering for space heating applications. He returned to India in 1987 and founded Blowtech. In addition to the overall management of the company, his special interests lie in the design, development and testing of fans. He is a member of both ASHRAE and ISHRAE and is the president-elect of the Delhi Chapter of ISHRAE. He can be contacted at [email protected] or on 0120-2529636.
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duct. This pressure is created in all directions at once and is normally measured by a manometer connected to a small tapping in the duct wall. Air tends to leak into a duct having ve static pressure and leak out of a duct having +ve static pressure. Velocity Pressure Air moving at an average velocity of V m/s and having a density 'r' kg/m3 has a pressure component which is purely due to its motion. This is called velocity pressure (or dynamic pressure) and is defined as Pv = r V2 Pascals. Pv is always positive and is exerted in the direction of flow. The density 'r' of standard air is 1.2 kg/m3. When air flows in a straight round duct of constant diameter, the velocity profile is as shown in Figure 3. Due to friction with duct walls, the velocity is 0 at duct walls and maximum near the centre line of the duct. To calculate

Figure 3 : Velocity profile of air moving in a round duct.

average velocity V in the duct, an instrument called a pitot tube is used. This tube is traversed along the entire cross-section of the duct, velocity at each point measured and an average taken. From this average velocity, one can determine the velocity pressure as well as the air flow in a duct with cross-sectional area of A m2 i.e. Air flow Q in m3/s = V (m/s) A (m2) Total Pressure Total Pressure (Pt) at any point in the air-stream is defined as the sum of static pressure and velocity pressure i.e. Pt = Ps + Pv Now remember that Pv is always +ve but Ps may be +ve or ve. Thus, in the example shown in Figure 2. Pt1 (inlet) = (Ps1) + Pv Pt2 (outlet) = (+Ps2)+ Pv Example Let us put some values in the system shown in Figure 2 to demonstrate the concept of pressure. Assume that the duct is round with an inside diameter (D) of 500 mm for the whole length of duct. The average velocity in the duct is 9.9 m/sec. The duct may contain system elements such as filters, coils, dampers, diffusers etc. Say Ps1 = 16 mm and Ps2 = +8 mm. Duct area = pD2/4 = p/4 (0.5)2 = 0.196 m2 Air Flow = VA = 9.9 m/s 0.196m2 = 1.944 m3/sec = 7000 m3/hr = 4130 cfm.
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Velocity pressure Pv1 = Pv2 = rV2 = 1.29.92 = 58.8 Pa = 6 mm Pt1 = (Ps1) + Pv = 16+6 = 10 mm Pt2 = (+Ps2) +Pv = +8+6 = +14 mm We will now use this example to demonstrate the concept of pressure as it applies to fans. Fan System Pressure Relationships A fan provides the total pressure to move the air through a system and at equilibrium this total pressure provided by the fan is equal to the total pressure losses in the system at the equilibrium flow rate. Fan Total Pressure (PtF) is defined as the difference between the total pressure at fan outlet and the total pressure at fan inlet. PtF = Pt2 Pt1 Fan total pressure is divided into two parts Fan Velocity Pressure (PvF) and Fan Static Pressure (PsF). Fan velocity pressure is defined as the velocity pressure at fan outlet. PvF = Pv2 And Fan Static Pressure (PsF) is defined as the difference between fan total pressure and fan velocity pressure i.e. PsF = PtF PvF or PsF = Pt2 Pt1 Pv2 = Ps2 + Pv2 (Ps1 + Pv1) Pv2 = Ps2 Ps1 Pv1 The above equation shows that fan static pressure as defined is not the same as rise in static pressure from fan inlet to fan outlet. This becomes more clear from the example of Figure 2. Fan total pressure = Pt2 Pt1 = 14 (10) = 24 mm Fan velocity pressure = 6 mm Fan static pressure = 24 6 = 18 mm Static pressure rise from fan inlet to outlet = Ps2 Ps1 = 8 (16) mm = 24 mm Thus in this particular example, the static pressure rise across the fan is equal to fan total pressure (and not fan static pressure). Let us now analyse the pressure losses in the system shown in Figure 2 which is an example of one of the four basic fan installation types as per the Air Movement and Control Association, Inc (AMCA). The system in Figure 2 is called Installation Type DDucted Inlet, Ducted Outlet. Other three types are discussed later in this article. As stationary atmospheric air at 0 static pressure, 0 velocity pressure and 0 total pressure slowly moves into

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Figure 4 : Pressure variation in a duct system containing a fan.

the duct inlet, it accelerates to an average velocity of 9.9 m/s. This entry is assumed loss-free and at plane 0, the increase in velocity pressure from 0 to 6 mm manifests into an equal drop in static pressure from 0 to 6 mm with total pressure remaining 0 (loss-free entry). Figure 4 illustrates the pressure relationship along the length of the duct in a graphical form. A distinction between pressure conversion and pressure loss is in order. A drop of static pressure of 6 mm at entry is pressure conversion from static to velocity and not pressure loss. This is indicated by the fact that total pressure remains constant (In reality, this entry is not loss free and some small pressure loss does occur). Pressure loss along a duct system is always indicated by a drop in total pressure even in some situations, as we will see later, where the static pressure may rise. Coming back to the example of Figure 2, at plane '0'. Pv = 6 mm Ps = 6 mm Pt = 0 As air moves from plane '0' to plane '1', due to losses across system resistance elements such as filters and coils and friction with duct walls, the total pressure drops by 10 mm and since air velocity remains constant i.e.Pv remains constant, the static pressure also drops by the same amount. Thus, at plane 1 : Pv = 6 mm Ps = 6 10 = 16 mm Pt = 16 + 6 = 10 mm As air enters the fan at plane 1, the fan raises its pressure and at plane 2 (fan outlet) : Pv = 6 mm Ps = + 8 mm Pt = + 8 + 6 = +14 mm From plane 2 to plane 3, the velocity pressure remains

constant at 6 mm but the total pressure and therefore the static pressure drops further (due to duct friction and system resistance elements such as the damper and grill) by 8 mm. Thus, at plane 3 just at the end of duct : Pv = 6 mm Ps = 0 Pt = 0 + 6 = + 6 mm The velocity pressure of 6 mm is lost as air is discharged to the atmosphere. We will later see how part of this velocity pressure can be regained as static pressure through the use of diffusers. What we see from the preceding discussion is that the fan has done work on the air and raised its total pressure from 10 mm to +14 mm i.e. by 24 mm. Out of this total of 24 mm, 18 mm was used to overcome the total resistance of the duct system (10 mm on the inlet duct side and 8 mm on the outlet side) and balance 6 mm in accelerating the air at duct inlet from 0 to 9.9 m/ sec. This velocity pressure of 6 mm was eventually lost

Figure 5 : Free inlet, ducted outlet fan installation.

at duct discharge. Let us now look at fan pressure relationship in a situation where a fan draws air from surrounding atmosphere through a well shaped inlet with a duct connected at its outlet. This situation, called Installation Type BFree Inlet, Ducted Outlet, is shown in Figure 5. At plane 1 (fan inlet) : Pv1 = 0 Ps1 = 0 Pt1 = 0 And at fan outlet, if the velocity, static & total pressures are Pv2, Ps2 and Pt2, then PtF = Pt2 Pt1 = Pt2 = Ps2+Pv2 PvF = Pv2 PsF = PtF PvF = Ps2+Pv2 Pv2 = Ps2 Here, the fan static pressure is equal to the rise in static pressure across the fan i.e. Ps2. This is commonly the situation in laboratory testing of fans for rating. We also look at fan pressure relationship in two other system configurations. Installation Type D Ducted Inlet, Free Outlet In this case, the fan has a duct with system elements
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Figure 6 : Ducted inlet, free outlet fan installation.

connected at its inlet and the fan exhausts air into the atmosphere (Figure 6), i.e. Ps2 = 0. PtF = Pt2 Pt1=Ps2 + Pv2 Ps1 Pv1 = Pv2 Ps1 Pv1 PvF = Pv2 PsF = PtF PvF = Pv2 Ps1 Pv1 Pv2 = (Ps1 + Pv1) = Pt1 That is, the fan static pressure is equal to the total pressure at fan inlet. Installation Type A Free Inlet, Free Outlet This is an example of a wall exhaust fan or a roof ventilator exhausting directly from an enclosed space to atmosphere with no resisFigure 7 : Free inlet, free oulet fan installation tance at fan inlet or outlet (Figure 7). PtF = Pt2 Pt1= Ps2 + Pv2 Ps1 Pv1 = Pv2 since Ps1 = Ps2 = Pv1 = 0 PvF = Pv2 PsF = PtF PvF = 0 Thus, the total pressure of the fan in this case is the fan velocity pressure (fan static pressure being 0) and this total pressure is used to accelerate the air from 0 velocity to discharge velocity. Flow through a Diffuser and Static Pressure Regain Consider a divergent circular duct piece shown in Figure 8 called a diffuser. The cross-sectional area of this device increases gradually along the flow direction. For a given flow, air velocity decreases from plane 1 to plane 2 resulting in a drop in velocity pressure. This drop is accompanied by a corresponding increase in static pressure, a phenomenon called static regain. By proper design of a diffuser (included angle of about 10), total pressure loss can be minimized and a large portion of the velocity pressure drop can be convered into useful static pressure. The role of a diffuser becomes significant when air is discharged into atmosphere at high velocities. A diffuser placed at discharge reduces fan load by reducing system pressure losses and thus saves energy. This is illustrated by the example of Figure 9.
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Figure 9(a) shows a fan exhausting into atmosphere from an enclosure with a duct conFigure 8 : A diffuser. nected to fan inlet. The velocity in the duct and at fan outlet is 14 m/s, resulting in a velocity pressure of 12 mm. The whole of this pressure is lost at discharge and combined with a pressure loss of 16 mm in the duct, the fan is required to produce a total pressure of 28 mm (Pt2 = +12 mm and Pt1 = 16 mm). Now we connect a diffuser at fan outlet (Figure 9(b)) and the diffuser is designed so that half of the velocity pressure i.e. 6 mm can be regained. Thus, the velocity pressure lost at plane 3 (diffuser outlet) is now 6 mm. The reduction in velocity pressure from 12 mm to 6 mm in the diffuser (plane 2 to plane 3) appears as a static pressure of 6 mm and a total pressure of +6 mm at fan outlet. Thus, the fan total pressure now required is +6 (16) = 22 mm. In many cases of deficient fan performance, placing a well designed diffuser at discharge can improve the

Figure 9 : Reduction in system pressure losses by using a diffuser.

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performance. Characteristics of a Ventilating System A ventilating system consists of a fan (or fans) and a duct system with various system elements such as filters, heating/cooling coils, elbows, converging or diverging transitions, screens/guards, dampers, louvers, shutters and diffusers. Each system element offers some resistance to the flow which in turn causes a drop in total pressure and it is the fan's job to produce enough total pressure to overcome system resistance and maintain the desired flow. Because of the nature of the duct system and high velocities, the flow in a ventilating system is characterised as 'turbulent' and the pressure drop across a system element or a straight length of duct is proportional to the velocity pressure i.e DPt a Pv = k Pv = k r V2 = k r (Q/A)2 = K Q2 The constant K varies depending on the type of system element (coils, straight length of duct, elbows, filters, screens, dampers etc), its design and even on the air velocity across the element e.g. in finned tube banks as in cooling and heating coils. It is beyond the scope of this article to go into the calculation of pressure drop across individual duct system elements. (Refer to ASHRAE Handbook 2001, Fundamentals, Chapter 34, Duct Design for details). Since the total pressure loss in a system is the sum of losses across individual system elements, it follows that the total system pressure loss (PtS) will also vary as the square of flow (Q2). This relationship is shown graphically in Figure10 and the graph is called 'System Characteristics' or 'System Curve'. We will see in later articles why an accurate determination of system characteristics is important in proper selection of fan(s) for the system. What is evident from the ventilating system curve is that it is a parabola passing through the origin and if one point is known on the curve, the whole curve can be defined by putting the values of Q and PtS for the known point in

the system equation and determining constant K. The total pressure losses in a ventilating system are very sensitive to flow Q e.g. doubling the flow increases the pressure losses four fold. This is a very important point to remember while selecting the right fan for the system.
Standard Units & Conversions Air Flow (Q) m3/s 3 m /h = 3600 (m3/s) cfm = 0.59 (m3/h) Velocity (V) m/s fpm = 196.8 (m/s) Area (A) m2 2 ft = 10.76 (m2) Pressure (P) Pa (Pascals) mm (water column) = (Pa)/9.8 in. (water column) = (mm)/25.4 Power (W) Watts hp = (Watts) / 746 Density (r) kg/m3 3 Standard air 'r' = 1.2 kg/m

Figure 10 : Ventilating system characteristics.

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