i

AE1104 Physics 1
List of equations
Made by:
E. Bruins Slot
Chapter 1
Introduction and basic concepts
Newtons second law
F = M a (N)
Weight
W = m g (N)
1J = 1N m
Density
=
m
V
_
kg
m
3
_
Specic volume
v =
V
m
=
1

Specic weight

s
= g
_
N
m
3
_
Kelvin to Celcius
T(K) = T(

C) +273.15 T(K) =T(

C)
Rankine to Fahrenheit
T(R) = T(

F) +459.67 T(R) =T(

F)
(R) = 1.8T(K)
T(

F) = 1.8T(

C) +32
1Pa = 1
N
m
2
1bar = 10
5
Pa = 0.1MPa = 100kPa
Absolute, gage and vacuum pressure
P
gage
= P
abs
P
atm
P
vac
= P
atm
P
abs
1
The pressure at depth h from the free surface is
P = P
atm
+gh or P
gage
= gh
Relation for the variation of pressure with elevation
dP
dz
=g
P = P
2
P
1
=
2
_
1
gdz
The atmospheric pressure is measured by a barometer and is given by
P
atm
= gh
Chapter 2
Energy, Energy Transfer and General Energy
Analysis
The total energy of a system on a unit mass basis
e =
E
m
_
kJ
kg
_
Kinetic Energy
KE = m
V
2
2
(kJ)
Kinetic Energy on a unit mass basis
ke =
V
2
2
_
kJ
kg
_
Potentional Energy
PE = mgz (kJ)
Potentional Energy on a unit mass basis
pe = gz
_
kJ
kg
_
Total Energy of a system
E =U +KE +PE =U +m
V
2
2
+mgz
Total Energy of a system on a unit mass basis
e = u+ke + pe = u+
V
2
2
+gz
Mass ow rate
m =

V = A
c
V
avg
_
kg
s
_
Energy ow rate

E = me
_
kJ
s
or kW
_
3
Mechanical Energy of a owing uid on a unit mass basis
e
mech
=
P

+
V
2
2
+gz
Mechanical Energy of a owing uid expressed in rate form

E
mech
= me
mech
= m
_
P

+
V
2
2
+gz
_
Mechanical Energy change of a uid during incompressible ow
e
mech
=
P
2
P
1

+
V
2
2
V
2
1
2
+g(z
2
z
1
)
_
kJ
kg
_
And

E
mech
= me
mech
= m
_
P
2
P
1

+
V
2
2
V
2
1
2
+g(z
2
z
1
)
_
(kW)
Heat transfer per unit mass of a system
q =
Q
m
_
kJ
kg
_
Amount of heat transfer during a process
Q =
t
2
_
t
1

Qdt (kJ)
When Q remains constant
Q =

Qt (kJ)
Work done per unit mass of a system
w =
W
m
_
kJ
kg
_
The total volume change during a process between states 1 and 2
2
_
1
dV =V
2
V
1
=V
The total work done during process 1-2
2
_
1
W =W
12
(Not W)
Electrical work (where N is the amount of coulombs and VVV is a potentional difference)
W
e
=VVVN
Electrical work expressed in rate form (Electrical Power)

W
e
=VVVI (W)
Electrical work done during time interval t
W
e
=
2
_
1
VVVIdt (kJ)
Work done by a constant force
W = Fs (kJ)
Work done by a not constant force
W =
2
_
1
Fds (kJ)
Torque
T = Fr F =
T
r
This force acts through a distance s, which is related to the radius r by
s = (2r)n
Shaft Work
W
sh
= Fs =
_
T
r
_
(2rn) = 2nT (kJ)
Power transmitted through the shaft

W
sh
= 2 nT (kW)
Spring Work
W
spring
= Fdx
Total spring work
W
spring
=
1
2
k(x
2
2
x
2
1
) (kJ)
Work associated with the expansion or contraction of a solid bar
W
elastic
=
2
_
1
Fdx =
2
_
1

n
Adx (kJ)
Work associated with the stretching of a lm (also called surface tension work)
W
sur f ace
=
2
_
1

s
Adx (kJ)
Energy balance
E
in
E
out
=E
system
The change in the total energy of a system during a process (in the absence of electric, magnetic and
surface tension effects)
E =U +KE +PE
Where
U = m(u
2
u
1
)
KE =
1
2
m(V
2
2
V
2
1
)
PE = mg(z
2
z
1
)
Energy balance more explicitly
E
in
E
out
= (Q
in
Q
out
) +(W
in
W
out
) +(E
mass,in
E
mass,out
) =E
system
Energy balance for any system undergoing any kind of process
E
in
E
out
=E
system
(kJ)
Or in the rate form

E
in

E
out
=
dE
system
dt
(kW)
For constant rates, the total quantities during a time interval t are related to the quantities per unit
time as
Q =

Qt (kJ)
W =

Wt (kJ)
E =
dE
dt
t (kJ)
Energy balance on a unit mass basis
e
in
e
out
=e
system
_
kJ
kg
_
Energy balance in differential form
E
in
E
out
= dE
system
or e
in
e
out
= de
system
The Energy balance for a cycle
W
net,out
= Q
net,in
or

W
net,out
=

Q
net,in
Performance or efciency
Per f ormance =
Desiredout put
Requiredinput
Combustion efciency

combustion
=
Q
HV
=
Amount of heat released during combustion
Heating value of the fuel burned
Mechanical efciency

mech
=
E
mech,out
E
mech,in
= 1
E
mech,loss
E
mech,in
Pump efciency

pump
=


E
mech, f luid

W
shaf t,in
=

W
pump,u

W
pump
Turbine efciency

turbine
=

W
shaf t,out
|

E
mech, f luid
|
=

W
turbine

W
turbine,e
Motor efciency

motor
=

W
shaf t,out

W
elect,in
Generator efciency

generator
=

W
elect,out

W
shaf t,in
Combined efciency of a pump-motor combination

pumpmotor
=
pump

motor
=

W
pump,u

W
elect,in
=


E
mech, f luid

W
elect,in
Combined efciency of a turbine-generator combination

turbinegenerator
=
turbine

generator
=

W
elect,out

W
turb,in
=

W
elect,out
|

E
mech, f luid
|
Rate of heat conduction

Q
cond
= k
t
A
T
x
In the limiting case of x 0 (Fouriers law)

Q
cond
=k
t
A
dT
dx
(W)
Rate of heat transfer by convection

Q
conv
= hA(T
s
T
f
) (W)
Maximum rate of radiation

Q
emit,max
= AT
4
s
Radiation emitted by a real surface

Q
emit
= AT
4
s
(W)
Rate at which a surface absorbs radiation

Q
abs
=

Q
incident
(W)
Net rate of radiation heat transfer

Q
rad
= A(T
4
s
T
4
s
) (W)
Chapter 3
Properties of Pure Substances
The quality x as the ratio of the mass of vapor to the total mass of the mixture (for saturated mixtures
only)
x =
m
vapor
m
total
Where
m
total
= m
liquid
+m
vapor
= m
f
+m
g
The total volume in a tank containing a saturated liquid-vapor mixture is
V =V
f
+V
g
V = mv m
t
v
avg
= m
f
v
f
+m
g
v
g
m
f
= m
t
m
g
m
t
v
avg
= (m
t
m
g
)v
f
+m
g
v
g
Dividing my m
t
yields
v
avg
= (1x)v
f
+xv
g
Since x = m
g
/m
t
. This relation can also be expressed as
v
avg
= v
f
+xv
f g
_
m
3
kg
_
Where v
f g
= v
g
v
g
. Solving for quality we obtain
x =
v
avg
v
f
v
f g
The analysis given above can be repeated for internal energy and enthalpy with the following results
u
avg
= u
f
+xu
f g
_
kJ
kg
_
h
avg
= h
f
+xh
f g
_
kJ
kg
_
All the results are of the same format, and they can be summarized in a single equation as
y
avg
= y
f
+xy
f g
Where y is v, u or h.
9
Ideal-gas Equation of State
P = R
_
T
v
_
Pv = RT
The gasconstant R is determinded from
R =
R
u
M
_
kJ
kg K
or
kPa m
3
kg K
_
Where R
u
is the universal gas constant The mass of a system
m = MN (kg)
The ideal-gas Equation of State can be written in several different forms
V = mv PV = mRT
mR = (MN)R = NR
u
PV = NR
u
T
V = N v P v R
u
T
The properties of an ideal gas at two different states are related to each other by
P
1
V
1
T
1
=
P
2
V
2
T
2
Compressibility factor
Z =
Pv
RT
or
Pv = ZRT
Gases behave differently at a given temperature and pressure, but they behave very much the same at
temperatures and pressure normalized with respect to their critical temperatures and pressures. The
normalization is done as
P
R
=
P
P
cr
and T
R
=
T
T
cr
Pseudeo-reduced specic volume
v
R
=
v
actual
RT
cr
/P
cr
Van der Waals Equation of State
_
P+
a
v
2
_
(v b) = RT
The determination of the two constants appearing in this equation is based on the observation that
the critical isotherm on a Pv diagram has a horizontal inection point of the cricital point. Thus,
the rst and the second derivatives of P with respect to v at the critical point must be zero. That is
_
P
v
_
T=T
cr
=const
= 0 and
_

2
P
v
2
_
T=T
cr
=const
= 0
By performing the differentiations and eliminating v
cr
, the constants a and b are determined to be
a =
27R
2
T
2
cr
64P
cr
and b =
RT
cr
8P
cr
Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State
P =
R
u
T
v
2
_
1
c
vT
3
_
( v +B)
A
v
2
where
A = A
0
_
1
a
v
_
and B = B
0
_
1
b
v
_
Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State
P =
R
u
T
v
+
_
B
0
R
u
T A
0

C
0
T
2
_
1
v
2
+
bR
u
T a
v
3
+
a
v
6
+
c
v
3
T
2
_
1+

v
2
_
e

v
2
Virial Equation of State
P =
RT
v
+
a(T)
v
2
+
b(T)
v
3
+
c(T)
v
4
+
d(T)
v
5
+
Vapor Pressure
P
atm
= P
a
+P
v
Chapter 4
Energy Analysis of Closed Systems
Boundary work
W
b
= Fds = PAds = Pdv
The total boundary work
W
b
=
2
_
1
PdV (kJ)
The total area under the process curve 1-2
Area = A =
2
_
1
dA =
2
_
1
pdV
Pressure for a polytropic process
P =CV
n
Work done during a polytropic process
W
b
=
2
_
1
pdV =
2
_
1
CV
n
dV =C
V
n+1
2
V
n+1
1
n+1
=
P
2
V
2
P
1
V
1
1n
Since C = P
1
V
n
1
= P
2
V
n
2
. For an ideal gas (PV = mRT), this equation can also be written as
W
b
=
mR(T
2
T
1
)
1n
n = 1 (kJ)
For the special case of n = 1 the boundary work becomes
W
b
=
2
_
1
pdV =
2
_
1
CV
1
dV = PV ln
_
V
2
V
1
_
Energy balance for a closed system undergoing a cycle
W
net,out
= Q
net,in
or

W
net,out
=

Q
net,in
(for a cycle)
12
Various forms of the rst-law relation for closed systems
General QW =E
Stationary systems QW =U
Per unit mass qw =e
Differential form qw = de
Specic heat at constant volume (= the change in internal energy with temperature at constant
volume)
c
v
=
_
u
T
_
v
_
kJ
kg

C
or
kJ
kg

K
_
Specic heat at constant pressure (= the change in enthalpy with temperature at constant pressure)
c
P
=
_
h
T
_
P
_
kJ
kg

C
or
kJ
kg

K
_
Using the denition of enthalpy and the equation of state of an ideal gas, we have
h = u+PV
Pv = RT
_
h = u+RT
The differential changes in the internal energy and enthalpy of an ideal gas
du = c
v
(T)dT
and
dh = c
P
(T)
the change in internal energy or enthalpy for an ideal gas during a process from state 1 to state 2 is
determined by integreting these equations
u = u
2
u
1
=
2
_
1
c
v
(T)dT
_
kJ
kg
_
and
h = h
2
h
1
=
2
_
1
c
P
(T)dT
_
kJ
kg
_
A special relationship between C
P
and C
v
for ideal gasses can be obtained by differentiating the
relation h = r +RT, which yields
dh = du+RdT
Replacing dh by c
P
dT and du by c
v
dT and dividing the resulting expression by dT, we obtain
c
P
= c
v
+R
_
kJ
kg K
_
Specic heat ratio
k =
c
P
c
v
For incompressible substances (solids and liquids)
c
P
=C
v
= c
The change in internal energy of incompressible substances between states 1 and states 2 is obtained
by
u = u
2
u
1
=
2
_
1
c(T)dT

= c
avg
(T
2
T
1
)
_
kJ
kg
_
The change in enthalpy of incompressible substances between states 1 and states 2 is obtained by
h =u+vP
_
kJ
kg
_
Chapter 5
Mass and Energy Analysis of Control Volumes
Conservation of mass principle
m
in
m
out
=m
system
and m
in
m
oud
=
dm
system
dt
Mass ow rate
m = VA
Volume ow rate

V =VA =
m

The total energy of a owing uid

E
in

E
out
. .
Rate of net energy transfer by heat,work, and mass
=
E
system
dt
. .
Rate of changes in internal, kinetic, potential, etc., energies
Conservation of mass and energy equations for steady-ow processes

in
m =
out
m

Q

W =
out
m
_
h+
V
2
2
+gz
_
. .
for each exit

in
m
_
h+
V
2
2
+gz
_
. .
for each inlet
For single-stream (one-inlet-one-exit) sytems they simplify to
m
1
= m
2

1
v
1
V
1
A
1
=
1
v
2
V
2
A
2

Q

W = m
_
h
2
h
1
+
V
2
2
V
2
1
2
+g(z
2
z
1
)
_
15
When kinetic and potential energy changes associated with the control volume and the uid streams
are negligible, the mass and energy balance relations for a uniform-ow system are expressed as
m
in
m
out
=m
system
QW =
out
mh
in
mh+(m
2
u
2
m
1
u
1
)
system
Chapter 6
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
The thermal efciency of a heat engine

th
=
W
net,out
Q
H
= 1
Q
L
Q
H
Coefcient of performance
COP
R
=
Q
L
W
net,in
=
1
Q
H
Q
L
1
COP
HP
=
Q
H
W
net,in
=
1
1
Q
L
Q
H
Thermodynamic temperature scale related to the heat transfers between a reversible device and the
high- and low-temperature reservoirs
_
Q
H
Q
L
_
rev
=
T
H
T
H
Thermal efciency of a Carnot heat engine, as well as all other reversible heat engines

th,rev
= 1
T
L
T
H
Coefcient of performance of reversible refrigerators and heat pumps
COP
R,rev
=
1
T
H
T
L
1
and
COP
HP,rev
=
1
1
T
L
T
H
17
Chapter 7
Entropy
Denition of entropy
dS =
_
dQ
T
_
int,rev
For the special case of an internally reversible, isothermal process, this gives
S =
Q
T
0
Increase of entropy principle
S
gen
0
The entropy change and isentropic relations for a process with pure substances
Any process: s = s
2
s
1
Isentropic process: s
2
= s
1
The entropy change and isentropic relations for a process with incompressible substances
Any process: s
2
s
1
= c
avg
ln
T
2
T
1
Isentropic process: T
2
= T
1
The entropy change and isentropic relations for a process with ideal gases with constant specic
heats (approximate treatment)
Any process: s
2
s
1
= c
v,avg
ln
T
2
T
1
+Rln
v
2
v
1
s
2
s
1
= c
P,avg
ln
T
2
T
1
+Rln
P
2
P
1
Isentropic process:
_
T
2
T
1
_
s=constant
=
_
v
1
v
2
_
k1
_
T
2
T
1
_
s=constant
=
_
P
1
P
2
_k1
k
_
P
2
P
1
_
s=constant
=
_
v
1
v
2
_
k
18
The entropy change and isentropic relations for a process with ideal gases with variable specic heats
(exact treatment)
Any process: s
2
s
1
= s

2
s

1
Rln
P
2
P
1
Isentropic process: s

2
= s

1
+Rln
P
2
P
1
_
P
2
P
1
_
s=constant
=
P
r2
P
r1
_
v
2
v
1
_
s=constant
=
v
r2
v
r1
Steady ow work for a reversible process
w
rev
=
2
_
1
vdPke pe
For incompressible substances it simplies to
w
rev
=v(P
2
P
1
) ke pe
The reversible work inputs to a compressor compressing an ideal gas from T
1
, P
1
to P
2
in an isentropic,
polytropic or isothermal manner
Isentropic: w
comp,in
=
kR(T
2
T
1
)
k1
=
kRT
1
k1
_
_
P
2
P
1
_k1
k
1
_
Polytropic: w
comp,in
=
nR(T
2
T
1
)
n1
=
nRT
1
n1
_
_
P
2
P
1
_n1
n
1
_
Isothermal: w
comp,in
= RT ln
P
2
P
1
Isentropic or adiabatic efciency for turbines, compressors and nozzles

T
=
Actual turbine work
Isentropic turbine work
=
w
a
w
s

=
h
1
h
2a
h
1
h
2s

C
=
Isentropic compressor work
Actual compressor work
=
w
s
w
a

=
h
2s
h
1
h
2a
h
1

N
=
Actual KE at nozzle exit
Isentropic KE at nozzle exit
=
V
2
2a
V
2
2s

=
h
1
h
2a
h
1
h
2s
The entropy balance for any system undergoing any process can be expressed in the general form
as
S
in
S
out
. .
Net entropy transfer by heat and mass
+ S
gen
..
Entropy generation
= S
system
. .
Change in entropy
or, in rate form as

S
in

S
out
. .
Rate of net entropy transfer by heat and mass
+

S
gen
..
Rate of entropy generation
=
dS
system
dt
. .
Rate of change in entropy
For a general stead-ow process it simplies to

S
gen
=

m
e
s
e

m
i
s
i

Q
k
T
k
Chapter 8
Exergy: A Measure of Work Potentional
Not mandatory for the exam
21
Chapter 9
Gas Power Cycles
Thermal efciency of the Carnot cycle

th,Carnot
= 1
T
L
T
H
In reciprocating engines, the compression ratio r and the mean effective pressure MEP are dened
as
r =
V
max
V
min
=
V
BDC
V
TDC
MEP =
w
net
v
max
v
min
The thermal efciency of the ideal Otto cycle (spark-ignition reciprocating engines) under cold-air-
standard assumptions is

th,Otto
= 1
1
r
k1
The thermal efciency of the ideal Diesel cycle (compression-ignition reciprocating engines) under
cold-air-standard assumptions is

th,Diesel
= 1
1
r
k1
_
r
k
c
1
k(r
c
1)
_
The thermal efciency of the ideal Brayton cycle (modern gas-turbine engines) under cold-air-
standard assumptions is

th,Brayton
= 1
1
r
(k1)/k
p
The deviation of the actual compressor and the turbine from the idealized isentropic ones can be
accurately accounted for by utilizing their isentropic efciencies, dened as

C
=
w
s
w
a

=
h
2s
h
1
h
2a
h
1
and

T
=
w
a
w
s

=
h
3
h
4a
h
3
h
4S
Where states 1 and 3 are the inlet states, 2a and 4a are the actual exit states, and 2s and 4s are the
isentropic exit states.
Effectiveness (the extent to which a regenerator approaches an ideal regenerator)
=
q
regen,act
q
regen,max
22
Under cold-air-standard assumptions, the thermal efciency of an ideal Brayton cycle with regenera-
tion becomes

th,regen
= 1
_
T
1
T
3
_
(r
P
)
k1
k
The net thrust devoloped by the ideal jet-propulsion cycle
F = m(V
exit
V
inlet
)
Propulsive power

W
P
= m(V
exit
V
inlet
)V
aircra f t
Propulsive efciency

P
=
Propulsive power
Energy input rate
=

W
P

Q
in
For an ideal cycle that involves heat transfer only with a source at T
H
and a sink at T
L
, the exergy
destruction is
x
dest
= T
0
_
q
out
T
L

q
in
T
H
_