EE 33-Measurements and Instrumentation

UNIT-I-INTRODUCTION

CONTENTS
Measurement Basic requirements Significance of measurement Methods of measurement Evolution of instruments Classification of Instruments Types of Instrumentation system Instrument and measurement systems

Statistical evaluation of measurement data Calibration

Measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or result of comparison between the quantity (whose magnitude is unknown) and predetermined or predefined standards. Two quantities are compared the result is expressed in numerical values.

1. Measurement:

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Standards

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Errors in measurement

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Static and dynamic characteristics

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Functional elements of an instrument

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Elements of generalized measurement system

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2. Basic requirements for a meaningful measurement:
The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined and should be commonly accepted. The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable (verifiable).

3. Significance of Measurement
Importance of Measurement is simply and eloquently expressed in the following

measure what you are speaking about and can express it in numbers, you know something about it; when you cannot express in it numbers your knowledge is of

INDIRECT METHOD: Measurements by direct methods are not always possible, feasible and practicable. In engineering applications measurement systems are used which require need of indirect method for measurement purposes.

measurand ) is directly compared against a standard.

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DIRECT METHODS: In these methods, the unknown quantity (called the

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Indirect Methods

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Direct Methods

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4. Methods of Measurement

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meager and unsatisfactory kind

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statement of famous physicist Lord Kelvin: I often say that when you can

EE 33-Measurements and Instrumentation

5. Instruments and Measurement Systems
Measurement involves the use of instruments as a physical means of determining

quantities or variables.
Because of modular nature of the elements within it, it is common to refer the

measuring instrument as a MEASUREMENT SYSTEM.

6. Evolution of Instruments
Mechanical Electrical Electronic Instruments.

MECHANICAL: These instruments are very reliable for static and stable conditions.

ELECTRICAL: It is faster than mechanical, indicating the output are rapid than mechanical methods. But it depends on the mechanical movement of the meters. The

ELECTRONIC: It is more reliable than other system. It uses semiconductor devices and weak signal can also be detected

7. Classification of Instruments

ABSOLUTE: These instruments give the magnitude if the quantity under measurement terms of physical constants of the instrument. SECONDARY: These instruments are calibrated by the comparison with absolute instruments which have already been calibrated. Further it is classified as
Deflection Type Instruments Null Type Instruments.

Functions of instrument and measuring system can be classified into three. They are: www.EEENotes.in

Secondary Instruments.

Absolute Instruments.

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response is 0.5 to 24 seconds.

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dynamic and transient conditions.

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But their disadvantage is that they are unable to respond rapidly to measurements of

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i) Indicating function. ii) Recording function. iii) Controlling function. Application of measurement systems are: i) Monitoring of process and operation. ii) Control of processes and operation. iii) Experimental engineering analysis.

8. Types of Instrumentation System

Intelligent Instrumentation (data has been refined for the purpose of presentation ) Dumb Instrumentation (data must be processed by the observer)

9. Elements of Generalized Measurement System

Primary sensing element. Variable conversion element. Data presentation element.

PRIMARY SENSING ELEMENT: The quantity under measurement makes its first

contact with the primary sensing element of a measurement system.

DATA PRESENTATION ELEMENT: The information about the quantity under

measurement has to be conveyed to the personnel handling the instrument or the system for monitoring, control or analysis purpose.

element into suitable form to preserve the information content of the original signal.

VARIABLE CONVERSION ELEMENT: It converts the output of the primary sensing

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10. Functional Elements of an Instrumentation System

QUANTITY TO BE MEASURED

PRIMARY SENSING ELEMENT

VARIABLE CONVER -SION ELEMENT

VARIABLE MANIPULA TI-ON ELEMENT

DATA TRANSMISS IO-N ELEMENT

DATA PRESENTA TION ELEMENT

DATA CONDITIONING ELEMENT

11. Static Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement Systems

Application involved measurement of quantity that are either constant or varies slowly

with time is known as static. Accuracy Drift Dead Zone Static Error Sensitivity

Static correction Scale range Scale span Noise Dead Time Hysteresis. Linearity

Static Characteristics

Reproducibility

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DETECTOR TRANSDUCER STAGE

INTERMEDIATE STAGE

TERMINATING STAGE

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ACCURACY: It is the closeness with an instrument reading approaches the true value

of the quantity being measured.

TRUE VALUE: True value of quantity may be defined as the average of an infinite

no. of measured value.

SENSITIVITY is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the output response to that

of input response.
STATIC ERROR: It is defined as the difference between the measured value and true

value of the quantity.

Reproducibility is specified in terms of scale readings over a given period of time. Drift is an undesirable quality in industrial instruments because it is rarely apparent and

cannot be maintained. It is classified as Noise Zero drift Span drift or sensitivity drift Zonal drift.

A spurious current or voltage extraneous to the current or voltage of interest in an

electrical or electronic circuit is called noise.

12. Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement System

Speed of response Measuring lag Fidelity Dynamic error

SPEED OF RESPONSE: It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement

system responds to changes in measured quantity. It is one of the dynamic characteristics of a measurement system.

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FIDELITY: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates

changes in the measured quantity without any dynamic error. Dynamic Error
It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with time and the

value indicated by the measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is also called measurement error. It is one the dynamic characteristics. Measuring Lag
It is the retardation delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in the

measured quantity. It is of 2 types:

Retardation type: The response begins immediately after a change in measured

quantity has occurred.

Time delay: The response of the measurement system begins after a dead zone after

the application of the input.

13. Errors in Measurement

Limiting Errors (Guarantee Errors) Known Error

INSTRUMENTAL ERROR: These errors arise due to 3 reasons-

Due to inherent short comings in the instrument Due to misuse of the instrument Due to loading effects of the instrument

external electrostatic or magnetic field.

OBSERVATIONAL ERROR: The error on account of parallax is the observational

error.

measuring device. These may be effects of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust or of

ENVIRONMENTAL ERROR: These errors are due to conditions external to the

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Systematic Errors

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Residual error This is also known as residual error. These errors are due to a multitude of small factors which change or fluctuate from one measurement to another. The happenings or disturbances about which we are unaware are lumped together and called Random or Residual. Hence the errors caused by these are called random or residual errors.

14. Statistical evaluation of measurement data

The most probable value of measured variable is the arithmetic mean of the number of

readings taken. Deviation

Deviation is departure of the observed reading from the arithmetic mean of the group

of readings. Standard Deviation

sum of the individual deviations squared divided by the number of readings. Problem

Question: The following 10 observation were recorded when measuring a voltage: 41.7, 42.0, 41.8, 42.0, 42.1, 41.9, 42.0, 41.9, 42.5, 41.8 volts.Calculate Mean, Standard

Mean=41.97 volt S.D=0.22 volt Probable error=0.15 volt Range=0.8 volt.

Answer

Deviation, Probable Error and Range.

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The standard deviation of an infinite number of data is defined as the square root of the

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Arithmetic Mean

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15. Calibration
Calibration of all instruments is important since it affords the opportunity to check the

instruments against a known standard and subsequently to find errors and accuracy.
Calibration Procedure involve a comparison of the particular instrument with either a Primary standard a secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the instrument to be calibrated. an instrument of known accuracy.

standard is applied to a piece of equipment having a known measure of physical quantity. Types of Standards

Primary Standards (maintained by national standards laboratories)

Secondary Standards ( used by industrial measurement laboratories)

Working Standards ( used in general laboratory)

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International Standards (defined based on international agreement )

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A standard is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. The term

16. Standards

EE 33-Measurements and Instrumentation

Two Marks
1. What is meant by measurement? Measurement is an act or the result of comparison between the quantity and a Pre-defined standard. 2. Mention the basic requirements of measurement. The standard used for comparison purpose must be accurately defined and should be commonly accepted. The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.

4. Explain the function of measurement system.

Mechanical Instruments Electrical Instruments and Electronic Instruments. 7. Classify instruments based on their functions. Indicating instruments Integrating instruments Recording instruments 8. Give the applications of measurement systems. The instruments and measurement systems are sued for Monitoring of processes and operations. www.EEENotes.in

The 3 types of instruments are

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6. List the types of instruments.

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quantity or variable.

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Instrument is defined as a device for determining the value or magnitude of a

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5. Define Instrument.

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presents the results of the measurement.

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processed by some intermediate means and is then fed to the end device which

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quantity to be measured in an analogous form. the analogous signal is then

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The measurement system consists of a transducing element which converts the

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Indirect method.

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Direct method and

3. What are the 2 methods for measurement?

EE 33-Measurements and Instrumentation

Control of processes and operations. Experimental engineering analysis. 9. Why calibration of instrument is important? The calibration of all instruments is important since it affords the opportunity to check the instrument against a known standard and subsequently to errors in accuracy. 10. Explain the calibration procedure. Calibration procedure involves a comparison of the particular instrument with either. A primary standard

A secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the instrument to be calibrated or An instrument of known accuracy. 11. Define Calibration.

It is the process by which comparing the instrument with a standard to correct the accuracy.

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EE 33-Measurements and Instrumentation

UNIT-II-ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS

CONTENTS
Analog Instruments Classification Principle of operation Magnetic Effect Analog Voltmeters Types of Instruments Wattmeter Two wattmeter method Energy meters Poly Phase Energy Meter 1. Analog Instruments Single Phase Energy Meter Analog Ammeters

Power Measurement in 3 phase 3 wire system

and bears a constant relation to its input. 2. Classification Classified based upon the quantity they measure (ammeter, voltmeter) Classified according to the current that can be measured by them.(DC,AC) Classified according to the effects used for working. Classified as Indicating, Recording, And Integrating. Classified on the basis of method used for comparing the unknown quantity. (Direct / Comparison measurement )

An analog device is one in which the output or display is a continuous function of time

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3. Principle of operation Magnetic Effect Thermal Effect Electrostatic Effect Induction Effect Hall Effect

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Force between Current carrying Magnet

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4. Magnetic Effect

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Force between Two Current Carrying Coils

Operating Forces Deflecting Force Controlling Force Damping Force

Supporting the moving element Suspension Taut Suspension Pivot and jewel bearings

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Hall Effects

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Control Systems Gravity Control Spring Control

5. Analog Ammeters

Ammeters are connected in series in the circuit whose current is to be measured. The
power loss in an ammeter is I2Ra.Therefore ammeters should have a low electrical resistance so that they cause a small voltage drop and consequently absorb small power. 6. Analog Voltmeters

power loss in an ammeter is V2/RV.Therefore voltmeters should have a high electrical

Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC). Moving Iron Electro-dynamometer type. Hot wire type. Thermocouple type. Induction type. Electrostatic type. Rectifier type.

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7. Types of Instruments

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resistance so that they cause a small voltage drop and consequently absorb small power.

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Voltmeters are connected in parallel in the circuit whose voltage is to be measured. The

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PMMC

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Moving Iron Instruments-Attraction Type

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Repulsion Type Moving Iron Instruments

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Electrodynamometer Type

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Wattmeter

Power Measurement in 3 phase 3 wire system

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Two wattmeter method

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Energy meters

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Single Phase Energy Meter

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Poly Phase Energy Meter

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Moving Coil Meters The design of a voltmeter, ammeter or ohmmeter begins with a current-sensitive element. Though most modern meters have solid-state digital readouts, the physics is more readily demonstrated with a moving coil current detector called a galvanometer. Since the modifications of the current sensor are compact, it is practical to have all three functions in a single instrument with multiple ranges of sensitivity. Schematically, a single range "multimeter" might be designed as illustrated. Voltmeter

circuit and therefore must be connected in parallel with the portion of the circuit on which the measurement is made. By contrast, an ammeter must be connected in series. In

circuit. Modern solid-state meters have digital readouts, but the principles of operation

Ammeter

must have very low resistance to avoid significant alteration of the current it is to measure. By contrast, a voltmeter must be connected in parallel. The analogy with an inline flow meter in a water circuit can help visualize why an ammeter must have a low resistance, and why connecting an ammeter in parallel can damage the meter. Modern solid-state meters have digital readouts, but the principles of operation can be better appreciated by examining the older moving coil meters based on galvanometer sensors.

branch of an electric circuit. It must be placed in series with the measured branch, and

An ammeter is an instrument for measuring the electric current in amperes in a

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galvanometer sensors.

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can be better appreciated by examining the older moving coil meters based on

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not have an appreciable affect on the current or voltage associated with the measured

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difference. It is necessary for the voltmeter to have a very high resistance so that it does

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analogy with a water circuit, a voltmeter is like a meter designed to measure pressure

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A voltmeter measures the change in voltage between two points in an electric

EE 33-Measurements and Instrumentation

Ohmmeter The standard way to measure resistance in ohms is to supply a constant voltage to the resistance and measure the current through it. That current is of course inversely proportional to the resistance according to Ohm's law, so that you have a non-linear scale. The current registered by the current sensing element is proportional to 1/R, so that a large current implies a small resistance. Modern solid-state meters have digital readouts, but the principles of operation can be better appreciated by examining the older moving coil meters based on galvanometer sensors. Voltmeter/Ammeter Measurements The value of electrical resistance associated with a circuit element or measuring the voltage across it and the current through it and then dividing the measured voltage by the current can determine appliance. This method works even for non-ohmic resistances where the resistance might depend upon the current.

from quite different backgrounds. Jacques D'Arsonval (1851-1940) was a director of a laboratory of biological physics and a professor of experimental medicine, and one of the founders of diathermy treatments. Marcel Deprez (1843-1918) was an engineer and an early promoter of high-voltage electrical power transmission.

by flat ribbon of wire which serves as one lead-in wire. The connection to the lower end of the coil is provided by a light, helical spring that provides the restoring torque. The electro-magnetic torque is greatest when the magnetic field lines are perpendicular to the plane of the coil; this condition is met for a wide range of coil positions by placing the cylindrical core of soft iron in the middle of the magnetic gap, and giving the magnet pole faces a concave contour. Since the electro-magnetic torque is proportional to the current in the coil and the restoring toque is proportional to the angle of twist of the suspension fiber, at equilibrium the current through the coil is linearly proportional to its

In the D'Arsonval-Deprez design the coil has many turns of fine wire, and is suspended

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The two French inventors of this form of galvanometer in the early 1880s came

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D'Arsonval Galvanometer

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angular deflection. This means that the galvanometer scales can always be linear, a great boon to the user. Moving Iron meters AC voltmeters and ammeters AC electromechanical meter movements come in two basic arrangements: those based on DC movement designs, and those engineered specifically for AC use. Permanent-magnet moving coil (PMMC) meter movements will not work correctly if

polarity of the applied voltage (or, you can think of it in terms of the direction of the

Fig:Passing AC through this D'Arsonval meter flutter of the needle

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movement causes useless In order to use a DC-style meter movement such as the D'Arsonval design, the alternating current must be rectified into DC. This is most easily accomplished through www.EEENotes.in

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movements, like permanent-magnet motors, are devices whose motion depends on the

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change with each half-cycle of the AC. (Figure below) Permanent-magnet meter

directly connected to alternating current, because the direction of needle movement will

EE 33-Measurements and Instrumentation

the use of devices called diodes. We saw diodes used in an example circuit demonstrating the creation of harmonic frequencies from a distorted (or rectified) sine wave. Without going into elaborate detail over how and why diodes work as they do, just remember that they each act like a one-way valve for electrons to flow: acting as a conductor for one polarity and an insulator for another. Oddly enough, the arrowhead in each diode symbol points against the permitted direction of electron flow rather than with it as one might expect. Arranged in a bridge, four diodes will serve to steer AC through the meter movement in a constant direction throughout all portions of the AC cycle: (Figure below)

it in one direction. Another strategy for a practical AC meter movement is to redesign the movement without the inherent polarity sensitivity of the DC types. This means avoiding the use of permanent magnets. Probably the simplest design is to use a no magnetized iron vane to move the needle against spring tension, the vane being attracted toward a stationary coil of wire energized by the AC quantity to be measured as in Figure below.

Fig:Passing AC through this Rectified AC meter movement will drive

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Fig:Iron-vane electromechanical meter movement

voltage. This works just as well for AC as it does for DC, or should I say, just as poorly! energized coil and an iron vane, and as such these electrostatic meter movements tend

current need be drawn from the circuit under test. Also, electrostatic meter movements are capable of measuring very high voltages without need for range resistors or other, external apparatus. When a sensitive meter movement needs to be re-ranged to function as an AC voltmeter, series-connected multiplier resistors and/or resistive voltage dividers may be employed just as in DC meter design: (Figure below)

technology possesses the advantage of extremely high input impedance, meaning that no

applications, the electrostatic movement is an elegant technology. If nothing else, this

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to be fragile and easily disturbed by physical movement. But, for some high-voltage AC

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The forces involved are very small, much smaller than the magnetic attraction between an

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alternative mechanism for generating a needle-moving force proportional to applied

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Electrostatic attraction between two metal plates separated by an air gap is an

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Fig:Multiplier resistor (a) or resistive divider (b) scales the range of the basic

Capacitors may be used instead of resistors, though, to make voltmeter divider circuits. This strategy has the advantage of being non-dissipative (no true power consumed and no heat produced): (Figure below)

If the meter movement is electrostatic, and thus inherently capacitive in nature, a single multiplier capacitor may be connected in series to give it a greater voltage measuring range, just as a series-connected multiplier resistor gives a moving-coil (inherently resistive) meter movement a greater voltage range: (Figure below)

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Fig: AC voltmeter with capacitive divider

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meter movement

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Fig:An electrostatic meter movement may use a capacitive multiplier to multiply the scale of the basic meter movement.. The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) mentioned in the DC metering chapter is ideally

across the screen of the tube while the measured AC voltage drives the beam up and down. A graphical representation of the AC wave shape and not just a measurement of magnitude can easily be had with such a device. However, CRT's have the disadvantages

still have a place in practical usage.

RMS measurement. As we already know, AC measurements are often cast in a scale of DC power equivalence, called RMS (Root-Mean-Square) for the sake of meaningful comparisons with DC and with other AC waveforms of varying shape. None of the meter movement technologies so far discussed inherently measure the RMS value of an AC quantity. Meter movements relying on the motion of a mechanical needle (rectified D'Arsonval, iron-vane, and electrostatic) all tend to mechanically average the instantaneous values into an overall average value for the waveform. This average value is not necessarily the same as RMS, although many times it is mistaken as such. Average and RMS values rate against each other as such for these three common waveform shapes: (Figure below) www.EEENotes.in

the designer and user of AC metering instruments to be aware of. This is the issue of

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technologies having been discussed already, there is another factor crucially important for

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With some of the advantages and disadvantages of these meter movement

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glass) working against them. For these reasons, electromechanical AC meter movements

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of weight, size, significant power consumption, and fragility (being made of evacuated

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suited for measuring AC voltages, especially if the electron beam is swept side-to-side

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EE 33-Measurements and Instrumentation

obtaining with an instrument, and electromechanical meter movements naturally deliver average measurements rather than RMS, what are AC meter designers to do? Cheat, of course! Typically the assumption is made that the waveform shape to be measured is going to be sine (by far the most common, especially for power systems), and then the

we see that RMS is equal to 0.707 times the peak value while Average is 0.637 times the peak, so we can divide one figure by the other to obtain an average-to-RMS conversion factor of 1.109:

In other words, the meter movement will be calibrated to indicate approximately 1.11 times higher than it would ordinarily (naturally) indicate with no special

meter movement scale is altered by the appropriate multiplication factor. For sine waves

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Since RMS seems to be the kind of measurement most people are interested in

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RMS, Average, and Peak-to-Peak values for sine, square, and triangle waves.

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accommodations. It must be stressed that this cheat only works well when the meter is used to measure pure sine wave sources. Note that for triangle waves, the ratio between RMS and Average is not the same as for sine waves:

With square waves, the RMS and Average values are identical! An AC meter calibrated to accurately read RMS voltage or current on a pure sine wave will not give the

of accurate RMS measurement is no small matter.

The astute reader will note that I have omitted the CRT movement from the RMS/Average discussion. This is because a CRT with its practically weightless electron beam movement displays the Peak (or Peak-to-Peak if you wish) of an AC waveform

RMS value of a waveform from it? Conversion factors between Peak and RMS only hold so long as the waveform falls neatly into a known category of shape (sine, triangle, and square are the only examples with Peak/RMS/Average conversion factors given here!). One answer is to design the meter movement around the very definition of RMS:

that the AC source to be measured is connected across a resistor of known value, and the heat output of that resistor is measured with a device like a thermocouple. This would provide a far more direct measurement means of RMS than any conversion factor could, for it will work with ANY waveform shape whatsoever: (Figure below)

the effective heating value of an AC voltage/current as it powers a resistive load. Suppose

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rather than Average or RMS. Still, a similar problem arises: how do you determine the

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harmonics becoming an ever-present phenomenon in large AC power systems, this matter

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This includes triangle waves, square waves, or any kind of distorted sine wave. With

proper value while indicating the magnitude of anything other than a perfect sine wave.

EE 33-Measurements and Instrumentation

While the device shown above is somewhat crude and would suffer from unique engineering problems of its own, the concept illustrated is very sound. The resistor converts the AC voltage or current quantity into a thermal (heat) quantity, effectively squaring the values in real-time. The system's mass works to average these values by the principle of thermal inertia, and then the meter scale itself is calibrated to give an indication based on the square-root of the thermal measurement: perfect Root-MeanSquare indication all in one device! In fact, one major instrument manufacturer has implemented this technique into its high-end line of handheld electronic multimeters for

to give voltmeter movements higher range, and parallel shunt resistors are used to allow ammeter movements to measure currents beyond their natural range. However, we are not limited to these techniques as we were with DC: because we can use transformers with AC, meter ranges can be electromagnetically rather than resistively stepped up or stepped down, sometimes far beyond what resistors would have practically allowed for. Potential Transformers (PT's) and Current Transformers (CT's) are precision instrument devices manufactured to produce very precise ratios of transformation between primary and secondary windings. They can allow small, simple AC meter movements to indicate extremely high voltages and currents in power systems with accuracy and complete www.EEENotes.in

operation is much the same as with DC instruments: series multiplier resistors are used

Calibrating AC voltmeters and ammeters for different full-scale ranges of

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true-RMS capability.

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Direct reading thermal RMS voltmeter accommodates any wave shape.

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electrical isolation (something multiplier and shunt resistors could never do): (Figure below)

(CT) Current transformer scales current down. (PT) Potential transformer scales voltage down.

Shown here is a voltage and current meter panel from a three-phase AC system. The three donut current transformers (CT's) can be seen in the rear of the panel. Three AC ammeters (rated 5 amps full-scale deflection each) on the front of the panel indicate current through each conductor going through a CT. As this panel has been removed

CT donuts anymore: (Figure below)

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Toroidal current transformers scale high current levels down for application to 5 A fullscale AC ammeters.

Because of the expense (and often large size) of instrument transformers, they are not

An important electrical quantity with no equivalent in DC circuits is frequency. Frequency measurement is very important in many applications of alternating current, especially in AC power systems designed to run efficiently at one frequency and one frequency only. If an electromechanical alternator is generating the AC, the frequency will be directly proportional to the shaft speed of the machine, and frequency could be measured simply by measuring the speed of the shaft. If frequency needs to be measured at some distance from the alternator, though, other means of measurement will be necessary. www.EEENotes.in

Frequency and phase measurement

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precision resistors (multipliers and shunts) are used, just as with DC.

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For scaling a milliamp or microamp movement to a range of 120 volts or 5 amps, normal

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used to scale AC meters for any applications other than high voltage and high current.

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One simple but crude method of frequency measurement in power systems utilizes the principle of mechanical resonance. Every physical object possessing the property of elasticity (springiness) has an inherent frequency at which it will prefer to vibrate. The tuning fork is a great example of this: strike it once and it will continue to vibrate at a tone specific to its length. Longer tuning forks have lower resonant frequencies: their tones will be lower on the musical scale than shorter forks. Imagine a row of progressively sized tuning forks arranged side-by-side. They are all mounted on a common base, and that base is vibrated at the frequency of the measured AC voltage (or current) by means of an electromagnet. Whichever tuning fork is closest in resonant frequency to the frequency of that vibration will tend to shake the most (or the loudest). If the forks' tines were flimsy enough, we could see the relative motion of each by the length of the blur we would see as we inspected each one from an end-view perspective. Well, make a collection of tuning forks out of a strip of sheet metal cut in a pattern akin to a rake, and you have the vibrating reed frequency meter: (Figure below)

The user of this meter views the ends of all those unequal length reeds as they are collectively shaken at the frequency of the applied AC voltage to the coil. The one closest in resonant frequency to the applied AC will vibrate the most, looking something like Figure below.

Vibrating reed frequency meter diagram.

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Vibrating reed frequency meter front panel.

simple and therefore easy to manufacture to be rugged. They are often found on small

mechanical resonance, we may substitute electrical resonance and design a frequency

capacitor). See Figure below. One or both components are made adjustable, and a meter is placed in the circuit to indicate maximum amplitude of voltage across the two components. The adjustment knob(s) are calibrated to show resonant frequency for any given setting, and the frequency is read from them after the device has been adjusted for maximum indication on the meter. Essentially, this is a tunable filter circuit, which is adjusted and then read in a manner similar to a bridge circuit (which must be balanced for a null condition and then read).

meter using an inductor and capacitor in the form of a tank circuit (parallel inductor and

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Vibrating reed meters, obviously, are not precision instruments, but they are very

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before the advent of inexpensive digital frequency instruments called counters),

bridge circuit and it is a sound metrological principle applied throughout the sciences. If

comparison should be relatively easy. For that frequency standard, we turn our attention back to the tuning fork, or at least a more modern variation of it called the quartz crystal. Quartz is a naturally occurring mineral possessing a very interesting property called piezoelectricity. Piezoelectric materials produce a voltage across their length when physically stressed, and will physically deform when an external voltage is applied across their lengths. This deformation is very, very slight in most cases, but it does exist. Quartz rock is elastic (springy) within that small range of bending which an external voltage would produce, which means that it will have a mechanical resonant

precisely to a single frequency), then measurement of any unknown frequency by

we have access to an accurate frequency standard (a source of AC voltage holding very

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quantities are equal to each other. This is the basic principle behind the DC (Wheatstone)

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Resonant frequency meter peaks as L-C resonant frequency is tuned to test frequency.

EE 33-Measurements and Instrumentation

frequency of its own capable of being manifested as an electrical voltage signal. In other words, if a chip of quartz is struck, it will ring with its own unique frequency determined by the length of the chip, and that resonant oscillation will produce an equivalent voltage across multiple points of the quartz chip which can be tapped into by wires fixed to the surface of the chip. In reciprocal manner, the quartz chip will tend to vibrate most when it is excited by an applied AC voltage at precisely the right frequency, just like the reeds on a vibrating-reed frequency meter. Chips of quartz rock can be precisely cut for desired resonant frequencies, and that chip mounted securely inside a protective shell with wires extending for connection to an external electric circuit. When packaged as such, the resulting device is simply called a crystal (or sometimes xtal). The schematic symbol is shown in Figure below.

Crystal (frequency determing element) schematic symbol.

the equivalent circuit.

below) The dielectric properties of quartz contribute an additional capacitive element to

Electrically, that quartz chip is equivalent to a series LC resonant circuit. (Figure

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Quartz crystal equivalent circuit. \

connections across the dielectric (insulating) quartz body is real, and it has an effect on

Crystals, as resonant elements, typically have much higher Q (quality) values than tank circuits built from inductors and capacitors, principally due to the relative absence of stray resistance, making their resonant frequencies very definite and precise. Because the resonant frequency is solely dependent on the physical properties of quartz (a very stable substance, mechanically), the resonant frequency variation over time with a quartz crystal is very, very low. This is how quartz movement watches obtain their high accuracy: by means of an electronic oscillator stabilized by the resonant action of a quartz crystal. For laboratory applications, though, even greater frequency stability may be desired. To achieve this, the crystal in question may be placed in a temperature stabilized

voltage with a stable, known frequency.

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necessary here, but what needs to be understood about crystals is this resonant circuit

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components within the crystal. The capacitance shown in parallel due to the wire

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equivalents of the quartz's mechanical resonance properties: they do not exist as discrete

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environment (usually an oven), thus eliminating frequency errors due to thermal expansion and contraction of the quartz. For the ultimate in a frequency standard though, nothing discovered thus far surpasses the accuracy of a single resonating atom. This is the principle of the so-called atomic clock, which uses an atom of mercury (or cesium) suspended in a vacuum, excited by outside energy to resonate at its own unique frequency. The resulting frequency is detected as a radio-wave signal and that forms the basis for the most accurate clocks known to humanity. National standards laboratories around the world maintain a few of these hyper-accurate clocks, and broadcast frequency signals based on those atoms' vibrations for scientists and technicians to tune in and use for frequency calibration purposes.

Two Marks
Deflecting torque Controlling torque Damping torque

1. Name the different essential torques in indicating instruments.

2. Name the types of instruments used for making voltmeter and ammeter. PMMC type Moving iron type

Dynamometer type

Electrostatic type Induction type. 3. State the advantages of PMMC instruments Uniform scale. No hysterisis loss Very accurate High effuiciency.

Hot wire type

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4. State the disadvantages of PMMC instruments Cannot be used for ac m/s Some errors are caused by temperature variations. 5. State the applications of PMMC instruments m/s of dc voltage and current used in dc galvanometer. 6. How the range of instrument can be extended in PMMC instruments. In ammeter by connecting a shunt resister In voltmeter by connecting a series resister. 7. State the advantages of Dynamometer type instruments Can be used for both dc and ac m/s. Free from hysterisis and eddy current errors.

8. State the advantages of Moving iron type instruments Less expensive Can be used for both dc and ac Reasonably accurate.

9. State the advantages of Hot wire type instruments Can be used for both dc and ac

Unaffected by stray magnetic fields Readings are independent of frequency and waveform. 10. What are the constructional parts of dynamometer type wattmeter?

Current limiting resister Helical spring Spindle attached with pointer Graduated scale 11. Write down the deflecting torque equation in dynamometer type wattmeter. Td VI Cos

Moving Coil

Fixed coil

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12. State the disadvantages of Dynamometer type wattmeter. Readings may be affected by stray magnetic fields. At low power factor it causes error. 13. Name the errors caused in Dynamometer type wattmeter. Error due to pressure coil inductance Error due to pressure coil capacitance Error due to methods of connection Error due to stray magnetic fields Error due to eddy current. 14. How the errors caused by pc inductance is compensated. By connecting a capacitor in parallel to the resister.

15. How the errors caused by methods of connection is compensated By using compensating coil.

16. Name the methods used for power measurement in three phase circuits. (i)Single wattmeter method (ii) Two wattmeter method (iii) Three wattmeter method.

17. What are the special features to be incorporated for LPF wattmeter? Pressure coil circuit

Compensation for Pressure coil current Compensation for Pressure coil inductance.

separately is called phantom loading. 19. State the use of phantom loading. Power loss is minimized. 20. Name the methods used in Wattmeter calibration. By comparing with std wattmeter. By using voltmeter ammeter method. By using Potentiometer.

Method by which energizing the pressure coil circuit and current coil circuits

18. Define Phantom loading.

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21. What are the types of energy meters? Electrolytic meters Motor meters. Clock meters 22. Name the constructional parts of induction type energy meter. Current coil with series magnet Voltage coil with shunt magnet Al disc Braking magnet Registering mechanism.

23. How voltage coil is connected in induction type energy meter. It is connected in parallel to supply and load.

24. How current coil is connected in induction type energy meter. It is connected in series to the load.

25. Why Al disc is used in induction type energy meter. Aluminum is a nonmagnetic metal.

26. What is the purpose of registering mechanism. It gives a valuable number proportional to the rotations. 27. What is the purpose of braking mechanism. It provides necessary braking torque. 28. Define creeping.

To avoid creeping holes are provided on both sides of Al disc.

29. State the reason why holes are provided in Al disc.

Slow but continuous rotation of disc when pc is energized and cc is not energized.

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UNIT-III- COMPARISON METHOD OF
MEASUREMENTS

CONTENTS
D.C & A.C potentiometers D.C & A.C bridges

by comparing it with a known voltage 2. D.C & A.C bridges Resistance

Low Resistance (<1)

Ammeter voltmeter method Kelvins double bridge method Potentiometer method Kelvins double bridge

Medium Resistance (1 to 0.1M) Ammeter-voltmeter method Substitution method Wheatstone bridge method Ohmmeter method Wheat stone Bridge

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Low Resistance(<1) Medium Resistance(1 to 0.1M ) High Resistance(> 0.1M )

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A Potentiometer is an instrument designed to measure an unknown voltage

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1. Potentiometers

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High Resistance (> 0.1M) Direct deflection method Loss of charge method Meg ohm bridge Megger

Capacitance De sautys bridge Schering bridge Schering Bridge

Transformer Ratio Bridge

They are replacing the conventional AC bridge

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Wiens Bridge.

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Frequency

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Inductance Measurement of self Inductance Maxwells Inductance bridge Maxwells Inductance- capacitance bridge Hays bridge Owens bridge Andersons bridge Measurement of mutual Inductance Heaviside mutual Inductance bridge Carey foster bridge Heydweiller bridge Campbells bridge

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AC bridge circuits

bridge can be a very useful way to measure unknown values of resistance. This is true with AC as well, and we can apply the very same principle to the accurate measurement of unknown impedances.

To review, the bridge circuit works as a pair of two-component voltage dividers connected between them to indicate a condition of balance at zero volts: (Figure below)

connected across the same source voltage, with a null-detector meter movement

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As we saw with DC measurement circuits, the circuit configuration known as a

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voltage of the power source is irrelevant. Practically speaking, the higher the supply voltage, the easier it is to detect a condition of imbalance between the four resistors with the null detector, and thus the more sensitive it will be. A greater supply voltage leads to the possibility of increased measurement precision. However, there will be no fundamental error introduced as a result of a lesser or greater power supply voltage unlike other types of resistance measurement schemes. Impedance bridges work the same, only the balance equation is with complex quantities, as both magnitude and phase across the components of the two dividers must be equal in order for the null detector to indicate zero. The null detector, of course,

One of the advantages of using a bridge circuit to measure resistance is that the

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balanced condition (zero voltage as indicated by the null detector), the ratio works out to

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calibrated, or whose resistances are known to a precise degree. When the bridge is in a

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must be a device capable of detecting very small AC voltages. An oscilloscope is often used for this, although very sensitive electromechanical meter movements and even headphones (small speakers) may be used if the source frequency is within audio range. One way to maximize the effectiveness of audio headphones as a null detector is to connect them to the signal source through an impedance-matching transformer. Headphone speakers are typically low-impedance units (8 ), requiring substantial current to drive, and so a step-down transformer helps match low-current signals to the impedance of the headphone speakers. An audio output transformer works well for this purpose: (Figure below)

type), I've been able to detect currents of less than 0.1 A with this simple detector circuit. Roughly equal performance was obtained using two different step-down transformers: a small power transformer (120/6 volt ratio), and an audio output transformer (1000:8 ohm impedance ratio). With the pushbutton switch in place to interrupt current, this circuit is usable for detecting signals from DC to over 2 MHz: even if the frequency is far above or below the audio range, a click will be heard from the headphones each time the switch is pressed and released. Connected to a resistive bridge, the whole circuit looks like Figure below.

Using a pair of headphones that completely surround the ears (the closed-cup

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a sensitive null detector.

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Modern low-Ohm headphones require an impedance matching transformer for use as

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Listening to the headphones as one or more of the resistor arms of the bridge is clicks (or tones, if the bridge's power source frequency is within audio range) as the

Generalized AC impedance bridge: Z = nonspecific complex impedance.

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legs in the form of box-shaped components, each one with a certain impedance: (Figure

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When describing general AC bridges, where impedances and not just resistances

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switch is actuated.

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Bridge with sensitive AC null detector.

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For this general form of AC bridge to balance, the impedance ratios of each branch must be equal:

Again, it must be stressed that the impedance quantities in the above equation must be complex, accounting for both magnitude and phase angle. It is insufficient that the impedance magnitudes alone be balanced; without phase angles in balance as well, there will still be voltage across the terminals of the null detector and the bridge will not

Bridge circuits can be constructed to measure just about any device value desired, be it capacitance, inductance, resistance, or even Q. As always in bridge measurement circuits, the unknown quantity is always balanced against a known standard, obtained from a high-quality, calibrated component that can be adjusted in value until the null detector device indicates a condition of balance. Depending on how the bridge is set up, the unknown component's value may be determined directly from the setting of the

A couple of simple bridge circuits are shown below, one for inductance (Figure below) and one for capacitance: (Figure below)

Symmetrical bridge measures unknown inductor by comparison to a standard inductor.

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calibrated standard, or derived from that standard through a mathematical formula.

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be balanced.

EE 33-Measurements and Instrumentation

Simple symmetrical bridges such as these are so named because they exhibit

standard impedance to balance out an unknown series capacitor-resistor combination. (Figure below) All capacitors have some amount of internal resistance, be it literal or equivalent (in the form of dielectric heating losses) which tend to spoil their otherwise perfectly reactive natures. This internal resistance may be of interest to measure, and so the Wien bridge attempts to do so by providing a balancing impedance that isn't pure either:

effects can be found in the so-called Wien bridge, which uses a parallel capacitor-resistor

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to balance out stray resistance in the unknown component. But, in the hypothetical world

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often have a calibrated, variable resistor in series or parallel with the reactive component

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bit simplified from their real-life counterparts, as practical symmetrical bridge circuits

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far. The combined effect of R s and Cs is to alter the magnitude and phase angle until the and Cs can be read from their calibrated knobs, the parallel impedance of the two

negligible internal resistance, or at least that resistance is already known so that it can be factored into the balance equation. Wien bridges are useful for determining the values of lossy capacitor designs like electrolytics, where the internal resistance is relatively high. They are also used as frequency meters, because the balance of the bridge is frequency-dependent. When used in this fashion, the capacitors are made fixed (and usually of equal value) and the top two resistors are made variable and are adjusted by means of the same knob.

It is assumed in the operation of the Wien bridge that the standard capacitor has

mathematically from the balance equation (Z1/Z2 = Z3/Z4).

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bridge achieves a condition of balance. Once that balance is achieved, the settings of R s

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capacitor) this bridge will take a little more time to balance than the others we've seen so

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Being that there are two standard components to be adjusted (a resistor and a

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An interesting variation on this theme is found in the next bridge circuit, used to precisely measure inductances.

known plainly as the Maxwell bridge), and is used to measure unknown inductances in

they are here.

Another advantage of using a Maxwell bridge to measure inductance rather than a symmetrical inductance bridge is the elimination of measurement error due to mutual inductance between two inductors. Magnetic fields can be difficult to shield, and even a small amount of coupling between coils in a bridge can introduce substantial errors in certain conditions. With no second inductor to react with in the Maxwell bridge, this problem is eliminated.

balance out an inductive impedance if they are located in opposite legs of a bridge, as

of inductors and capacitors are exactly opposite each other, a capacitive impedance can

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simple symmetrical inductance bridge is not always practical. Because the phase shifts

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are more difficult to manufacture than capacitors of similar precision, and so the use of a

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terms of calibrated resistance and capacitance. (Figure above) Calibration-grade inductors

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This ingenious bridge circuit is known as the Maxwell-Wien bridge (sometimes

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Maxwell-Wein bridge measures an inductor in terms of a capacitor standard.

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For easiest operation, the standard capacitor (Cs) and the resistor in parallel with it (Rs) are made variable, and both must be adjusted to achieve balance. However, the bridge can be made to work if the capacitor is fixed (non-variable) and more than one resistor made variable (at least the resistor in parallel with the capacitor, and one of the other two). However, in the latter configuration it takes more trial-and-error adjustment to achieve balance, as the different variable resistors interact in balancing magnitude and phase. Unlike the plain Wien bridge, the balance of the Maxwell-Wien bridge is independent of source frequency, and in some cases this bridge can be made to balance in the presence of mixed frequencies from the AC voltage source, the limiting factor being the inductor's stability over a wide frequency range.

There are more variations beyond these designs, but a full discussion is not warranted here. General-purpose impedance bridge circuits are manufactured which can be switched into more than one configuration for maximum flexibility of use. A potential problem in sensitive AC bridge circuits is that of stray capacitance between either end of the null detector unit and ground (earth) potential. Because

stray current paths to the AC voltage source which may affect bridge balance: (Figure below)

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capacitances can conduct alternating current by charging and discharging, they form

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meter using an inductor and capacitor in the form of a tank circuit (parallel inductor and

then read in a manner similar to a bridge circuit (which must be balanced for a null condition and then read). The problem is worsened if the AC voltage source is firmly grounded at one end, the total stray impedance for leakage currents made far less and any leakage currents through these stray capacitances made greater as a result: (Figure below)

indication on the meter. Essentially, this is a tunable filter circuit which is adjusted and

the frequency is read from them after the device has been adjusted for maximum

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adjustment knob(s) are calibrated to show resonant frequency for any given setting, and

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circuit to indicate maximum amplitude of voltage across the two components. The

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capacitor). One or both components are made adjustable, and a meter is placed in the

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mechanical resonance, we may substitute electrical resonance and design a frequency

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While reed-type meters are imprecise, their operational principle is not. In lieu of

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Stray capacitance errors are more severe if one side of the AC supply is grounded.

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without the need for a direct connection to the null detector. (Figure below)

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ground or Wagner earth may be used to maintain the null detector at ground potential

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not an option, as it would create a direct current path for stray currents, which would be

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through stray capacitances. However, directly connecting the null detector to ground is

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One way of greatly reducing this effect is to keep the null detector at ground

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Wagner ground for AC supply minimizes the effects of stray capacitance to ground on the bridge.

The Wagner earth circuit is nothing more than a voltage divider, designed to have the voltage ratio and phase shift as each side of the bridge. Because the midpoint of the Wagner divider is directly grounded, any other divider circuit (including either side of the bridge) having the same voltage proportions and phases as the Wagner divider, and

Wagner earth divider forces the null detector to be at ground potential, without a direct

There is often a provision made in the null detector connection to confirm proper setting of the Wagner earth divider circuit: a two-position switch, (Figure below) so that one end of the null detector may be connected to either the bridge or the Wagner earth. When the null detector registers zero signal in both switch positions, the bridge is not only guaranteed to be balanced, but the null detector is also guaranteed to be at zero potential with respect to ground, thus eliminating any errors due to leakage currents through stray detector-to-ground capacitances:

connection between the detector and ground.

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Switch-up position allows adjustment of the Wagner ground. REVIEW:

AC bridge circuits work on the same basic principle as DC bridge circuits: that a balanced ratio of impedances (rather than resistances) will result in a balanced condition as indicated by the null-detector device.

Null detectors for AC bridges may be sensitive electromechanical meter

any other device capable of registering very small AC voltage levels. Like DC null detectors, its only required point of calibration accuracy is at zero.

AC bridge circuits can be of the symmetrical type where an unknown impedance is balanced by a standard impedance of similar type on the same side (top or bottom) of the bridge. Or, they can be nonsymmetrical, using parallel impedances to balance series impedances, or even capacitances balancing out inductances.

AC bridge circuits often have more than one adjustment, since both impedance magnitude and phase angle must be properly matched to balance.

movements, oscilloscopes (CRT's), headphones (amplified or unamplified), or

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Some impedance bridge circuits are frequency-sensitive while others are not. The frequency-sensitive types may be used as frequency measurement devices if all component values are accurately known.

A Wagner earth or Wagner ground is a voltage divider circuit added to AC bridges to help reduce errors due to stray capacitance coupling the null detector to ground.

Two Marks

emf. 2. Name the potentiometer material used. German silver Manganin wire 3. Define standardization.

It is the process by which adjusting the current flows through the potentiometer

Used for m/s of unknown emf Used for ammeter calibration

5. State the advantages of crompton potentiometer. More accurate Easy to adjust 6. What are the practical difficulties in ac potentiometers. More complicated Accuracy is seriously affected Difficulty is experienced in standardization. 7. Classify ac potentiometers. Polar potentiometer

Used for wattmeter calibration

Used for Voltmeter calibration

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In potentiometer the unknown emf is measured by comparing it with a std known

1. What is the basic principle used in potentiometer.

EE 33-Measurements and Instrumentation

Coordinate potentiometer. 8. How the phase angle is measured in polar type potentiometers. It is measured from the position of phase shifter. 9. Name some ac potentiometers. Drysdale Tinsley potentiometer Gall Tinsley potentiometer 10. State the advantages of ac potentiometers. Can be used for m/s of both magnitude and phase angle Can be used for m/s of inductance of the coil. It is used in m/s of errors in CTS 11. State the applications of ac potentiometers. M/s of self inductance. Ammeter calibration Voltmeter calibration Wattmeter calibration.

12. State the advantages of instrument transformers. Used for extension of range Power loss is minimum

High voltage and currents can be measured. 13. State the disadvantage of instrument transformers. Cannot be used for dc measurements.

Secondary winding Magnetic core. 15. Name the errors caused in current transformer. Ratio error Phase angle error 16. Define ratio error. The ratio of energy component current and secondary current is known as the ratio error.

Primary winding

14. What are the constructional parts of current transformer?

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17. How the phase angle error is created. It is mainly due to magnetizing component of excitation current. 18. State the use of potential transformer. Used for m/s of high voltage Used for energizing relays and protective circuits.

19. Name the errors caused in potential transformer. Ratio error Phase angle error. 20. How the CT and PT are connected in the circuits. CT is connected in series and PT is connected in parallel. 21. Classify resistance. Low resistance Medium resistance High resistance

22. What is the range of medium resistance?

Resistance of about 1 ohm to 100 kilo ohms are called medium resistance. 23. Name the methods used for low resistance measurement. Ammeter voltmeter method Potentiometer method

Kelvin double bridge method

Ammeter voltmeter method Substitution method Wheatstone bridge method Carey foster bridge method. 25. Where high resistance m/s is required? Insulation resistance of cables High resistance circuit elements Volume resistivity of a material

24. Name the methods used for medium resistance measurement

Ohm meter method.

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Surface resistivity. 26. State the advantages of Wheatstone bridge method. Free from errors The balance is quit independent of source emf

27. State the advantages of Kelvin double bridge method. Errors owing to contact resistance, resistance of leads can be eliminated by using this Kelvin double bridge. 28. What are the constructional features of doctor ohmmeter? Permanent magnet Current coil Pressure coil Battery Pointer with graduated scale. 29. Define megger.

The megger is an instrument used for the measurement of high resistance and insulation resistance. 30. Name the parts of megger.

It consists of a hand driven dc generator and a direct reading true ohm meter. 31. What is the range of low resistance?

Resistance of 100 kilo ohms and above are usually termed as high resistance. 33. What ranges of resistance can be measured by using doctor ohmmeter. 0 to 500 micro ohms 0 to 5 milli ohms 0 to 50 milli ohms 0 to 500 milli ohms 0 to 5 ohms. 34. How resistance is measured in direct deflection method.

32. What is the range of medium resistance?

Resistance of about 1 ohm and under are included in this class.

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The deflection of galvanometer connected in series with the resistance to be measured gives a measure of the insulation resistance. 35. Classify the cables according to their sheathing. Armoured cables Unarmoured cables. 36. Name the leads present in megger. Earth lead Line lead Guard lead. 37. How resistance is measured by using ohm meter method. Series ohm meter method Shunt ohm meter method.

38. How resistance is measured in loss of charge method.

In this method a capacitor is charged and discharged for a specific time period and from this resistance is measured.

39. State the balance equation used in bridge methods. The product of opposite branch resistances are equal. 40. State the advantages of prices guard wire method. In this method leakage current does not flows through the meter and therefore it gives accurate reading.

41. How the earth resistance is measured.

AC bridges are used for the m/s of self and mutual inductance and capacitance. 43. State the balance equation used in ac bridges. The product of opposite branch impedances are equal. 44. Name the bridge circuits used for the m/s of self inductance. Maxwells bridge Maxwell-Wein Bridge Anderson bridge Hays bridge.

42. State the use of ac bridges.

By using earth megger the value of surface earth resistance can be measured.

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45. Name the bridge circuits used for the m/s of capacitance. De Sautys bridge Schering Bridge Wein bridge 46. Name the bridge circuits used for the m/s of mutual inductance. The Heaviside Campbell bridge The Campbell bridge. 47. Which type of detector is used in ac bridges? Vibration galvanometers are used. 48. Name the ac sources used in ac bridges. AC supply with step-down transformer Motor driven alternator

Audio frequency and radio frequency oscillator.

49. In which cases audio frequency oscillators are used as ac source. For high frequency ac requirement audio frequency oscillators are used. 50. Name the sources of errors in ac bridge m/s. Errors due to stray magnetic fields Leakage errors Eddy current errors Residual errors

Frequency and waveform errors.

52. State the disadvantage of Maxwell-wein bridge. This method needs a std variable capacitor. Variable Capacitor is costliest. 53. State the disadvantages of Hays bridge. The balance equation is dependent of frequency and therefore any changes in frequency will affect the m/s. 54. State the use of Wein bridge. It is used for the m/s of unknown capacitance and frequency.

The balance equation is independent of frequency and therefore more accurate.

51. State the advantages of Maxwell-wein bridge.

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55. What is the use of Campbell bridge? This is used for the m/s of mutual inductance. 56. What is meant by inductometer? The std variable mutual inductance meter is called as inductometer. 57. Define Q-factor of the coil. It is the ratio between power stored in the coil to the power dissipated in the coil. 58. Name the components of iron loss. Eddy current loss Hysterisis loss. 59. Name the faults that occurs in cables. Break down of cable insulation Short circuit fault Open conductor fault.

60. Name the loop test methods used in location of fault. Murray loop test Varley loop test.

61. How leakage errors are minimized in ac bridge circuits. By using high grade insulation.

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