Electricity generation

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turbo generator Electricity generation is the process of generating electric energy from other forms of energy. The fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered during the 1820s and early 1830s by the British scientist Michael Faraday. His basic method is still used today: electricity is generated by the movement of a loop of wire, or disc of copper between the poles of a magnet.[1] For electric utilities, it is the first process in the delivery of electricity to consumers. The other processes, electricity transmission, distribution, and electrical power storage and recovery using pumped-storage methods are normally carried out by the electric power industry. Electricity is most often generated at a power station by electromechanical generators, primarily driven by heat engines fueled by chemical combustion or nuclear fission but also by other means such as the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind. There are many other technologies that can be and are used to generate electricity such as solar photovoltaics and geothermal power.

Sources of electricity in the U.S. in 2009[2] fossil fuel generation (mainly coal) was the largest source.

Sources of electricity in France in 2006;[3] nuclear power was the main source.

Contents
[hide]

1 History 2 Methods of generating electricity

2.1 Turbines 2.2 Reciprocating engines 2.3 Photovoltaic panels 2.4 Other generation methods 3 Economics of Generation and Production of Electricity 4 Production o 4.1 Historical results of production of electricity o 4.2 Production by country 4.2.1 List of countries with source of electricity 2008 5 Environmental concerns 6 Water consumption 7 See also 8 References 9 External links

o o o o

[edit] History
Central power stations became economically practical with the development of alternating current power transmission, using power transformers to transmit power at high voltage and with low loss. Electricity has been generated at central stations since 1881. The first power plants were run on water power[4] or coal,[5] and today we rely mainly on coal, nuclear, natural gas, hydroelectric, and petroleum with a small amount from solar energy, tidal harnesses, wind generators, and geothermal sources.

[edit] Methods of generating electricity

There are seven fundamental methods of directly transforming other forms of energy into electrical energy:

Static electricity, from the physical separation and transport of charge (examples: triboelectric effect and lightning) Electromagnetic induction, where an electrical generator, dynamo or alternator transforms kinetic energy (energy of motion) into electricity, this is most used form for generating electricity, it is based on Faraday's law, can be experimented by simply rotating a magnet within closed loop of a conducting material (e.g. Copper wire) Electrochemistry, the direct transformation of chemical energy into electricity, as in a battery, fuel cell or nerve impulse

Photoelectric effect, the transformation of light into electrical energy, as in solar cells Thermoelectric effect, direct conversion of temperature differences to electricity, as in thermocouples, thermopiles, and thermionic converters. Piezoelectric effect, from the mechanical strain of electrically anisotropic molecules or crystals. Researchers at the US Department of Energy's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) have developed a piezoelectric generator sufficient to operate a liquid crystal display using thin films of M13 bacteriophage .[6] Nuclear transformation, the creation and acceleration of charged particles (examples: betavoltaics or alpha particle emission)

Static electricity was the first form discovered and investigated, and the electrostatic generator is still used even in modern devices such as the Van de Graaff generator and MHD generators. Charge carriers are separated and physically transported to a position of increased electric potential. Almost all commercial electrical generation is done using electromagnetic induction, in which mechanical energy forces an electrical generator to rotate. There are many different methods of developing the mechanical energy, including heat engines, hydro, wind and tidal power. The direct conversion of nuclear potential energy to electricity by beta decay is used only on a small scale. In a full-size nuclear power plant, the heat of a nuclear reaction is used to run a heat engine. This drives a generator, which converts mechanical energy into electricity by magnetic induction. Most electric generation is driven by heat engines. The combustion of fossil fuels supplies most of the heat to these engines, with a significant fraction from nuclear fission and some from renewable sources. The modern steam turbine (invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884) currently generates about 80 percent of the electric power in the world using a variety of heat sources.

[edit] Turbines

Large dams such as Three Gorges Dam in China can provide large amounts of hydroelectric power; it will have a 22.5 GW capability. All turbines are driven by a fluid acting as an intermediate energy carrier. Many of the heat engines just mentioned are turbines. Other types of turbines can be driven by wind or falling water. Sources include:

Steam - Water is boiled by: o Nuclear fission, o The burning of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, or petroleum). In hot gas (gas turbine), turbines are driven directly by gases produced by the combustion of natural gas or oil. Combined cycle gas turbine plants are driven by both steam and natural gas. They generate power by burning natural gas in a gas turbine and use residual heat to generate additional electricity from steam. These plants offer efficiencies of up to 60%. o Renewables. The steam generated by: Biomass Solar thermal energy (the sun as the heat source): solar parabolic troughs and solar power towers concentrate sunlight to heat a heat transfer fluid, which is then used to produce steam. Geothermal power. Either steam under pressure emerges from the ground and drives a turbine or hot water evaporates a low boiling liquid to create vapour to drive a turbine. Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC ): uses the small difference between cooler deep and warmer surface ocean waters to run a heat engine (usually a turbine). Other renewable sources:

Large dams such as Hoover Dam can provide large amounts of hydroelectric power; it has 2.07 GW capability.
o o

Water (hydroelectric) - Turbine blades are acted upon by flowing water, produced by hydroelectric dams or tidal forces. Wind - Most wind turbines generate electricity from naturally occurring wind. Solar updraft towers use wind that is artificially produced inside the chimney by heating it with sunlight, and are more properly seen as forms of solar thermal energy.

[edit] Reciprocating engines

Small electricity generators are often powered by reciprocating engines burning diesel, biogas or natural gas. Diesel engines are often used for back up generation, usually at low voltages. However most large power grids also use diesel generators, originally provided as emergency back up for a specific facility such as a hospital, to feed power into the grid during certain circumstances. Biogas is often combusted where it is produced, such as a landfill or wastewater treatment plant, with a reciprocating engine or a microturbine, which is a small gas turbine.

A coal-fired power plant in Laughlin, Nevada U.S.A. Owners of this plant ceased operations after declining to invest in pollution control equipment to comply with pollution regulations.[7]

[edit] Photovoltaic panels

Unlike the solar heat concentrators mentioned above, photovoltaic panels convert sunlight directly to electricity. Although sunlight is free and abundant, solar electricity is still usually more expensive to produce than large-scale mechanically generated power due to the cost of the panels. Low-efficiency silicon solar cells have been decreasing in cost and multijunction cells with close to 30% conversion efficiency are now commercially available. Over 40% efficiency has been demonstrated in experimental systems. [8] Until recently, photovoltaics were most commonly used in remote sites where there is no access to a commercial power grid, or as a supplemental electricity source for individual homes and businesses. Recent advances in manufacturing efficiency and photovoltaic technology, combined with subsidies driven by environmental concerns, have dramatically accelerated the deployment of solar panels. Installed capacity is growing by 40% per year led by increases in Germany, Japan, California and New Jersey.

[edit] Other generation methods

Wind-powered turbines usually provide electrical generation in conjunction with other methods of producing power. Various other technologies have been studied and developed for power generation. Solid-state generation (without moving parts) is of particular interest in portable applications. This area is largely dominated by thermoelectric (TE) devices, though thermionic (TI) and thermophotovoltaic (TPV) systems have been developed as well. Typically, TE devices are used at lower temperatures than TI and TPV systems. Piezoelectric devices are used for power generation from mechanical strain, particularly in power harvesting. Betavoltaics are another type of solid-state power generator which produces electricity from radioactive decay. Fluid-based magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power generation has been studied as a method for extracting electrical power from nuclear reactors and also from more conventional fuel combustion systems. Osmotic power finally is another possibility at places where salt and sweet water merges (e.g. deltas, ...) Electrochemical electricity generation is also important in portable and mobile applications. Currently, most electrochemical power comes from closed electrochemical cells ("batteries"),[9] which are arguably utilized more as storage systems than generation systems, but open electrochemical systems, known as fuel cells, have been undergoing a great deal of research and development in the last few years. Fuel cells can be used to extract power either from natural fuels or from synthesized fuels (mainly electrolytic hydrogen) and so can be viewed as either generation systems or storage systems depending on their use.

[edit] Economics of Generation and Production of Electricity

Main article: Economy of electricity generated by different sources The selection of modes of production and their economic viability varies in accordance with demand and region. Various types such as hydroelectric plants, nuclear power plants, thermal power plants and renewable sources have their own pros and cons and selection is based upon the local power requirement and the fluctuations in demand. Thermal energy is economical in areas with high industrial density as the demand is high which cannot be met by renewable sources. The effect of pollution caused is also minimized as industries are usually located on the outskirts away from residential areas. These plants can also withstand variation in load and consumption by adding more units or temporarily decreasing the production of some units. Nuclear power plants can also produce huge amount of power from a single unit but since most of the power plants built before 1990 use hard water as a coolant, setting them up near a source of hard water is the only viable economic option. Recent disasters in Japan have raised the concerns of safety of Nuclear power. Many countries are closing down on Nuclear Power Plants. They are set-up away from human settlements. Hydroelectric Power Plants are located in areas where the potential energy from the flowing water can be harnessed for moving turbines and generation of power. It is not economically viable source of production where the load varies too much during the annual production cycle and ability to stop the flow of water is limited. Renewable Sources other than hydroelectricity such as solar power, wind energy, tidal power etc. are currently expensive to produce. Though with advancement in technology, their cost of production is coming down. To offset their high cost and make their production economically feasible, most governments around the world provide subsidies on their production and use.

[edit] Production
The production of electricity in 2008 was 20,261TWh, which was 11% of the solar energy the earth receives in one hour (174,000TWh). Sources of electricity were fossil fuels 67%, renewable energy 18%, and nuclear power 13%. The majority of fossil fuel usage for the generation of electricity was of coal and gas. Oil was only 5.5%. Ninety-two percent of renewable energy was hydroelectric followed by wind at 6% and geothermal at 1.8%. Solar photovoltaic was 0.06%, and solar thermal was 0.004%. Data are from IEA/OECD (2008)[10] Source of Electricity (World total year 2008)

Natural Nuclear Hydro other Total Gas Average electric power (TWh/year) 8,263 1,111 4,301 2,731 3,288 568 20,261 Average electric power (GW) 942.6 126.7 490.7 311.6 375.1 64.8 2311.4 Proportion 41% 5% 21% 13% 16% 3% 100% Coal Oil
data source IEA/OECD

Energy Flow of Power Plant Total energy consumed at all power plants for the generation of electricity was 4,398,768 ktoe (kilo ton of oil equivalent) which was 36% of the total for primary energy sources (TPES) of 2008. Electricity output (gross) was 1,735,579 ktoe (20,185 TWh), efficiency was 39%, and the balance of 61% was generated heat. A small part(145,141 ktoe, which was 3% of the input total) of the heat was utilized at co-generation heat and power plants. The in-house consumption of electricity and power transmission losses were 289,681 ktoe. The amount supplied to the final consumer was 1,445,285 ktoe (16,430 TWh) which was 33% of the total energy consumed at power plants and heat and power co-generation (CHP) plants.[11]

[edit] Historical results of production of electricity

[edit] Production by country

Electricity output in 2005 Main article: World energy resources and consumption See also: Electricity consumption The United States has long been the largest producer and consumer of electricity, with a global share in 2005 of at least 25%, followed by China, Japan, Russia, and India. As of Jan-2010, total electricity generation for the 2 largest generators was as follows: USA: 3992 billion kWh (3992 TWh) China: 3715 billion kWh (3715 TWh)

[edit] List of countries with source of electricity 2008 Data source of values (electric power generated) is IEA/OECD[12] Listed countries are top 20 by population or top 20 by GDP (PPP) and Saudi Arabia based on CIA World Factbook 2009.[13] Composition of Electricity by Resource (TWh per year 2008) Fossil Fuel Renewable Bio Nuclear rank sub Geo Solar Solar Wind Tide sub rank other* total rank rank Coal Oil Gas Hydro Thermal PV* Thermal total total 8,263 1,111 4,301 13,675 - 2,731 - 3,288 65 12 0.9 219 0.5 3,584 - 271 20,261 41% 5.5% 21% 67% - 13% - 16% 0.3% 0.06% 0.004% 1.1% 0.003% 18% - 1.3% 100% 31 2,788 2 68 8 0.2 13 2,733 23 585 598 1 2.4 3,457 2 569 34 82 685 5 15 12 114 0.02 14 128 6 2.0 830 5 1 282 1.6 0.88 2,133 58 911 3,101 1 838 17 56 357 4 73 4,369 1 61 43 25 130 19 12 8.3 20 17 149 20 13 18 29 59 23 14 13 370 0.6 463 9 370 3 20 0.1 32 30 62 22 1.6 160 28 28 14 92 24 0.6 1.7 31 33 27 1.5 1.5 29 35 27 3.1 12 15 28 5.7 5.7 25 21 28 197 16 495 708 4 163 4 167 0.5 0.01 167 5 2.5 1,040 4 288 139 283 711 3 258 3 83 2.8 2.6 91 7 2.3 22 1,082 3 21 49 131 202 13 9.8 14 39 7.1 0.01 0.3 47 12 0.8 259 14 16 4.9 20 40 26 9.8 0.1 21 16 61 26 11 0.001 15 1.6 30 47 25 26 26 15 73 25 0.5 0.5 29 3.3 0.01 3.3 28 3.8 30 26 90 115 20 15 0.9 16 20 131 22 291 9.2 88 388 6 148 5 27 0.02 4.4 72 9 637 7 41 29

Country World total Proportion China India USA Indonesia Brazil Pakistan Bangladesh Nigeria Russia Japan Mexico Philippines Vietnam Ethiopia Egypt Germany

58 7.5 99 - 0.02 0.03 DR Congo 0.4 36 173 Iran 32 1.7 102 Thailand 27 5.8 22 France 127 6.1 177 UK 49 31 173 Italy South 192 15 81 Korea 50 18 122 Spain 112 9.8 41 Canada Saudi 116 88 Arabia 125 14 46 Taiwan Australia 198 2.8 39 Turkey Netherlands Country 27 2.1 63

164 0.05 209 135 55 310 253 288 190 162 204 186 239 92

16 30 11 18 24 7 9 8 14 17 12 15 10 21

439 52 151 59 94 41 4.2

2 10 5 9 7 11 15

33 7.5 5.0 7.1 68 9.3 47 5.6 26 383 7.8 12 0.1

0.16 0.002 0.003 0.04 0.02 5.5 0.2 0.3 2.6 0.03 -

0.02 -

0.85 0.20 5.7 0.51 7.1 4.9 0.4 32 3.8 0.6 3.9 4.3 0.03 -

34 7.5 5.2 7.1 75 16 58 6.3

13 0.22 22 26 23 4.8 8 5.9 18 11 11 8.6 24 0.7 4.3 8.5 3.5 2.2 6.8

198 7.5 215 147 575 389 319 446 314 651 204 238 257 108

19 29 17 21 8 11 12 10 13 6 18 16 15 23

61 10 386 2 8.4 16 4.4 21 19 27

0.004 0.2 0.004 0.04 -

Coal Oil Gas

sub Geo Solar Solar Wind Tide sub rank Bio Total rank rank Nuclear rank Hydro Thermal PV Thermal other total total

Solar PV* is Photovoltaics Bio other* = 198TWh (Biomass) + 69TWh (Waste) + 4TWh (other)

[edit] Environmental concerns

Main articles: Global warming and Coal phase out Most scientists agree that emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases from fossil fuel-based electricity generation account for a significant portion of world greenhouse gas emissions; in the United States, electricity generation accounts for nearly 40 percent of

emissions, the largest of any source. Transportation emissions are close behind, contributing about one-third of U.S. production of carbon dioxide.[14] In the United States, fossil fuel combustion for electric power generation is responsible for 65% of all emissions of sulfur dioxide, the main component of acid rain.[15] Electricity generation is the fourth highest combined source of NOx, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter in the US.[16] In July 2011, the UK parliament tabled a motion that "levels of (carbon) emissions from nuclear power were approximately three times lower per kilowatt hour than those of solar, four times lower than clean coal and 36 times lower than conventional coal".[17] Though PV generation is positioned as environmentally friendly, fabrication of PV cells utilizes substantial amounts of water in addition to toxic chemicals such as phosphorus and arsenic. These are often overlooked when promoting PV. Because of strict environmental regulations in the United States, for example, PV fabrication is often performed in countries with lower standards, such as China.[citation needed]

[edit] Water consumption

Most large scale thermoelectric power stations consume considerable amounts of water for cooling purposes and boiler water make up - 1 L/kWh for once through (e.g. river cooling), and 1.7 L/kWh for cooling tower cooling.[18] Water abstraction for cooling water accounts for about 40% of European total water abstraction, although most of this water is returned to its source, albeit slightly warmer. Different cooling systems have different consumption vs. abstraction characteristics. Cooling towers withdraw a small amount of water from the environment and evaporate most of it. Once-through systems withdraw a large amount but return it to the environment immediately, at a higher temperature

[edit] See also

Energy portal

Relative cost of electricity generated by different sources Directive on Electricity Production from Renewable Energy Sources Distributed generation

Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated Database List of countries by electricity production from renewable source Droop speed control Electric power transmission Electric utility EURELECTRIC Electricity distribution Electricity retailing Energy development Environmental concerns with electricity generation Eugene Green Energy Standard Generating Availability Data System Load profile Mains electricity Parallel generation Power quality Virtual power plant Voltage drop

[edit] References
1. 2. 3. ^ 'The Institution of Engineering & Technology: Michael Faraday' ^ http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/epm/table1_1.html ^ (French) DGEMP / Observatoire de l'nergie (April 2007). "LElectricit en France en 2006 : une analyse statistique." (PDF). http://www.industrie.gouv.fr/energie/statisti/pdf/elec-analyse-stat.pdf. Retrieved 2007-05-23. 4. ^ In 1881, under the leadership of Jacob Schoellkopf, the first hydroelectric generating station was built on Niagara Falls. 5. ^ Pearl Street Station: The Dawn of Commercial Electric Power 6. ^ "piezoelectric generator". http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/Electricity-generated-from-harmless-viruses/articleshow/13133756.cms. Retrieved 2012-05-20. 7. ^ Reuters News Service (2005-12-30). "Mohave Power Plant in Nevada to Close as Expected". Planet Ark. http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/34265/story.htm. Retrieved 2007-07-16. 8. ^ New World Record Achieved in Solar Cell Technology (press release, 2006-12-05), U.S. Department of Energy. 9. ^ World's Largest Utility Battery System Installed in Alaska (press release, 2003-09-24), U.S. Department of Energy. "13,670 nickel-cadmium battery cells to generate up to 40 megawatts of power for about 7 minutes, or 27 megawatts of power for 15 minutes." 10. ^ IEA/OECD IEA Statistics/Electricity and Heat by country

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

17. 18.

^ International Energy Agency, "2008 Energy Balance for World", 2011. ^ IEA Statistics and Balances retrieved 2011-5-8 ^ CIA World Factbook 2009 retrieved 2011-5-8 ^ Borenstein, Seth (2007-06-03). "Carbon-emissions culprit? Coal". The Seattle Times. http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2003732690_carbon03.html. ^ "Sulfur Dioxide". US Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/air/sulfurdioxide/. ^ "AirData". US Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/cgibin/broker?_service=airdata&_program=progs.webprogs.emcatbar.scl&_debug=2&geotype=us&geocode=USA&geoname=United+States&epol=CO+ NOX+VOC+SO2+PM25+PM10&years=2002&mapsize=zsc&reqtype=viewmap. ^ http://www.parliament.uk/edm/2010-12/2061 ^ AAAS Annual Meeting 17 - 21 Feb 2011, Washington DC. Sustainable or Not? Impacts and Uncertainties of Low-Carbon Energy Technologies on Water.Evangelos Tzimas , European Commission, JRC Institute for Energy, Petten, Netherlands

[edit] External links

Electricity - A Visual Primer Power Technologies Energy Data Book NOW on PBS: Power Struggle This Week in Energy (TWiEpodcast) Electricity: From Table-top to Powerplant The Power Sector in Lebanon via Carboun [hide]

v t e

Electricity delivery

Concepts

Availability factor Baseload Black start Capacity factor Demand factor

Demand management EROEI Grid storage Intermittency Load following Nameplate capacity Peak demand Repowering Spark spread

Nonrenewable

Coal Fossil-fuel power station Natural gas Petroleum Nuclear Oil shale Biomass Geothermal Hydro Marine Solar Wind

Sources

Renewable

Technology

AC power Cogeneration Combined cycle Cooling tower Induction generator Micro CHP Microgeneration

Rankine cycle Three-phase electric power Virtual power plant Demand response Distributed generation Dynamic demand Electricity distribution Electrical grid High-voltage direct current Load management Pumped hydro Negawatts Smart grid Substation Super grid Transformer TSO Transmission tower Utility pole Carbon offset Ecotax Energy subsidies Feed-in tariff Fossil-fuel phase-out Net metering Pigovian tax Renewable Energy Certificates Renewable energy payments Renewable energy policy

Transmission & Distribution

Policies

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Michael Faraday
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Michael Faraday

Michael Faraday

Born

22 September 1791

Newington Butts, England

Died

25 August 1867 (aged 75) Hampton Court, Middlesex, England

Residence

United Kingdom

Nationality

British

Fields

Physics and Chemistry

Institutions

Royal Institution

Known for

Faraday's law of induction Electrochemistry Faraday effect Faraday cage Faraday constant Faraday cup Faraday's laws of electrolysis Faraday paradox Faraday rotator Faraday-efficiency effect Faraday wave Faraday wheel Lines of force

Influences

Humphry Davy William Thomas Brande

Notable awards

Royal Medal (1835 & 1846) Copley Medal (1832 & 1838) Rumford Medal (1846)

Signature

Michael Faraday, FRS (22 September 1791 25 August 1867) was a British scientist who contributed to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. His main discoveries include that of electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis. Although Faraday received little formal education he was one of the most influential scientists in history,[1] and historians of science[2] refer to him as having been the best experimentalist in the history of science.[3] It was by his research on the magnetic field around a conductor carrying a direct current that Faraday established the basis for the concept of the electromagnetic field in physics. Faraday also established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was an underlying relationship between the two phenomena.[4][5] He similarly discovered the principle of electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, and the laws of electrolysis. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts that electricity became viable for use in technology. As a chemist, Faraday discovered benzene, investigated the clathrate hydrate of chlorine, invented an early form of the Bunsen burner and the system of oxidation numbers, and popularised terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion. Faraday ultimately became the first and foremost Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a lifetime position. Faraday was an excellent experimentalist who conveyed his ideas in clear and simple language; his mathematical abilities, however, did not extend as far as trigonometry or any but the simplest algebra. Maxwell took the work of Faraday and others, and summarized it in a set of equations that is accepted as the basis of all modern theories of electromagnetic phenomena. On Faraday's uses of the lines

of force, Maxwell wrote that they show Faraday "to have been in reality a mathematician of a very high order one from whom the mathematicians of the future may derive valuable and fertile methods."[6] It is said that Albert Einstein kept a picture of Faraday on his study wall, alongside the picture of Isaac Newton and a photograph of James Clerk Maxwell.[7] The SI unit of capacitance, the farad, is named in his honour.

Contents
[hide]

1 Early life 2 Scientific achievements o 2.1 Chemistry o 2.2 Electricity and magnetism o 2.3 Diamagnetism o 2.4 Faraday cage 3 Royal Institution and public service 4 Later life 5 Commemorations 6 Bibliography 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading o 9.1 Biographies 10 External links o 10.1 Biographies o 10.2 Others

[edit] Early life

Faraday was born in Newington Butts,[8] which is now part of the London Borough of Southwark, but which was then a suburban part of Surrey.[9] His family was not well off; his father, James, was a member of the Glassite sect of Christianity. James Faraday moved his wife and two children to London during the winter of 1790 from Outhgill in Westmorland, where he had been an apprentice to the village blacksmith.[10] Michael was born the autumn of that year. The young Michael Faraday, who was the third of four children, having only the most basic school education, had to educate himself.[11] At fourteen he became the apprentice to George Riebau, a local bookbinder and bookseller in Blandford Street.[12] During his seven-year apprenticeship he read many books, including Isaac Watts' The Improvement of the Mind, and he enthusiastically implemented the principles and suggestions contained therein. At this time he also developed an interest in science, especially in electricity. Faraday was particularly inspired by the book Conversations on Chemistry by Jane Marcet.[13]

Portrait of Faraday in his late thirties In 1812, at the age of twenty, and at the end of his apprenticeship, Faraday attended lectures by the eminent English chemist Humphry Davy of the Royal Institution and Royal Society, and John Tatum, founder of the City Philosophical Society. Many of the tickets for these lectures were given to Faraday by William Dance, who was one of the founders of the Royal Philharmonic Society. Faraday subsequently sent Davy a three-hundred-page book based on notes that he had taken during these lectures. Davy's reply was immediate, kind, and favourable. When Davy damaged his eyesight in an accident with nitrogen trichloride, he decided to employ

Faraday as a secretary. When one of the Royal Institution's assistants, John Payne, was sacked, Sir Humphry Davy was asked to find a replacement, and appointed Faraday as Chemical Assistant at the Royal Institution on 1 March 1813.[4] In the class-based English society of the time, Faraday was not considered a gentleman. When Davy set out on a long tour of the continent in 181315, his valet did not wish to go. Instead, Faraday went as Davy's scientific assistant, and was asked to act as Davy's valet until a replacement could be found in Paris. Faraday was forced to fill the role of valet as well as assistant throughout the trip. Davy's wife, Jane Apreece, refused to treat Faraday as an equal (making him travel outside the coach, eat with the servants, etc.), and made Faraday so miserable that he contemplated returning to England alone and giving up science altogether. The trip did, however, give him access to the scientific elite of Europe and exposed him to a host of stimulating ideas.[4] Faraday married Sarah Barnard (18001879) on 12 June 1821.[14] They met through their families at the Sandemanian church, and he confessed his faith to the Sandemanian congregation the month after they were married. They had no children.[8] Faraday was a devout Christian; his Sandemanian denomination was an offshoot of the Church of Scotland. Well after his marriage, he served as Deacon and for two terms as an Elder in the meeting house of his youth. His church was located at Paul's Alley in the Barbican. This meeting house was relocated in 1862 to Barnsbury Grove, Islington; this North London location was where Faraday served the final two years of his second term as Elder prior to his resignation from that post.[15][16] Biographers have noted that "a strong sense of the unity of God and nature pervaded Faraday's life and work."[17]

[edit] Scientific achievements

[edit] Chemistry

Michael Faraday in his laboratory, ca. 1850s by artist Harriet Jane Moore who documented Faraday's life in watercolours.

Faraday's earliest chemical work was as an assistant to Humphry Davy. Faraday was specifically involved in the study of chlorine; he discovered two new compounds of chlorine and carbon. He also conducted the first rough experiments on the diffusion of gases, a phenomenon that was first pointed out by John Dalton, and the physical importance of which was more fully brought to light by Thomas Graham and Joseph Loschmidt. Faraday succeeded in liquefying several gases, investigated the alloys of steel, and produced several new kinds of glass intended for optical purposes. A specimen of one of these heavy glasses subsequently became historically important; when the glass was placed in a magnetic field Faraday determined the rotation of the plane of polarisation of light. This specimen was also the first substance found to be repelled by the poles of a magnet. Faraday invented an early form of what was to become the Bunsen burner, which is in practical use in science laboratories around the world as a convenient source of heat.[18][19] Faraday worked extensively in the field of chemistry, discovering chemical substances such as benzene (which he called bicarburet of hydrogen), and liquefying gases such as chlorine. The liquefying of gases helped to establish that gases are the vapours of liquids possessing a very low boiling point, and gave a more solid basis to the concept of molecular aggregation. In 1820 Faraday reported the first synthesis of compounds made from carbon and chlorine, C2Cl6 and C2Cl4, and published his results the following year.[20][21][22] Faraday also determined the composition of the chlorine clathrate hydrate, which had been discovered by Humphry Davy in 1810.[23][24] Faraday is also responsible for discovering the laws of electrolysis, and for popularizing terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion, terms proposed in large part by William Whewell. Faraday was the first to report what later came to be called metallic nanoparticles. In 1847 he discovered that the optical properties of gold colloids differed from those of the corresponding bulk metal. This was probably the first reported observation of the effects of quantum size, and might be considered to be the birth of nanoscience.[25]

[edit] Electricity and magnetism

Faraday is best known for his work regarding electricity and magnetism. His first recorded experiment was the construction of a voltaic pile with seven halfpence pieces, stacked together with seven disks of sheet zinc, and six pieces of paper moistened with salt water. With this pile he decomposed sulphate of magnesia (first letter to Abbott, 12 July 1812).

One of Faraday's 1831 experiments demonstrating induction. The liquid battery (right) sends an electric current through the small coil (A). When it is moved in or out of the large coil (B), its magnetic field induces a momentary voltage in the coil, which is detected by the galvanometer (G).

Electromagnetic rotation experiment of Faraday, ca. 1821[26] In 1821, soon after the Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian rsted discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetism, Davy and British scientist William Hyde Wollaston tried, but failed, to design an electric motor.[5] Faraday, having discussed the problem with the two men, went on to build two devices to produce what he called "electromagnetic rotation". One of these, now known as the homopolar motor, caused a continuous circular motion that was engendered by the circular magnetic force around a wire that extended into a pool of mercury wherein was placed a magnet; the wire would then rotate around the magnet if supplied with current from a

chemical battery. These experiments and inventions formed the foundation of modern electromagnetic technology. In his excitement, Faraday published results without acknowledging his work with either Wollaston or Davy. The resulting controversy within the Royal Society strained his mentor relationship with Davy and may well have contributed to Faradays assignment to other activities, which consequently prevented his involvement in electromagnetic research for several years.[27][28] From his initial discovery in 1821, Faraday continued his laboratory work, exploring electromagnetic properties of materials and developing requisite experience. In 1824, Faraday briefly set up a circuit to study whether a magnetic field could regulate the flow of a current in an adjacent wire, but he found no such relationship.[29] This experiment followed similar work conducted with light and magnets three years earlier that yielded identical results.[30][31] During the next seven years, Faraday spent much of his time perfecting his recipe for optical quality (heavy) glass, borosilicate of lead,[32] which he used in his future studies connecting light with magnetism.[33] In his spare time, Faraday continued publishing his experimental work on optics and electromagnetism; he conducted correspondence with scientists whom he had met on his journeys across Europe with Davy, and who were also working on electromagnetism.[34] Two years after the death of Davy, in 1831, he began his great series of experiments in which he discovered electromagnetic induction. Joseph Henry likely discovered self-induction a few months earlier and both may have been anticipated by the work of Francesco Zantedeschi in Italy in 1829 and 1830.[35]

English chemists John Daniell (left) and Michael Faraday (right), credited as founders of electrochemistry today.

A diagram of Faraday's iron ring-coil apparatus Faraday's breakthrough came when he wrapped two insulated coils of wire around an iron[verification needed] ring, and found that, upon passing a current through one coil, a momentary current was induced in the other coil.[5] This phenomenon is now known as mutual induction. The iron ring-coil apparatus is still on display at the Royal Institution. In subsequent experiments, he found that, if he moved a magnet through a loop of wire, an electric current flowed in that wire. The current also flowed if the loop was moved over a stationary magnet. His demonstrations established that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field; this relation was modelled mathematically by James Clerk Maxwell as Faraday's law, which subsequently became one of the four Maxwell equations, and which have in turn evolved into the generalization known today as field theory. Faraday would later use the principles he had discovered to construct the electric dynamo, the ancestor of modern power generators. In 1839, he completed a series of experiments aimed at investigating the fundamental nature of electricity; Faraday used "static", batteries, and "animal electricity" to produce the phenomena of electrostatic attraction, electrolysis, magnetism, etc. He concluded that, contrary to the scientific opinion of the time, the divisions between the various "kinds" of electricity were illusory. Faraday instead proposed that only a single "electricity" exists, and the changing values of quantity and intensity (current and voltage) would produce different groups of phenomena.[5] Near the end of his career, Faraday proposed that electromagnetic forces extended into the empty space around the conductor. This idea was rejected by his fellow scientists, and Faraday did not live to see the eventual acceptance of his proposition by the scientific community. Faraday's concept of lines of flux emanating from charged bodies and magnets provided a way to visualize electric and magnetic fields; that conceptual model was crucial for the successful development of the electromechanical devices that dominated engineering and industry for the remainder of the 19th century.

[edit] Diamagnetism

Michael Faraday holding a glass bar of the type he used in 1845 to show that magnetism can affect light in a dielectric material.[36] In 1845, Faraday discovered that many materials exhibit a weak repulsion from a magnetic field: a phenomenon he termed diamagnetism. Faraday also discovered that the plane of polarization of linearly polarized light can be rotated by the application of an external magnetic field aligned in the direction which the light is moving. This is now termed the Faraday effect. He wrote in his notebook, "I have at last succeeded in illuminating a magnetic curve or line of force and in magnetising a ray of light". Later on in his life, in 1862, Faraday used a spectroscope to search for a different alteration of light, the change of spectral lines by an applied magnetic field. The equipment available to him was, however, insufficient for a definite determination of spectral change. Pieter Zeeman later used an improved apparatus to study the same phenomenon, publishing his results in 1897 and receiving the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics for his success. In both his 1897 paper[37] and his Nobel acceptance speech,[38] Zeeman made reference to Faraday's work.

[edit] Faraday cage

In his work on static electricity, Faraday's ice pail experiment demonstrated that the charge resided only on the exterior of a charged conductor, and exterior charge had no influence on anything enclosed within a conductor. This is because the exterior charges redistribute such that the interior fields due to them cancel. This shielding effect is used in what is now known as a Faraday cage.

[edit] Royal Institution and public service

Michael Faraday meets Father Thames, from Punch (21 July 1855)

Lighthouse lantern room from mid 1800s Faraday was the first Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a position to which he was appointed for life. His sponsor and mentor was John 'Mad Jack' Fuller, who created the position at the Royal Institution. Faraday was elected a member of the Royal Society in 1824,[8] appointed director of the laboratory in 1825; and in 1833 he was appointed Fullerian Professor of Chemistry in the institution for life, without the obligation to deliver lectures. Beyond his scientific research into areas such as chemistry, electricity, and magnetism at the Royal Institution, Faraday undertook numerous, and often time-consuming, service projects for private enterprise and the British government. This work included investigations of explosions in coal mines, being an expert witness in court, and the preparation of high-quality optical glass. In 1846, together with Charles Lyell, he produced a lengthy and detailed report on a serious explosion in the colliery at Haswell County Durham, which killed 95 miners. Their report was a meticulous forensic investigation and indicated that coal dust contributed to the severity of the explosion. The report should have warned coal owners of the hazard of coal dust explosions, but the risk was ignored for over 60 years until the Senghenydd Colliery Disaster of 1913.

As a respected scientist in a nation with strong maritime interests, Faraday spent extensive amounts of time on projects such as the construction and operation of light houses and protecting the bottoms of ships from corrosion. His workshop still stands at Trinity Buoy Wharf above the Chain and Buoy Store, next to London's only lighthouse and a school that is named after him. Faraday was also active in what would now be called environmental science, or engineering. He investigated industrial pollution at Swansea and was consulted on air pollution at the Royal Mint. In July 1855, Faraday wrote a letter to The Times on the subject of the foul condition of the River Thames, which resulted in an oft-reprinted cartoon in Punch. (See also The Great Stink.) Faraday assisted with the planning and judging of exhibits for the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. He also advised the National Gallery on the cleaning and protection of its art collection, and served on the National Gallery Site Commission in 1857. Education was another of Faraday's areas of service; he lectured on the topic in 1854 at the Royal Institution, and in 1862 he appeared before a Public Schools Commission to give his views on education in Great Britain. Faraday also weighed in negatively on the public's fascination with table-turning, mesmerism, and seances, and in so doing chastised both the public and the nation's educational system.[39] Faraday gave a successful series of lectures on the chemistry and physics of flames at the Royal Institution, entitled The Chemical History of a Candle. This was one of the earliest Christmas lectures for young people, which are still given each year. Between 1827 and 1860, Faraday gave the Christmas lectures a record nineteen times.

[edit] Later life

Faraday in old age.

Michael Faraday delivering a Christmas Lecture in 1856. In June 1832, the University of Oxford granted Faraday a Doctor of Civil Law degree (honorary). During his lifetime, Faraday rejected a knighthood and twice refused to become President of the Royal Society. Faraday was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1838, and was one of eight foreign members elected to the French Academy of Sciences in 1844.[40]

In 1848, as a result of representations by the Prince Consort, Michael Faraday was awarded a grace and favour house in Hampton Court in Middlesex, free of all expenses or upkeep. This was the Master Mason's House, later called Faraday House, and now No.37 Hampton Court Road. In 1858 Faraday retired to live there.[41] When asked by the British government to advise on the production of chemical weapons for use in the Crimean War (18531856), Faraday refused to participate citing ethical reasons.[42] Faraday died at his house at Hampton Court on 25 August 1867 aged 75 years and 11 months.[43] He had previously turned down burial in Westminster Abbey, but he has a memorial plaque there, near Isaac Newton's tomb. Faraday was interred in the dissenters' (non-Anglican) section of Highgate Cemetery. Hirshfeld maintains in his biography that Faraday suffered from mental breakdown due to his intellectual exertions so that he became debilitated by the end of his life and unable to conduct any meaningful research.

[edit] Commemorations

Michael Faraday, statue in Savoy Place, London. Sculptor John Henry Foley RA Faraday School is located on Trinity Buoy Wharf where his workshop still stands above the Chain and Buoy Store, next to London's only lighthouse. A statue of Faraday stands in Savoy Place, London, outside the Institution of Engineering and Technology. Also in London, the Michael Faraday Memorial, designed by brutalist architect Rodney Gordon and completed in 1961, is at the Elephant & Castle gyratory system, near Faraday's birthplace at Newington Butts. Faraday Gardens is a small park in Walworth, London, not far from his birthplace at Newington Butts. This park lies within the local council ward of Faraday in the London Borough of Southwark. A building at London South Bank University, which houses the institute's electrical engineering departments is named the Faraday Wing, due to its proximity to Faraday's birthplace in Newington Butts. A hall at Loughborough University was named after Faraday in 1960. Near the entrance to its dining hall is a bronze casting, which depicts the symbol of an electrical transformer, and inside there hangs a portrait, both in Faraday's honour. An eight-story building at the University of Edinburgh's science & engineering campus is named for Faraday, as is a recently built hall of accommodation at Brunel University, the main engineering building at Swansea University, and the instructional and experimental physics building at Northern Illinois University. The former UK Faraday Station in Antarctica was named after him. Streets named for Faraday can be found in many British cities (e.g., London, Fife, Swindon, Basingstoke, Nottingham, Whitby, Kirkby, Crawley, Newbury, Swansea, Aylesbury and Stevenage) as well as in France (Paris), Germany (Hermsdorf), Canada (Quebec; Deep River, Ontario; Ottawa, Ontario), and the United States (Reston, Virginia). From 1991 until 2001, Faraday's picture featured on the reverse of Series E 20 banknotes issued by the Bank of England. He was shown conducting a lecture at the Royal Institution with the magneto-electric spark apparatus.[44]

[edit] Bibliography
Faraday's books, with the exception of Chemical Manipulation, were collections of scientific papers or transcriptions of lectures.[45] Since his death, Faraday's diary has been published, as have several large volumes of his letters and Faraday's journal from his travels with Davy in 18131815.

Faraday, Michael (1827). Chemical Manipulation, Being Instructions to Students in Chemistry. John Murray.2nd ed. 1830, 3rd ed. 1842 Faraday, Michael (1839, 1844). Experimental Researches in Electricity, vols. i. and ii.. Richard and John Edward Taylor. http://www.archive.org/details/experimentalrese00faraiala.; vol. iii. Richard Taylor and William Francis, 1855 Faraday, Michael (1859). Experimental Researches in Chemistry and Physics. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 0-85066-841-7. http://www.archive.org/details/experimentalrese00fararich. Faraday, Michael (1861). W. Crookes. ed. A Course of Six Lectures on the Chemical History of a Candle. Griffin, Bohn & Co.. ISBN 1-4255-1974-1. http://www.archive.org/details/chemicalhistoryo00faraiala. Faraday, Michael (1873). W. Crookes. ed. On the Various Forces in Nature. Chatto and Windus. http://www.archive.org/details/onvariousforceso00farauoft. Faraday, Michael (19321936). T. Martin. ed. Diary. ISBN 0-7135-0439-0. published in eight volumes; see also the 2009 publication of Faraday's diary Faraday, Michael (1991). B. Bowers and L. Symons. ed. Curiosity Perfectly Satisfyed: Faraday's Travels in Europe 1813 1815. Institution of Electrical Engineers. Faraday, Michael (1991). F. A. J. L. James. ed. The Correspondence of Michael Faraday. 1. INSPEC, Inc.. ISBN 0-86341248-3. volume 2, 1993; volume 3, 1996; volume 4, 1999 Faraday, Michael (2008). Alice Jenkins. ed. Michael Faraday's Mental Exercises: An Artisan Essay Circle in Regency London. Liverpool, UK: Liverpool University Press. Course of six lectures on the various forces of matter, and their relations to each other London; Glasgow: R. Griffin, 1860. The liquefaction of gases Edinburgh: W. F. Clay, 1896. The letters of Faraday and Schoenbein 18361862. With notes, comments and references to contemporary letters London: Williams & Norgate 1899.

[edit] See also

Michael Faraday's grave at Highgate Cemetery

Faraday rotator Homopolar generator Faraday (Unit of electrical charge) Farad (Unit of electrical capacitance) Forensic engineering Lines of force Zeeman effect Timeline of hydrogen technologies Timeline of low-temperature technology Faraday paradox Hans Christian rsted Faraday cage

[edit] References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. ^ Hart, Michael H. (2000). The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History. New York: Citadel. ISBN 0-89104-175-3. ^ Russell, Colin (2000). Michael Faraday: Physics and Faith. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511763-8. ^ "best experimentalist in the history of science." Quoting Dr Peter Ford, from the University of Baths Department of Physics. Accessed January 2007. ^ a b c Michael Faraday entry at the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica hosted by LovetoKnow Retrieved January 2007. ^ a b c d "Archives Biographies: Michael Faraday", The Institution of Engineering and Technology. ^ The Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell Volume 1 page 360; Courier Dover 2003, ISBN 0-486-49560-4 ^ "Einstein's Heroes: Imagining the World through the Language of Mathematics", by Robyn Arianrhod UQP, reviewed by Jane Gleeson-White, 10 November 2003, The Sydney Morning Herald. ^ a b c Frank A. J. L. James, Faraday, Michael (17911867), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Sept 2004; online edn, Jan 2008 accessed 3 March 2009 ^ For a concise account of Faradays life including his childhood, see pages 17583 of EVERY SATURDAY: A JOURNAL OF CHOICE READING, Vol III published at Cambridge in 1873 by Osgood & Co. ^ The implication was that James discovered job opportunities elsewhere through membership of this sect. James joined the London meeting house on 20 February 1791, and moved his family shortly thereafter. See pages 578 of Cantor's (1991) Michael Faraday, Sandemanian and Scientist. ^ "Michael Faraday." History of Science and Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 4 June 2007 ^ Plaque #19 on Open Plaques. ^ John H. Lienhard (1992). "Jane Marcet's Books". The Engines of Our Ingenuity. episode 744. NPR. KUHF-FM Houston. ^ The register at St. Faith-in-the-Virgin near St. Paul's Cathedral, records 12 June as the date their licence was issued. The witness was Sarah's father, Edward. Their marriage was 16 years prior to the Marriage and Registration Act of 1837. See page 59 of Cantor's (1991) Michael Faraday, Sandemanian and Scientist. ^ See pages 4143, 604, and 277-80 of Geoffrey Cantor's (1991) Michael Faraday, Sandemanian and Scientist. ^ Paul's Alley was located 10 houses south of the Barbican. See page 330 Elmes's (1831) Topographical Dictionary of the British Metropolis. ^ Baggott, Jim (2 September 1991). "The myth of Michael Faraday: Michael Faraday was not just one of Britain's greatest experimenters. A closer look at the man and his work reveals that he was also a clever theoretician". New Scientist. http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg13117874.600-the-mythof-michael-faraday-michael-faraday-was-not-justone-of-britains-greatest-experimenters-a-closer-look-at-the-man-and-hiswork-reveals-that-he-was-alsoa-clever-theoretician-.html. Retrieved 6 September 2008. ^ Jensen, William B. (2005). "The Origin of the Bunsen Burner" (PDF). Journal of Chemical Education 82 (4). http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/HS/Journal/Issues/2005/Apr/clicSubscriber/V82N04/p518.pdf. ^ See page 127 of Faraday's Chemical Manipulation, Being Instructions to Students in Chemistry (1827) ^ Faraday, Michael (1821). "On two new Compounds of Chlorine and Carbon, and on a new Compound of Iodine, Carbon, and Hydrogen". Philosophical Transactions 111: 47. DOI:10.1098/rstl.1821.0007. ^ Faraday, Michael (1859). Experimental Researches in Chemistry and Physics. London: Richard Taylor and William Francis. pp. 3353. ISBN 085066-841-7. ^ Williams, L. Pearce (1965). Michael Faraday: A Biography. New York: Basic Books. pp. 122123. ISBN 0-306-80299-6. ^ Faraday, Michael (1823). "On Hydrate of Chlorine". Quartly Journal of Science 15: 71. ^ Faraday, Michael (1859). Experimental Researches in Chemistry and Physics. London: Richard Taylor and William Francis. pp. 8184. ISBN 085066-841-7.

15. 16. 17.

18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

25. ^ "The Birth of Nanotechnology". Nanogallery.info. 2006. http://www.nanogallery.info/nanogallery/?ipg=126. Retrieved 25 July 2007. ""Faraday made some attempt to explain what was causing the vivid coloration in his gold mixtures, saying that known phenomena seemed to indicate that a mere variation in the size of gold particles gave rise to a variety of resultant colors."" 26. ^ Faraday, Michael (1844). Experimental Researches in Electricity. 2. ISBN 0-486-43505-9.See plate 4. 27. ^ Hamilton's A Life of Discovery: Michael Faraday, Giant of the Scientific Revolution (2004) pp. 16571, 183, 18790. 28. ^ Cantor's Michael Faraday, Sandemanian and Scientist (1991) pp. 2313. 29. ^ Thompsons Michael Faraday, his life and work (1901) p.95. 30. ^ Thompson (1901) p. 91. This lab entry illustrates Faradays quest for the connection between light and electromagnetic phenomenon 10 September 1821. 31. ^ Cantor's Michael Faraday, Sandemanian and Scientist (1991) p. 233. 32. ^ pp. 9598 of Thompson (1901). 33. ^ Thompson (1901) p 100. 34. ^ Faraday's initial induction lab work occurred in late November 1825. His work was heavily influenced by the ongoing research of fellow European scientists Ampere, Arago, and Oersted as indicated by his diary entries. Cantors Michael Faraday: Sandemanian and Scientist (1991) pp. 23544. 35. ^ Brother Potamian (1913). "Francesco Zantedeschi article at the Catholic Encyclopedia". Wikisource. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_%281913%29/Francesco_Zantedeschi. Retrieved 16 June 2007. 36. ^ Detail of an engraving by Henry Adlard, based on an earlier photograph by Maull & Polyblank ca. 1857. See National Portrait Gallery, UK 37. ^ Zeeman, Pieter (1897). "The Effect of Magnetisation on the Nature of Light Emitted by a Substance". Nature 55 (1424): 347. Bibcode 1897Natur..55..347Z. DOI:10.1038/055347a0. 38. ^ "Pieter Zeeman, Nobel Lecture". http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1902/zeeman-lecture.html. Retrieved 29 May 2008. 39. ^ See The Illustrated London News, July 1853, for Faraday's comments. 40. ^ Gladstone, John Hall (1872). Michael Faraday. London: Macmillan and Company. p. 53. http://books.google.com/?id=pbs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA53&lpg=PA53&dq=Faraday+French+Academy. 41. ^ Twickenham Museum on Faraday and Faraday House, Accessed June 2006 42. ^ Croddy, Eric; Wirtz, James J. (2005). Weapons of Mass Destruction: An Encyclopedia of Worldwide Policy, Technology, and History. ABC-CLIO. pp. Page 86. ISBN 1-85109-490-3. http://books.google.com/?id=ZzlNgS70OHAC&pg=PA86&lpg=PA86&dq=Faraday++chemical+weapons+Crimean+War. 43. ^ Plaque #2429 on Open Plaques. 44. ^ "Withdrawn banknotes reference guide". Bank of England. http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/banknotes/denom_guide/index.htm. Retrieved 17 October 2008. 45. ^ See page 220 of Hamilton's A Life of Discovery: Michael Faraday, Giant of the Scientific Revolution (2002)

[edit] Further reading

[edit] Biographies

Bence Jones, Henry (1870). The Life and Letters of Faraday. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott and Company. http://books.google.com/?id=YzuCdNmu5soC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Faraday.

Cantor, Geoffrey (1991). Michael Faraday, Sandemanian and Scientist. Macmillian. ISBN 0-333-55077. Gladstone, J. H. (1872). Michael Faraday. London: Macmillan. http://books.google.com/?id=pbs4AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Faraday. Hamilton, James (2002). Faraday: The Life. London: Harper Collins. ISBN 0-00-716376-2. Hamilton, James (2004). A Life of Discovery: Michael Faraday, Giant of the Scientific Revolution. New York: Random House. ISBN 1-4000-6016-8. Hirshfeld, Alan W. (2006). The Electric Life of Michael Faraday. Walker and Company. ISBN 978-0-8027-1470-1. Thompson, Silvanus (1901). Michael Faraday, His Life and Work. London: Cassell and Company. ISBN 1-4179-7036-7. http://books.google.com/?id=HKf5g3qYYz8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Silvanus+Thompson+faraday. Tyndall, John (1868). Faraday as a Discoverer. London: Longmans, Green, and Company. http://www.archive.org/details/faradayasdiscove00tyndrich. Williams, L. Pearce (1965). Michael Faraday: A Biography. New York: Basic Books. The British Electrical and Allied Manufacturers Association (1931). Faraday. R. & R. Clark, Ltd., Edinburgh, 1931. Agassi, Joseph (1971). Faraday as a Natural Philosopher. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Ames, Joseph Sweetman (Ed.) (c1900). The Discovery of Induced Electric Currents. 2. New York: American Book Company. Gooding, David (Ed.) (1985). Faraday Rediscovered: Essays on the Life and Work of Michael Faraday, 17911867. London/New York: Macmillan/Stockton. Thomas, John Meurig (1991). Michael Faraday and the Royal Institution: The Genius of Man and Place. Bristol: Hilger. ISBN 0-7503-0145-7. Russell, Colin A. (Ed. Owen Gingerich) (2000). Michael Faraday: Physics and Faith (Oxford Portraits in Science Series). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511763-8.

[edit] External links

Wikisource has original works written by or about: Michael Faraday Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Michael Faraday Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Michael Faraday

[edit] Biographies

Biography at The Royal Institution of Great Britain Faraday as a Discoverer by John Tyndall, Project Gutenberg (downloads) The Christian Character of Michael Faraday Michael Faraday on the British twenty-pound banknote The Life and Discoveries of Michael Faraday by J. A. Crowther, London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1920

[edit] Others

Michael Faraday's announcement of ether as an anaesthetic in 1818 Interactive Java Tutorial on Faraday's 1821 Motor National High Magnetic Field Laboratory Interactive Java Tutorial on Faraday's Ice Pail Experiment National High Magnetic Field Laboratory "Faraday" at LoveToKnow 1911 Britannica Online Encyclopedia Michael Faraday at the Open Directory Project Works by Michael Faraday at Project Gutenberg (downloads) Video Podcast with Sir John Cadogan talking about Benzene since Faraday The letters of Faraday and Schoenbein 18361862. With notes, comments and references to contemporary letters (1899) full download PDF A Short History of Trinity Buoy Wharf at the Trinity Buoy Wharf website Faraday School, located on Trinity Buoy Wharf at the New Model School Company Limited's website Michael Faraday: The Invention of the Electric Motor and Electric Generator [show]

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Scientists whose names are used as SI units

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Authority control: LCCN: n50009174 | WorldCat

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Magnet
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search This article is about objects and devices that produce magnetic fields. For a description of magnetic materials, see magnetism. For other uses, see Magnet (disambiguation).

This article needs additional citations for verification. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2011)

A "horseshoe magnet" made of alnico, an iron alloy. The magnet is made in the shape of a horseshoe to bring the two magnetic poles close to each other, to create a strong magnetic field there that can pick up heavy pieces of iron

Iron filings that have oriented in the magnetic field produced by a bar magnet

Magnetic field lines of a solenoid electromagnet, which are similar to a bar magnet as illustrated above with the iron filings A magnet (from Greek magntis lthos, "Magnesian stone") is a material or object that produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field is invisible but is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet: a force that pulls on other ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, and attracts or repels other magnets. A permanent magnet is an object made from a material that is magnetized and creates its own persistent magnetic field. An everyday example is a refrigerator magnet used to hold notes on a refrigerator door. Materials that can be magnetized, which are also the ones that are strongly attracted to a magnet, are called ferromagnetic (or ferrimagnetic). These include iron, nickel, cobalt, some alloys of rare earth metals, and some naturally occurring minerals such as lodestone. Although ferromagnetic (and ferrimagnetic) materials are the only ones attracted to a magnet strongly enough to be commonly considered magnetic, all other substances respond weakly to a magnetic field, by one of several other types of magnetism. Ferromagnetic materials can be divided into magnetically "soft" materials like annealed iron, which can be magnetized but do not tend to stay magnetized, and magnetically "hard" materials, which do. Permanent magnets are made from "hard" ferromagnetic materials such as alnico and ferrite that are subjected to special processing in a powerful magnetic field during manufacture, to align their internal microcrystalline structure, making them very hard to demagnetize. To demagnetize a saturated magnet, a certain magnetic field must be applied, and this threshold depends on coercivity of the respective material. "Hard" materials have high coercivity, whereas "soft" materials have low coercivity. An electromagnet is made from a coil of wire that acts as a magnet when an electric current passes through it but stops being a magnet when the current stops. Often, the coil is wrapped around a core of ferromagnetic material like steel, which enhances the magnetic field produced by the coil. The overall strength of a magnet is measured by its magnetic moment or, alternatively, the total magnetic flux it produces. The local strength of magnetism in a material is measured by its magnetization.

Contents
[hide]

1 Discovery and development

2 Background on the physics of magnetism and magnets o 2.1 Magnetic field o 2.2 Magnetic moment o 2.3 Magnetization o 2.4 Modelling magnets o 2.5 Pole naming conventions o 2.6 Magnetic materials 3 Common uses of magnets 4 Medical issues and safety 5 Magnetizing ferromagnets 6 Demagnetizing ferromagnets 7 Types of permanent magnets o 7.1 Magnetic metallic elements o 7.2 Composites o 7.3 Rare-earth magnets o 7.4 Single-molecule magnets (SMMs) and single-chain magnets (SCMs) o 7.5 Nano-structured magnets o 7.6 Costs o 7.7 Temperature 8 Electromagnets 9 Units and calculations o 9.1 Fields of a magnet o 9.2 Calculating the magnetic force 9.2.1 Force between two magnetic poles 9.2.2 Force between two nearby magnetized surfaces of area A 9.2.3 Force between two bar magnets 9.2.4 Force between two cylindrical magnets 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 External links

[edit] Discovery and development

Main article: History of electromagnetism See also: Magnetism history Ancient people learned about magnetism from lodestones, naturally magnetized pieces of iron ore. They are naturally created magnets, which attract pieces of iron. The word magnet in Greek meant "stone from Magnesia", a part of ancient Greece where lodestones were found. Lodestones suspended so they could turn were the first magnetic compasses. The earliest known surviving descriptions of magnets and their properties are from Greece, India, and China around 2500 years ago.[1][2][3] The properties of lodestones and their affinity for iron were written of by Pliny the Elder in his encyclopedia Naturalis Historia.[4] By the 12th to 13th centuries AD, magnetic compasses were used in navigation in China, Europe, and elsewhere.[5]

[edit] Background on the physics of magnetism and magnets

An ovoid-shaped rare-earth magnet hanging from another

[edit] Magnetic field

Main article: Magnetic field The magnetic flux density (also called magnetic B field or just magnetic field, usually denoted B) is a vector field. The magnetic B field vector at a given point in space is specified by two properties: 1. Its direction, which is along the orientation of a compass needle. 2. Its magnitude (also called strength), which is proportional to how strongly the compass needle orients along that direction. In SI units, the strength of the magnetic B field is given in teslas.[6]

[edit] Magnetic moment

Main article: Magnetic moment A magnet's magnetic moment (also called magnetic dipole moment and usually denoted ) is a vector that characterizes the magnet's overall magnetic properties. For a bar magnet, the direction of the magnetic moment points from the magnet's south pole to its north pole,[7] and the magnitude relates to how strong and how far apart these poles are. In SI units, the magnetic moment is specified in terms of Am2. A magnet both produces its own magnetic field and responds to magnetic fields. The strength of the magnetic field it produces is at any given point proportional to the magnitude of its magnetic moment. In addition, when the magnet is put into an external magnetic field, produced by a different source, it is subject to a torque tending to orient the magnetic moment parallel to the field.[8] The amount of this torque is proportional both to the magnetic moment and the external field. A magnet may also be subject to a force driving it in one direction or another, according to the positions and orientations of the magnet and source. If the field is uniform in space, the magnet is subject to no net force, although it is subject to a torque.[9] A wire in the shape of a circle with area A and carrying current I is a magnet, with a magnetic moment of magnitude equal to IA.

[edit] Magnetization

Main article: Magnetization The magnetization of a magnetized material is the local value of its magnetic moment per unit volume, usually denoted M, with units A/m.[10] It is a vector field, rather than just a vector (like the magnetic moment), because different areas in a magnet can be magnetized with different directions and strengths (for example, because of domains, see below). A good bar magnet may have a magnetic moment of magnitude 0.1 Am2 and a volume of 1 cm3, or 1106 m3, and therefore an average magnetization magnitude is 100,000 A/m. Iron can have a magnetization of around a million amperes per meter. Such a large value explains why iron magnets are so effective at producing magnetic fields.

[edit] Modelling magnets

Field of a cylindrical bar magnet calculated with Ampre's model See also: Two definitions of moment Two different models exist for magnets: magnetic poles and atomic currents. Although for many purposes it is convenient to think of a magnet as having distinct north and south magnetic poles, the concept of poles should not be taken literally: it is merely a way of referring to the two different ends of a magnet. The magnet does not have distinct north or south particles on opposing sides. If a bar magnet is broken into two pieces, in an attempt to separate the north and south poles, the result will be two bar magnets, each of which has both a north and south pole. However, a version of the magneticpole approach is used by professional magneticians to design permanent magnets.[citation needed] In this approach, the divergence of the magnetization M inside a magnet and the surface normal component Mn are treated as a distribution of magnetic monopoles. This is a mathematical convenience and does not imply that there are actually monopoles in the magnet. If the magnetic-pole distribution is

known, then the pole model gives the magnetic field H. Outside the magnet, the field B is proportional to H, while inside the magnetization must be added to H. An extension of this method that allows for internal magnetic charges is used in theories of ferromagnetism. Another model is the Ampre model, where all magnetization is due to the effect of microscopic, or atomic, circular bound currents, also called Amprian currents, throughout the material. For a uniformly magnetized cylindrical bar magnet, the net effect of the microscopic bound currents is to make the magnet behave as if there is a macroscopic sheet of electric current flowing around the surface, with local flow direction normal to the cylinder axis.[11] Microscopic currents in atoms inside the material are generally canceled by currents in neighboring atoms, so only the surface makes a net contribution; shaving off the outer layer of a magnet will not destroy its magnetic field, but will leave a new surface of uncancelled currents from the circular currents throughout the material.[12] The right-hand rule tells which direction the current flows.

[edit] Pole naming conventions

The north pole of a magnet is the pole that, when the magnet is freely suspended, points towards the Earth's North Magnetic Pole which is located in northern Canada. Since opposite poles (north and south) attract, the Earth's "North Magnetic Pole" is thus actually the south pole of the Earth's magnetic field.[13][14][15][16] As a practical matter, in order to tell which pole of a magnet is north and which is south, it is not necessary to use the Earth's magnetic field at all. For example, one method would be to compare it to an electromagnet, whose poles can be identified by the right-hand rule. The magnetic field lines of a magnet are considered by convention to emerge from the magnet's north pole and reenter at the south pole.[16]

[edit] Magnetic materials

Main article: Magnetism The term magnet is typically reserved for objects that produce their own persistent magnetic field even in the absence of an applied magnetic field. Only certain classes of materials can do this. Most materials, however, produce a magnetic field in response to an applied magnetic field; a phenomenon known as magnetism. There are several types of magnetism, and all materials exhibit at least one of them. The overall magnetic behavior of a material can vary widely, depending on the structure of the material, particularly on its electron configuration. Several forms of magnetic behavior have been observed in different materials, including:

Ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials are the ones normally thought of as magnetic; they are attracted to a magnet strongly enough that the attraction can be felt. These materials are the only ones that can retain magnetization and become magnets; a common example is a traditional refrigerator magnet. Ferrimagnetic materials, which include ferrites and the oldest magnetic materials magnetite and lodestone, are similar to but weaker than ferromagnetics. The difference between ferro- and ferrimagnetic materials is related to their microscopic structure, as explained in Magnetism. Paramagnetic substances, such as platinum, aluminum, and oxygen, are weakly attracted to either pole of a magnet. This attraction is hundreds of thousands of times weaker than that of ferromagnetic materials, so it can only be detected by using sensitive instruments or using extremely strong magnets. Magnetic ferrofluids, although they are made of tiny ferromagnetic particles suspended in liquid, are sometimes considered paramagnetic since they cannot be magnetized. Diamagnetic means repelled by both poles. Compared to paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances, diamagnetic substances, such as carbon, copper, water, and plastic, are even more weakly repelled by a magnet. The permeability of diamagnetic materials is less than the permeability of a vacuum. All substances not possessing one of the other types of magnetism are diamagnetic; this includes most substances. Although force on a diamagnetic object from an ordinary magnet is far too weak to be felt, using extremely strong superconducting magnets, diamagnetic objects such as pieces of lead and even mice[17] can be levitated, so they float in mid-air. Superconductors repel magnetic fields from their interior and are strongly diamagnetic.

There are various other types of magnetism, such as spin glass, superparamagnetism, superdiamagnetism, and metamagnetism.

[edit] Common uses of magnets

Hard disk drives record data on a thin magnetic coating

Magnetic hand separator for heavy minerals

Magnetic recording media: VHS tapes contain a reel of magnetic tape. The information that makes up the video and sound is encoded on the magnetic coating on the tape. Common audio cassettes also rely on magnetic tape. Similarly, in computers, floppy disks and hard disks record data on a thin magnetic coating.[18] Credit, debit, and ATM cards: All of these cards have a magnetic strip on one side. This strip encodes the information to contact an individual's financial institution and connect with their account(s).[19] Common televisions and computer monitors: TV and computer screens containing a cathode ray tube employ an electromagnet to guide electrons to the screen.[20] Plasma screens and LCDs use different technologies. Speakers and microphones: Most speakers employ a permanent magnet and a current-carrying coil to convert electric energy (the signal) into mechanical energy (movement that creates the sound). The coil is wrapped around a bobbin attached to the speaker cone and carries the signal as changing current that interacts with the field of the permanent magnet. The voice coil feels a magnetic force and in response, moves the cone and pressurizes the neighboring air, thus generating sound. Dynamic microphones employ the same concept, but in reverse. A microphone has a diaphragm or membrane attached to a coil of wire. The coil rests inside a specially shaped magnet. When sound vibrates the membrane, the coil is vibrated as well. As the coil moves through the magnetic field, a voltage is induced across the coil. This voltage drives a current in the wire that is characteristic of the original sound. Electric guitars use magnetic pickups to transduce the vibration of guitar strings into electric current that can then be amplified. This is different from the principle behind the speaker and dynamic microphone because the vibrations are sensed directly by the magnet, and a diaphragm is not employed. The Hammond organ used a similar principle, with rotating tonewheels instead of strings.

Electric motors and generators: Some electric motors rely upon a combination of an electromagnet and a permanent magnet, and, much like loudspeakers, they convert electric energy into mechanical energy. A generator is the reverse: it converts mechanical energy into electric energy by moving a conductor through a magnetic field. Medicine: Hospitals use magnetic resonance imaging to spot problems in a patient's organs without invasive surgery. Chucks are used in the metalworking field to hold objects. Magnets are also used in other types of fastening devices, such as the magnetic base, the magnetic clamp and the refrigerator magnet. Compasses: A compass (or mariner's compass) is a magnetized pointer free to align itself with a magnetic field, most commonly Earth's magnetic field. Art: Vinyl magnet sheets may be attached to paintings, photographs, and other ornamental articles, allowing them to be attached to refrigerators and other metal surfaces. Objects and paint can be applied directly to the magnet surface to create collage pieces of art. Magnetic art is portable, inexpensive and easy to create. Vinyl magnetic art is not for the refrigerator anymore. Colorful metal magnetic boards, strips, doors, microwave ovens, dishwashers, cars, metal I beams, and any metal surface can be receptive of magnetic vinyl art. Being a relatively new media for art, the creative uses for this material is just beginning. Science projects: Many topic questions are based on magnets. For example: how is the strength of a magnet affected by glass, plastic, and cardboard?

Magnets have many uses in toys. M-tic uses magnetic rods connected to metal spheres for construction. Note the geodesic pyramid

Toys: Given their ability to counteract the force of gravity at close range, magnets are often employed in children's toys, such as the Magnet Space Wheel and Levitron, to amusing effect.

Magnets can be used to make jewelry. Necklaces and bracelets can have a magnetic clasp, or may be constructed entirely from a linked series of magnets and ferrous beads. Magnets can pick up magnetic items (iron nails, staples, tacks, paper clips) that are either too small, too hard to reach, or too thin for fingers to hold. Some screwdrivers are magnetized for this purpose. Magnets can be used in scrap and salvage operations to separate magnetic metals (iron, cobalt, and nickel) from non-magnetic metals (aluminum, non-ferrous alloys, etc.). The same idea can be used in the so-called "magnet test", in which an auto body is inspected with a magnet to detect areas repaired using fiberglass or plastic putty. Magnetic levitation transport, or maglev, is a form of transportation that suspends, guides and propels vehicles (especially trains) through electromagnetic force. The maximum recorded speed of a maglev train is 581 kilometers per hour (361 mph). Magnets may be used to serve as a fail-safe device for some cable connections. For example, the power cords of some laptops are magnetic to prevent accidental damage to the port when tripped over. The MagSafe power connection to the Apple MacBook is one such example.

[edit] Medical issues and safety

Because human tissues have a very low level of susceptibility to static magnetic fields, there is little mainstream scientific evidence showing a health hazard associated with exposure to static fields. Dynamic magnetic fields may be a different issue, however; correlations between electromagnetic radiation and cancer rates have been postulated due to demographic correlations (see Electromagnetic radiation and health). If a ferromagnetic foreign body is present in human tissue, an external magnetic field interacting with it can pose a serious safety risk.[21] A different type of indirect magnetic health risk exists involving pacemakers. If a pacemaker has been embedded in a patient's chest (usually for the purpose of monitoring and regulating the heart for steady electrically induced beats), care should be taken to keep it away from magnetic fields. It is for this reason that a patient with the device installed cannot be tested with the use of an MRI, which is a magnetic imaging device. Children sometimes swallow small magnets from toys, and this can be hazardous if two or more magnets are swallowed, as the magnets can pinch or puncture internal tissues; one death has been reported.[22]

[edit] Magnetizing ferromagnets

See also: Remanence Ferromagnetic materials can be magnetized in the following ways:

Heating the object above its Curie temperature, allowing it to cool in a magnetic field and hammering it as it cools. This is the most effective method and is similar to the industrial processes used to create permanent magnets. Placing the item in an external magnetic field will result in the item retaining some of the magnetism on removal. Vibration has been shown to increase the effect. Ferrous materials aligned with the Earth's magnetic field that are subject to vibration (e.g., frame of a conveyor) have been shown to acquire significant residual magnetism. Stroking: An existing magnet is moved from one end of the item to the other repeatedly in the same direction.

[edit] Demagnetizing ferromagnets

Magnetized ferromagnetic materials can be demagnetized (or degaussed) in the following ways:

Heating a magnet past its Curie temperature; the molecular motion destroys the alignment of the magnetic domains. This always removes all magnetization. Placing the magnet in an alternating magnetic field with intensity above the material's coercivity and then either slowly drawing the magnet out or slowly decreasing the magnetic field to zero. This is the principle used in commercial demagnetizers to demagnetize tools and erase credit cards and hard disks and degaussing coils used to demagnetize CRTs. Some demagnetization or reverse magnetization will occur if any part of the magnet is subjected to a reverse field above the magnetic material's coercivity. Demagnetisation progressively occurs if the magnet is subjected to cyclic fields sufficient to move the magnet away from the linear part on the second quadrant of the B-H curve of the magnetic material (the demagnetisation curve). Hammering or jarring: the mechanical disturbance tends to randomize the magnetic domains. This will leave some residual magnetization.

[edit] Types of permanent magnets

A stack of ferrite magnets

[edit] Magnetic metallic elements

Many materials have unpaired electron spins, and the majority of these materials are paramagnetic. When the spins interact with each other in such a way that the spins align spontaneously, the materials are called ferromagnetic (what is often loosely termed as magnetic). Because of the way their regular crystalline atomic structure causes their spins to interact, some metals are ferromagnetic when found in their natural states, as ores. These include iron ore (magnetite or lodestone), cobalt and nickel, as well as the rare earth metals gadolinium and dysprosium (when at a very low temperature). Such naturally occurring ferromagnets were used in the first experiments with magnetism. Technology has since expanded the availability of magnetic materials to include various man-made products, all based, however, on naturally magnetic elements.

[edit] Composites
Ceramic, or ferrite, magnets are made of a sintered composite of powdered iron oxide and barium/strontium carbonate ceramic. Given the low cost of the materials and manufacturing methods, inexpensive magnets (or non-magnetized ferromagnetic cores, for use in electronic components such as radio antennas, for example) of various shapes can be easily mass-produced. The resulting magnets are non-corroding but brittle and must be treated like other ceramics. Alnico magnets are made by casting or sintering a combination of aluminium, nickel and cobalt with iron and small amounts of other elements added to enhance the properties of the magnet. Sintering offers superior mechanical characteristics, whereas casting delivers

higher magnetic fields and allows for the design of intricate shapes. Alnico magnets resist corrosion and have physical properties more forgiving than ferrite, but not quite as desirable as a metal. Trade names for alloys in this family include: Alni, Alcomax, Hycomax, Columax, and Ticonal.[23] Injection-molded magnets are a composite of various types of resin and magnetic powders, allowing parts of complex shapes to be manufactured by injection molding. The physical and magnetic properties of the product depend on the raw materials, but are generally lower in magnetic strength and resemble plastics in their physical properties. Flexible magnets are similar to injection-molded magnets, using a flexible resin or binder such as vinyl, and produced in flat strips, shapes or sheets. These magnets are lower in magnetic strength but can be very flexible, depending on the binder used. Flexible magnets can be used in industrial printers.

[edit] Rare-earth magnets

Main article: Rare-earth magnet Rare earth (lanthanoid) elements have a partially occupied f electron shell (which can accommodate up to 14 electrons). The spin of these electrons can be aligned, resulting in very strong magnetic fields, and therefore, these elements are used in compact highstrength magnets where their higher price is not a concern. The most common types of rare-earth magnets are samarium-cobalt and neodymium-iron-boron (NIB) magnets.

[edit] Single-molecule magnets (SMMs) and single-chain magnets (SCMs)

In the 1990s, it was discovered that certain molecules containing paramagnetic metal ions are capable of storing a magnetic moment at very low temperatures. These are very different from conventional magnets that store information at a magnetic domain level and theoretically could provide a far denser storage medium than conventional magnets. In this direction, research on monolayers of SMMs is currently under way. Very briefly, the two main attributes of an SMM are: 1. a large ground state spin value (S), which is provided by ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic coupling between the paramagnetic metal centres 2. a negative value of the anisotropy of the zero field splitting (D)

Most SMMs contain manganese but can also be found with vanadium, iron, nickel and cobalt clusters. More recently, it has been found that some chain systems can also display a magnetization that persists for long times at higher temperatures. These systems have been called single-chain magnets.

[edit] Nano-structured magnets

Some nano-structured materials exhibit energy waves, called magnons, that coalesce into a common ground state in the manner of a Bose-Einstein condensate.[24][25]

[edit] Costs
The current cheapest permanent magnets, allowing for field strengths, are flexible and ceramic magnets, but these are also among the weakest types. The ferrite magnets are mainly low-cost magnets since they are made from cheap raw materials- iron oxide and Ba- or Sr-carbonate. However, a new low cost magnet- Mn-Al alloy[citation needed] has been developed and is now dominating the low-cost magnets field. It has a higher saturation magnetization than the ferrite magnets. It also has more favorable temperature coefficients, although it can be thermally unstable. Neodymium-iron-boron (NIB) magnets are among the strongest. These cost more per kilogram than most other magnetic materials but, owing to their intense field, are smaller and cheaper in many applications.[26]

[edit] Temperature
Temperature sensitivity varies, but when a magnet is heated to a temperature known as the Curie point, it loses all of its magnetism, even after cooling below that temperature. The magnets can often be remagnetized, however. Additionally, some magnets are brittle and can fracture at high temperatures. The maximum usable temperature is highest for alnico magnets at over 540 C (1,000 F), around 300 C (570 F) for ferrite and SmCo, about 140 C (280 F) for NIB and lower for flexible ceramics, but the exact numbers depend on the grade of material.

[edit] Electromagnets
Main article: Electromagnet

An electromagnet, in its simplest form, is a wire that has been coiled into one or more loops, known as a solenoid. When electric current flows through the wire, a magnetic field is generated. It is concentrated near (and especially inside) the coil, and its field lines are very similar to those of a magnet. The orientation of this effective magnet is determined by the right hand rule. The magnetic moment and the magnetic field of the electromagnet are proportional to the number of loops of wire, to the cross-section of each loop, and to the current passing through the wire.[27] If the coil of wire is wrapped around a material with no special magnetic properties (e.g., cardboard), it will tend to generate a very weak field. However, if it is wrapped around a soft ferromagnetic material, such as an iron nail, then the net field produced can result in a several hundred- to thousandfold increase of field strength. Uses for electromagnets include particle accelerators, electric motors, junkyard cranes, and magnetic resonance imaging machines. Some applications involve configurations more than a simple magnetic dipole; for example, quadrupole and sextupole magnets are used to focus particle beams.

[edit] Units and calculations

Main article: Magnetostatics For most engineering applications, MKS (rationalized) or SI (Systme International) units are commonly used. Two other sets of units, Gaussian and CGS-EMU, are the same for magnetic properties and are commonly used in physics. In all units, it is convenient to employ two types of magnetic field, B and H, as well as the magnetization M, defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume. 1. The magnetic induction field B is given in SI units of teslas (T). B is the magnetic field whose time variation produces, by Faraday's Law, circulating electric fields (which the power companies sell). B also produces a deflection force on moving charged particles (as in TV tubes). The tesla is equivalent to the magnetic flux (in webers) per unit area (in meters squared), thus giving B the unit of a flux density. In CGS, the unit of B is the gauss (G). One tesla equals 104 G. 2. The magnetic field H is given in SI units of ampere-turns per meter (A-turn/m). The turns appears because when H is produced by a current-carrying wire, its value is proportional to the number of turns of that wire. In CGS, the unit of H is the oersted (Oe). One A-turn/m equals 4103 Oe. 3. The magnetization M is given in SI units of amperes per meter (A/m). In CGS, the unit of M is the oersted (Oe). One A/m equals 103 emu/cm3. A good permanent magnet can have a magnetization as large as a million amperes per meter.

4. In SI units, the relation B = 0(H + M) holds, where 0 is the permeability of space, which equals 4107 Tm/A. In CGS, it is written as B = H + 4M. (The pole approach gives 0H in SI units. A 0M term in SI must then supplement this 0H to give the correct field within B, the magnet. It will agree with the field B calculated using Amprian currents] Materials that are not permanent magnets usually satisfy the relation M = H in SI, where is the (dimensionless) magnetic susceptibility. Most non-magnetic materials have a relatively small (on the order of a millionth), but soft magnets can have on the order of hundreds or thousands. For materials satisfying M = H, we can also write B = 0(1 + )H = 0rH = H, where r = 1 + is the (dimensionless) relative permeability and =0r is the magnetic permeability. Both hard and soft magnets have a more complex, history-dependent, behavior described by what are called hysteresis loops, which give either B vs. H or M vs. H. In CGS, M = H, but SI = 4CGS, and = r. Caution: in part because there are not enough Roman and Greek symbols, there is no commonly agreed-upon symbol for magnetic pole strength and magnetic moment. The symbol m has been used for both pole strength (unit Am, where here the upright m is for meter) and for magnetic moment (unit Am2). The symbol has been used in some texts for magnetic permeability and in other texts for magnetic moment. We will use for magnetic permeability and m for magnetic moment. For pole strength, we will employ qm. For a bar magnet of cross-section A with uniform magnetization M along its axis, the pole strength is given by qm = MA, so that M can be thought of as a pole strength per unit area.

[edit] Fields of a magnet

Far away from a magnet, the magnetic field created by that magnet is almost always described (to a good approximation) by a dipole field characterized by its total magnetic moment. This is true regardless of the shape of the magnet, so long as the magnetic moment is non-zero. One characteristic of a dipole field is that the strength of the field falls off inversely with the cube of the distance from the magnet's center. Closer to the magnet, the magnetic field becomes more complicated and more dependent on the detailed shape and magnetization of the magnet. Formally, the field can be expressed as a multipole expansion: A dipole field, plus a quadrupole field, plus an octupole field, etc. At close range, many different fields are possible. For example, for a long, skinny bar magnet with its north pole at one end and south pole at the other, the magnetic field near either end falls off inversely with the square of the distance from that pole.

[edit] Calculating the magnetic force

Main article: force between magnets [edit] Force between two magnetic poles Further information: Magnetic moment#Forces between two magnetic dipoles Classically, the force between two magnetic poles is given by:[28]

where F is force (SI unit: newton) qm1 and qm2 are the magnitudes of magnetic poles (SI unit: ampere-meter) is the permeability of the intervening medium (SI unit: tesla meter per ampere, henry per meter or newton per ampere squared) r is the separation (SI unit: meter). The pole description is useful to the engineers designing real-world magnets, but real magnets have a pole distribution more complex than a single north and south. Therefore, implementation of the pole idea is not simple. In some cases, one of the more complex formulae given below will be more useful. [edit] Force between two nearby magnetized surfaces of area A The mechanical force between two nearby magnetized surfaces can be calculated with the following equation. The equation is valid only for cases in which the effect of fringing is negligible and the volume of the air gap is much smaller than that of the magnetized material:[29][30]

where:

A is the area of each surface, in m2 H is their magnetizing field, in A/m 0 is the permeability of space, which equals 4107 Tm/A B is the flux density, in T. [edit] Force between two bar magnets The force between two identical cylindrical bar magnets placed end to end is given by:[29]

where: B0 is the magnetic flux density very close to each pole, in T, A is the area of each pole, in m2, L is the length of each magnet, in m, R is the radius of each magnet, in m, and x is the separation between the two magnets, in m. relates the flux density at the pole to the magnetization of the magnet. Note that all these formulations are based on Gilbert's model, which is usable in relatively great distances. In other models (e.g., Ampre's model), a more complicated formulation is used that sometimes cannot be solved analytically. In these cases, numerical methods must be used. [edit] Force between two cylindrical magnets For two cylindrical magnets with radius at distances of the order of ) by,[31] and height , with their magnetic dipole aligned, the force can be well approximated (even

where is the magnetization of the magnets and is the gap between the magnets. In disagreement to the statement in the previous section, a measurement of the magnetic flux density very close to the magnet is related to by the formula

The effective magnetic dipole can be written as

Where When

is the volume of the magnet. For a cylinder, this is , the point dipole approximation is obtained,

which matches the expression of the force between two magnetic dipoles.

[edit] See also

Dipole magnet Earnshaw's theorem Electromagnetic field Electromagnetism Halbach array Magnetic chemistry Magneto Molecular magnet

Supermagnet Electret

[edit] Notes
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. ^ Fowler, Michael (1997). "Historical Beginnings of Theories of Electricity and Magnetism". http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/more_stuff/E&M_Hist.html. Retrieved 2008-04-02. ^ Vowles, Hugh P. (1932). "Early Evolution of Power Engineering". Isis 17 (2): 412420 [41920]. DOI:10.1086/346662. ^ Li Shu-hua (1954). "Origine de la Boussole II. Aimant et Boussole". Isis 45 (2): 175. JSTOR 227361. ^ Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, BOOK XXXIV. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF METALS., CHAP. 42.THE METAL CALLED LIVE IRON. Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved on 2011-05-17. ^ Schmidl, Petra G. (19961997). "Two Early Arabic Sources On The Magnetic Compass". Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies 1: 81132. http://www.lancs.ac.uk/jais/volume/docs/vol1/1_081-132schmidl2.pdf. ^ Griffiths, David J. (1999). Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. pp. 2558. ISBN 0-13-805326-X. OCLC 40251748. ^ Knight, Jones, & Field, "College Physics" (2007) p. 815 ^ B. D. Cullity, C. D. Graham (2008). Introduction to Magnetic Materials (2 ed.). Wiley-IEEE Press. p. 103. ISBN 0-471-47741-9. http://books.google.com/?id=ixAe4qIGEmwC&pg=PA103. ^ Boyer, Timothy H. (1988). "The Force on a Magnetic Dipole". American Journal of Physics 56 (8): 688692. Bibcode 1988AmJPh..56..688B. DOI:10.1119/1.15501. ^ "Units for Magnetic Properties". Lake Shore Cryotronics, Inc.. http://www.magneticmicrosphere.com/resources/Units_for_Magnetic_Properties.pdf. Retrieved 2009-10-24. ^ Zachariah Allen (1852). Philosophy of the Mechanics of Nature, and the Source and Modes of Action of Natural Motive-Power. D. Appleton and Company. p. 252. http://books.google.com/books?id=EpUIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA252. ^ Wayne M. Saslow (2002). Electricity, Magnetism, and Light (3rd ed.). Academic Press. p. 426. ISBN 978-0-12-619455-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=4liwlxqt9NIC&pg=PA426. ^ Serway, Raymond A.; Chris Vuille (2006). Essentials of college physics. USA: Cengage Learning. p. 493. ISBN 0-495-10619-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=8n4NCyRgUMEC&pg=PA493. ^ Emiliani, Cesare (1992). Planet Earth: Cosmology, Geology, and the Evolution of Life and Environment. UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 228. ISBN 0-521-40949-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=MfAGpVq8gpQC&pg=PA228. ^ Manners, Joy (2000). Static Fields and Potentials. USA: CRC Press. p. 148. ISBN 0-7503-0718-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=vJyqbRPsXYQC&pg=PA148. ^ a b Nave, Carl R. (2010). "Bar Magnet". Hyperphysics. Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State Univ.. http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html. Retrieved 2011-04-10. ^ Mice levitated in NASA lab. Livescience.com (2009-09-09). Retrieved on 2011-10-08. ^ Mallinson, John C. (1987). The foundations of magnetic recording (2nd ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-466626-4. ^ "The stripe on a credit card". How Stuff Works. http://money.howstuffworks.com/personal-finance/debt-management/credit-card2.htm. Retrieved July 2011. ^ "Electromagnetic deflection in a cathode ray tube, I". National High Magnetic Field Laboratory. http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/java/cathoderaytube/index.html. Retrieved July 2011.

21. ^ Schenck JF (2000). "Safety of strong, static magnetic fields". J Magn Reson Imaging 12 (1): 219. DOI:10.1002/1522-2586(200007)12:1<2::AIDJMRI2>3.0.CO;2-V. PMID 10931560. 22. ^ Oestreich AE (2008). "Worldwide survey of damage from swallowing multiple magnets". Pediatr Radiol 39 (2): 142. DOI:10.1007/s00247-008-10597. PMID 19020871. 23. ^ Brady, George Stuart; Henry R. Clauser & John A. Vaccari (2002). Materials Handbook: An Encyclopedia for Managers. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 577. ISBN 0-07-136076-X. http://books.google.com/books?id=vIhvSQLhhMEC&pg=PA577. 24. ^ "Nanomagnets Bend The Rules". http://www.spacedaily.com/news/nanotech-05zm.html. Retrieved November 14, 2005. 25. ^ Della Torre, E.; Bennett, L.; Watson, R. (2005). "Extension of the Bloch T 3/2 Law to Magnetic Nanostructures: Bose-Einstein Condensation". Physical Review Letters 94 (14): 147210. Bibcode 2005PhRvL..94n7210D. DOI:10.1103/PhysRevLett.94.147210. 26. ^ Frequently Asked Questions. Magnet sales. Retrieved on 2011-10-08. 27. ^ Ruskell, Todd; Tipler, Paul A. ; Mosca, Gene (2007). si s o i ntists an ngin s (6 ed.). Macmillan. ISBN 1-4292-0410-9. 28. ^ "Basic Relationships". Geophysics.ou.edu. http://geophysics.ou.edu/solid_earth/notes/mag_basic/mag_basic.html. Retrieved 2009-10-19. 29. ^ a b "Magnetic Fields and Forces". http://instruct.tri-c.edu/fgram/web/Mdipole.htm. Retrieved 2009-12-24. 30. ^ "The force produced by a magnetic field". http://info.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Workshop/advice/coils/force.html. Retrieved 2010-03-09. 31. ^ David Vokoun, Marco Beleggia, Ludek Heller, Petr Sittner (2009). "Magnetostatic interactions and forces between cylindrical permanent magnets". Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 321 (22): 37583763. Bibcode 2009JMMM..321.3758V. DOI:10.1016/j.jmmm.2009.07.030.

[edit] References

"positive pole n". The Concise Oxford English Dictionary. Catherine Soanes and Angus Stevenson. Oxford University Press, 2004. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. Wayne M. Saslow, Electricity, Magnetism, and Light, Academic (2002). ISBN 0-12-619455-6. Chapter 9 discusses magnets and their magnetic fields using the concept of magnetic poles, but it also gives evidence that magnetic poles do not really exist in ordinary matter. Chapters 10 and 11, following what appears to be a 19th-century approach, use the pole concept to obtain the laws describing the magnetism of electric currents. Edward P. Furlani, Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices:Materials, Analysis and Applications, Academic Press Series in Electromagnetism (2001). ISBN 0-12-269951-3.

[edit] External links

Look up magnet in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Magnets

HyperPhysics E/M, good complete tree diagram of electromagnetic relationships with magnets Maxwell's Equations and some history Detailed Theory on Designing a Solenoid or a coil gun Video: The physicist Richard Feynman answers the question, Why do bar magnets attract or repel each other? Articles, tutorials and other educational information about magnets National High Magnetic Field Laboratory Answers to several questions from curious kids about magnets Magnetic units discussed EU requires warning on toys containing magnets Information on Permanent Magnets About Magnets International Magnetics Association Online magnetic pull force calculator Magnet (How Products Are Made Volume 2) [hide]

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diamagnetism superdiamagnetism paramagnetism superparamagnetism ferromagnetism superferromagnetism antiferromagnetism ferrimagnetism helimagnetism metamagnetism mictomagnetism spin glass spin ice ferromagnetic superconductor Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Magnet&oldid=503703861" View page ratings Rate this page What's this? Trustworthy Objective

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Pumped-storage hydroelectricity
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search It has been suggested that Small pumped-storage hydropower be merged into this article or section. (Discuss) Proposed since
July 2012.

"Hydro-storage" redirects here. For storage of water for other purposes, see Reservoir.

Diagram of the TVA pumped storage facility at Raccoon Mountain Pumped-Storage Plant.

Shaded-relief topo map of the Taum Sauk pumped storage plant in Missouri Pumped-storage hydroelectricity (PSH) is a type of hydroelectric power generation used by some power plants for load balancing. The method stores energy in the form of water, pumped from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation. Low-cost off-peak electric power is used to run the pumps. During periods of high electrical demand, the stored water is released through turbines to produce electric power. Although the losses of the pumping process makes the plant a net consumer of energy overall, the system increases revenue by selling more electricity during periods of peak demand, when electricity prices are highest. Pumped storage is the largest-capacity form of grid energy storage available, and, as of March 2012, the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) reports that PSH accounts for more than 99% of bulk storage capacity worldwide, representing around 127,000 MW.[1] PSH reported energy efficiency varies in practice between 70% and 80%[1][2][3][4], with some claiming up to 87%[5].

Contents
[hide]

1 Overview 2 Worldwide use 3 Potential technologies 4 See also 5 References 6 External links

[edit] Overview

Power distribution, over a day, of a pumped-storage hydroelectricity facility. Green represents power consumed in pumping; red is power generated. At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine, generating electricity. Reversible turbine/generator assemblies act as pump and turbine (usually a Francis turbine design). Nearly all facilities use the height difference between two natural bodies of water or artificial reservoirs. Pure pumped-storage plants just shift the water between reservoirs, while the "pumpback" approach is a combination of pumped storage and conventional hydroelectric plants that use natural stream-flow. Plants that do

not use pumped-storage are referred to as conventional hydroelectric plants; conventional hydroelectric plants that have significant storage capacity may be able to play a similar role in the electrical grid as pumped storage, by deferring output until needed. Taking into account evaporation losses from the exposed water surface and conversion losses, approximately 70% to 85% of the electrical energy used to pump the water into the elevated reservoir can be regained.[6] The technique is currently the most costeffective means of storing large amounts of electrical energy on an operating basis, but capital costs and the presence of appropriate geography are critical decision factors. The relatively low energy density of pumped storage systems requires either a very large body of water or a large variation in height. For example, 1000 kilograms of water (1 cubic meter) at the top of a 100 meter tower has a potential energy of about 0.272 kWh (capable of raising the temperature of the same amount of water by only 0.23 Celsius = 0.42 Fahrenheit). The only way to store a significant amount of energy is by having a large body of water located on a hill relatively near, but as high as possible above, a second body of water. In some places this occurs naturally, in others one or both bodies of water have been man-made. Projects in which both reservoirs are artificial and in which no natural waterways are involved are commonly referred to as "closed loop". This system may be economical because it flattens out load variations on the power grid, permitting thermal power stations such as coal-fired plants and nuclear power plants and renewable energy power plants that provide base-load electricity to continue operating at peak efficiency (Base load power plants), while reducing the need for "peaking" power plants that use the same fuels as many baseload thermal plants, gas and oil, but have been designed for flexibility rather than maximal thermal efficiency. However, capital costs for purpose-built hydrostorage are relatively high. Along with energy management, pumped storage systems help control electrical network frequency and provide reserve generation. Thermal plants are much less able to respond to sudden changes in electrical demand, potentially causing frequency and voltage instability. Pumped storage plants, like other hydroelectric plants, can respond to load changes within seconds.

The upper reservoir (Llyn Stwlan) and dam of the Ffestiniog Pumped Storage Scheme in north Wales. The lower power station has four water turbines which generate 360 MW of electricity within 60 seconds of the need arising. The size of the dam can be judged from the road below. The first use of pumped storage was in the 1890s in Italy and Switzerland. In the 1930s reversible hydroelectric turbines became available. These turbines could operate as both turbine-generators and in reverse as electric motor driven pumps. The latest in largescale engineering technology are variable speed machines for greater efficiency. These machines generate in synchronization with the network frequency, but operate asynchronously (independent of the network frequency) as motor-pumps. The first use of pumped-storage in the United States was in 1930 by the Connecticut Electric and Power Company, using a large reservoir located near New Milford, Connecticut, pumping water from the Houstatonic River to the storage reservoir 230 feet above.
[7]

A new use for pumped storage is to level the fluctuating output of intermittent power sources. The pumped storage provides a load at times of high electricity output and low electricity demand, enabling additional system peak capacity. In certain jurisdictions, electricity prices may be close to zero or occasionally negative (Ontario in early September, 2006), on occasions that there is more electrical generation than load available to absorb it; although at present this is rarely due to wind alone, increased wind generation may increase the likelihood of such occurrences. It is particularly likely that pumped storage will become especially important as a balance for very large scale photovoltaic generation.[8]

[edit] Worldwide use

See also: List of pumped-storage hydroelectric power stations In 2009 world pumped storage generating capacity was 104 GW,[9] while other sources claim 127 GW, which comprises the vast majority of all types of utility grade electric storage.[10] The EU had 38.3 GW net capacity (36.8% of world capacity) out of a total of 140 GW of hydropower and representing 5% of total net electrical capacity in the EU. Japan had 25.5 GW net capacity (24.5% of world capacity).[9] In 2010 the United States had 21.5 GW of pumped storage generating capacity (20.6% of world capacity).[11] PHS generated (net) 5501 GWh of energy in 2010[12] because more energy is consumed in pumping than is generated. Five largest operational pumped-storage plants are listed below:

Station Bath County Pumped Storage Station Guangdong Pumped Storage Power Station Okutataragi Hydroelectric Power Station Ludington Pumped Storage Power Plant Tianhuangping Pumped Storage Power Station

Country United States China Japan United States China

Location 381232N 794800W38.20889N 79.8W 234552N 1135712E23.76444N 113.95333E 351413N 1344955E35.23694N 134.83194E 435337N 862643W43.89361N 86.44528W 302813N 1193621E30.47028N 119.60583E

Capacity (MW) 3,003 2,400 1,932 1,872 1,836

Ref
[13]

[14][15]

[16]

[17][18]

[19]

[edit] Potential technologies

The use of underground reservoirs has been investigated. Recent examples include the proposed Summit project in Norton, Ohio, and the Mount Hope project in New Jersey, which was to have used a former iron mine as the lower reservoir. Several new underground pumped storage projects have been proposed. Cost estimates for these projects are higher than for surface projects, but their use might greatly expand the number of pumped storage sites. A new concept is to use wind turbines or solar power to drive water pumps directly, in effect an 'Energy Storing Wind or Solar Dam'. This could provide a more efficient process and usefully smooth out the variability of energy captured from the wind or sun.[20][21] [22] One can use pumped sea water to store the energy. The 30 MW Yanbaru project in Okinawa was the first demonstration of seawater pumped storage. A 300 MW seawater-based project has recently been proposed on Lanai, Hawaii, and several seawater-based projects have recently been proposed in Ireland. Another potential example of this could be used in a tidal barrage or tidal lagoon. A potential benefit of this arises if seawater is allowed to flow behind the barrage or into the lagoon at high tide when the water level is roughly equal either side of the barrier, when the potential energy difference is close to zero. Then water is released at low tide when a head of water has been built up behind the barrier, when there is a far greater potential energy difference between the two bodies of water. The result being that when the energy used to pump the water is recovered, it will have multiplied to a degree depending on the head of water built up. A further enhancement is to pump more water at high tide further increasing the head with for example intermittent

renewables.[23] Two downsides are that the generator must be below sea level, and that marine organisms would tend to grow on the equipment and disrupt operation. This is not a major problem for the EDF La Rance Tidal power station in France. Instead of pumping water uphill, the pumped storage idea can be inverted, pumping air under water.

[edit] See also

Energy portal

Grid energy storage Hydroelectricity Hydropower List of pumped-storage hydroelectric power stations

[edit] References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. ^ a b "Energy storage - Packing some power". The Economist. 2011-03-03. http://www.economist.com/node/21548495?frsc=dg%7Ca. Retrieved 201203-11. ^ Jacob, Thierry.Pumped storage in Switzerland - an outlook beyond 2000 Stucky. Accessed: 13 February 2012. ^ Levine, Jonah G. Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage and Spatial Diversity of Wind Resources as Methods of Improving Utilization of Renewable Energy Sources page 6, University of Colorado, December 2007. Accessed: 12 February 2012. ^ Yang, Chi-Jen. Pumped Hydroelectric Storage Duke University. Accessed: 12 February 2012. ^ Energy Storage Hawaiian Electric Company. Accessed: 13 February 2012. ^ ESA - Pumped Hydro Storage ^ "A Ten-Mile Storage Battery." Popular Science, July 1930, p. 60. ^ Summary Energy from the Desert - Practical Proposals for Very Large Scale Photovoltaic Power Generation (VLS-PV) Systems ^ a b International Energy Statistics ^ Rastler et al. Electric Energy Storage Technology Options: A White Paper Primer on Applications, Costs, and Benefits. (Free download) EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, 2010. Accessed: 30 September 2011. ISBN 1020676 ^ http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/stimulus/excel/aeostimtab_9.xls ^ http://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/pdf/chap1.pdf Table 1.1 ^ Bath County Pumped-storage Station, http://www.dom.com/about/stations/hydro/bath-county-pumped-storage-station.jsp, retrieved 2011-12-30 ^ Pumped-storage hydroelectric power stations in China, http://www.industcards.com/ps-china.htm, retrieved 2010-06-25 ^ (PDF) Guangzhou Pumped-storage Power Station, http://www.chincold.org.cn/news/li080321-9-Guangzhou.pdf, retrieved 2010-06-25

16. ^ "2003-2004 Electricity Review in Japan". Japan Nuclear. http://www.japannuclear.com/files/Electricity%20Review%20Japan%202003-04.pdf. Retrieved 1 September 2010. 17. ^ Dniester Pumped Storage Plant, Ukraine, http://www.bankwatch.org/project.shtml?apc=162059-1972478---1&s=1972478, retrieved 2010-09-01 18. ^ Tymoshenko launches the first unit of Dnister Hydroelectric Power Plant, http://en.for-ua.com/news/2009/12/23/162625.html, retrieved 2010-09-01 19. ^ "Tianhuangping Pumped-Storage Hydro Plant, China". Power-Technology.com. http://www.power-technology.com/projects/tianhuangping/. Retrieved 3 January 2011. 20. ^ http://www.solarnavigator.net/alternative_energy.htm 21. ^ http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/sustainable/refs/tide/WindPumpedStor.pdf in Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 22. ^ http://poppware.de/Storage_for_a_secure_Power_Supply_from_Wind_and_Sun.pdf 23. ^ http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/sustainable/book/tex/Lagoons.pdf in Enhancing Electrical Supply by Pumped Storage in Tidal Lagoons

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Pumped-storage hydroelectric power plants

Pumped-storage hydroelectricity at the Open Directory Project [hide]

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Nonrenewable

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AC power Cogeneration Combined cycle Cooling tower Induction generator Micro CHP Microgeneration Rankine cycle Three-phase electric power

Virtual power plant Demand response Distributed generation Dynamic demand Electricity distribution Electrical grid High-voltage direct current Load management Pumped hydro Negawatts Smart grid Substation Super grid Transformer TSO Transmission tower Utility pole Carbon offset Ecotax Energy subsidies Feed-in tariff Fossil-fuel phase-out Net metering Pigovian tax Renewable Energy Certificates Renewable energy payments Renewable energy policy Categories Electric power distribution

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Electric generator
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Electrical generator) Jump to: navigation, search

U.S. NRC image of a modern steam turbine generator

Early Ganz Generator in Zwevegem, West Flanders, Belgium

Early 20th century alternator made in Budapest, Hungary, in the power generating hall of a hydroelectric station In electricity generation, an electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. A generator forces electric charge (usually carried by electrons) to flow through an external electrical circuit. It is analogous to a water pump, which causes water to flow (but does not create water). The source of mechanical energy may be a reciprocating or turbine steam engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank, compressed air or any other source of mechanical energy. The reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an electric motor, and motors and generators have many similarities. Many motors can be mechanically driven to generate electricity, and frequently make acceptable generators.

Contents
[hide]

1 Historical developments o 1.1 Jedlik's dynamo o 1.2 Faraday's disk o 1.3 Dynamo o 1.4 Alternator o 1.5 Other rotating electromagnetic generators

o 1.6 MHD generator 2 Terminology 3 Excitation 4 Equivalent circuit 5 Vehicle-mounted generators 6 Engine-generator 7 Human powered electrical generators 8 Linear electric generator 9 Tachogenerator 10 See also 11 References 12 External links

[edit] Historical developments

Before the connection between magnetism and electricity was discovered, electrostatic generators were invented that used electrostatic principles. These generated very high voltages and low currents. They operated by using moving electrically charged belts, plates and disks to carry charge to a high potential electrode. The charge was generated using either of two mechanisms:

Electrostatic induction The triboelectric effect, where the contact between two insulators leaves them charged.

Because of their inefficiency and the difficulty of insulating machines producing very high voltages, electrostatic generators had low power ratings and were never used for generation of commercially significant quantities of electric power. The Wimshurst machine and Van de Graaff generator are examples of these machines that have survived.

[edit] Jedlik's dynamo

Main article: Jedlik's dynamo

In 1827, Hungarian Anyos Jedlik started experimenting with the electromagnetic rotating devices which he called electromagnetic self-rotors. In the prototype of the single-pole electric starter (finished between 1852 and 1854) both the stationary and the revolving parts were electromagnetic. He formulated the concept of the dynamo at least 6 years before Siemens and Wheatstone but didn't patent it as he thought he wasn't the first to realize this. In essence the concept is that instead of permanent magnets, two electromagnets opposite to each other induce the magnetic field around the rotor. It was also the discovery of the principle of self-excitation.[1]

[edit] Faraday's disk

Faraday disk, the first electric generator. The horseshoe-shaped magnet (A) created a magnetic field through the disk (D). When the disk was turned this induced an electric current radially outward from the center toward the rim. The current flowed out through the sliding spring contact m, through the external circuit, and back into the center of the disk through the axle. In the years of 18311832, Michael Faraday discovered the operating principle of electromagnetic generators. The principle, later called Faraday's law, is that an electromotive force is generated in an electrical conductor that encircles a varying magnetic flux. He also built the first electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk, a type of homopolar generator, using a copper disc rotating between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. It produced a small DC voltage. This design was inefficient due to self-cancelling counterflows of current in regions not under the influence of the magnetic field. While current was induced directly underneath the magnet, the current would circulate backwards in regions outside the influence of the magnetic field. This counterflow limits the power output to the pickup wires and induces waste heating of the copper disc. Later homopolar generators would solve this problem by using an array of magnets arranged around the disc perimeter to maintain a steady field effect in one current-flow direction.

Another disadvantage was that the output voltage was very low, due to the single current path through the magnetic flux. Experimenters found that using multiple turns of wire in a coil could produce higher, more useful voltages. Since the output voltage is proportional to the number of turns, generators could be easily designed to produce any desired voltage by varying the number of turns. Wire windings became a basic feature of all subsequent generator designs.

[edit] Dynamo
Main article: Dynamo

Dynamos are no longer used for power generation due to the size and complexity of the commutator needed for high power applications. This large belt-driven high-current dynamo produced 310 amperes at 7 volts, or 2,170 watts, when spinning at 1400 RPM.

Dynamo Electric Machine [End View, Partly Section] (U.S. Patent 284,110) The dynamo was the first electrical generator capable of delivering power for industry. The dynamo uses electromagnetic induction to convert mechanical rotation into direct current through the use of a commutator. The first dynamo was built by Hippolyte Pixii in 1832. Through a series of accidental discoveries, the dynamo became the source of many later inventions, including the DC electric motor, the AC alternator, the AC synchronous motor, and the rotary converter. A dynamo machine consists of a stationary structure, which provides a constant magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings which turn within that field. On small machines the constant magnetic field may be provided by one or more permanent magnets; larger machines have the constant magnetic field provided by one or more electromagnets, which are usually called field coils. Large power generation dynamos are now rarely seen due to the now nearly universal use of alternating current for power distribution and solid state electronic AC to DC power conversion. But before the principles of AC were discovered, very large direct-current dynamos were the only means of power generation and distribution. Now power generation dynamos are mostly a curiosity.

[edit] Alternator

Without a commutator, a dynamo becomes an alternator, which is a synchronous singly fed generator. Alternators produce alternating current with a frequency that is based on the rotational speed of the rotor and the number of magnetic poles. Automotive alternators produce a constantly varying frequency that changes with engine speed, which is then converted by a rectifier to DC. By comparison, alternators used to feed an electric power grid are generally operated at a speed very close to a specific frequency, for AC devices that regulate their speed and performance based on grid frequency. Some devices such as incandescent lamps and ballast-operated fluorescent lamps do not require a constant frequency, but synchronous motors such as in electric wall clocks do require a constant grid frequency. When attached to a larger electric grid with other alternators, an alternator will dynamically interact with the frequency already present on the grid, and operate at a speed that matches the grid frequency. If no driving power is applied, the alternator will continue to spin at a constant speed anyway, driven as a synchronous motor by the grid frequency. It is usually necessary for an alternator to be accelerated up to the correct speed and phase alignment before connecting to the grid, as any mismatch in frequency will cause the alternator to act as a synchronous motor, and suddenly leap to the correct phase alignment as it absorbs a large inrush current from the grid, which may damage the rotor and other equipment. Typical alternators use a rotating field winding excited with direct current, and a stationary (stator) winding that produces alternating current. Since the rotor field only requires a tiny fraction of the power generated by the machine, the brushes for the field contact can be relatively small. In the case of a brushless exciter, no brushes are used at all and the rotor shaft carries rectifiers to excite the main field winding.

[edit] Other rotating electromagnetic generators

Other types of generators, such as the asynchronous or induction singly fed generator, the doubly fed generator, or the brushless wound-rotor doubly fed generator, do not incorporate permanent magnets or field windings that establish a constant magnetic field, and as a result, are seeing success in variable speed constant frequency applications, such as wind turbines or other renewable energy technologies. The full output performance of any generator can be optimized with electronic control but only the doubly fed generators or the brushless wound-rotor doubly fed generator incorporate electronic control with power ratings that are substantially less than the power output of the generator under control, a feature which, by itself, offers cost, reliability and efficiency benefits.

[edit] MHD generator

Main article: MHD generator A magnetohydrodynamic generator directly extracts electric power from moving hot gases through a magnetic field, without the use of rotating electromagnetic machinery. MHD generators were originally developed because the output of a plasma MHD generator is a flame, well able to heat the boilers of a steam power plant. The first practical design was the AVCO Mk. 25, developed in 1965. The U.S. government funded substantial development, culminating in a 25 MW demonstration plant in 1987. In the Soviet Union from 1972 until the late 1980s, the MHD plant U 25 was in regular commercial operation on the Moscow power system with a rating of 25 MW, the largest MHD plant rating in the world at that time.[2] MHD generators operated as a topping cycle are currently (2007) less efficient than combined-cycle gas turbines.

[edit] Terminology
The two main parts of a generator or motor can be described in either mechanical or electrical terms. Mechanical:

Rotor: The rotating part of an electrical machine Stator: The stationary part of an electrical machine

Electrical:

Armature: The power-producing component of an electrical machine. In a generator, alternator, or dynamo the armature windings generate the electric current. The armature can be on either the rotor or the stator. Field: The magnetic field component of an electrical machine. The magnetic field of the dynamo or alternator can be provided by either electromagnets or permanent magnets mounted on either the rotor or the stator.

Because power transferred into the field circuit is much less than in the armature circuit, AC generators nearly always have the field winding on the rotor and the stator as the armature winding. Only a small amount of field current must be transferred to the moving rotor, using slip rings. Direct current machines (dynamos) require a commutator on the rotating shaft to convert the alternating current produced by the armature to direct current, so the armature winding is on the rotor of the machine.

[edit] Excitation

A small early 1900s 75 KVA direct-driven power station AC alternator, with a separate belt-driven exciter generator. Main article: Excitation (magnetic) An electric generator or electric motor that uses field coils rather than permanent magnets requires a current to be present in the field coils for the device to be able to work. If the field coils are not powered, the rotor in a generator can spin without producing any usable electrical energy, while the rotor of a motor may not spin at all. Smaller generators are sometimes self-excited, which means the field coils are powered by the current produced by the generator itself. The field coils are connected in series or parallel with the armature winding. When the generator first starts to turn, the small amount of remanent magnetism present in the iron core provides a magnetic field to get it started, generating a small current in the armature. This flows through the field coils, creating a larger magnetic field which generates a larger armature current. This "bootstrap" process continues until the magnetic field in the core levels off due to saturation and the generator reaches a steady state power output. Very large power station generators often utilize a separate smaller generator to excite the field coils of the larger. In the event of a severe widespread power outage where islanding of power stations has occurred, the stations may need to perform a black start to excite the fields of their largest generators, in order to restore customer power service.[3]

[edit] Equivalent circuit

Equivalent circuit of generator and load. G = generator VG=generator open-circuit voltage RG=generator internal resistance VL=generator on-load voltage RL=load resistance The equivalent circuit of a generator and load is shown in the diagram to the right. The generator's and parameters can be determined by measuring the winding resistance (corrected to operating temperature), and measuring the open-circuit and loaded voltage for a defined current load.

[edit] Vehicle-mounted generators

Early motor vehicles until about the 1960s tended to use DC generators with electromechanical regulators. These have now been replaced by alternators with built-in rectifier circuits, which are less costly and lighter for equivalent output. Moreover, the power output of a DC generator is proportional to rotational speed, whereas the power output of an alternator is independent of rotational speed. As a result, the charging output of an alternator at engine idle speed can be much greater than that of a DC generator. Automotive alternators power the electrical systems on the vehicle and recharge the battery after starting. Rated output will typically be in the range 50-100 A at 12 V, depending on the designed electrical load within the vehicle. Some cars now have electrically powered steering assistance and air conditioning, which places a high load on the electrical system. Large commercial vehicles are more likely to use 24 V to give sufficient power at the starter motor to turn over a large diesel engine. Vehicle alternators do not use permanent magnets and are typically only 50-60% efficient over a wide speed range.[4] Motorcycle alternators often use permanent magnet stators made with rare earth magnets, since they can be made smaller and lighter than other types. See also hybrid vehicle.

Some of the smallest generators commonly found power bicycle lights. Called a bottle dynamo these tend to be 0.5 ampere, permanent-magnet alternators supplying 3-6 W at 6 V or 12 V. Being powered by the rider, efficiency is at a premium, so these may incorporate rare-earth magnets and are designed and manufactured with great precision. Nevertheless, the maximum efficiency is only around 80% for the best of these generators60% is more typicaldue in part to the rolling friction at the tiregenerator interface from poor alignment, the small size of the generator, bearing losses and cheap design. The use of permanent magnets means that efficiency falls even further at high speeds because the magnetic field strength cannot be controlled in any way. Hub dynamos remedy many of these flaws since they are internal to the bicycle hub and do not require an interface between the generator and tire. Until recently, these generators have been expensive and hard to find. Major bicycle component manufacturers like Shimano and SRAM have only just[when?] entered this market. However, significant gains can be expected in future as cycling becomes more mainstream transportation and LED technology allows brighter lighting at the reduced current these generators are capable of providing. Sailing yachts may use a water or wind powered generator to trickle-charge the batteries. A small propeller, wind turbine or impeller is connected to a low-power alternator and rectifier to supply currents of up to 12 A at typical cruising speeds. Still smaller generators are used in micropower applications.

[edit] Engine-generator
Main article: Engine-generator

The Caterpillar 3512C Genset is an example of the engine-generator package. This unit produces 1225 kilowatts of electric power.

An engine-generator is the combination of an electrical generator and an engine (prime mover) mounted together to form a single piece of self-contained equipment. The engines used are usually piston engines, but gas turbines can also be used. And there are even hybrid diesel-gas units, called dual-fuel units. Many different versions of engine-generators are available - ranging from very small portable petrol powered sets to large turbine installations. The primary advantage of engine-generators is the ability to independently supply electricity, allowing the units to serve as backup power solutions[5].

[edit] Human powered electrical generators

Main article: Self-powered equipment

Protesters at Occupy Wall Street using bicycles connected to a motor and one-way diode to charge batteries for their electronics[6] A generator can also be driven by human muscle power (for instance, in field radio station equipment). Human powered direct current generators are commercially available, and have been the project of some DIY enthusiasts. Typically operated by means of pedal power, a converted bicycle trainer, or a foot pump, such generators can be practically used to charge batteries, and in some cases are designed with an integral inverter. The average adult could generate about 125-200 watts on a pedal powered generator, but at a power of 200 W, a typical healthy human will reach complete exhaustion and fail to produce any more power after approximately 1.3 hours.[7] Portable radio receivers with a crank are made to reduce battery purchase requirements, see clockwork radio. During the mid 20th century, pedal powered radios were used throughout the Australian outback, to provide schooling (School of the Air), medical and other needs in remote stations and towns.

[edit] Linear electric generator

Main article: Linear alternator In the simplest form of linear electric generator, a sliding magnet moves back and forth through a solenoid - a spool of copper wire. An alternating current is induced in the loops of wire by Faraday's law of induction each time the magnet slides through. This type of generator is used in the Faraday flashlight. Larger linear electricity generators are used in wave power schemes.

[edit] Tachogenerator
Tachogenerators are frequently used to power tachometers to measure the speeds of electric motors, engines, and the equipment they power. Generators generate voltage roughly proportional to shaft speed. With precise construction and design, generators can be built to produce very precise voltages for certain ranges of shaft speeds

[edit] See also

Energy portal

Faraday's law of induction Alternator Homopolar generator Superconducting electric machine Hybrid vehicle Solar cell Radioisotope thermoelectric generator Thermogenerator Wind turbine Diesel generator Turbine hall Tidal

[edit] References

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

^ Augustus Heller (April 2, 1896), "Anianus Jedlik", Nature (Norman Lockyer) 53 (1379): 516, Bibcode 1896Natur..53..516H, DOI:10.1038/053516a0, http://books.google.com/books?id=nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA516&dq=jedlik+dynamo+1827&lr=&as_brr=3&ei ^ Langdon Crane, Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Power Generator: More Energy from Less Fuel, Issue Brief Number IB74057, Library of Congress Congressional Research Service, 1981, retrieved from http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/permalink/meta-crs-8402:1 July 18, 2008 ^ SpecSizer: Generator Set Sizing ^ Horst Bauer Bosch Automotive Handbook 4th Edition Robert Bosch GmbH, Stuttgart 1996 ISBN 0-8376-0333-1, page 813 ^ http://www.wpowerproducts.com/blog/2011/05/hurricane-preparedness-protection-provided-by-power-generators/ ^ With Generators Gone, Wall Street Protesters Try Bicycle Power, Colin Moynihan, New York Times, October 30, 2011; accessed November 2, 2011 ^ http://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/programming/hpv/hpv.html

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Electrical generators

Simple generator Demonstration of an electrical generator Short video of a simple generator [hide]

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Electric motors
Root motor categories General purpose electric motors Specialty electric motors Motor AC motor DC motor Induction Brushed DC Brushless DC Stepper Linear Unipolar Reluctance Synchronous Ball bearing motor Homopolar Piezoelectric Ultrasonic Electrostatic Switched reluctance Superconducting electric machine Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion Adjustable-speed drive Motor soft starter Braking chopper Cycloconverter DC

injection braking Amplidyne Direct torque control Direct on line starter Electronic speed control Metadyne Motor controller Variable-frequency drive Vector control Ward Leonard control Thyristor drive Barlow's wheel Nanomotor Traction motor Lynch motor Mendocino motor See also Repulsion motor Inchworm motor Booster (electric power) Brush (electric) Electrical generator Alternator Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electric_generator&oldid=504102654" View page ratings Rate this page What's this? Trustworthy controllers Objective Complete Well-written I am highly knowledgeable about this topic (optional) I have a relevant college/university degree It is part of my profession It is a deep personal passion The source of my knowledge is not listed here I would like to help improve Wikipedia, send me an e-mail (optional) We will send you a confirmation e-mail. We will not share your e-mail address with outside parties as per our feedback privacy statement. Submit ratings Saved successfully

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Electromagnetic induction
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Electromagnetism

Electricity Magnetism

Electrostatics[show]

Magnetostatics[show]

Electrodynamics[hide]

Lorentz force law Faraday's law Lenz's law

Electromagnetic induction

Displacement current Maxwell's equations

EM field

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Electromagnetic induction is the production of an electric current across a conductor moving through a magnetic field. It underlies the operation of generators, transformers, induction motors, electric motors, synchronous motors, and solenoids.[1] Michael Faraday is generally credited with the discovery of induction in 1831 though it may have been anticipated by the work of Francesco Zantedeschi in 1829.[2] Around 1830[3] to 1832[4] Joseph Henry made a similar discovery, but did not publish his findings until later.

Contents
[hide]

1 Overview 2 Applications 3 See also 4 References 5 External links

[edit] Overview
Main article: Faraday's law of induction

Michael Faraday formulated that electromotive force (EMF) produced around a closed path is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux through any surface bounded by that path. In practice, this means that an electric current will be induced in any closed circuit when the magnetic flux through a surface bounded by the conductor changes. This applies whether the field itself changes in strength or the conductor is moved through it. In mathematical form, Faraday's law states that:

where is the electromotive force B is the magnetic flux. For the special case of a coil of wire, composed of N loops with the same area, the equation becomes

A corollary of Faraday's Law, together with Ampre's law and Ohm's law is Lenz's law: The EMF induced in an electric circuit always acts in such a direction that the current it drives around the circuit opposes the change in magnetic flux which produces the EMF.[5]

[edit] Applications
The principles of electromagnetic induction are applied in many devices and systems, including:

Current clamp Electrical generators Electromagnetic forming Graphics tablet Hall effect meters

Induction cookers Induction motors Induction sealing Induction welding Inductive charging Inductors Magnetic flow meters Mechanically powered flashlight Pickups Rowland ring Transcranial magnetic stimulation Transformers Wireless energy transfer

[edit] See also

Eddy current Faraday's law of induction Inductance Maxwell's equations Moving magnet and conductor problem

[edit] References
1. ^ "Applications of electromagnetic induction". Boston University. 1999-22-07. http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/py106/Electricgenerators.html. 2. ^ S M Dhir (2007). "6 Other posive results and criticism". Hans Christian rsted and the romantic legacy in science: ideas, disciplines, practices. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-2987-5. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=ZgpmpOOHm80C&pg=PA350&dq=Francesco+Zantedeschi+electromagnetic+induction&hl=en&sa =X&ei=6l0pT4K1GsXprAfguYmUAw&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Francesco%20Zantedeschi%20electromagnetic%20induct ion&f=false. 3. ^ "Magnets". ThinkQuest. http://library.thinkquest.org/13526/c3c.htm. Retrieved 2009-11-06. 4. ^ "Joseph Henry". Notable Names Database. http://www.nndb.com/people/671/000096383/. Retrieved 2009-11-06.

5. ^ Brauer, John R. (2006). Magnetic actuators and sensors. John Wiley and Sons. p. 20. ISBN 0-4Hh71-73169-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=Wwk1EeZubdUC., Extract of page 20

[edit] External links

A free java simulation on motional EMF Two videos demonstrating Faraday's and Lenz's laws at EduMation Lenz's Law at work.

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Excitation (magnetic)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2010)

A 100 kVA direct-driven power station AC alternator with a separate belt-driven exciter generator, date c. 1917. An electric generator or electric motor consists of a rotor spinning in a magnetic field. The magnetic field may be produced by permanent magnets or by field coils. In the case of a machine with field coils, a current must flow in the coils to generate the field,

otherwise no power is transferred to or from the rotor. The process of generating a magnetic field by means of an electric current is called excitation.

A field coil may be connected in shunt, in series, or in compound with the armature of a DC machine (motor or generator)

Contents
[hide]

1 Excitation in generators o 1.1 Amplifier principle o 1.2 Separate excitation o 1.3 Self excitation 2 References 3 See also

[edit] Excitation in generators

A self-excited shunt-wound DC generator is shown on the left, and a magneto DC generator with permanent field magnets is shown on the right. The shunt-wound generator output varies with the current draw, while the magneto output is steady regardless of load variations.

A separately excited DC generator with bipolar field magnets. Separately excited generators like this are commonly used for largescale power transmission plants. The smaller generator can be either a magneto with permanent field magnets or another self-excited generator.

[edit] Amplifier principle

Except for permanent magnet generators, a generator produces output voltage proportional to the magnetic field, which is proportional to the excitation current; if there is no excitation current there is zero voltage. A generator can thus be considered as an amplifier: a small amount of power may control a large amount of power. This principle is very useful for voltage control: if the system voltage is low, excitation can be increased; if the system voltage is high, excitation can be decreased. A synchronous condenser operates on the same principle, but there is no "prime mover" power input; however, the "flywheel effect" means that it can send or receive power over short periods of time. To avoid damage to the machine through erratic current changes, a ramp generator is often used.

[edit] Separate excitation

Alternator of 1930s diesel generating set, with excitation dynamo above For large, or older, generators, it is usual for a separate exciter dynamo to be operated in conjunction with the main power generator. This is a small permanent-magnet or battery-excited dynamo that produces the field current for the larger generator.

[edit] Self excitation

Modern generators with field coils are self-excited, where some of the power output from the rotor is used to power the field coils. The rotor iron retains a residual magnetism when the generator is turned off. The generator is started with no load connected; the initial weak field creates a weak voltage in the stator coils, which in turn increases the field current, until the machine "builds up" to full voltage. Starting Self-excited generators must be started without any external load attached. An external load will continuously drain off the buildup voltage and prevent the generator from reaching its proper operating voltage. Field flashing If the machine does not have enough residual magnetism to build up to full voltage, usually provision is made to inject current into the rotor from another source. This may be a battery, a house unit providing direct current, or rectified current from a source of alternating current power. Since this initial current is required for a very short time, it is called "field flashing". Even small portable generator sets may occasionally need field flashing to restart. The critical field resistance is the maximum field circuit resistance for a given speed with which the shunt generator would excite. The shunt generator will build up voltage only if field circuit resistance is less than critical field resistance. It is a tangent to the open circuit characteristics of the generator at a given speed.

[edit] References
[1] [2]

1. ^ Electrical Technology - II by B.L.Thereja 2. ^ Electrical Machines - I by U.A.Bakshi, V.U Bakshi

[edit] See also

Energy portal

Alternator Electric generator Electric motor Magneto (generator)

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Electrical generators Magnetism

Rotor (electric)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2007)

Rotor (lower left) and stator (upper right) of an electric motor

Rotor from Hoover Dam generator The rotor is the non-stationary part of a rotary electric motor, electric generator or alternator, which rotates because the wires and magnetic field of the motor are arranged so that a torque is developed about the rotor's axis. In some designs, the rotor can act to serve as the motor's armature, across which the input voltage is supplied. Rotor losses, an important form of power losses in induction motors, are largely but not entirely proportional to the square of the slip (slip is the difference between the rotational speed of the magnetic field and the actual rpm of the rotor at a given load). Thus, rotor losses are reduced by decreasing the degree of slip for a given load. This is accomplished by increasing the mass of the rotor conductors (conductor bars and end-plates) and/or increasing their conductivity, and to a lesser extent by increasing the total magnetic field across the air gap between rotor and stator.[1] The electrical efficiency of motors can be improved by replacing the standard aluminum electrical conductor in the motor rotor with copper, which has a much higher electrical conductivity.[2][3] For more information, see: Copper die-cast rotors. The stationary part of an electric motor is the stator. A common problem is called cogging torque.

[edit] See also

Armature (electrical engineering)

Copper die-cast rotors Balancing machine Commutator (electric) Electric motor Field coil Rotordynamics Stator

[edit] References
1. ^ High efficiency motors and transformers CD-ROM # A6121". Electrical: Energy Efficiency. Copper Development Association Inc.; http://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/energy_efficiency.html 2. ^ Systematic Design Approach for a New Series of UltraNEMA Premium Copper Rotor Motors, by Fuchsloch, J. and E.F. Brush (2007), in EEMODS 2007 Conference Proceedings, 1015 June,Beijing. 3. ^ Copper Motor Rotor Project, by the Copper Development Association; http://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/motor-rotor

This article about electric power is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

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Well-written I am highly knowledgeable about this topic (optional) I have a relevant college/university degree It is part of my profession It is a deep personal passion The source of my knowledge is not listed here I would like to help improve Wikipedia, send me an e-mail (optional) We will send you a confirmation e-mail. We will not share your e-mail address with outside parties as per our feedback privacy statement. Submit ratings Saved successfully Your ratings have not been submitted yet Your ratings have expired Please reevaluate this page and submit new ratings. An error has occurred. Please try again later. Thanks! Your ratings have been saved. Please take a moment to complete a short survey. Start surveyMaybe later Thanks! Your ratings have been saved. Do you want to create an account? An account will help you track your edits, get involved in discussions, and be a part of the community. Create an accountorLog inMaybe later Thanks! Your ratings have been saved. Did you know that you can edit this page? Edit this pageMaybe later Categories:

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Magnetic field
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Magnetic field of an ideal cylindrical magnet with its axis of symmetry inside the image plane.

Electromagnetism

Electricity Magnetism

Electrostatics[show]

Magnetostatics[hide]

Ampre's law Magnetic field Magnetization Magnetic flux BiotSavart law

Magnetic dipole moment Gauss's law for magnetism

Electrodynamics[show]

Electrical Network[show]

Covariant formulation[show]

Scientists[show]

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A magnetic field may be represented by a mathematical description of the magnetic influence of electric currents and magnetic materials. The magnetic field at any given point is specified by both a direction and a magnitude (or strength); as such it is a vector field.[nb 1] The magnetic field is most commonly defined in terms of the Lorentz force it exerts on moving electric charges. There are two separate but closely related fields to which the name 'magnetic field' can refer: a magnetic B field and a magnetic H field. Magnetic fields are produced by moving electric charges and the intrinsic magnetic moments of elementary particles associated with a fundamental quantum property, their spin. In special relativity, electric and magnetic fields are two interrelated aspects of a single object, called the electromagnetic tensor; the split of this tensor into electric and magnetic fields depends on the relative velocity of the observer and charge. In quantum physics, the electromagnetic field is quantized and electromagnetic interactions result from the exchange of photons. Magnetic fields have had many uses in ancient and modern society. The Earth produces its own magnetic field, which is important in navigation. Rotating magnetic fields are utilized in both electric motors and generators. Magnetic forces give information about the charge carriers in a material through the Hall effect. The interaction of magnetic fields in electric devices such as transformers is studied in the discipline of magnetic circuits.

Contents
[hide]

1 History 2 Definitions, units, and measurement

3 Magnetic field lines 4 Magnetic field and permanent magnets o 4.1 Magnetic field of permanent magnets o 4.2 Magnetic pole model and the H-field o 4.3 Amperian loop model and the B-field o 4.4 Force between magnets o 4.5 Magnetic torque on permanent magnets 5 Magnetic field and electric currents o 5.1 Magnetic field due to moving charges and electric currents o 5.2 Force on moving charges and current 5.2.1 Force on a charged particle 5.2.2 Force on current-carrying wire 5.2.3 Direction of force 6 Relation between H and B o 6.1 Magnetization o 6.2 H-field and magnetic materials o 6.3 Magnetism 7 Energy stored in magnetic fields 8 Electromagnetism: the relationship between magnetic and electric fields o 8.1 Faraday's Law: Electric force due to a changing B-field o 8.2 Maxwell's correction to Ampre's Law: The magnetic field due to a changing electric field o 8.3 Maxwell's equations o 8.4 Electric and magnetic fields: different aspects of the same phenomenon o 8.5 Magnetic vector potential o 8.6 Quantum electrodynamics 9 Important uses and examples of magnetic field o 9.1 Earth's magnetic field o 9.2 Rotating magnetic fields o 9.3 Hall effect o 9.4 Magnetic circuits o 9.5 Magnetic field shape descriptions o 9.6 Magnetic dipoles o 9.7 Magnetic monopole (hypothetical)

10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links o 14.1 Information o 14.2 Field density o 14.3 Rotating magnetic fields o 14.4 Diagrams

[edit] History
Main article: History of electromagnetic theory

One of the first drawings of a magnetic field, by Ren Descartes, 1644. It illustrated his theory that magnetism was caused by the circulation of tiny helical particles, "threaded parts", through threaded pores in magnets.

Although magnets and magnetism were known much earlier, the study of the magnetic field began in 1269 when French scholar Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt mapped out the magnetic field on the surface of a spherical magnet using iron needles.[nb 2] Noting that the resulting field lines crossed at two points he named those points 'poles' in analogy to Earth's poles. Almost three centuries later, William Gilbert of Colchester replicated Petrus Peregrinus' work and was the first to state explicitly that Earth is a magnet.[1] Published in 1600, Gilbert's work, De Magnete, helped to establish magnetism as a science. In 1750, John Michell stated that magnetic poles attract and repel in accordance with an inverse square law.[2] Charles-Augustin de Coulomb experimentally verified this in 1785 and stated explicitly that the North and South poles cannot be separated.[3] Building on this force between poles, Simon-Denis Poisson (17811840) created the first successful model of the magnetic field which he presented in 1824.[4] In this model, a magnetic H-field is produced by 'magnetic poles' and magnetism is due to small pairs of north/south magnetic poles. Three discoveries challenged this foundation of magnetism, though. First, in 1819, Hans Christian Oersted discovered that an electric current generates a magnetic field encircling it. Then in 1820, Andr-Marie Ampre showed that parallel wires having currents in the same direction attract one another. Finally, Jean-Baptiste Biot and Flix Savart discovered the BiotSavart law in 1820 which correctly predicts the magnetic field around any current-carrying wire. Extending these experiments, Ampre published his own successful model of magnetism in 1825. In it, he showed the equivalence of electrical currents to magnets[5] and proposed that magnetism is due to perpetually flowing loops of current instead of the dipoles of magnetic charge in Poisson's model.[nb 3] This has the additional benefit of explaining why magnetic charge can not be isolated. Further, Ampre derived both Ampre's force law describing the force between two currents and Ampre's law which, like the Biot Savart law, correctly described the magnetic field generated by a steady current. Also in this work, Ampre introduced the term electrodynamics to describe the relationship between electricity and magnetism. In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction when he found that a changing magnetic field generates an encircling electric field. He described this phenomenon in what is known as Faraday's law of induction. Later, Franz Ernst Neumann proved that, for a moving conductor in a magnetic field, induction is a consequence of Ampre's force law .[6] In the process he introduced the magnetic vector potential which was later shown to be equivalent to the underlying mechanism proposed by Faraday. In 1850, Lord Kelvin, then known as William Thomson, distinguished between two magnetic fields now denoted H and B. The former applied to Poisson's model and the latter to Ampre's model and induction.[7] Further, he derived how H and B relate to each other.

Between 1861 and 1865, James Clerk Maxwell developed and published Maxwell's equations which explained and united all of classical electricity and magnetism. The first set of these equations was published in a paper entitled On Physical Lines of Force in 1861. These equations were valid although incomplete. He completed Maxwell's set of equations in his later 1865 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field and demonstrated the fact that light is an electromagnetic wave. Heinrich Hertz experimentally confirmed this fact in 1887. Although implicit in Ampre's force law the force due to a magnetic field on a moving electric charge was not correctly and explicitly stated until 1892 by Hendrik Lorentz who theoretically derived it from Maxwell's equations.[8] With this last piece of the puzzle, the classical theory of electrodynamics was essentially complete. The twentieth century extended electrodynamics to include relativity and quantum mechanics. Albert Einstein, in his paper of 1905 that established relativity, showed that both the electric and magnetic fields are part of the same phenomena viewed from different reference frames. (See moving magnet and conductor problem for details about the thought experiment that eventually helped Albert Einstein to develop special relativity.) Finally, the emergent field of quantum mechanics was merged with electrodynamics to form quantum electrodynamics (QED).

[edit] Definitions, units, and measurement

Magnetic field can be defined in many equivalent ways based on the effects it has on its environment. For instance, a particle having an electric charge, q, and moving in a magnetic field with a velocity, v, experiences a force, F, called the Lorentz force. See force on a charged particle below. Alternatively, the magnetic field can be defined in terms of the torque it produces on a magnetic dipole. See magnetic torque on permanent magnets below. Devices used to measure the local magnetic field are called magnetometers. Important classes of magnetometers include using a rotating coil, Hall effect magnetometers, NMR magnetometers, SQUID magnetometers, and fluxgate magnetometers. The magnetic fields of distant astronomical objects are measured through their effects on local charged particles. For instance, electrons spiraling around a field line produce synchrotron radiation which is detectable in radio waves. Alternative names for B[9] Magnetic flux density Magnetic induction

Magnetic field

Alternative names for H[9][10] Magnetic field intensity Magnetic field strength Magnetic field Magnetizing field

There are two magnetic fields, H and B. In a vacuum they are indistinguishable, differing only by a multiplicative constant that depends on the physical units. Inside a material they are different (see H and B inside and outside of magnetic materials). The term magnetic field is historically reserved for H while using other terms for B. Informally, though, and formally for some recent textbooks mostly in physics, the term 'magnetic field' is used to describe B as well as or in place of H.[nb 4] There are many alternative names for both (see sidebar to right). The B-field is measured in teslas in SI units and in gauss in cgs units. (1 tesla = 10,000 gauss). The SI unit of tesla is equivalent to (newtonsecond)/(coulombmetre).[nb 5] The H-field is measured in ampere per metre (A/m) in SI units, and in oersteds (Oe) in cgs units.[11] The smallest precision level for a magnetic field measurement[12] is on the order of attoteslas (1018 tesla); the largest magnetic field produced in a laboratory is 2.8 kT (VNIIEF in Sarov, Russia, 1998).[13] The magnetic field of some astronomical objects such as magnetars are much higher; magnetars range from 0.1 to 100 GT (108 to 1011 T).[14] See orders of magnitude (magnetic field).

[edit] Magnetic field lines

Main article: Field line

Compasses reveal the direction of the local magnetic field. As seen here, the magnetic field points towards a magnet's south pole and away from its north pole. Mapping the magnetic field of an object is simple in principle. First, measure the strength and direction of the magnetic field at a large number of locations. Then, mark each location with an arrow (called a vector) pointing in the direction of the local magnetic field with a length proportional to the strength of the magnetic field. A simpler method to map the magnetic field is to 'connect' the arrows to form magnetic field lines. On a magnetic field line diagram, the direction of the magnetic field at any point is represented by the direction of nearby field lines. Further, if drawn carefully, a higher density of nearby field lines indicates a stronger magnetic field. Magnetic field lines are like the contour lines (constant altitude) on a topographic map in that a different mapping scale would show more or fewer lines. An advantage of using magnetic field lines, though, is that many laws of magnetism (and electromagnetism) can be stated completely and concisely using simple concepts such as the 'number' of field lines through a surface. These concepts can be quickly 'translated' to their mathematical form. For example, the number of field lines through a given surface is the surface integral of the magnetic field.

The direction of magnetic field lines represented by the alignment of iron filings sprinkled on paper placed above a bar magnet. Various phenomena have the effect of "displaying" magnetic field lines as though the field lines are physical phenomena. For example, iron filings placed in a magnetic field line up to form lines that correspond to 'field lines'.[nb 6] Magnetic fields "lines" are also visually displayed in polar auroras, in which plasma particle dipole interactions create visible streaks of light that line up with the local direction of Earth's magnetic field. Field lines can be used as a qualitative tool to visualize magnetic forces. In ferromagnetic substances like iron and in plasmas, magnetic forces can be understood by imagining that the field lines exert a tension, (like a rubber band) along their length, and a pressure perpendicular to their length on neighboring field lines. 'Unlike' poles of magnets attract because they are linked by many field lines; 'like' poles repel because their field lines do not meet, but run parallel, pushing on each other.

[edit] Magnetic field and permanent magnets

Main article: Magnet Permanent magnets are objects that produce their own persistent magnetic fields. They are made of ferromagnetic materials, such as iron and nickel, that have been magnetized, and they have both a north and a south pole.

[edit] Magnetic field of permanent magnets

Main articles: Magnetic moment and Two definitions of moment

The magnetic field of permanent magnets can be quite complicated, especially near the magnet. The magnetic field of a small[nb 7] straight magnet is proportional to the magnet's strength (called its magnetic dipole moment m). The equations are non-trivial and also depend on the distance from the magnet and the orientation of the magnet. For simple magnets, m points in the direction of a line drawn from the south to the north pole of the magnet. Flipping a bar magnet is equivalent to rotating its m by 180 degrees. The magnetic field of larger magnets can be obtained by modelling them as a collection of a large number of small magnets called dipoles each having their own m. The magnetic field produced by the magnet then is the net magnetic field of these dipoles. And, any net force on the magnet is a result of adding up the forces on the individual dipoles. There are two competing models for the nature of these dipoles. These two models produce two different magnetic fields, H and B. Outside a material, though, the two are identical (to a multiplicative constant) so that in many cases the distinction can be ignored. This is particularly true for magnetic fields, such as those due to electric currents, that are not generated by magnetic materials.

[edit] Magnetic pole model and the H-field

The magnetic pole model: two opposing poles, North (+) and South (-), separated by a distance d produce an H-field (lines). It is sometimes useful to model the force and torques between two magnets as due to magnetic poles repelling or attracting each other in the same manner as the Coulomb force between electric charges. In this model, a magnetic H-field is produced by magnetic charges that are 'smeared' around each pole. The H-field, therefore, is analogous to the electric field E which starts at a positive electric charge and ends at a negative electric charge. Near the north pole, therefore, all H-field lines point away from the north pole (whether inside

the magnet or out) while near the south pole (whether inside the magnet or out) all H-field lines point toward the south pole. A north pole, then, feels a force in the direction of the H-field while the force on the south pole is opposite to the H-field. In the magnetic pole model, the elementary magnetic dipole m is formed by two opposite magnetic poles of pole strength qm separated by a very small distance vector d, such that m = qmd. Magnetic poles cannot exist apart from each other; all magnets have north/south pairs which cannot be separated without creating two magnets each having a north/south pair. The magnetic pole model does not account for magnetism that is produced by electric currents, nor the force that a magnetic field applies to moving electric charges.

[edit] Amperian loop model and the B-field

See also: Gauss's law for magnetism

The Amperian loop model: A current loop (ring) which goes into the page at the x and comes out at the dot produces a B field (lines). The north pole is to the right and the south to the left. After Oersted discovered that electric currents produce a magnetic field and Ampere discovered that electric currents attracted and repelled each other similar to magnets, it was natural to hypothesize that all magnetic fields are due to electric current loops. In this model developed by Ampere, the elementary magnetic dipole that makes up all magnets is a sufficiently small Amperian loop of current I. The dipole moment of this loop is m = I A where A is the area of the loop.

These magnetic dipoles produce a magnetic B field. One important property of the B-field produced this way is that magnetic B field lines neither start nor end (mathematically, B is a solenoidal vector field); a field line either extends to infinity or wraps around to form a closed curve.[nb 8] To date no exception to this rule has been found. (See magnetic monopole below.) Magnetic field lines exit a magnet near its north pole and enter near its south pole, but inside the magnet B-field lines continue through the magnet from the south pole back to the north.[nb 9] If a B-field line enters a magnet somewhere it has to leave somewhere else; it is not allowed to have an end point. Magnetic poles, therefore, always come in N and S pairs. More formally, since all the magnetic field lines that enter any given region must also leave that region, subtracting the 'number'[nb 10] of field lines that enter the region from the number that exit gives identically zero. Mathematically this is equivalent to:

, where the integral is a surface integral over the closed surface S (a closed surface is one that completely surrounds a region with no holes to let any field lines escape). Since dA points outward, the dot product in the integral is positive for B-field pointing out and negative for B-field pointing in. There is also a corresponding differential form of this equation covered in Maxwell's equations below.

[edit] Force between magnets

Main article: Force between magnets The force between two small magnets is quite complicated and depends on the strength and orientation of both magnets and the distance and direction of the magnets relative to each other. The force is particularly sensitive to rotations of the magnets due to magnetic torque. The force on each magnet depends on its magnetic moment and the magnetic field[nb 11] of the other. To understand the force between magnets, it is useful to examine the magnetic pole model given above. In this model, the H-field of one magnet pushes and pulls on both poles of a second magnet. If this H-field is the same at both poles of the second magnet then there is no net force on that magnet since the force is opposite for opposite poles. If, however, the magnetic field of the first magnet is nonuniform (such as the H near one of its poles), each pole of the second magnet sees a different field and is subject to a different force. This difference in the two forces moves the magnet in the direction of increasing magnetic field and may also cause a net torque.

This is a specific example of a general rule that magnets are attracted (or repulsed depending on the orientation of the magnet) into regions of higher magnetic field. Any non-uniform magnetic field whether caused by permanent magnets or by electric currents will exert a force on a small magnet in this way. The details of the Amperian loop model are different and more complicated but yield the same result: that magnetic dipoles are attracted/repelled into regions of higher magnetic field. Mathematically, the force on a small magnet having a magnetic moment m due to a magnetic field B is:[15]

where the gradient is the change of the quantity m B per unit distance and the direction is that of maximum increase of m B. To understand this equation, note that the dot product m B = mBcos(), where m and B represent the magnitude of the m and B vectors and is the angle between them. If m is in the same direction as B then the dot product is positive and the gradient points 'uphill' pulling the magnet into regions of higher B-field (more strictly larger m B). This equation is strictly only valid for magnets of zero size, but is often a good approximation for not too large magnets. The magnetic force on larger magnets is determined by dividing them into smaller regions having their own m then summing up the forces on each of these regions.

[edit] Magnetic torque on permanent magnets

Main article: Magnetic torque If two like poles of two separate magnets are brought near each other and one of the magnets is allowed to turn it will promptly rotate to align itself with the first. In this example, the magnetic field of the stationary magnet creates a magnetic torque on the magnet that is free to rotate. This magnetic torque tends to align a magnet's poles with the magnetic field lines. A compass, therefore, will turn to align itself with earth's magnetic field. Magnetic torque is used to drive electric motors. In one simple motor design, a magnet is fixed to a freely rotating shaft and subjected to a magnetic field from an array of electromagnets. By continuously switching the electric current through each of the electromagnets, thereby flipping the polarity of their magnetic fields, like poles are kept next to the rotor; the resultant torque is transferred to the shaft. See Rotating magnetic fields below.

torque on a dipole: An H field (to right) causes equal but opposite forces on a N pole (+q) and a S pole (-q) creating a torque. As is the case for the force between magnets, the magnetic pole model leads more readily to the correct equation. Here, two equal and opposite magnetic charges experiencing the same H also experience equal and opposite forces. Since these equal and opposite forces are in different locations, this produces a torque proportional to the distance (perpendicular to the force) between them. With the definition of m as the pole strength times the distance between the poles, this leads to = 0mHsin, where 0 is a constant called the magnetic constant and is the angle between H and m. The Amperian loop model also predicts the same magnetic torque. Here, it is the B field interacting with the Amperian current loop through a Lorentz force described below. Again, the results are the same although the models are completely different.

Cross product: |a b| = a b sin. Mathematically, the torque on a small magnet is proportional both to the applied magnetic field and to the magnetic moment m of the magnet:

where represents the vector cross product. Note that this equation includes all of the qualitative information included above. There is no torque on a magnet if m is in the same direction as the magnetic field. (The cross product is zero for two vectors that are in the same direction.) Further, all other orientations feel a torque that twists them toward the direction of magnetic field.

[edit] Magnetic field and electric currents

Currents of electric charges both generate a magnetic field and feel a force due to magnetic B-fields.

[edit] Magnetic field due to moving charges and electric currents

Main articles: Electromagnet, BiotSavart law, and Ampre's law

Right hand grip rule: a current flowing in the direction of the white arrow produces a magnetic field shown by the red arrows. All moving charged particles produce magnetic fields. Moving point charges, such as electrons, produce complicated but well known magnetic fields that depend on the charge, velocity, and acceleration of the particles.[16] Magnetic field lines form in concentric circles around a cylindrical current-carrying conductor, such as a length of wire. The direction of such a magnetic field can be determined by using the "right hand grip rule" (see figure at right). The strength of the magnetic field decreases with distance from the wire. (For an infinite length wire the strength decreases inversely proportional to the distance.)

Solenoid Bending a current-carrying wire into a loop concentrates the magnetic field inside the loop while weakening it outside. Bending a wire into multiple closely spaced loops to form a coil or "solenoid" enhances this effect. A device so formed around an iron core may act as an electromagnet, generating a strong, well-controlled magnetic field. An infinitely long cylindrical electromagnet has a uniform magnetic field inside, and no magnetic field outside. A finite length electromagnet produces a magnetic field that looks similar to that produced by a uniform permanent magnet, with its strength and polarity determined by the current flowing through the coil. The magnetic field generated by a steady current (a constant flow of electric charges in which charge is neither accumulating nor depleting at any point)[nb 12] is described by the BiotSavart law:

where the integral sums over the wire length where vector d is the direction of the current, 0 is the magnetic constant, r is the distance between the location of d and the location at which the magnetic field is being calculated, and is a unit vector in the direction of r. A slightly more general[17][nb 13] way of relating the current to the B-field is through Ampre's law:

where the line integral is over any arbitrary loop and enc is the current enclosed by that loop. Ampre's law is always valid for steady currents and can be used to calculate the B-field for certain highly symmetric situations such as an infinite wire or an infinite solenoid. In a modified form that accounts for time varying electric fields, Ampre's law is one of four Maxwell's equations that describe electricity and magnetism.

[edit] Force on moving charges and current

Charged particle drifts in a magnetic field with (A) no net force, (B) an electric field, E, (C) a charge independent force, F (e.g. gravity), and (D) an inhomogeneous magnetic field, grad H. [edit] Force on a charged particle Main article: Lorentz force A charged particle moving in a B-field experiences a sideways force that is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field, the component of the velocity that is perpendicular to the magnetic field and the charge of the particle. This force is known as the Lorentz force, and is given by

where F is the force, q is the electric charge of the particle, v is the instantaneous velocity of the particle, and B is the magnetic field (in teslas). The Lorentz force is always perpendicular to both the velocity of the particle and the magnetic field that created it. When a charged particle moves in a static magnetic field it will trace out a helical path in which the helix axis is parallel to the magnetic field and in which the speed of the particle will remain constant. Because the magnetic force is always perpendicular to the motion, the magnetic field can do no work on an isolated charge. It can only do work indirectly, via the electric field generated by a changing magnetic field. It is often claimed that the magnetic force can do work to a non-elementary magnetic dipole, or to charged particles whose motion is constrained by other forces, but this is incorrect[18] because the work in those cases is performed by the electric forces of the charges deflected by the magnetic field. [edit] Force on current-carrying wire Main article: Laplace force The force on a current carrying wire is similar to that of a moving charge as expected since a charge carrying wire is a collection of moving charges. A current carrying wire feels a force in the presence of a magnetic field. The Lorentz force on a macroscopic current is often referred to as the Laplace force. Consider a conductor of length l, cross section A, and charge q which is due to electric current i. If this conductor is placed in a magnetic field of induction B which makes an angle (theta) with the velocity of charges in the conductor, the force exerted on a single charge q is

, so, for N charges where , the force exerted on the conductor is , , where .

The right-hand rule: Pointing the thumb of the right hand in the direction of the conventional current and the fingers in the direction of the B-field the force on the current points out of the palm. The force is reversed for a negative charge. [edit] Direction of force See also: Right-hand rule The direction of force on a charge or a current can be determined by a mnemonic known as the right-hand rule. See the figure on the left. Using the right hand and pointing the thumb in the direction of the moving positive charge or positive current and the fingers in the direction of the magnetic field the resulting force on the charge points outwards from the palm. The force on a negatively charged particle is in the opposite direction. If both the speed and the charge are reversed then the direction of the force remains the same. For

that reason a magnetic field measurement (by itself) cannot distinguish whether there is a positive charge moving to the right or a negative charge moving to the left. (Both of these cases produce the same current.) On the other hand, a magnetic field combined with an electric field can distinguish between these, see Hall effect below. An alternative mnemonic to the right hand rule is Fleming's left hand rule.

[edit] Relation between H and B

The formulas derived for the magnetic field above are correct when dealing with the entire current. A magnetic material placed inside a magnetic field, though, generates its own bound current which can be a challenge to calculate. (This bound current is due to the sum of atomic sized current loops and the spin of the subatomic particles such as electrons that make up the material.) The H-field as defined above helps factor out this bound current; but in order to see how, it helps to introduce the concept of magnetization first.

[edit] Magnetization
Main article: Magnetization The magnetization vector field M represents how strongly a region of material is magnetized. It is defined as the net magnetic dipole moment per unit volume of that region. The magnetization of a uniform magnet, therefore, is a constant in the material equal to its magnetic moment, m, divided by its volume. Since the SI unit of magnetic moment is ampere-turn meter2, the SI unit of magnetization M is ampere-turn per meter which is identical to that of the H-field. The magnetization M field of a region points in the direction of the average magnetic dipole moment in that region. Magnetization field lines, therefore, begin near the magnetic south pole and ends near the magnetic north pole. (Magnetization does not exist outside of the magnet.) In the Amperian loop model, the magnetization is due to combining many tiny Amperian loops to form a resultant current called bound current. This bound current, then, is the source of the magnetic B field due to the magnet. (See Magnetic dipoles below and magnetic poles vs. atomic currents for more information.) Given the definition of the magnetic dipole, the magnetization field follows a similar law to that of Ampere's law:[19]

where the integral is a line integral over any closed loop and Ib is the 'bound current' enclosed by that closed loop. In the magnetic pole model, magnetization begins at and ends at magnetic poles. If a given region, therefore, has a net positive 'magnetic pole strength' (corresponding to a north pole) then it will have more magnetization field lines entering it than leaving it. Mathematically this is equivalent to:

, where the integral is a closed surface integral over the closed surface S and qM is the 'magnetic charge' (in units of magnetic flux) enclosed by S. (A closed surface completely surrounds a region with no holes to let any field lines escape.) The negative sign occurs because the magnetization field moves from south to north.

[edit] H-field and magnetic materials

See also: demagnetizing field The H-field is defined as:

(definition of H in SI units)
With this definition, Ampere's law becomes:

where If represents the 'free current' enclosed by the loop so that the line integral of H does not depend at all on the bound currents.[20] For the differential equivalent of this equation see Maxwell's equations. Ampere's law leads to the boundary condition

where Kf is the surface free current density.[21] Similarly, a surface integral of H over any closed surface is independent of the free currents and picks out the 'magnetic charges' within that closed surface:

which does not depend on the free currents. The H-field, therefore, can be separated into two[nb 14] independent parts:

where H0 is the applied magnetic field due only to the free currents and Hd is the demagnetizing field due only to the bound currents. The magnetic H-field, therefore, re-factors the bound current in terms of 'magnetic charges'. The H field lines loop only around 'free current' and, unlike the magnetic B field, begins and ends near magnetic poles as well.

[edit] Magnetism
Main article: Magnetism Most materials respond to an applied B-field by producing their own magnetization M and therefore their own B-field. Typically, the response is very weak and exists only when the magnetic field is applied. The term magnetism describes how materials respond on the

microscopic level to an applied magnetic field and is used to categorize the magnetic phase of a material. Materials are divided into groups based upon their magnetic behavior:

Diamagnetic materials[22] produce a magnetization that opposes the magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials[22] produce a magnetization in the same direction as the applied magnetic field. Ferromagnetic materials and the closely related ferrimagnetic materials and antiferromagnetic materials[23][24] can have a magnetization independent of an applied B-field with a complex relationship between the two fields. Superconductors (and ferromagnetic superconductors)[25][26] are materials that are characterized by perfect conductivity below a critical temperature and magnetic field. They also are highly magnetic and can be perfect diamagnets below a lower critical magnetic field. Superconductors often have a broad range of temperatures and magnetic fields (the so named mixed state) for which they exhibit a complex hysteretic dependence of M on B.

In the case of paramagnetism and diamagnetism, the magnetization M is often proportional to the applied magnetic field such that:

where is a material dependent parameter called the permeability. In some cases the permeability may be a second rank tensor so that H may not point in the same direction as B. These relations between B and H are examples of constitutive equations. However, superconductors and ferromagnets have a more complex B to H relation; see magnetic hysteresis.

[edit] Energy stored in magnetic fields

Main article: Magnetic energy See also: Magnetic hysteresis Energy is needed to generate a magnetic field both to work against the electric field that a changing magnetic field creates and to change the magnetization of any material within the magnetic field. For non-dispersive materials this same energy is released when the magnetic field is destroyed so that this energy can be modeled as being stored in the magnetic field. For linear, non-dispersive, materials (such that B = H where is frequency-independent), the energy density is:

If there are no magnetic materials around then can be replaced by 0. The above equation cannot be used for nonlinear materials, though; a more general expression given below must be used. In general, the incremental amount of work per unit volume W needed to cause a small change of magnetic field B is:

Once the relationship between H and B is known this equation is used to determine the work needed to reach a given magnetic state. For hysteretic materials such as ferromagnets and superconductors the work needed will also depend on how the magnetic field is created. For linear non-dispersive materials, though, the general equation leads directly to the simpler energy density equation given above.

[edit] Electromagnetism: the relationship between magnetic and electric fields

Main article: Electromagnetism

[edit] Faraday's Law: Electric force due to a changing B-field

Main articles: Faraday's law and Magnetic flux A changing magnetic field, such as a magnet moving through a conducting coil, generates an electric field (and therefore tends to drive a current in the coil). This is known as Faraday's law and forms the basis of many electrical generators and electric motors. Mathematically, Faraday's law is:

where is the electromotive force (or EMF, the voltage generated around a closed loop) and m is the magnetic fluxthe product of the area times the magnetic field normal to that area. (This definition of magnetic flux is why B is often referred to as magnetic flux density.) The negative sign is necessary and represents the fact that any current generated by a changing magnetic field in a coil produces a magnetic field that opposes the change in the magnetic field that induced it. This phenomenon is known as Lenz's Law. This integral formulation of Faraday's law can be converted[nb 15] into a differential form, which applies under slightly different conditions. This form is covered as one of Maxwell's equations below.

[edit] Maxwell's correction to Ampre's Law: The magnetic field due to a changing electric field
Main article: Maxwell's correction to Ampre's law Similar to the way that a changing magnetic field generates an electric field, a changing electric field generates a magnetic field. This fact is known as Maxwell's correction to Ampre's law. Maxwell's correction to Ampre's Law bootstrap together with Faraday's law of induction to form electromagnetic waves, such as light. Thus, a changing electric field generates a changing magnetic field which generates a changing electric field again. Maxwell's correction to Ampre law is applied as an additive term to Ampere's law given above. This additive term is proportional to the time rate of change of the electric flux and is similar to Faraday's law above but with a different and positive constant out front. (The electric flux through an area is proportional to the area times the perpendicular part of the electric field.) This full Ampre law including the correction term is known as the MaxwellAmpre equation. It is not commonly given in integral form because the effect is so small that it can typically be ignored in most cases where the integral form is used. The Maxwell term is critically important in the creation and propagation of electromagnetic waves. These, though, are usually described using the differential form of this equation given below.

[edit] Maxwell's equations

Main article: Maxwell's equations

Like all vector fields, magnetic field has two important mathematical properties that relates it to its sources. (For the B-field the sources are currents and changing electric fields.) These two properties, along with the two corresponding properties of the electric field, make up Maxwell's Equations. Maxwell's Equations together with the Lorentz force law form a complete description of classical electrodynamics including both electricity and magnetism. The first property is the divergence of a vector field A, A which represents how A 'flows' outward from a given point. As discussed above, a B-field line never starts or ends at a point but instead forms a complete loop. This is mathematically equivalent to saying that the divergence of B is zero. (Such vector fields are called solenoidal vector fields.) This property is called Gauss's law for magnetism and is equivalent to the statement that there are no isolated magnetic poles or magnetic monopoles. The electric field on the other hand begins and ends at electric charges so that its divergence is non-zero and proportional to the charge density (See Gauss's law). The second mathematical property is called the curl, such that A represents how A curls or 'circulates' around a given point. The result of the curl is called a 'circulation source'. The equations for the curl of B and of E are called the AmpreMaxwell equation and Faraday's law respectively. They represent the differential forms of the integral equations given above. The complete set of Maxwell's equations then are:

where J = complete microscopic current density and is the charge density.

Magnetic field, like all pseudovectors, changes sign when reflected in a mirror: When a current carrying loop (black) is reflected in a mirror (dotted line), its magnetic field (blue) is reflected and reversed. Technically, B is a pseudovector (also called an axial vector) due to being defined by a vector cross product. (See diagram to right.) As discussed above, materials respond to an applied electric E field and an applied magnetic B field by producing their own internal 'bound' charge and current distributions that contribute to E and B but are difficult to calculate. To circumvent this problem, H and D fields are used to re-factor Maxwell's equations in terms of the free current density Jf and free charge density f:

These equations are not any more general than the original equations (if the 'bound' charges and currents in the material are known). They also need to be supplemented by the relationship between B and H as well as that between E and D. On the other hand, for simple relationships between these quantities this form of Maxwell's equations can circumvent the need to calculate the bound charges and currents.

[edit] Electric and magnetic fields: different aspects of the same phenomenon
Main article: Relativistic electromagnetism

According to the special theory of relativity, the partition of the electromagnetic force into separate electric and magnetic components is not fundamental, but varies with the observational frame of reference: An electric force perceived by one observer may be perceived by another (in a different frame of reference) as a magnetic force, or a mixture of electric and magnetic forces. Formally, special relativity combines the electric and magnetic fields into a rank-2 tensor, called the electromagnetic tensor. Changing reference frames mixes these components. This is analogous to the way that special relativity mixes space and time into spacetime, and mass, momentum and energy into four-momentum.[27]

[edit] Magnetic vector potential

Main article: vector potential In advanced topics such as quantum mechanics and relativity it is often easier to work with a potential formulation of electrodynamics rather than in terms of the electric and magnetic fields. In this representation, the vector potential A, and the scalar potential , are defined such that:

The vector potential A may be interpreted as a generalized potential momentum per unit charge[28] just as is interpreted as a generalized potential energy per unit charge. Maxwell's equations when expressed in terms of the potentials can be cast into a form that agrees with special relativity with little effort.[29] In relativity A together with forms the four-potential analogous to the four-momentum which combines the momentum and energy of a particle. Using the four potential instead of the electromagnetic tensor has the advantage of being much simpler; further it can be easily modified to work with quantum mechanics.

[edit] Quantum electrodynamics

See also: Standard Model and quantum electrodynamics

In modern physics, the electromagnetic field is understood to be not a classical field, but rather a quantum field; it is represented not as a vector of three numbers at each point, but as a vector of three quantum operators at each point. The most accurate modern description of the electromagnetic interaction (and much else) is Quantum electrodynamics (QED),[30] which is incorporated into a more complete theory known as the Standard Model of particle physics. In QED, the magnitude of the electromagnetic interactions between charged particles (and their antiparticles) is computed using perturbation theory; these rather complex formulas have a remarkable pictorial representation as Feynman diagrams in which virtual photons are exchanged. Predictions of QED agree with experiments to an extremely high degree of accuracy: currently about 1012 (and limited by experimental errors); for details see precision tests of QED. This makes QED one of the most accurate physical theories constructed thus far. All equations in this article are in the classical approximation, which is less accurate than the quantum description mentioned here. However, under most everyday circumstances, the difference between the two theories is negligible.

[edit] Important uses and examples of magnetic field

[edit] Earth's magnetic field
Main article: Earth's magnetic field

A sketch of Earth's magnetic field representing the source of the field as a magnet. The geographic north pole of Earth is near the top of the diagram, the south pole near the bottom. The south pole of that magnet is deep in Earth's interior below Earth's North Magnetic Pole. The Earth's magnetic field is thought to be produced by convection currents in the outer liquid of Earth's core. The Dynamo theory proposes that these movements produce electric currents which, in turn, produce the magnetic field.[31] The presence of this field causes a compass, placed anywhere within it, to rotate so that the "north pole" of the magnet in the compass points roughly north, toward Earth's north magnetic pole. This is the traditional definition of the "north pole" of a magnet, although other equivalent definitions are also possible. One confusion that arises from this definition is that, if Earth itself is considered as a magnet, the south pole of that magnet would be the one nearer the north magnetic pole, and vice-versa. The north magnetic pole is so-named not because of the polarity of the field there but because of its geographical location. The north and south poles of a permanent magnet are so-called because they are "northseeking" and "south-seeking", respectively.[32][33]

The figure to the right is a sketch of Earth's magnetic field represented by field lines. For most locations, the magnetic field has a significant up/down component in addition to the North/South component. (There is also an East/West component; Earth's magnetic poles do not coincide exactly with Earth's geological pole.) The magnetic field can be visualised as a bar magnet buried deep in Earth's interior. Earth's magnetic field is not constantthe strength of the field and the location of its poles vary. Moreover, the poles periodically reverse their orientation in a process called geomagnetic reversal. The most recent reversal occurred 780,000 years ago.

[edit] Rotating magnetic fields

Main articles: Rotating magnetic field and Alternator The rotating magnetic field is a key principle in the operation of alternating-current motors. A permanent magnet in such a field rotates so as to maintain its alignment with the external field. This effect was conceptualized by Nikola Tesla, and later utilized in his, and others', early AC (alternating-current) electric motors. A rotating magnetic field can be constructed using two orthogonal coils with 90 degrees phase difference in their AC currents. However, in practice such a system would be supplied through a three-wire arrangement with unequal currents. This inequality would cause serious problems in standardization of the conductor size and so, in order to overcome it, three-phase systems are used where the three currents are equal in magnitude and have 120 degrees phase difference. Three similar coils having mutual geometrical angles of 120 degrees create the rotating magnetic field in this case. The ability of the three-phase system to create a rotating field, utilized in electric motors, is one of the main reasons why three-phase systems dominate the world's electrical power supply systems. Because magnets degrade with time, synchronous motors use DC voltage fed rotor windings which allows the excitation of the machine to be controlled and induction motors use short-circuited rotors (instead of a magnet) following the rotating magnetic field of a multicoiled stator. The short-circuited turns of the rotor develop eddy currents in the rotating field of the stator, and these currents in turn move the rotor by the Lorentz force. In 1882, Nikola Tesla identified the concept of the rotating magnetic field. In 1885, Galileo Ferraris independently researched the concept. In 1888, Tesla gained U.S. Patent 381,968 for his work. Also in 1888, Ferraris published his research in a paper to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin.

[edit] Hall effect

Main article: Hall effect The charge carriers of a current carrying conductor placed in a transverse magnetic field experience a sideways Lorentz force; this results in a charge separation in a direction perpendicular to the current and to the magnetic field. The resultant voltage in that direction is proportional to the applied magnetic field. This is known as the Hall effect. The Hall effect is often used to measure the magnitude of a magnetic field. It is used as well to find the sign of the dominant charge carriers in materials such as semiconductors (negative electrons or positive holes).

[edit] Magnetic circuits

Main article: Magnetic circuit An important use of H is in magnetic circuits where inside a linear material B = H. Here, is the magnetic permeability of the material. This result is similar in form to Ohm's law J = E, where J is the current density, is the conductance and E is the electric field. Extending this analogy, the counterpart to the macroscopic Ohm's law ( I = V R ) is:

where is the magnetic flux in the circuit, is the magnetomotive force applied to the circuit, and is the reluctance of the circuit. Here the reluctance is a quantity similar in nature to resistance for the flux. Using this analogy it is straightforward to calculate the magnetic flux of complicated magnetic field geometries, by using all the available techniques of circuit theory.

[edit] Magnetic field shape descriptions

Schematic quadrupole magnet ("four-pole") magnetic field. There are four steel pole tips, two opposing magnetic north poles and two opposing magnetic south poles.

An azimuthal magnetic field is one that runs east-west. A meridional magnetic field is one that runs north-south. In the solar dynamo model of the Sun, differential rotation of the solar plasma causes the meridional magnetic field to stretch into an azimuthal magnetic field, a process called the omegaeffect. The reverse process is called the alpha-effect.[34] A dipole magnetic field is one seen around a bar magnet or around a charged elementary particle with nonzero spin. A quadrupole magnetic field is one seen, for example, between the poles of four bar magnets. The field strength grows linearly with the radial distance from its longitudinal axis. A solenoidal magnetic field is similar to a dipole magnetic field, except that a solid bar magnet is replaced by a hollow electromagnetic coil magnet. A toroidal magnetic field occurs in a doughnut-shaped coil, the electric current spiraling around the tube-like surface, and is found, for example, in a tokamak. A poloidal magnetic field is generated by a current flowing in a ring, and is found, for example, in a tokamak. A radial magnetic field is one in which the field lines are directed from the center outwards, similar to the spokes in a bicycle wheel. An example can be found in a loudspeaker transducers (driver).[35] A helical magnetic field is corkscrew-shaped, and sometimes seen in space plasmas such as the Orion Molecular Cloud.[36]

[edit] Magnetic dipoles

Magnetic field lines around a magnetostatic dipole pointing to the right. Main article: Magnetic dipole See also: Spin magnetic moment and Micromagnetism The magnetic field of a magnetic dipole is depicted on the right. From outside, the ideal magnetic dipole is identical to that of an ideal electric dipole of the same strength. Unlike the electric dipole, a magnetic dipole is properly modeled as a current loop having a current I and an area a. Such a current loop has a magnetic moment of:

where the direction of m is perpendicular to the area of the loop and depends on the direction of the current using the right-hand rule. An ideal magnetic dipole is modeled as a real magnetic dipole whose area a has been reduced to zero and its current I increased to infinity such that the product m = Ia is finite. In this model it is easy to see the connection between angular momentum and magnetic moment which is the basis of the Einstein-de Haas effect "rotation by magnetization" and its inverse, the Barnett effect or "magnetization by rotation".[37] Rotating the loop faster (in the same direction) increases the current and therefore the magnetic moment, for example. It is sometimes useful to model the magnetic dipole similar to the electric dipole with two equal but opposite magnetic charges (one south the other north) separated by distance d. This model produces an H-field not a B-field. Such a model is deficient, though, both in

that there are no magnetic charges and in that it obscures the link between electricity and magnetism. Further, as discussed above it fails to explain the inherent connection between angular momentum and magnetism.

[edit] Magnetic monopole (hypothetical)

Main article: Magnetic monopole A magnetic monopole is a hypothetical particle (or class of particles) that has, as its name suggests, only one magnetic pole (either a north pole or a south pole). In other words, it would possess a "magnetic charge" analogous to an electric charge. Magnetic field lines would start or end on magnetic monopoles, so if they exist, they would give exceptions to the rule that magnetic field lines neither start nor end. Modern interest in this concept stems from particle theories, notably Grand Unified Theories and superstring theories, that predict either the existence, or the possibility, of magnetic monopoles. These theories and others have inspired extensive efforts to search for monopoles. Despite these efforts, no magnetic monopole has been observed to date.[nb 16] In recent research, materials known as spin ices can simulate monopoles, but do not contain actual monopoles.[citation needed]

[edit] See also

General

Magnetohydrodynamics the study of the dynamics of electrically conducting fluids. Magnetic nanoparticles extremely small magnetic particles that are tens of atoms wide Magnetic reconnection an effect which causes solar flares and auroras. Magnetic potential the vector and scalar potential representation of magnetism. SI electromagnetism units common units used in electromagnetism. Orders of magnitude (magnetic field) list of magnetic field sources and measurement devices from smallest magnetic fields to largest detected. Upward continuation

Mathematics

Magnetic helicity extent to which a magnetic field "wraps around itself".

Applications

Dynamo theory a proposed mechanism for the creation of the Earth's magnetic field. Helmholtz coil a device for producing a region of nearly uniform magnetic field. Magnetic field viewing film Film used to view the magnetic field of an area. Maxwell coil a device for producing a large volume of an almost constant magnetic field. Stellar magnetic field a discussion of the magnetic field of stars. Teltron Tube device used to display an electron beam and demonstrates effect of electric and magnetic fields on moving charges.

[edit] Notes
1. ^ Technically, a magnetic field is a pseudo vector; pseudo-vectors, which also include torque and rotational velocity, are similar to vectors except that they remain unchanged when the coordinates are inverted. 2. ^ His Epistola Petri Peregrini de Maricourt ad Sygerum de Foucaucourt Militem de Magnete, which is often shortened to Epistola de magnete, is dated 1269 C.E. 3. ^ From the outside, the field of a dipole of magnetic charge has the exact same form as that of a current loop when both are sufficiently small. Therefore, the two models differ only for magnetism inside magnetic material. 4. ^ Edward Purcell, in Electricity and Magnetism, McGraw-Hill, 1963, writes, Even some modern writers who treat B as the primary field feel obliged to call it the magnetic induction because the name magnetic field was historically preempted by H. This seems clumsy and pedantic. If you go into the laboratory and ask a physicist what causes the pion trajectories in his bubble chamber to curve, he'll probably answer "magnetic field", not "magnetic induction." You will seldom hear a geophysicist refer to the Earth's magnetic induction, or an astrophysicist talk about the magnetic induction of the galaxy. We propose to keep on calling B the magnetic field. As for H, although other names have been invented for it, we shall call it "the field H" or even "the magnetic field H." In a similar vein, M Gerloch (1983). Magnetism and Ligand-field Analysis. Cambridge University Press. p. 110. ISBN 0-521-24939-2. http://books.google.com/?id=Ovo8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110.says: "So we may think of both B and H as magnetic fields, but drop the word 'magnetic' from H so as to maintain the distinction ... As Purcell points out, 'it is only the names that give trouble, not the symbols'." 5. ^ This can be seen from the magnetic part of the Lorentz force law Fmag = (qvB). 6. ^ The use of iron filings to display a field presents something of an exception to this picture; the filings alter the magnetic field so that it is much larger along the "lines" of iron, due to the large permeability of iron relative to air. 7. ^ Here 'small' means that the observer is sufficiently far away that it can be treated as being infinitesimally small. 'Larger' magnets need to include more complicated terms in the expression and depend on the entire geometry of the magnet not just m.

8. ^ Magnetic field lines may also wrap around and around without closing but also without ending. These more complicated non-closing non-ending magnetic field lines are moot, though, since the magnetic field of objects that produce them are calculated by adding the magnetic fields of 'elementary parts' having magnetic field lines that do form closed curves or extend to infinity. 9. ^ To see that this must be true imagine placing a compass inside a magnet. There, the north pole of the compass points toward the north pole of the magnet since magnets stacked on each other point in the same direction. 10. ^ As discussed above, magnetic field lines are primarily a conceptual tool used to represent the mathematics behind magnetic fields. The total 'number' of field lines is dependent on how the field lines are drawn. In practice, integral equations such as the one that follows in the main text are used instead. 11. ^ Either B or H may be used for the magnetic field outside of the magnet. 12. ^ In practice, the BiotSavart law and other laws of magnetostatics are often used even when the currents are changing in time as long as it is not changing too quickly. It is often used, for instance, for standard household currents which oscillate sixty times per second. 13. ^ The BiotSavart law contains the additional restriction (boundary condition) that the B-field must go to zero fast enough at infinity. It also depends on the divergence of B being zero, which is always valid. (There are no magnetic charges.) 14. ^ A third term is needed for changing electric fields and polarization currents; this displacement current term is covered in Maxwell's equations below. 15. ^ A complete expression for Faraday's law of induction in terms of the electric E and magnetic fields can be written as: where (t) is the moving closed path bounding the moving surface (t), and dA is an element of surface area of (t). The first integral calculates the work done moving a charge a distance d based upon the Lorentz force law. In the case where the bounding surface is stationary, the KelvinStokes theorem can be used to show this equation is equivalent to the MaxwellFaraday equation. 16. ^ Two experiments produced candidate events that were initially interpreted as monopoles, but these are now regarded to be inconclusive. For details and references, see magnetic monopole.

[edit] References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. ^ Whittaker 1951, p. 34 ^ Whittaker 1951, p. 56 ^ Whittaker 1951, p. 59 ^ Whittaker 1951, p. 64 ^ Whittaker 1951, p. 88 ^ Whittaker 1951, p. 222 ^ Whittaker 1951, p. 244 ^ Whittaker 1951, p. 422 ^ a b Electromagnetics, by Rothwell and Cloud, p23 ^ R.P. Feynman, R.B. Leighton, M. Sands (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics, volume 2.

11. ^ "International system of units (SI)". NIST reference on constants, units, and uncertainty. National Institute of Standards and Technology. http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/units.html. Retrieved 9 May 2012. 12. ^ "Gravity Probe B Executive Summary". pp. 10, 21. http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/168808main_gp-b_pfar_cvr-pref-execsum.pdf. 13. ^ "With record magnetic fields to the 21st Century". IEEE Xplore. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=823621. 14. ^ Kouveliotou, C.; Duncan, R. C.; Thompson, C. (February 2003). "Magnetars". Scientific American; Page 36. 15. ^ See Eq. 11.42 in E. Richard Cohen, David R. Lide, George L. Trigg (2003). AIP physics desk reference (3 ed.). Birkhuser. p. 381. ISBN 0-38798973-0. http://books.google.com/?id=JStYf6WlXpgC&pg=PA381. 16. ^ Griffiths 1999, p. 438 17. ^ Griffiths 1999, pp. 222225 18. ^ Deissler, R.J. (2008). "Dipole in a magnetic field, work, and quantum spin". Physical Review E 77 (3, pt 2): 036609. Bibcode 2008PhRvE..77c6609D. DOI:10.1103/PhysRevE.77.036609. PMID 18517545. http://academic.csuohio.edu/deissler/PhysRevE_77_036609.pdf. 19. ^ Griffiths 1999, pp. 266268 20. ^ John Clarke Slater, Nathaniel Herman Frank (1969). Electromagnetism (first published in 1947 ed.). Courier Dover Publications. p. 69. ISBN 0-48662263-0. http://books.google.com/?id=GYsphnFwUuUC&pg=PA69. 21. ^ Griffiths 1999, p. 332 22. ^ a b RJD Tilley (2004). Understanding Solids. Wiley. p. 368. ISBN 0-470-85275-5. http://books.google.com/?id=ZVgOLCXNoMoC&pg=PA368. 23. ^ Sshin Chikazumi, Chad D. Graham (1997). Physics of ferromagnetism (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 118. ISBN 0-19-851776-9. http://books.google.com/?id=AZVfuxXF2GsC&printsec=frontcover. 24. ^ Amikam Aharoni (2000). Introduction to the theory of ferromagnetism (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 27. ISBN 0-19-850808-5. http://books.google.com/?id=9RvNuIDh0qMC&pg=PA27. 25. ^ M Brian Maple et al. (2008). "Unconventional superconductivity in novel materials". In K. H. Bennemann, John B. Ketterson. Superconductivity. Springer. p. 640. ISBN 3-540-73252-7. http://books.google.com/?id=PguAgEQTiQwC&pg=PA640. 26. ^ Naoum Karchev (2003). "Itinerant ferromagnetism and superconductivity". In Paul S. Lewis, D. Di (CON) Castro. Superconductivity research at the leading edge. Nova Publishers. p. 169. ISBN 1-59033-861-8. http://books.google.com/?id=3AFo_yxBkD0C&pg=PA169. 27. ^ C. Doran and A. Lasenby (2003) Geometric Algebra for Physicists, Cambridge University Press, p.233 28. ^ E. J. Konopinski (1978). "What the electromagnetic vector potential describes". Am. J. Phys. 46 (5): 499502. Bibcode 1978AmJPh..46..499K. DOI:10.1119/1.11298. 29. ^ Griffiths 1999, p. 422 30. ^ For a good qualitative introduction see: Feynman, Richard (2006). QED: the strange theory of light and matter. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691-12575-9. 31. ^ Herbert, Yahreas (June 1954). "What makes the earth Wobble". Popular Science (New York: Godfrey Hammond): 266. http://books.google.com/?id=NiEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA96&dq=What+makes+the+earth+wobble&q=What%20makes%20the%20earth%20wobble. 32. ^ Serway, Raymond A.; Chris Vuille, Jerry S. Faughn (2009). College physics (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning. p. 628. ISBN 978-0-495-38693-3. 33. ^ Kurtus, Ron (2004). "Magnets". School for champions: Physics topics. http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/magnets.htm. Retrieved 17 July 2010. 34. ^ The Solar Dynamo, retrieved September 15, 2007. 35. ^ I. S. Falconer and M. I. Large (edited by I. M. Sefton), "Magnetism: Fields and Forces" Lecture E6, The University of Sydney, retrieved 3 October 2008 36. ^ Robert Sanders, "Astronomers find magnetic Slinky in Orion", 12 January 2006 at UC Berkeley. Retrieved 3 October 2008

37. ^ (See magnetic moment for further information.) B. D. Cullity, C. D. Graham (2008). Introduction to Magnetic Materials (2 ed.). Wiley-IEEE. p. 103. ISBN 0-471-47741-9. http://books.google.com/?id=ixAe4qIGEmwC&pg=PA103.

[edit] Further reading

Durney, Carl H. and Johnson, Curtis C. (1969). Introduction to modern electromagnetics. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-018388-0. Furlani, Edward P. (2001). Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices: Materials, Analysis and Applications. Academic Press Series in Electromagnetism. ISBN 0-12-269951-3. OCLC 162129430. Griffiths, David J. (1999). Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 438. ISBN 0-13-805326-X. OCLC 40251748. Jiles, David (1994). Introduction to Electronic Properties of Materials (1st ed ed.). Springer. ISBN 0-412-49580-5. Kraftmakher, Yaakov (2001). "Two experiments with rotating magnetic field". Eur. J. Phys. 22: 477482. http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0143-0807/22/5/302. Melle, Sonia; Rubio, Miguel A.; Fuller, Gerald G. (2000). "Structure and dynamics of magnetorheological fluids in rotating magnetic fields". Phys. Rev. E 61: 41114117. Bibcode 2000PhRvE..61.4111M. DOI:10.1103/PhysRevE.61.4111. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRE/v61/i4/p4111_1. Rao, Nannapaneni N. (1994). Elements of engineering electromagnetics (4th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-948746-8. OCLC 221993786. Mielnik, Bogdan (1989). "An electron trapped in a rotating magnetic field". Journal of Mathematical Physics 30 (2): 537549. Bibcode 1989JMP....30..537M. DOI:10.1063/1.528419. http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=JMAPAQ000030000002000537000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes. Thalmann, Julia K. (2010). Evolution of Coronal Magnetic Fields. uni-edition. ISBN 978-3-942171-41-0. Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0810-8. OCLC 51095685. Whittaker, E. T. (1951). A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity. Dover Publications. p. 34. ISBN 0-486-26126-3. http://www.archive.org/details/historyoftheorie00whitrich.

[edit] External links

[edit] Information

[edit] Rotating magnetic fields

Crowell, B., "Electromagnetism". Nave, R., "Magnetic Field". HyperPhysics. "Magnetism", The Magnetic Field. theory.uwinnipeg.ca. Hoadley, Rick, "What do magnetic fields look like?" 17 July 2005.

"Rotating magnetic fields". Integrated Publishing. "Introduction to Generators and Motors", rotating

[edit] Field density

Oppelt, Arnulf (2 November 2006). "magnetic field strength". http://searchsmb.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,290660,sid44_gci763586,00.html. Retrieved 04 June 2007. "magnetic field strength converter". [edit] Diagrams http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/magnetic-field-strength.html. Retrieved 04 June 2007. "AC Motor Theory" Figure 2 Rotating Magnetic Field. Integrated Publishing. "Magnetic Fields" Arc & Mitre Magnetic Field Diagrams. Magnet Expert Ltd.

magnetic field. Integrated Publishing. "Induction Motor Rotating Fields".

[hide]

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Field coil
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search A field coil is a component of an electro-magnetic machine, typically a rotating electrical machine such as a motor or generator. A current-carrying coil is used to generate a magnetic field. Magnetic fields require a continuous circuit, thus more than one pole. Most arrangements use one field coil per pole. Some older or simpler arrangements use a single field coil with a pole at each end. Although field coils are most commonly found in rotating machines, they are also used, although not always with the same terminology, in many other electromagnetic machines. These include simple electromagnets through to complex lab instruments such as mass spectrometers and NMR machines.

Contents
[hide]

1 Fixed and rotating fields 2 Stators and rotors 3 Bipolar and multipolar fields 4 Winding materials 5 See also 6 References

[edit] Fixed and rotating fields

Most[note 1] DC field coils generate a constant, static field. Most three-phase AC field coils are used to generate a rotating field as part of an electric motor. Single-phase AC motors may follow either of these patterns: small motors are usually universal motors, like the brushed DC motor with a commutator, but run from AC. Larger AC motors are generally induction motors, whether these are three- or single-phase.

[edit] Stators and rotors

Many[note 1] rotary electrical machines require current to be conveyed to (or extracted from) a moving rotor, usually by means of brushgear.[clarification needed] This brushgear is often the most complex and least reliable part of such a machine. It may also represent a limit on the maximum current that the machine can handle. For this reason, when machines must use two sets of windings, the windings carrying the least current are usually placed on the rotor and those with the highest current on the stator. The field coils can be mounted on either the rotor or the stator, depending on whichever method is the most cost-effective for the device design. For electric motors, the field is mounted on the stator. In a brushed DC motor the field is static but the armature current must be commutated, so as to continually rotate. This is done by supplying the armature windings on the rotor through a commutator, a combination of rotating slip ring and switches. AC induction motors also use field coils on the stator, the current on the rotor being supplied by induction in a squirrel cage. For generators, the field current is smaller than the output current.[note 2] Accordingly the field is mounted on the rotor and suppplied through slip rings. The output current is taken from the stator, avoiding the need for high-current sliprings. In DC generators, which are now generally obsolete in favour of AC generators with rectifiers, the need for commutation meant that brushgear and commutators could still be required. For the high-current, low-voltage generators used in electroplating, this could require particularly large and complex brushgear.

[edit] Bipolar and multipolar fields

Consequent field bipolar generator Salient field bipolar generator

Consequent field, four-pole, shunt-wound DC generator Field lines of a four-pole stator passing through a Gramme ring or drum rotor. In the early years of generator development, the stator field went through an evolutionary improvement from a single bipolar field to a later multipole design.

Bipolar generators were universal prior to 1890 but in the years following it was replaced by the multipolar field magnets. Bipolar generators were then only made in very small sizes.[1] The stepping stone between these two major types was the consequent-pole bipolar generator, with two field coils arranged in a ring around the stator. This change was needed because higher voltages allow current to flow greater distances over small wires. To increase the output voltage, a DC generator must be spun faster, but beyond a certain speed this is impractical for very large power transmission generators. By increasing the number of pole faces surrounding the Gramme ring, the ring can be made to cut across more magnetic lines of force in one revolution than a basic two-pole generator. Consequently a four-pole generator could output twice the voltage of a two-pole generator, a six-pole generator could output three times the voltage of a two-pole, and so forth. This allows output voltage to increase without also increasing the rotational rate. In a multipolar generator, the armature and field magnets are surrounded by a circular frame or "ring yoke" to which the field magnets are attached. This has the advantages of strength, simplicity, symmetrical appearance, and minimum magnetic leakage, since the pole pieces have the least possible surface and the path of the magnetic flux is shorter than in a two-pole design [1]

[edit] Winding materials

Coils are typically wound with enamelled copper wire, sometimes termed magnet wire. The winding material must have a low resistance, to reduce the power consumed by the field coil, but more importantly to reduce the waste heat produced by ohmic heating. Excess heat in the windings is a common cause of failure. Owing to the increasing cost of copper, aluminium windings are increasingly used. An even better material than copper, except for its high cost, would be silver as this has even lower resistivity. Silver has been used in rare cases. During World War II the Manhattan project to build the first atomic bomb used electromagnetic devices known as calutrons to enrich uranium. Thousands of tons of silver were borrowed from the U.S. Treasury reserves to build highly-efficient lowresistance field coils for their magnets.[2][3]

[edit] See also

Excitation (magnetic)

[edit] References
1. 2.
1. 2. 3.

^ a b Field coils are found in a vast array of electrical machines and so any attempt to categorise them in a readable manner is likely to exclude some obscure examples. ^ Strictly it is the output power that is greater than the field power, although in practice this usually implies that the current is greater too.
^ a b Hawkins Electrical Guide, Volume 1, Copyright 1917, Theo. Audel & Co., Chapter 14, Classes of Dynamo, page 182 ^ "The Silver Lining of the Calutrons". ORNL Review (Oak Ridge National Lab). 2002. http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev2534/chapter1sidebar6.htm. ^ Smith, D. Ray (2006). "Miller, key to obtaining 14,700 tons of silver Manhattan Project". Oak Ridger. Archived from the original on 2007-12-17. http://web.archive.org/web/20071217171643/http://www.oakridger.com/stories/051606/opi_20060516028.shtml.

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