Computer -- Hardware

Key board Mouse

Input Devices

Input Storage Area

Program Storage Area Working Storage Area

Output Storage Area

Monitor Printer
Output Devices

Primary or Main Memory (RAM)

Register 1 Register 2 Register N

Arithmetic and Logic Unit Micro Processor

Secondary Storage Devices

Algorithm: Step by step procedure of solving a particular problem. Pseudo code: Artificial informal language used to develop algorithms. Flow chart: Graphical representation of an algorithm. Algorithm to find whether a number even or odd: Step1: Begin Step1: START Step2: Take a number Step2: Read num Step3: if the number is divisible by2 then Step3: if(num%2=0) then print that number is even print num is even otherwise print that number is odd otherwise print num is odd Step4: End Step4: STOP (Algorithm in natural language) (Algorithm by using pseudo code)

#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> main() { int num; printf(Enter any number); scanf(%d,&num); if(num%2==0) printf(%d is even,num); else printf(%d is odd,num); } (Program in C language)

start
Flow chart:

read num
Yes If num%2=0 No

print num is even

stop

print num is odd

Flow chart symbols

Oval Parallegram Rectangle Document Diamond Circle Double sided Rectangle Terminal Input/output Process Hard copy Decision Connector Sub program

Hexagon
Trapezoid Cylinder

Iteration
Manual Operation Magnetic Disk Storage

Machine Language Assembly Language High-Level Language

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 00000000 00000100 0000000000000000 01011110 00001100 11000010 0000000000000010 11101111 00010110 0000000000000101 11101111 10111110 0000000000001011 11111000 10101101 11011111 0000000000010010 01100010 11011111 0000000000010101 11101111 00000010 11111011 0000000000010111 11110100 10101101 11011111 0000000000011110 00000011 10100010 11011111 0000000000100001 11101111 00000010 11011111 0000000000100100 01111110 11110100 10101101 11111000 10101110 11000101 0000000000101011 00000110 10100010 11111011 0000000000110001 11101111 00000010 11111011 0000000000110100 01010000 11010100 0000000000111011 00000100 0000000000111101 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 entry main,^m<r2> sub12 #12,sp jsb C$MAIN_ARGS moveb $CHAR_STRING_CON pusha1 pusha1 calls pusha1 pusha1 calls mull3 pusha calls clrl ret -8(fp) (r2) #2,SCANF -12(fp) 3(r2) #2,SCANF -8(fp),-12(fp),6(fp) #2,PRINTF r0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

#include<stdio.h> int main(void) { int n1, n2,product; printf(Enter two numbers : ); scanf(%d %d,&n1,&n2); product = n1 * n2; printf(%d,product); return 0; }

The only language the computer can understand is machine language (binary language).

A high level language is an English like language where one instruction typically translates into a series of machinelanguage instructions.
A low level language corresponds closely to machine code so that a single low-level language instruction translates to a single machine language instruction.

Structure of C program
/*Program to find area and perimeter of Circle */ #include<stdio.h> #define PI 3.1415 float radius; float area(); float perimeter(); int main() { float a, p; printf(Enter radius : ); scanf(%f,&radius); a = area(); p = perimeter(); printf(Area of Circle : %f,a); printf(Perimeter : %f,p); } float area() { return (PI * radius * radius); } float perimeter() { return (2 * PI * radius); } Documentation Section
Linkage Section Definition Section Global Declaration Section

Main Function Section Local Declaration Part Executable Code Part

Sub Program Section Function1() Function2() FunctionN()

Program Development Steps

1)Statement of Problem a) Working with existing system and using proper questionnaire, the problem should be explained clearly. b) What inputs are available, outputs are required and what is needed for creating workable solution should be understood clearly. 2)Analysis a) The method of solutions to solve the problem can be identified. b) We also judge that which method gives best results among different methods of solution. 3)Designing a) Algorithms and flow charts will be prepared. b) Keep focus on data, architecture, user interfaces and program components. 4)Implementation The algorithms and flow charts developed in the previous steps are converted into actual programs in the high level languages like C. 4.a)Compilation Translate the program into machine code. This process is called as Compilation. Syntactic errors are found quickly at the time of compiling the program. These errors occur due to the usage of wrong syntaxes for the statements. Eg: x=a*y+b There is a syntax error in this statement, since, each and every statement in C language ends with a semicolon (;). 4.b)Execution The next step is Program execution. In this phase, we may encounter two types of errors. Runtime Errors: these errors occur during the execution of the program and terminates the program abnormally. Logical Errors: these errors occur due to incorrect usage of the instructions in the program. These errors are neither detected during compilation or execution nor cause any stoppage to the program execution but produces incorrect ouz

Executing a C program
Text Editor
C-compiler
010110 100 . 01011 101 #include<stdio.h> int main() { .

prog1.c

compiles
Syntax Errors? No Object machine code Yes

Linker
00101010 . 01010101

adds

prog1.obj

Executable machine code

prog1.exe

machine code of library file

Executes Feeds

C-Runtime Input
Runtime or Logic Errors ?

Yes

Output

Translators are system software used to convert high-level language program into machine-language code. Compiler : Coverts the entire source program at a time into object code file, and saves it in secondary storage permanently. The same object machine code file will be executed several times, whenever needed. Interpreter : Each statement of source program is translated into machine code and executed immediately. Translation and execution of each and every statement is repeated till the end of the program. No object code is saved. Translation is repeated for every execution of the source program.

Character Set of C-Language Alphabets : A-Z and a-z Digits : 0-9 Special Symbols : ~ ! @ # $ % ^ & ( ) _ - + = | \ { } [ ] : ; <>,.?/ White Spaces : space , Horizontal tab, Vertical tab, New Line Form Feed. C-Language Keywords(C99)
auto break case char const continue default do _Bool inline double else enum extern float for goto if _Imaginary int long register return short signed sizeof static restrict struct switch typedef union unsigned void volatile while _Complex

C-Tokens
Tokens : The smallest individual units of a C- program are called Tokens. Key words, Identifiers, Constants, Operators, Delimiters. Key words : have a predefined meaning and these meanings cannot be changed. All keywords must be written in small letters (except additional c99 keywords). Identifiers : names of variables, functions, structures, unions, macros, labels, arrays etc., Rules for define identifiers : a) First character must be alphabetic character or under score b) Second character onwards alphabetic character of digit or under score. c) First 63 characters of an identifier are significant. d) Cannot duplicate a key word. e) May not have a space or any other special symbol except under score. f) C language is Case-sensitive.

C-Tokens
Constants : fixed values that do not change during execution of a program. Boolean constants : 0 ( false) and 1 (true) Character constants : only one character enclosed between two single quotes ( except escape characters ). wide character type - wchar_t - for Unicode characters. Integer constants : +123, -3454 , 0235 (octal value), 0x43d98 ( hexa - decimal value) 54764U, 124356578L, 124567856UL Float constants : 0.2 , 876.345, .345623 , 23.4E+8, 47.45e+6 String Constants : Hello world , Have a nice day! Complex Constants : real part + imaginary part * I ex : 12.3 + 3.45 * I Operators : a symbol, which indicates an operation to be performed. Operators are used to manipulate data in program. Delimiters : Language Pattern of c-language uses special kind of symbols : (colon, used for labels) ; (semicolon terminates statement ) ( ) parameter list [ ] ( array declaration and subscript ), { } ( block statement ) # ( hash for preprocessor directive ) , (comma variable separator )

Data Types ( pre defined )

Type Typical Size in Bits char 8 unsigned char 8 signed char 8 int 16 or 32 unsigned int 16 or 32 signed int 16 or 32 short int 16 unsigned short int 16 signed short int 16 long int 32 long long int 64 signed long int 32 unsigned long int 32 unsigned long long int 64 float 32 double 64 long double 80 void -Minimal Range 127 to 127 0 to 255 127 to 127 32,767 to 32,767 0 to 65,535 Same as int 32,767 to 32,767 0 to 65,535 Same as short int 2,147,483,647 to 2,147,483,647 (263) to 263 1 (Added by C99) Same as long int 0 to 4,294,967,295 264 1 (Added by C99) 3.4e-38 to 3.4e+38 1.7e-308 to 1.7e+308 3.4e-4932 to 1.1e+4932 data type that not return any value

Conversion Specifiers
Code %a %s %c %d %f %e %g %u %o %x %i %p %n %hd %ld %lf %% Format Hexa decimal output in the form of 0xh.hhhhp+d(C99 only) String of characters (until null zero is reached ) Character Decimal integer Floating-point numbers Exponential notation floating-point numbers Use the shorter of %f or %e Unsigned integer Octal integer Hexadecimal integer Signed decimal integer Display a pointer The associated argument must be a pointer to integer, This sepecifier causes the number of characters written in to be stored in that integer. short integer long integer long double Prints a percent sign (%)

Back Slash ( Escape Sequence) Characters

Code
\b \f \n \r \t \" \' \\ \v \a \? \N \xN

Meaning
Backspace Form feed New line Carriage return Horizontal tab Double quote Single quote Backslash Vertical tab Alert Question mark Octal constant (N is an octal constant) Hexadecimal constant (N is a hexadecimal constant)

Increment and Decrement Operators

prefix increment (++a) postfix increment (a++) prefix decrement(- -a) postfix decrement (a- -)

Executes all Prefix Operations Evaluation of expression Executes all Postfix Operations

Before evaluation of expression

After evaluation of expression and before leaving the statement

/* prefix operators */ #include<stdio.h> int main() { int a = 7, b = 12, c; c = b * (++a) + 5 * (++a); printf( a = %d, a); printf(\n b = %d,b); printf(\n c = %d,c); } Output: a=9 b = 12 c = 153 ( 12 * 9 + 5 * 9)

/* prefix and postfix operators */ #include<stdio.h> int main() { int a = 7, b = 12, c; c = b * (a++) + 5 * (++a); printf( a = %d, a); printf(\n b = %d,b); printf(\n c = %d,c); } Output: a=9 b = 12 c = 136 ( 12 * 8 + 5 * 8)

/* postfix operators */ #include<stdio.h> int main() { int a = 7, b = 12, c; c = b * (a++) + 5 * (a++); printf( a = %d, a); printf(\n b = %d,b); printf(\n c = %d,c); } Output: a=9 b = 12 c = 119 ( 12 * 7 + 5 * 7)

Bitwise Logical Operators

& -- Bitwise AND | -- Bitwise OR ^ -- Bitwise XOR ~ -- Bitwise NOT Bitwise AND A (42) : 00000000 00101010 B (15) : 00000000 00001111 ----------------------------------& (10) : 00000000 00001010 ----------------------------------Bitwise XOR A (42) : 00000000 00101010 B (15) : 00000000 00001111 ----------------------------------& (37) : 00000000 00100101 ----------------------------------A 1 1 0 0 B 1 0 1 0 A&B 1 0 0 0 A|B 1 1 1 0 A^B 0 1 1 0 ~A 0 0 1 1

Bitwise OR A (42) : 00000000 00101010 B (15) : 00000000 00001111 ----------------------------------| (47) : 00000000 00101111 ----------------------------------Bitwise NOT A (42) : 00000000 00101010 ----------------------------------~ (-43) : 11111111 11010101 -----------------------------------

BITWISE SHIFT OPERATORS

Bitwise Right Shift ( >> ) (negetive values) A (43) : 00000000 00101011 A (-44) : 11111111 11010100 --------------------------------------------------------------------A << 2 : 00000000 10101100 A >> 2 : 11111111 11110101 --------------------------------------------------------------------Note : Right shift operator fills the left vacant fields with zeros for positive numbers, with ones for negative numbers. Opposite To Gravity Bitwise Left Shift ( << )
Bitwise Right Shift ( >> ) (positive values) A (43) : 00000000 00101011 ----------------------------------A >> 2 : 00000000 00001010 -----------------------------------

TYPE CONVERSION
1.bool
2.char 3.short int 4.int 5.long int 6.long long int 7.float 8.double 9.long double

Explicit Type Conversion (casting) (forcible)

. . .

(forcible)
. . .

(natural) Gravity

(automatic) Implicit Type Conversion (automatic)

Precedence and Associativity of Operators

Precdence Group (Highest to Lowest ) (param) subscript etc., Unary operators Multiplicative Additive Bitwise shift Relational Equality Bitwise AND Bitwise exclusive OR Bitwise OR Logical AND Logical OR Conditional Assignment
Comma

Operators
( ) [ ] >. - + ! ~ ++ (type) * & sizeof */% + << >> < <= > >= = = != & ^ | && || ?: = += = *= /= %= &= ^= |= <<= >>= ,

Associativity
LR RL LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR RL RL LR

simple if:

Entry
Test Expression ?

if-else:
True True

Entry
Test Expression ?

False

False

True Statement-block

True-block Statements

False-block Statements Next statement

Next statement

/* check a citizen is eligible for voting */ #include<stdio.h> int main() { int age; printf(Enter the age : ); scanf(%d,&age); if(age >= 18) printf(Eligible for voting); getch(); }

/* print a number is even or odd */ #include<stdio.h> int main() { int number; printf(Enter a number : ); scanf(%d, &number); if((number %2) == 0) printf(%d is even number.,number); else printf(%d is odd number.,number); }

nested ifelse:
Entry False
Test condition1 ?

False

Statement-3

Statement-2

Next statement

/* check whether a year is leap year or not */ #include<stdio.h> int main() { int year; printf("Enter the year ?"); True scanf("%d",&year); if((year %100) == 0) { Test True if((year % 400) == 0) condition2 printf("%d is leap year.",year); ? else printf("%d is not leap year.",year); Statement-1 } else { if((year % 4) == 0) printf("%d is leap year.",year); else printf("%d is not leap year.",year); } getch(); }

ifelseif :
Entry Test condition1 ?

True Statement-1

False
Test condition2 ?

True Statement-2

False
Test conditionN ?

True Statement-N Next statement

/* program to print the grade of student */ #include<stdio.h> int main() { int marks; printf("Enter marks ? "); scanf("%d", &marks); if(marks >= 75) printf("Distinction"); else if(marks >= 60) printf("First class"); else if(marks >= 50) printf("Second class"); else if(marks >= 35) printf("Third class"); else printf("Failed"); }

switch statement :
Entry
switch expression ?

value1

value2 ...

valueN

associate statement

associate statement

associate statement

Exit

Next statement

/* program to simulate a simple calculator */ #include<stdio.h> int main() { float a,b; char opr; printf("Enter number1 operator number2 : "); scanf("%f %c %f",&a,&opr,&b); switch(opr) default { case '+': printf("Sum : %f",(a + b)); associate break; statement case '-': printf("Difference : %f",(a - b)); break; case '*': printf("Product : %f",(a * b)); break; case '/': printf("Quotient : %f",(a / b)); break; default: printf("Invalid Operation!"); } }

Loop Statements

while (Entry controlled )

Entry

do-while (Exit controlled )

Entry

Test Condition ? true Body of The loop

False

Body of The loop

Following Statement /* sum of 1 to 10 numbers */ #include<stdio.h> int main() { int i = 1,sum = 0; while(i<=10){ sum = sum + i; i = i + 1; } printf(Total : %d ,sum); }

Test Condition ? True

False Following Statement

/* average of 5 numbers */ #include<stdio.h> int main() { int count = 1; float x, sum = 0; do { printf(x = ); scanf(%f,&x); sum += x; ++ count; } while(count <= 5); printf(Average = %f , (sum/5)) }

for -- Statement

Entry Increment Statement

Initialization Statement

False

Test Condition ? True

Body of The loop

Following Statement
/* check whether a number is prime or not */ #include<stdio.h> int main() { int n,i,factors = 0; printf("Enter a number : "); scanf("%d",&n); for(i = 1; i <= n; i++) { if((n % i)==0) ++factors; } if (factors == 2) printf("%d is prime number.",n); else printf("%d is not prime number.",n); }

Important Functions in math.h

abs(x) ceil(x) floor(x) absolute value of integer x rounds up and returns the smallest integer greater than or equal to x rounds down and returns the largest integer less than or equal to x returns natural logarithm returns the value of xy returns square root of x returns natural anti logarithm returns sine value where x in radians returns cosine value where x in radians returns tangent values where x in radians calculate x modulo y, where x and y are double calculate hypotenuse of right angle where x,y are sides. returns logarithm base 10

log(x) pow(x,y) sqrt(x) exp(x) sin(x) cos(x) tan(x) fmod(x,y) hypot(x,y) log10(x)

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