Engineering Vibration 3rd Edition Prentice Hall

D. J. Inman
[email protected], We make our living in dynamics, vibration and control

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Motivation The Millennium Bridge a Recent Vibration Problem (2000-1)

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OPENED AND CLOSED WITHIN A VIEW HOURS BECAUSE OF UNDESIRABLE VIBRATION

(Show movies)

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Modeling and Degrees of Freedom

The bridge has many degrees of freedom, we will start with one and work towards many.

Lack of consideration of dynamic loads and Vibration caused this to new bridge to vibrate wildly
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The goal of this course is to understand such 3/43 phenomenon and how to prevent it

Example 1.1.1 The Pendulum

Sketch the structure or part of interest Write down all the forces and make a free body diagram Use Newtons Law and/or Eulers Law to find the equations of motion

= J 0 , J 0 = ml

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The problem is one dimensional, hence a scalar equation results

J 0 (t ) = mgl sin (t ) m 2 (t ) + mg sin (t ) = 0
restoring force

Here the over dots denote differentiation with respect to time t This is a second order, nonlinear ordinary differential equation We can linearize the equation by using the approximation sin

m (t ) + mg (t ) = 0 (t ) + (t ) = 0
2

Requires knowledge of (0) and (0)

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the initial position and velocity.

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Next consider a spring mass system and perform a static experiment:

From strength of materials recall:
FBD:

nonlinear

linear A plot of force versus displacement:

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experiment fk = kx

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Free-body diagram and equation of motion

Newtons Law:

mx(t ) = kx(t ) mx(t ) + kx(t ) = 0 (1.2) x(0) = x0 , x(0) = v0

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Again a 2nd order ordinary differential equation

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Stiffness and Mass

Vibration is cause by the interaction of two different forces one related to position (stiffness) and one related to acceleration (mass). Stiffness (k) Proportional to displacement Displacement x
statics

fk = kx(t)
Mass (m)

m
Mass Spring

f m = ma (t ) = mx(t )
dynamics

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Proportional to acceleration

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Examples of Single-Degree-ofFreedom Systems

Pendulum Shaft and Disk

l =length Gravity g m

Torsional Stiffness k

Moment of inertia J

g (t) + (t) = 0 l
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J (t ) + k (t ) = 0
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Solution to 2nd order DEs

Lets assume a solution: x(t) t

x(t) = Asin( n t + )
Differentiating twice gives:

x(t ) = n A cos(n t + )
2 2 x(t ) = n A sin(nt + ) = -n x(t )

Substituting back into the equations of motion gives:

2 m n Asin( nt + ) + kAsin( nt + ) = 0

m + k = 0
2 n
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or

n =

k m
rad/s

Natural frequency
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Summary of simple harmonic motion

x(t) Period

T=

Amplitude A

x0

Slope here is v0 Maximum Velocity

n A

n rad/s n cycles n fn = = = Hz 2 rad/cycle 2 s 2

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Initial Conditions
If a system is vibrating then we must assume that something must have (in the past) transferred energy into to the system and caused it to move. For example the mass could have been: moved a distance x0 and then released at t = 0 (i.e. given Potential energy) or given an initial velocity v0 (i.e. given Kinetic energy) or Some combination of the two above cases From our earlier solution we know that:

x0 = x(0) = A sin(n 0 + ) = A sin( ) v0 = x(0) = n A cos(n 0 + ) = n A cos( )

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Initial Conditions
Solving these equation gives:

A=

n x0 x + v , = tan v0
2 2 n 0 2 0 1 Amplitude Phase

x(t)

Slope here is v0

x0
t

2 2 2 n x0 + v0

x0

v0

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The total solution for the spring mass system is

2 2 2 n x0 + v0 1 n x0 x(t) = sin nt + tan n v0

(1.10)

Called the solution to a simple harmonic oscillator and describes oscillatory motion, or simple harmonic motion. Note (Example 1.1.2)
2 2 2 n x0 + v0 x(0) = n

n x0 x +v
2 2 n 0 2 0

= x0

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as it should

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A note on arctangents
Note that calculating arctangent from a calculator requires some attention. First, all machines work in radians. The argument atan(-/+) is in a different quadrant then atan(+/-), and usual machine calculations will return an arctangent in between -/2 and +/2, reading only the atan(-) for both of the above two cases. + + Virginia Tech D. J. Inman

In MATLAB, use the atan2(x,y) function to get 15/43 the correct phase.

Example 1.1.3 wheel, tire suspension m=30 kg, n= 10 hz, what is k?

cylce 2 rad i = 1.184 105 N/m k = m = ( 30 kg ) 10 sec cylce
2 n

There are of course more complex models of suspension systems and these appear latter in the course as our tools develope

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Section 1.2 Harmonic Motion

The period is the time elapsed to complete one complete cylce

2 rad 2 T= = s n rad/s n

(1.11)

The natural frequency in the commonly used units of hertz:

n n rad/s n cycles n fn = = = = Hz 2 2 rad/cycle 2 2 s

For the pendulum:

(1.12)

n =
For the disk and shaft:

g l rad/s, T = 2 s l g

n =
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k J rad/s, T = 2 s J k

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Relationship between Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration

x(t) = Asin( nt + )
Velocity Displacement
1 0 x

A=1, n=12

-1 0 20 0 v

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

x(t) = n A cos( nt + )
Acceleration
2 x(t) = n Asin( nt + )

-20 0 200 0 -200 0 a

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5 0.6 Time (sec)

0.7

0.8

0.9
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Note how the relative magnitude of each increases for n>1

Example 1.2.1Hardware store spring, bolt: m= 49.2x10

k 857.8 N/m n = = = 132 rad/s -3 m 49.2 10 kg

-3

kg, k=857.8 N/m and x0 =10 mm. Compute n and the max amplitude of vibration.
Note: common Units are Hertz

n = 21 Hz fn = 2 2 1 1 T= = = n fn 21 cyles
x(t) max = A =
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To avoid Costly errors use fn when working in Hertz and n when in rad/s

0.0476 s sec
2 0

x + v = x0 = 10 mm
2 2 n 0
Units depend on system 19/43

Compute the solution and max velocity and acceleration

v(t)max = n A = 1320 mm/s = 1.32 m/s a(t) max = n A = 174.24 10 mm/s

2 3 2 2

2.92 mph

= 174.24 m/s 17.8g! g = 9.8 m/s 1 n x0 90 = tan = rad 0 2 x(t) = 10 sin(132t + / 2) = 10 cos(132t) mm
~0.4 in max
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Does gravity matter in spring problems?

Let be the deflection caused by hanging a mass on a spring ( = x1-x0 in the figure) Then from static equilibrium:

mg = k

Next sum the forces in the vertical for some point x > x1 measured from :

mx = k ( x + ) + mg = kx + mg k
=0

mx(t ) + kx(t ) = 0
So no, gravity does not have an effect on the vibration
Virginia Tech D. J. Inman (note that this is not the case if the spring is nonlinear) 21/43

Example 1.2.2 Pendulums and measuring g

A 2 m pendulum swings with a period of 2.893 s What is the acceleration due to gravity at that location?

4 2 4 2 g= 2 l = 2m 2 2 T 2.893 s 2 g = 9.434 m/s

This is g in Denver, CO USA, at 1638m and a latitude of 40

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Review of Complex Numbers and Complex Exponential (See Appendix A)

A complex number can be written with a real and imaginary part or as a complex exponential

c = a + jb = Ae j
Where

a = A cos ,b = Asin
Multiplying two complex numbers:

a A b

c1c2 = A1 A2 e

j (1 + 2 )

Dividing two complex numbers:

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c1 A1 j (1 2 ) = e c2 A2
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Equivalent Solutions to 2nd order Differential Equations (see Window 1.4)

All of the following solutions are equivalent:

x(t) = Asin( nt + ) x(t) = a1e j n t + a2 e j n t

Called the magnitude and phase form

Sometimes called the Cartesian form

x(t) = A1 sin nt + A2 cos nt

Called the polar form

The relationships between A and , A1 and A2, and a1 and a2 can be found in Window 1.4 of the course text, page 17. Each is useful in different situations Each represents the same information Each solves the equation of motion 24/43

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Derivation of the solution

Substitute x(t ) = aet into mx + kx = 0 m 2 aet + kaet = 0 m + k = 0
2

k k = = j = n j m m n jt n jt x(t ) = a1e and x(t ) = a2 e x(t ) = a1e

n jt

+ a2 e

n jt

(1.18)

This approach will be used again for more complicated problems

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Is frequency always positive?

From the preceding analysis, = + n then

x(t) = a1e

n jt

+ a2 e

n jt

Using the Euler relations for trigonometric functions, the above solution can be written as (recall Window 1.4)

x(t) = Asin ( nt + )

(1.19)

It is in this form that we identify as the natural frequency n and this is positive, the + sign being used up in the transformation from exponentials to the sine function.
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Calculating RMS
May need to be limited due to physical constraints

A = peak value
T

1 x = lim x(t)dt = average value T T 0

T

Not very useful since for a sine function the average value is zero

1 2 2 x = lim x (t)dt = mean-square value T T 0 xrms = x 2 = root mean square value

(1.21) Proportional to energy

Also useful when the vibration is random

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The Decibel or dB scale

It is often useful to use a logarithmic scale to plot vibration levels (or noise levels). One such scale is called the decibel or dB scale. The dB scale is always relative to some reference value x0. It is define as:

x x dB = 10 log10 = 20 log10 x0 x0

(1.22)

For example: if an acceleration value was 19.6m/s2 then relative to 1g (or 9.8m/s2) the level would be 6dB,

19.6 10 log10 = 20 log10 (2 ) = 6dB 9.8

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Or for Example 1.2.1: The Acceleration Magnitude 28/43 is 20log10(17.8)=25dB relative to 1g.

1.3 Viscous Damping

All real systems dissipate energy when they vibrate. To account for this we must consider damping. The most simple form of damping (from a mathematical point of view) is called viscous damping. A viscous damper (or dashpot) produces a force that is proportional to velocity.
Mostly a mathematically motivated form, allowing a solution to the resulting equations of motion that predicts reasonable (observed) amounts of energy dissipation.

Damper (c)

f c = cv(t ) = cx(t )

fc
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Differential Equation Including Damping

For this damped single degree of freedom system the force acting on the mass is due to the spring and the dashpot i.e. fm= - fk - fc. Displacement x

mx(t ) = kx(t ) cx(t ) M or mx(t ) + cx(t ) + kx(t ) = 0 (1.25)

To solve this for of the equation it is useful to assume a solution of the form:

x(t) = ae

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Solution to DE with damping included (dates to 1743 by Euler)

The velocity and acceleration can then be calculated as:
x(t) = ae t x(t) = 2 ae t

If this is substituted into the equation of motion we get:

aet (m 2 + c + k) = 0 (1.26)
Divide equation by m, substitute for natural frequency and assume a non-trivial solution

ae 0
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( + c
2

+ ) = 0
2 n
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Solution to DE with Damping Included

For convenience we will define a term known as the damping ratio as:

c = 2 km
2

(1.30)

Lower case Greek zeta

The equation of motion then becomes:

( + 2n + ) = 0
2 n
Solving for then gives,

1,2 = n n 2 1
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(1.31)
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Possibility 1. Critically damped motion

Critical damping occurs when =1. The damping coefficient c in this case is given by:

=1 c = ccr = 2 km = 2mn
Solving for then gives,
definition of critical damping coefficient

1,2 = 1n n 1 1 = n
2

The solution then takes the form

A repeated, real root

x(t) = a1e n t + a2te n t

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Needs two independent solutions, hence the t in the second term 33/43

Critically damped motion

a1 and a2 can be calculated from initial conditions (t=0),

x = (a1 + a2t)e n t a1 = x0
Displacement (mm)
k=225N/m m=100kg and

=1

0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -0.1 0 1 2 Time (sec) 3 4 x0=0.4mm v0=1mm/s x0=0.4mm v0=0mm/s x0=0.4mm v0=-1mm/s

v = ( n a1 n a2t + a2 )e n t v0 = n a1 + a2 a2 = v0 + n x0
No oscillation occurs Useful in door mechanisms, analog gauges

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Possibility 2: Overdamped motion

An overdamped case occurs when >1. Both of the roots of the equation are again real.
k=225N/m m=100kg andz=2 x0=0.4mm v0=1mm/s x0=0.4mm v0=0mm/s x0=0.4mm v0=-1mm/s

1,2 = n n 1
2

0.6

Displacement (mm)

x(t) = en t (a1en t

1
2

+ a2 e n t

1
2

0.5

0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -0.1 0 1

a1 and a2 can again be calculated from initial conditions (t=0),

v0 + ( + 2 1)n x0 a1 = 2n 2 1 v0 + ( + 1)n x0 a2 = 2n 2 1
2
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2 Time (sec)

Slower to respond than critically damped case

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Possibility 3: Underdamped motion

An underdamped case occurs when <1. The roots of the equation are complex conjugate pairs. This is the most common case and the only one that yields oscillation.

1,2 = n n j 1 2
x(t) = e
n t

(a1e

j n t 1

+ a2 e

j n t 1

= Ae n t sin( d t + )
The frequency of oscillation d is called the damped natural frequency is given by.

d = n 1 2
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(1.37)
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Underdamped motion
A and can be calculated from initial conditions (t=0),

A=

d
1

(v0 + n x0 )2 + (x0 d ) 2

x0 d = tan v0 + n x0
Gives an oscillating response with exponential decay Most natural systems vibrate with and underdamped response See Window 1.5 for details and other representations
Displacement

1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1

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2 3 Time (sec)

4
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Example 1.3.1: consider the spring of 1.2.1, if c = 0.11

kg/s, determine the damping ratio of the spring-bolt system.

m = 49.2 10

kg, k = 857.8 N/m

3

ccr = 2 km = 2 49.2 10 857.8 = 12.993 kg/s c 0.11 kg/s = = = 0.0085 ccr 12.993 kg/s the motion is underdamped and the bolt will oscillate
Virginia Tech D. J. Inman 38/43

Example 1.3.2
The human leg has a measured natural frequency of around 20 Hz when in its rigid (knee locked) position, in the longitudinal direction (i.e., along the length of the bone) with a damping ratio of = 0.224. Calculate the response of the tip if the leg bone to an initial velocity of v0 = 0.6 m/s and zero initial displacement (this would correspond to the vibration induced while landing on your feet, with your knees locked form a height of 18 mm) and plot the response. What is the maximum acceleration experienced by the leg assuming no damping?

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Solution:
20 cycles 2 rad n = = 125.66 rad/s s cycles 1

d = 125.66 1 (.224) = 122.467 rad/s

2

A=

(0.6 + (0.224 )(125.66)(0)) + (0)(122.467)2

2

122.467 (0)( d ) =0 = tan v0 + n (0 )

-1

= 0.005 m

x(t ) = 0.005e 28.148t sin(122.467t )

Virginia Tech D. J. Inman 40/43

Use the undamped formula to get maximum acceleration:

v 2 A = x0 + 0 , n = 125.66, v0 = 0.6, x0 = 0 n v0 0.6 A= m= m
2

0.6 = (0.6 ) 125.66 m/s 2 = 75.396 m/s 2 max( x ) = A = n

2 n 2 n

75.396 m/s2 maximum acceleration = g = 7.68g' s 2 9.81 m/s

Virginia Tech D. J. Inman 41/43

Here is a plot of the displacement response versus time

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Example 1.3.3

Compute the form of the response of an underdamped system using the Cartesian form of the solution given in Window 1.5.

sin(x + y) = sin x sin y + cos x cosy x(t) = Ae

n t

sin( d t + ) = e
0

n t

(A1 sin d t + A2 cos d t)

x(0) = x 0 = e ( A1 sin(0) + A2 cos(0)) A2 = x0 x = n e n t (A1 sin d t + A2 cos d t) + de

n t

(A1 cos d t A2 sin d t)

v0 = n (A1 sin 0 + x0 cos0) + d (A1 cos 0 x 0 sin 0) A1 = x(t) = e

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n t

v0 + n x 0

v0 + n x0 sin d t + x0 cos d t d
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