Chapter 5

5.0 Bending Stress

5.1 Introduction
When some external load acts on a beam, the shear force and bending moments are
set up at all sections of the beam. Due to the shear force and bending moment, the
beam undergoes certain deformation. The material of the beam will offer resistance or
stresses against these deformations. These stresses with certain assumptions can be
calculated. The stresses introduced by bending moment are known as bending stresses.
In this chapter, the theory of pure bending, expression for bending stresses, bending
stress in symmetrical and unsymmetrical sections, strength of a beam and composite
beams will be discussed.
5.2 Theory of Simple Bending with Assumptions Made
Before discussing the theory of simple bending, let us see the assumptions made in the
theory of simple bending. The following are the important assumptions:
1. The material of the beam is homogeneous and isotropic.
2. The value of Youngs modulus of elasticity is the same in tension and
compression.
3. The transverse sections, which were plane before bending, remain plain after
bending also.
4. The beam is initially straight and all longitudinal filaments bend into circular arcs
with a common centre of curvature.
5. The radius of curvature is large compared with the dimensions of the cross-
section.
6. Each layer of the beam is free to expand or contrast, independently of the layer,
above or below it.
Theory of Simple Bending
Figure1(a) shows a part of a beam subjected to simple bending. Consider a small length
x of this part of beam. Consider two sections AB and CD which are normal to the axis
of the beam N N. Due to the action of the bending moment, the part of length x will
be deformed as shown in Figure1(b). From this figure, it is clear that all the layers of the
beam, which were originally of the same length, do not remain of the same length any
more.
The top layer such as AC has deformed to the shape AC. This layer has been
shortened in its length. The bottom layer BD has deformed to the shape BD.
CH- 5
164

Figure 1(a) Before bending Figure 1(b) After bending
This layer has been elongated. From Figure1(b), it is clear that some of the layers have
been shortened while some of them are elongated. At a level between the top and
bottom of the beam, there will be a layer, which is neither shortened nor elongated. This
layer is known as neutral layer or neutral surface. This layer in Figure1(b) is shown by N
N and in figure1 (a) by N N. The line of intersection of the neutral layer on a cross-
section of a beam is known as neutral axis (written as N.A.).
The layers above N-N (or N-N) have been shortened and those below have been
elongated. Due to the decrease in lengths of the layers above N-N, these layers will be
subjected to compressive stresses.
We also see that the top layer has been shortened maximum. As we proceed towards
the layer N-N, the decrease in length of the layers decreases. At the layer N-N, there is
no change in length. This means the compressive stress will be maximum at the top
layer. Similarly, the increase in length will be maximum at the bottom layer. As we
proceed from bottom layer N-N, the increase in length of layers decreases. Hence, the
amount by which a layer increases or decreases in length, depends upon the position of
the layer with respect to N-N. This theory of bending is known as theory of simple
bending.
5.3 Expression For Bending Stress
Figure 2(a) shows a small length x of a beam subjected to a simple bending. Due to
the action of bending, the part of length x will be deformed as shown in Figure2(b). Let
AB and CD meet at O.
Let R = Radius of neutral layer NN
=
Angle subtended at O by AB and CD
produced.
Consider a layer EF at a distance y below the neutral layer NN. After bending, this layer
will be elongated to EF.
CH- 5
165
Figure 2(a) Before bending
Figure 2(b) After bending
Original length of layer EF = x
Also length of neutral layer
NN
= x
After bending, the length of neutral layer NN will remain unchanged. But length of layer
EF will increase. Hence
NN =
NN
= x
CH- 5
166
Now from Figure 2(b),
NN = R

and EF
=
(R+y)

( Radius of EF = R
+ y)
But NN =
NN
= x
Hence x = R

Increase in the length of

layer EF
=
EF- EF
=
(R+y)

R

( EF

x =
R

)
= y

Strain in the layer EF =
length Original
length in Increase
=
EF
y
=
R
y

EF = x = R

)
=
R
y
As R is constant, hence the strain in a layer is proportional to its distance from the
neutral axis.
Let f = Stress in the layer EF
E = Youngs modules of the beam
Then
E =
EF layer the in Strain
EF layer the in Stress

=

,
_

R
y
f
( Strain in EF =
R
y
)

f
= E
R
y

= y
R
E
--------------(5.1)
Since E and R are constant, therefore stress in any layer is directly proportional to the
distance of the layer from the neutral layer.
In the above case, all layers below neutral layer are subjected to tensile stresses
whereas the layers above neutral layer are subjected to compressive stresses.
The equation (5.1) can also be written as
CH- 5
167
y
f
=
R
E
--------------(5.2)
5.4 Neutral Axis and Moment of Resistance
The neutral axis of any transverse section of a beam is defined as the line of intersection
of the neutral layer with the transverse section. It is written as N.A.
In Figure 3, we have seen that if a section of a beam is subjected to pure sagging
moment, then the stresses will be compressive at any point above the neutral axis and
tensile below the neutral axis. There is no stress at the neutral axis. The stress at a
distance y from the neutral axis is given by equation 5.1 as
F = y
R
E

Figure 3 Stress distribution across a section

Figure 3 shows the cross-section of a beam. Let N.A. be the neutral axis of the section.
Consider a small layer at a distance y from the neutral axis.

Let dA = Area of the layer
Now the force on the layer = Stress on layer

Area of layer
= f

dA
= dA y
R
E
--------------(i)

f
= y
R
E

Total force on the beam section is obtained by integrating the above equation.
Total force on the beam section =

dA y
R
E
CH- 5
168
=
R
E

dA y
( E and R is
constant)
But for pure bending, there is no force on the section of the beam (or force is zero).

R
E

dA y
= 0
or

dA y
=
0 (as
R
E
cannot be
zero)
Now y dA represents the moment of area dA about neutral axis. Hence

dA y

represents the moment of entire area of the section about neutral axis.
Due to pure bending, the layers above N.A. are subjected to compressive stresses
whereas the layers below the N.A. are subjected to tensile stresses. Due to these
stresses the forces will be acting on the layers. These forces will have moment about the
N.A. The total moment of these forces about the N.A. for a section is known as moment
of resistance of that section.
The Force on the layer at a distance y from neutral axis in Figure 3 is given by equation
(i), as Stress Area.
Force on layer = dA y
R
E

Moment of this force about N.A. = Force on layer y
= y dA y
R
E

= dA y
R
E
2

Total moment of the forces on the section of the beam (or moment of resistance).
=

dA y
R
E
2
= dA y
R
E
2

Let M = External moment applied on the beam section. For equilibrium, the moment of
resistance offered by the section should be equal to the external bending moment.
M =

dA y
R
E
2

dA y
2
represents the moment of inertia of the area of the section about the neutral
axis. Let this moment of inertia be I.
M = I
R
E

CH- 5
169
or
I
M
=
R
E
--------------(5.3)
CH- 5
170
But from equation (5.2), we have

y
f
=
R
E

I
M
=
y
f
=
R
E
--------------(5.4)
The equation (5.4) is known as bending equation.
In equation (5.4), the different quantities are expressed in consistent units as given
below:
M is expressed in N mm; I in mm
4
f is expressed in N / mm
2
; y in mm
and E is expressed N / mm
2
; R in mm.
Worked out Examples

5.4.1 A steel plate of width 120mm and of thickness 20mm is bent into a
circular arc of radius 10m. Determine the maximum stress induced and the
bending moment, which will produce the maximum stress. Take E = 2
10
5
N/mm
2
.
Given data:
Width of the plate, b = 120 mm
Thickness of the plate, t = 20 mm
Radius of curvature, R = 10 m = 10 10
3
mm
Youngs modulus, E = 2 10
5
N/mm
2
Solution
Moment of Inertia, I
=
12
bd
3
=
12
20 120
3

=
4
10 8 mm
4
Let fmax = Maximum stress induced and
M = Bending moment.
Using equation (5.2),
y
f
=
R
E
f =
R
E

y --------------(i)
Equation (i) gives the stress at a distance y from N.A.
Stress will be maximum, when y is maximum. But y will be maximum at the top layer or
bottom layer.
ymax =
2
t
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171
=
2
20
= 10 mm.
Now equation (i) can written as

fmax =
R
E

ymax
=
10
10 10
10 2
3
5

fmax =
200 N/mm
2
From equation (5.4), we have
I
M
=
R
E
M
=
I
R
E

=
4
3
5
10 8
10 10
10 2

=
5
10 16 N mm
M
=
1.6 kNm
5.4.2 Calculate the maximum stress induced in cast iron pipe of external
diameter 40 mm, of internal diameter 20 mm and of length 4 meter when
the pipe is supported at its ends and carries a point load of 80 N at its
center.
Given data:
External diameter, D = 40 mm
Internal diameter, d = 20 mm
Length, L = 4 m = 4 1000 = 4000 mm
Point Load, W = 80 N
In case of simply supported beam carrying a point load at the center, the maximum
bending moment is at the center of the beam.
Figure 4
Solution
CH- 5
172
Maximum B.M.
=

4
L W
Maximum B.M.
=
4
4000 80
=
4
10 8 N mm
M
=
4
10 8 N mm
Figure 4(a) shows the cross section of the pipe.
Figure 4(a)
Moment of inertia of hollow pipe, I
=
[ ]
4 4
d D
64

=
[ ]
4 4
20 40
64

=
[ ] 160000 2560000
64

=
117809.7 mm
4
Now using equation (5.4),
I
M
=
y
f
--------------(i)
When y is maximum, stress will be maximum. But y is maximum at the top layer from the
N.A.
ymax =
2
D

=
2
40
ymax =
20 mm
The above equation (i) can be
written as
CH- 5
173
I
M
=
max
max
y
f
fmax =
I
M
ymax
=
117809.7
20 10 8
4

fmax =
13.58 N/mm
2

5.5 Section Modulus
Section modulus is defined as the ratio of moment of inertia of a section about the
neutral axis to the distance of the outermost layer from the neutral axis. It is denoted by
the symbol Z. Hence mathematically section modulus is given by
Z
=
max
y
I
--------------(5.5)
where I
=
M.O.I. about neutral axis
and ymax
=
Distance of the outermost layer from the
neutral axis.
From equation (5.4), we have
I
M
=
y
f

The stress f will be maximum, when y is maximum. Hence above equation can be
written as
I
M
=
max
max
y
f

M
=
fmax
max
y
I
But
max
y
I
=
Z

M
= fmax

Z ----------------(5.6)
In the above equation, M is the maximum bending moment (or moment of resistance
offered by the section). Hence, moment of resistance offered the section is maximum
when section modulus Z is maximum. Hence section modulus represents the strength of
the section.
CH- 5
174
5.6 Section Modulus for various shapes of Beam Sections
Rectangular Section
Worked out Examples

5.6.1
Figure 5
Moment of inertia of a rectangular section about an axis through its C.G. (or through
N.A.) is given by,
I
=
12
bd
3

Distance of outermost layer from N.A. is given by,
ymax =
2
d

Section modulus is given by,
Z
=
max
y
I

=

,
_

2
d
12
bd
3
=
12
bd
3
d
2

=
6
bd
2
--------------(5.7)
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175
Hollow Rectangular Section

5.6.2
Figure 6
Here, I
=
12
bd
12
BD
2 3

=
[ ]
3 3
bd BD
12
1

ymax =
2
D
Z
=
max
y
I
=
[ ]

,
_

2
D
bd BD
12
1
3 3
=
[ ]
3 3
bd BD
6D
1

--------------(5.8)
CH- 5
176
Circular Section

5.6.3
For a circular section,
I
=
4
d
64

and ymax =
2
d
Z
=
max
y
I
=
2
d
d
64

4
=
3
d
32

--------------(5.9)
Hollow Circular Section

5.6.4
Figure 7
Here, I
=
4 4
d D
64

and ymax
=
2
D
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177
Z
=
max
y
I
=
[ ]

,
_

2
D
d D
64

4 4
=
[ ]
4 4
d D
32D

--------------(5.10)
5.6.5 A cantilever of length 2 meter fails when a load of 2 kN is applied at the
free end. If the section of the beam is 40 mm 60mm, find the stress at
the failure.

Figure 8

Given data:
Length, L = 2 m
= 2 10
3
mm
Load, W = 2 kN = 2000 N
Section of the beam is
=
40 mm 60 mm
Width of the beam, b = 40 mm
Depth of the beam, d = 60 mm
CH- 5
178
Figure 8(a)
Figure 8(a) shows the section of the beam.
Section modulus of a rectangular section is given by equation (5.7).
Solution
Z =
6
bd
2
=
6
60 40
2

= 24000 mm
3
Maximum bending moment for a cantilever shown in figure 8 is at the fixed end.
M = W L
= 2000 2 10
3
= 4 10
6
Nmm

Let fmax = Stress at the failure
Using equation (5.6), we get
M =
fmax

Z
fmax =
Z
M
=
24000
10 4
6

fmax = 166.67 N/mm

2
.
CH- 5
179
5.6.6 A rectangular beam 200 mm deep and 300 mm wide is simply supported
over a span of 8 m. What uniformly distributed load per meter the beam
may carry, if the bending stress is not to exceed 120 N/mm
2
.
Figure 9
Given data:
Depth of beam, d = 200 mm
Width of beam, b = 300 mm
Length of beam, L = 8 m
Max. bending stress, fmax = 120 N/mm
2
Figure 9(a)
Figure 9(a) shows the section of the beam.
Solution
Let w =
Uniformly distributed load per m
length over the beam
Section modulus for a rectangular section is given by equation (5.7).
Z =
6
2
bd
=
6
200 300
2

= 2000000 mm
3
CH- 5
180
Max. B.M. for a simply supported beam carrying uniformly distributed load as shown in
figure 9 is at the center of the beam. It is given by
M =
8
L w
2

=
8
8 w
2

( L = 8
m)
= 8w Nm = 8 w 1000 Nmm
=
8000w Nmm 1 m = 1000
mm)
Now using equation (5.6), we get
M =
fmax

Z
or 8000w = 1202000000
w =
800
2000000 120
= 301000 N/m
w = 30 kN/m
5.6.7 A square beam 20 mm 20 mm in section and 2 m long is supported at
the ends. The beam fails when a point load of 400 N is applied at the
center of the beam. What uniformly distributed load per meter length will
break a cantilever of the same material 40 mm wide, 60 mm deep and 3 m
long?

Figure 10
CH- 5
181
In this problem, the maximum stress for the simply supported beam is to be calculated
first. As the material of the cantilever is same as that of simply supported beam, hence
maximum stress for the cantilever will also be same as that of simply supported beam.
Solution
Figure 10(a)
The section modulus for the rectangular section of simply supported beam is given by
equation (5.7).
Z =
6
bd
2
=
4
20 20
2

=
3
4000
mm
3
Max. B.M. for a simply supported beam carrying a point load at the center (as shown
in Figure 10(a) is given by,
M =
4
L w
=
4
2 400
= 200 Nm
= 2001000 = 200000 Nmm
Let fmax = Max. stress induced
CH- 5
Given data:
Depth of beam, d = 20 mm
Width of beam, b = 20 mm
Length of beam, L = 2 m = 2000 mm
Point Load, W = 400 N
182
Figure 11
CH- 5
Now using equation (5.6), we get
M =
fmax

Z
200000 =
3
4000
f
max

fmax =
4000
3 200000
= 150 N/mm
2
Now let us consider the cantilever as shown in Figure11(a).
Let w = Uniformly distributed load per m run.
Maximum stress will be same as in case of simply supported beam.
fmax = 150 N/mm
2
Width of cantilever, b = 40 mm
Depth of cantilever, d = 60 mm
Length of cantilever, L = 3 m
183
5.6.8 A beam is simply supported and carries a uniformly distributed load of
40 kN/m run over the whole span. The section of the beam is rectangular
having depth as 500 mm. If the maximum stress in the material of the beam
is 120 N/mm
2
and moment of inertia of the section is 710
8
mm
4
, find the
span of the beam.
Given data:
U.D.L., w = 40 kN/m = 401000 N/m
Depth, d = 500 mm
Max. stress, fmax = 120 N/mm
2
M.O.I of section, I = 7 10
8
mm
4
Solution
Let L = Span of simply supported beam.
Section modulus of the section is given by equation (5.5), as
Z =
max
y
1
Where ymax =
2
d
=
2
500
= 250 mm
Z =
250
10 7
8

= 2810
5
mm
3
CH- 5
Section modulus of rectangular
section of cantilever
=
6
bd
2

Z
=
6
60 40
2

= 24000 mm
3

Maximum B.M. for a cantilever
=
2
wL
2
=
2
3 w
2

= 4.5 w Nm
M = 4.51000w Nmm
Now using equation (5.6), we get
M =
f
max

Z
or 4.51000w = 15024000
w =
1000 4.5
24000 150

w = 800 N/m
184
The maximum B.M. for a simple supported beam, carrying a U.D.L. over the whole span
is at the center of the beam and is equal to
8
L w
2

.
M =
8
L w
2

=
8
L 40000
2

= 5000L
2
1000 Nmm
Now using equation (5.6), we get
M =
fmax

Z
or 50001000L
2
= 1202810
5
or L
2
=
1000 5000
10 28 120
5

= 2.428
L =
28 2.4
= 8.197 m
L = 8.20 m
5.6.9 A timber beam of rectangular section is to support a load of 20 kN uniformly
distributed over a span of 3.6 m when beam is simply supported. If the
depth of section is to be twice the breadth, and the stress in the timber is
not to exceed 7 N/mm
2
, find the dimensions of the cross-section.
How would you modify the cross-section of the beam, if it carries a
concentrated load of 20 kN placed at the center with the same ratio of
breadth to depth.
Given data:
Total load, W = 20 kN = 201000 N
Span, L = 3.6 m
Max. stress, fmax = 7 N/mm
2
Solution
Let b = Breadth of beam in mm
Then depth, d = 2b mm
Section modulus of rectangular
beam
=
6
bd
2
Z =
( )
6
2b b
2

=
6
2b
3
mm
3
Maximum B.M., when the simply supported beam carries a U.D.L. over the entire span,
is at the center of the beam and is equal to
8
wL
2
or
8
WL
CH- 5
185
M =
8
WL
=
8
3.6 20000

= 9000 Nm = 90001000 Nmm
Now using equation (5.6), we get
M =
fmax

Z
or 90001000 =
3
2b
7
3

or b
3
=
2 7
1000 9000 3

= 1.9285710
6
b =
( )
3
1
6
10 1.92857
= 124.47 mm
b = 124.5 mm
and d = 2b
= 2124.5
d = 249 mm
Dimension of the section when the beam carries a point load at the center
B.M is maximum at the center and it is equal to
4
L W
when the beam carries a point
load at the center.
M =
4
L W
=
4
3.6 20000
= 18000 Nm = 180001000 Nmm
fmax = 7 N/mm
2
and Z =
3
2b
3
( In this case also d =
2b)
Using equation (5.6), we get
M = fmaxZ
or 180001000 =
3
2b
7
2

b
3
=
2 7
1000 18000 3

= 3.8571410
6
b =
( )
3
1
6
10 3.85714
Breadth of the beam, b = 156.82 mm
d = 2156.82
Depth of the beam, d = 313.64 mm
CH- 5
186
5.6.10 A rolled steel joist of I - section has the dimensions: as shown in Figure12.
This beam of I section carries a u.d.l. of 40 kN/m run on a span of 10 m,
calculate the maximum stress produced due to bending.
Figure 12
Given data:
u.d.l., w = 40 kN/m = 40000 N/m
Span, L = 10 m
Solution
Moment of inertia about the neutral
axis
=
( )
12
360 10 200
12
400 200
3 3

= 738720000 - 1066666666
= 327946666 mm
4
Maximum B.M. is given by, M =
8
L w
2

=
8
10 40000
2

= 500000 Nm
= 5000001000 Nmm
= 510
8
Nmm
CH- 5
187
Now using the relation,
I
M
=
y
f
f = y
I
M

or fmax =
max
y
I
M

=
200
327946666
10 5
8

( ymax = 200
mm)
fmax = 304.92 N/mm
2
5.6.11 An Isection shown in figure 13, is simply supported over a span of 12 m. If
the maximum permissible bending stress is 80 N/mm
2
, what concentrated
load can be carried at a distance of 4 m from one support?
Figure 13(a)
Given data:
Bending stress, fmax = 80 N/mm
2
Span = 12 m
Solution
Let W =
Concentrated load carried at a distance
of 4 m from support B in Newton
To find the maximum bending moment (which will be at a point C where
concentrated load is acting), first calculate the reactions RA and RB.
CH- 5
188
Taking moments about point A, we get
RB

12
= W8
RB =
12
8W
=
3
2
W
and RA =
B
R W
= W
3
2
W
=
3
W
B.M. at point C =
RA

8
= 8
3
W

= Nm W
3
8
But B.M. at C is maximum

Maximum B.M.,
Mmax = Nm W
3
8
= 1000 W
3
8
Nmm
=
3
8000
W Nmm
Now find the moment of inertia of the given I -section about the N.A.
I =
( ) ( )
12
11.5 2 225 7.5 100
12
225 100
3 3

=
( )
12
202 92.5
94921875
3

= 94921875 63535227.55
= 31386647.45 mm
4
Now using the relation,
I
M
=
y
f
or
I
M
=
max
max
y
f
where ymax =
2
225
= 112.5 mm
Now substituting the known values, we get
CH- 5
189
5 31386647.4
W
3
8000

,
_

=
112.5
80
W =
8000
3
5 31386647.4
112.5
80

W = 8369.77 N
5.6.12 A water main of 500 mm internal diameter and 20mm thick is running full.
The water main is of cast iron and is supported at two points 10 m apart.
Find the maximum stress in the metal. The cast iron and water weigh
72000 N/m
3
and 10000 N/m
3
respectively.
Figure 13(b)
Given data:
Internal diameter, Di = 500 mm = 0.5 m
Thickness of pipe, t = 20 mm
Weight of cast iron = 72000 N/m
3
Weight of water = 10000 N/m
3
Solution
Outer Diameter, Do = Di+2t
= 500+220
= 540mm = 0.54 m
Internal area of pipe =
2
i
D
4

=
2
0.5
4

= 0.1960 m
2
This is also equal to the area of water section.
Area of water section = 0.196 m
2
Outer area of pipe =
2
0
D
4

=
2
2
0.54
4

m
2
CH- 5
190
Area of pipe section =
2
i
2
o
D
4

D
4

= [ ]
2
i
2
o
D D
4

= [ ]
2 2
0.5 0.54
4

= 0.0327 m
2
Moment of inertia of the pipe section
about neutral axis, I
= [ ]
4
i
4
o D D
64

= [ ]
4 4
500 540
64

= 1.10510
9
mm
4
Let us now find the weight of pipe and weight of water for one meter length.
Weight of the pipe for one meter run =
Weight density of cast ironVolume
of pipe
=
72000
[ ] Length section pipe of Area
=
720000.03271 ( Length = 1
m)
= 2354 N
Weight of the water for one meter
run
=
Weight density of water Volume of
water
=
[ ] Length section water of Area 10000
= 100000.1961
= 1960 N
Total weight on the pipe for one
meter run
= 2354+1960
= 4314 N
Hence the above weight is the U.D.L. (uniformly distributed load) on the pipe. The
maximum bending moment due to U.D.L. is w
8
2
L

Where w = Rate of U.D.L.
= 4314 N per meter run
Maximum bending moment due
to U.D.L, M
=
8
L w
2

=
8
10 4314
2

( L = 10
m)
= 53925 Nm
= 5392510
3
Nm
Now using
I
M
=
y
f
f = y
I
M

The stress will be maximum, when y is maximum.

CH- 5
191
But maximum value of y =
2
D
o
=
2
540
ymax = 270 mm
Maximum stress, fmax =
max
y
I
M

=
270
10 105 . 1
10 53925
9
3

fmax = 13.18 N/mm

2
5.7 Strength of a Section
The strength of a section means the moment of resistance offered by the section and
moment of resistance is given by
M = f Z
[M =
y
f
or M =
I y
f

= f
Z
where Z =
y
I
]
where M = Moment of resistance
f = Bending stress and
Z = Section modulus.
For a given value of allowable stress, the moment of resistance depends upon the
section modulus. The section modulus, therefore, represents the strength of the section.
Greater the value of Z, stronger will be the section.
The bending stress at any point in any beam section is proportional to its distance from
the neutral axis. Hence the maximum tensile and compressive stresses in beam section
are proportional to the distances of the most distant tensile and compressive fibres from
the neutral axis. Hence for the purposes of economy and weight reduction the material
should be concentrated as much as possible at the greatest distance from the neutral
axis. This idea is put into practice, by providing beams of Isection, where the flanges
alone withstand almost all the bending stress.
We know the relation:
I
M
=
y
f
or f =
I
M
y
=
y
I
M
=
Z
M
where Z = Section modulus
For a given cross-section, the maximum stress to which the section is subjected due to a
given bending moment depends upon the section modulus of the section. If the section
modulus is small, then the stress will be more. There are some cases where an increase
in the sectional area does not result in a decrease in stress. It may so happen that in
CH- 5
192
some cases a slight increase in the area may result in a decrease in section modulus
which result in an increase of stress to resist the same bending moment.
Worked out Examples
5.7.1 Three beams the same length, same allowable bending stress and the
same bending moment. The cross-section of the beams are square,
rectangle with depth twice the width of a circle. Find the ratios of weights of
the circular and the rectangular beams with respect to square beams.
Figure 14
Given data:
Let x = Side of square beam
b = Width of the rectangular beam
2b = Depth of the rectangular beam
d = Diameter of a circular section
Solution
M = f Z
Where Z = Section modulus
As all the three beams have the same allowable bending stress (f), and same bending
moment (M), therefore the section modulus (Z) of the three beams must be equal.
Section modulus of a square beam =
y
I
=

,
_

2
d
12
bd
3
CH- 5
193
=
x
2
12
x x
3

( b =
d = x)
=
6
x
3

Section modulus of a rectangular
beam
=

,
_

2
d
12
bd
3
=
( )

,
_

2
2b
12
2b b
3
( d =
2b)
=
2b
2
12
8b b
3

=
3
b
3
2
Section modulus of a circular beam =
2
d
64
d
4
=
d
2
64
d
4

=
32
d
3
Equating the section modulus of a square beam with that of rectangular beam, we get
6
x
3
=
3
b
3
2
b
3
=
2 6
x 3
3

=
4
x
3
= 0.25x
3
or b =
( ) x 25 . 0 3
1
= 0.63x --------------(i)
Equating the section modulus of a square beam with that of a circular beam, we get
6
x
3
=
32
d
3
d
3
=
6
x 32
3
or d =
x
6
32
3
1

CH- 5
194
= 1.1927x
The weights of the beams are proportional to their cross-sectional areas. Hence
beam square of Weight
beam r rectangula of Weight
=
beam square of Area
beam r rectangula of Area
=
x x
2b b

=
x x
0.63x 2 0.63x

= 0.7938
and
beam square of Weight
beam circular of Weight
=
beam square of Area
beam circular of Area
=
2
4
x
4
d
=
2
2
x 4
d
=
( )
2
2
x 4
x 1927 . 1
( d
=1.1927x)
= 1.1172
CH- 5
195
5.8 Assignments
1. A mild steel strap 10cm wide and 2cm thick is bent into a circular arc of radius 50
meters. Find the maximum intensity of stress induced in the strap.
Take E = 2 x 10
5
N/mm
2
.
2. (S.I.Units) A steel flat 4mm wide and 2 mm thick is required to bent in a circular
arc of 2m radius. Determine the moment required to bend the flat and the
maximum stress induced in the material.
3. A rectangular beam 3.5 cm deep has a moment of inertia of 13 160 cm
2
.
Calculate the radius in which the beam may be bent, if the maximum stress is not
exceed 126 N/mm
2
.
4. A timber cantilever 20 cm wide and 30 cm deep is 3 meters long. It is loaded with
a u.d.l. of 3000N/m over the entire span. What concentrated load can be placed
at the free end of the cantilever, if the stress is not to exceed 7.2 N/mm
2
.
5. (S.I.Units). A timber beam 15mm wide, 300 mm deep is simply supported over a
span of 4 meters. Find the maximum uniformly distributed load that the beam can
carry, if the stress is not to exceed 8 N/mm
2
.
CH- 5
196
Chapter 6
6.0 Torsion of Shaft
6.1 Introduction - Pure Torsion
A shaft of circular section is said to be in pure torsion when it is subjected to equal and
opposite end couples whose axes coincide with the axis of the shaft. While a beam
bends as an effect of bending moment, a shaft twists as an effect of torsion. At any point
as a section of the shaft, a shear stress is induced or more exactly, the state of stress at
any point in the cross-section of the shaft is one of pure shear. By the principle of
complementary shear stresses, we know that in a state of simple shear there are two
planes carrying the shear stress of the same intensity. These planes must be
perpendicular to each other.
In the case of shaft in torsion, the planes of shear at a point are (i) the cross-section
itself and (ii) the plane containing the point and the axis of the shaft.
6.2 Theory of Pure Torsion
Figure below shows a solid cylindrical shaft of radius R and length l subjected to a
couple or a twisting moment T at one end, while its other end is held or fixed by the
application of a balancing couple of the same magnitude.
Figure 1
Let AB be a line on the surface of the shaft and parallel to the axis of the shaft before
the deformation of the shaft. As an effect of torsion this line, after the deformation of
the shaft, takes the form AC.
196 CH- 6
The angle CAB =

represents the shear strain of the shaft material at the surface.

This angle being small, we have,
BC = l

=
l
BC
--------------(i)
Let the angle BOC be the anguler movement of the radius OB due to the strain in the
length of the shaft. Let BOC = . Let fs be the shear stress intensity at the surface of
the shaft.
We know,
fs =

C -------------- (ii)
where C = Modulus of rigidity of the shaft material
fs =
C
l
BC

,
_

But BC = R
fs = C
l
R

R
f
s
=
l
C
-------------- (iii)
The shaft may be taken to consist of an infinite number of elemental hollow shafts, one
surrounding the other.
If the deformation of a line on the surface of any such interior cylinder, at a radius r be
considered it can be similarly visualized that, the shear stress intensity q at the radius r
is given by the relation,
r
q
=
l
C
R
f
s
=
r
q
=
l
C
Since C, and l are constants, it follows that at any section of the shaft, the shear
stress intensity at any point is proportional to the distance of the point from the axis of
the shaft. Hence, the shear stress is maximum at the surface and shear stress is zero at
the axis of the shaft.
CH- 6 197
6.3 Torsional Moment of Resistance
Figure 2
Figure above shows the section of the shaft of radius R subjected to pure torsion. Let fs
be the maximum shear stress, which occurs at the surface.
Consider an elemental area da at a distance r from the axis of the shaft.
Shear stress offered by the
elemental area q
=
s
f
R
r
Shear resistance
offered by the elemental
area q

da
= da f
R
r
s

Moment of resistance
offered by the elemental
area
= r da f
R
r
s

=
2 s
r da
R
f

Total moment of
resistance offered by the
cross-section of the shaft
= T
=


2 s
r da
R
f
But

2
r da represents the moment of inertia of the shaft section about the axis of
the shaft, i.e., the quantity

2
r da is the polar moment of inertia Ip of the section of the
shaft.
T =
p
s
I
R
f

p
I
T
=
R
f
s
-------------- (iv)
198 CH- 6
But from equation
(iii),
R
f
s

= l
C

p
I
T
=
R
f
s
=
l
C

p
I
T
=
R
f
s
=
l
C
6.4 Assumptions in the Theory of Pure Torsion
The theory of pure torsion is based on the following assumptions:
(i) The material of the shaft is uniform throughout.
(ii) The twist along the shaft is uniform.
(iii) The shaft is of uniform circular section throughout.
(iv) Cross-sections of the shaft, which are plane before twist remain plane after twist.
(v) All radii which are straight before twist remain straight after twist.
6.5 Polar Modules
Let T be the torsional moment of resistance of the section of a shaft of radius R and Ip
the polar moment of inertia of the shaft section.
The shear stress intensity q at any point on the section distant r from the axis of the
shaft is given by
q =
r
I
T
p

The maximum shear stress
s
f
occurs at the greatest radius R
fs
=
R
I
T
p

or T =
R
I
f
p
s

or T = p s
Z f
where p
Z
=
R
I
p
=
radius Maximum
section shaft the of inertia of moment Polar
This ratio is called the polar modulus of the shaft section. The greatest twisting moment
which a given shaft section can resist
=
maximum permissible shear stress x polar
modulus.
Hence for a shaft of a given material the magnitude of the polar modulus is a measure of
its strength in resisting torsion.
CH- 6 199
Given a number of shafts of the same length and material, the shaft, which can resist
the greatest twisting moment, is the one whose polar modulus is greatest. Shafts of the
same material and length having the same polar modulus have the same strength.
For a hollow shaft whose external and internal diameters are d1 and d2.
p
I
= ( )
4
2
4
1
d d
32

R =
2
d
1
Zp =
( )
4
2
4
1
1
d d
d 16

Torsional Moment
of resistance
=
p s
Z f
=
( )
4
2
4
1
1
s
d d
d 16
f

Torsional rigidity
Let a twisting moment T produce a twist of radians in a length l.
We know the relation.
p
I
T
=
l
C
=
p
CI
Tl
For a given shaft the twist is therefore proportional to the twisting moment T. In a beam
the bending moment produces a bend or deflection; in the same manner a torque
produces a twist in a shaft. The expression CIp corresponds to a similar quantity EI* in
expressions for deflection of beams. The quantity CIp is called Torsional rigidity.
Obviously the quantity CIp stands for the torque required to produce a twist of 1 radian
per unit length of the shaft.
200 CH- 6
p
I
=
32
d
4
R =
2
d
p
Z =
16
d
3
Moment of resistance = p s
Z f
Moment of resistance =
16
d
f
3
s

6.6 Power Transmitted by a Shaft

Let a shaft turning at N rpm transmit P kilo watts. Let the mean torque to which the shaft
is subjected to be T Nm.
Power transmitted = P
=
second per turned Angle torque Mean
= 2
60
N
T Watts
=
1000
2
60
N
T Kilowatts
P =
60000
NT 2
kW
6.7 Worked out examples
6.7.1 A metal bar of 10 mm diameter when subjected to a pull of 23.55 kN gave
an elongation of 0.30 mm on a gauge length of 200 mm. In a torsion test
on the same material, a maximum shear stress of 40.71 N/mm
2
was
measured on a bar of 50 mm diameter, the angle of twist measured over a
length of 300 mm being 0
o
21. Determine the Poissions ratio of the
material.
Given data:
Tensile test data, d = 10 mm
P = 23.55 kN
= 0.30 mm
l = 200 mm
Solution
Strain e
=
l

=
200
30 . 0
= 0.0015
Stress f
=
( )
2
3
10
4

10 55 . 23
=
299.85 N/mm
2
Modulus of Elasticity, E
=
e
f
=
0015 . 0
85 . 299
=
1.999 x 10
5
N/mm
2
Torsion test data, d
=
50 mm
l
=
300 mm
fs =
40.71 N/mm
2

=
0
o
21
CH- 6 201
=
180

20
7
radians
R
f
s
=
l
C
C
=
R
f l
s

= 25
71 . 40
180

20
7
300

=
0.79972 x 10
5
N/mm
2
E
=

,
_

+
m
1
1 C 2

m
1
1+
=
C 2
E
=
5
5
10 x 79972 . 0 x 2
10 x 999 . 1
=
1.25
Poissons ratio,
m
1
=
0.25
In a tensile test, a test piece 25 mm in diameter, 200 mm gauge length stretched 0.0975
mm under a pull of 50,000 N. In a torsion test, the same rod twisted 0.025 radian over a
length of 200 mm, when a torque of 400 Nm was applied. Evaluate the Possions ratio
and the three elastic moduli for the material.
Given data:
d
=
25 mm
l
=
200 mm
Pull
=
50,000 N
Solution
Tensile stress, f
=
( )
2
25
4

50000
=
101.86 N/mm
2
Tensile strain, e
=
200
0975 . 0
Elastic Modules, E
=
e
f
=
0975 . 0
200 86 . 101
=
5
10 x 089 . 2 N/mm
2
p
I
T
=
l
C
C
=

p
I
Tl
202 CH- 6
=
025 . 0
32
25
200 1000 400
4

=
5
10 x 834 . 0 N/mm
2
We know, E
=

,
_

+
m
1
1 C 2

m
1
1+
=
C 2
E
=
5
5
10 x 834 . 0 2
10 089 . 2

m
1
1+
=
1.252
Poissons Ratio
m
1
=
0.252
We know, E
=

,
_

m
2
1 K 3
K
=

,
_

m
2
1 3
E
=
( ) 252 . 0 2 1 3
10 089 . 2
5

N/mm
2
K
=
1.404 x 10
5
N/mm
2
A 60 mm diameter shaft is subjected to a torque of 4 kNm. Find (i) the maximum shear
stress induced in the shaft (ii) Angle of twist per metre length of the shaft (iii) the shear
stress at a distance of 10 mm from the axis of the shaft. Take C = 8 x 10
4
N/mm
2
.
Solution
Maximum shear stress induced, fs =
3
d
T 16
=
3
6
60
10 4 16

=
94.31 N/mm
2
Angle of twist per metre length,
=
p
CI
Tl
=
4 4
6
60 10 8
32 1000 10 4


=
0.0392975 radian
=
2
o
.2516
Shear stress at a distance of 10 mm from the axis of the shaft
q
= s
f
R
r
=
31 . 94
30
10

q
=
31.44 N/mm
2
CH- 6 203
A hollow steel shaft of external diameter 150 mm and internal diameter 100 mm is 1.5 m
long. Find the maximum torque required to produce a twist of 0.5
o
over the length of the
shaft. Take C = 8 x 10
4
N/mm
2
.
Given data:
C
=
8

10
4
N/mm
2
External diameter, D
=
150 mm
Internal diameter, d
=
100 mm
Solution
Polar moment of inertia of the shaft
section, Ip
=
( )
4 4
100 150
32

=
39883500 mm
4

=
0.5 degree
=
radian
180

5 . 0
=
8.72665 x 10
-3
radian
p
I
T
=
l
C
T
=
l
C
I
p

=
1500
10 72665 . 8 10 8 39883500
3 4

N
mm
=
18.5626 x 10
6
Nmm
T
=
18.5626 kNm
A hollow shaft of 20 mm outside diameter and 16 mm inside diameter is subjected to a
torque of 40 Nm. Find the shear stress at the outside and inside of the shaft.
Given data:
External diameter, D
=
20 mm
Internal diameter, d
=
16 mm
204 CH- 6
Solution
Polar moment of inertia of the
section, p
I

=
( )
4 4
d D
32

=
( )
4 4
16 20
32

mm
4
p
I
T
=
r
q
q
=
r
I
T
p
Shear stress at outer surface of the
shaft
=
10
9274
10 40
3

N/mm
2
=
43.13 N/mm
2
Shear stress at inner surface of the
shaft
=
13 . 43
10
8

=
34.50 N/mm
2
Determine the diameter of a solid shaft which will transmit 90 kW at 160 rpm if the shear
stress in the shaft is limited to 60 N/mm
2
. Find also the length of the shaft, if the twist
must not exceed 1 degree over the entire length. Take C = 8 x 10
4
N/mm
2
.
Solution
Power transmitted, P
=
60000
NT 2
T
=
N 2
P 60000
=
160 2
90 60000

Nm
=
5371.5 Nm
T
=
16
d f
3
s
3
d =
f
T 16
s
=
60
10 5 . 5371 16
3

d
=
77 mm
p
I
=
32
77
4

=
3451142 mm
4
CH- 6 205
p
I
T
=
l
C
l
=
T
I C
p

= 3
4
10 5 . 5371
3451142
180

10 8

mm
l
=
897 mm
A solid shaft 125 mm in diameter transmits 120 kW at 160 rpm. Find the maximum
shear stress induced in the shaft. Find also the angle of twist in a length of 7.5 m. Take
C = 8 x 10
4
N/mm
2
.
Solution
Power transmitted, P
=
60000
NT 2
T
=
N 2
P 60000
=
N 2
P 60000
=
160 2
120 60000

=
7161.97 Nm
=
7161.97 x 10
3
Nmm
Max. Shear stress induced,
s
f
=
3
d
T 16
=
3
3
125
10 97 . 7161 16

=
18.676 N/mm
2
Angle of twist
=
C
l
I
T
p

=
4 4
3
10 8
7500
32
125
10 97 . 7161

=
0.028 radian
=
1
o
.605
Alternatively,
=
R
f
C
l
s

=
5 . 26
676 . 18
10 8
7500
4

=
0.028 radian

=
1
o
.605
206 CH- 6
Find the power transmitted by a 75 mm diameter shaft at 140 rpm at a maximum shear
stress of 60 N/mm
2
.
Given data:
Internal diameter, d
=
75 mm
Maximum shear stress, fs =
60 N/mm
2
Solution
Torque, T
=
16
d
f
3
s

=
60

16
75
3

=
4970.1 x 10
3
Nmm
=
4970.1 Nm
Power transmitted, P
=
60000
NT 2
=
60000
1 . 4970 140 2
=
72.86 kW
A steel shaft transmits 105 kW at 160 rpm. If the shaft is 100 mm in diameter, find the
torque on the shaft and the maximum shearing stress induced. Find also the twist of the
shaft in a length of 6 m.
Take C = 8 x 10
4
N/mm
2
.
Given data:
Power transmitted, P
=
105 kW
Diameter, d
=
100 mm
Solution
P
=
60000
NT 2
105
=
60000
T 160 2
T
=
160 2
60000 105

Nm
=
6266 Nm
T
=
16
d
f
3
s

fs =
3
d
T 16
=
3
3
100
10 6266 16

=
31.91 N/mm
2
Twist of the shaft,
=
C
l
I
T
p

CH- 6 207
=
4
4
3
10 8
6000
32
100
10 6266

radian
=
0.04786 radian
=
2
o
45
A solid shaft is subjected to a torque of 15 kNm. Find the necessary diameter of the
shaft if the allowable shearing stress is 60 N/mm
2
and the allowable twist is 1
o
in a length
of 20 diameters of the shaft.
Take C = 8 x 10
4
N/mm
2
.
Solution
Shear stress consideration
T
=
16
d f
3
s

d
3
=
60
10 15 16
6

d
=
108.4 mm
Twist consideration
p
I
T
=
l
C

4
d
T 32
=
l
C
d
4
=
C
Tl 32
=


180

x 10 8
d 20 10 15 32
4
6
Minimum required diameter,
d
=
129.8 mm
What must the length of a 5 mm diameter aluminum wire be so that it can be twisted
through one complete revolution without exceeding a shearing stress of 40 N/mm
2
. Take
C = 2.7 x 10
4
N/mm
2
.
Given data:
d
=
5 mm
r
=
2.5 mm

=
2 radians
fs =
40 N/mm
2
C
=
4
10 7 . 2 N/mm
2
208 CH- 6
Solution
r
f
s
=
l
C
l
=
s
f
rC
=
40
2 10 7 . 2 50 . 2
4

mm
=
10603 mm
=
10.603 m
Find the power that can be transmitted by a shaft 60 mm diameter, at 180 r.p.m. if the
permissible shear stress is 85 N/mm
2
.
Solution
T
=
3
s
D
16

f
=
( )
16
60 85
3
Nmm
=
3605000 Nmm
=
3605 Nm
Power transmitted
=
60000
NT 2
=
60000
3605 180 2
=
67.95 kW
A solid circular shaft transmits 75 kW at 200 r.p.m. Calculate the shaft diameter if the
twist in the shaft is not to exceed 1
o
in 2 meters of shaft and the shearing stress is
limited to 50 N/mm
2
. Take C = 1 x 10
5
N/mm
2
.
Solution
Power transmitted
=
60000
NT 2
=
75 kW
T
=
Nm
200 2
75 60000

=
3581 Nm
(i) Twist consideration
p
I
T
=
l
C
Ip =
C
Tl
4
32
d
=
C
Tl
CH- 6 209
d
4
=
C
Tl 32
=
10 1
180 2000 1000 3581 32
5


d
=
80.40 mm
(ii) Shear stress consideration T
=
16
d
f
3
s
=
1000 3581
d
3
=
50
1000 3581 16
d
=
71.4 mm
Hence we should provide at least a diameter of 80.40 mm
A hollow shaft is to have an outside diameter d and inside diameter d/2. Calculate the
minimum value of d if it is to transmit 375 kW at 105 rpm with a working stress of 40
N/mm
2
. Determine the twist in a length equal to 10 times the external diameter. Take C
= 8 x 10
4
N/mm
2
.
Solution
Polar moment of inertia of the shaft section
Ip =
4
d

32
=
32
4
d
mm
4
=
0.092 d
4
mm
4
Zp
=
2
d
d 092 . 0
4
=
0.184 d
3
mm
3
P
=
60000
NT 2
T
=
105 2
375 60000

=
34104.631 Nm
T
=
p s
Z f
=
3
d 184 . 0 40
=
3
10 631 . 34104
d
=
167.02 mm
l
=
1670.2 mm
p
I
T
=
l
C

=
p
I
T
c
l

=
( )
4
3
4
02 . 167 092 . 0
10 631 . 34104
10 8
2 . 1670

210 CH- 6
=
0.01 radian
A shaft has to transmit 105 kW at 160 r.p.m. If the shear stress is not to exceed 65
N/mm
2
and the twist in a length of 3.50 m must not exceed 1, find a suitable diameter.
Take C = 8 x 10
4
N/mm
4
.
Solution
Power transmitted, P
=
60000
NT 2
105
=
60000
T 160 2
T
=
600 2
60000 105

=
6266 Nm
From shear stress consideration T
=
16
D
f
3
s

3
D =
f
T 16
s
=
65
1000 6266 16

D
=
78.9 mm
From stiffness consideration,
p
I
T
=
l
C
Ip =
C
Tl

32
D
4
=
C
Tl
D
4
=

Tl
C
32

D
4
=
10 8
180 3500 1000 6266

32
4

Hence the required diameter, D

=
112.5 mm
CH- 6 211
A solid shaft is 100 mm in diameter. It transmits 120 kW at 200 rpm. Find the maximum
intensity of shear stress induced and the angle of twist for a length of 6 m. Take C = 8 x
10
4
N/mm
2
.
Solution
Power transmitted, P
=
60000
NT 2
120
=
60000
T 200 2
T
=
200 2
60000 120

=
5729 Nm
=
1000 5729
Nm
Polar moment of inertia, Ip
=
32
d
4
R
=
2
d
p
I
T
=
R
f
s
s
f
=
R
I
T
p

=
3
d
T 16
= 3
100
1000 5729 16

=
29.17 N/mm
2
p
I
T
=
l
C

=
C
l
I
T
p

= 4 4
10 8
6000
100
32 1000 5729

radian
=
0.04375 radian
=
2
o
30
212 CH- 6
Find the diameter of the shaft required to transmit 60 kW at 150 r.p.m. if the maximum
torque is likely to exceed the mean torque by 25% for a maximum permissible shear
stress of 60 N/mm
2
. Find also the angle of twist of a length of 2.5 m. Take C = 8 x 10
4
N/mm
2
.
Solution
P
=
60000
NT 2
60
=
60000
T 150 2
T
=
150 2
60000 60

=
3819.7 Nm
=
1000 7 . 3819
Nmm
The torque calculated above is the mean torque
Max. torque, Tmax =
25 . 1
meantorque
=
1000 7 . 3819 25 . 1
=
1000 625 . 4774
Nmm
Polar modulus
=
max
p
r
I
=
d 32
2 d
4

=
16
d
3
Tmax =
ulus mod Polar f
s

1000 625 . 4774
=
16
d
60
3

d
3
=
60
16 1000 625 . 4774
d
=
74 mm
p
I
T
=
l
C

=
C
l
I
T
p

= 4 4
10 8
2500
74
32 1000 625 . 4774

=
0.0507 radian
=
2
o
54
CH- 6 213
A hollow circular shaft 20 mm thick transmits 300 kW at 200 rpm. Determine the
external diameter of the shaft if the shear strain due to torsion is not to exceed 0.00086.
Take modules of rigidity equal to 8 x 10
4
N/mm
2
.
Solution
Let fs =
Maximum shear stress

=
Maximum shear strain
=
0.00086
C
=
Modulus of rigidity

=
C
f
s
=
0.00086

s
f
=
4
10 8 00086 . 0 N/mm
2
=
68.8 N/mm
2
P
=
60000
NT 2
T
=
200 2
60000 300

=
14323.95 Nm
T
=
p s
Z f
Zp =
8 . 68
10 95 . 14323
3

=
208197 mm
3
Let the external diameter be D1
Internal diameter, D2
=
40 D
1

Zp =
( )
4
2
4
1
1
D D
D 16

=
208197 mm
3
( )
1
4
1
4
1
D
40 D D
=
1060339 mm
3
Solving by trial and error
1
D
=
107.94 mm
214 CH- 6
6.8 Assignments
1. A solid shaft of 40mm diameter is subjected to a torque of 80000N. Find the
maximum shearing stress induced in the shaft.
2. (S.I. Units). A solid steel shaft transmits 560KW at 300 revolutions / min with a
maximum shear stress of 60 N /mm
2
. Find the suitable diameter of the shaft.
3. A circular shaft is required to transmit 80KN at 200 r.p.m. Find a suitable
diameter for the shaft, if the permissible shear stress in the shaft is 70 N/mm
2
.
The maximum torque transmitted in a revolution exceeds the mean by 30%.
4. Find the diameter of a solid circular shaft to transmit 200kw at 300 r.p.m. The
maximum permissible shear stress is 65 N/ mm
2
and the angle of twist is not to
exceed 1 in a length of 3 metres. Take C = 1 x 10
5
N/mm
2
.
5. A solid shaft of 6 cm diameter is running at 160 r.p.m. Find the power which the
shaft can transmit, if the permissible shear stress is 80 N/mm
2
and the maximum
torque likely to exceed the mean by 30%.
6. Design a suitable diameter for a circular shaft required to transmit 100kw at 180
r.p.m. The shear stress in the shaft is not to exceed 70 N/mm
2
and the maximum
torque exceeds the mean by 40%. Also calculate the angle of twist in a length of
2 metres. Take C = 0.9 x 10
5
N/mm
2
.
7. A solid shaft of 10 cm diameter is to transmit 160KW. at 100r.p.m. Find the
maximum intensity of shear stress induced and the angle of twist for a length of 6
metres. Take C= 0.8 x 10
5
N /mm
2
.
8. (S.I. Units). A hollow steel shaft has to transmit 6000 kW at 110 r.p.m. If the
allowable shear stress is 60 N/mm
2
and the inside diameter is 3/5
th
of the outside
diameter, find the dimensions of the shaft. Also find the angle of twist in a 3 m
length. Take C as 80 kN/mm
2
.
CH- 6 215
Chapter 7
7.0 Torsion of Springs
7.1 Introduction
A spring is a device, in which the material is arranged in such a way that it can undergo
a considerable change, without getting permanently distorted. A spring is used to absorb
energy due to resilience, which may be restored as and when required. The quality of a
spring is judged from the energy it can absorb e.g. in a watch the spring is wound to
absorb strain energy. This energy is released to run the watch, when the spring regains
its original shape. A carriage spring is used to absorb shocks. It is thus obvious, that a
spring which is capable of absorbing the greatest amount of energy for the given stress,
in known to be the best one.
Types of Springs
We have already discussed that a spring is used for absorbing energy due to resilience.
Thus, in general, the springs of the following two types depending upon the type of
resilience.
Bending spring and Torsion Spring.
Bending Springs
A spring, which is subjected to bending only, and the resilience is also due to it is known
as bending spring. Laminated springs or leaf springs are also called bending springs.
Torsion Springs
A spring, which is subjected to torsion or twisting moment only and the resilience is also
due to it is known as a torsion spring. Helical springs are also called torsion springs.
Some springs are subjected to bending as well as torsion.
7.2 Forms of Springs
Though there are many forms of springs, which are made by the manufactures, yet the
following types of springs are commonly used in Engineering practice.
(1) Carriage springs or leaf springs
(2) Helical springs
In this chapter we discuss only on Helical springs.
Helical Springs:
It is a torsion spring and made up of a wire coiled into a helix. Though there are many
types of helical springs, yet the following are important from the subject point of view:
1. Closely coiled helical springs, and Open coiled helical springs.
CH- 7
7.3 Close Coiled Helical Springs
In a closely coiled helical spring, the spring wire is coiled so close that the each turn is
practically a plane at right angles to the axis of the helix and the wire is subjected to
torsion. The bending stress is neglible as compared to the torsional stress. A closely
coiled helical spring may be subjected to (1) axial loading or (2) axial twist. In this
chapter, we shall discuss both the cases, one by one
Closely coiled Helical springs subjected to an Axial load:
Consider a closely coiled helical spring subjected to an axial load as shown in fig
Let
d = Diameter of the spring wire
n
=
No. of turns or coils
C = Modulus of rigidity for the spring material
W = Axial load on the spring
fs
=
Maximum shear stress induced in the wire
due to twisting

= Angle of twist in the spring wire, and

=
Deflection of the spring, as a result of axial
load
A little consideration will show, that the load W will cause a twisting moment,
T
= W x R
We know that the twisting moment,
T =
3
s
d f
16

W.R =
3
s
d f
16

We also know that the length of the wire,
l
= Length of one coil x No. of coils
= 2 R

n
We have already discussed in Art. 21.5 that
J
T
=
I
C
or =
C J
1 T

=
C d
32

Rn 2 WR
4

(
T=WR)

=
4
2
Cd
n WR 64
CH- 7 217
Deflection of the spring,

= R

= R
4
2
Cd
n WR 64

=
4
3
Cd
n WR 64
We know that the energy stored in the spring,
U = W
2
1

And stiffness of the spring,

s =

W
=
n R 64
Cd
3
4
Open coiled Helical Springs
In an open helical spring, the spring wire is coiled in such a way, that there is large gap
between the two consecutive turns. As a result of this the spring can take compressive
load also. An open helical spring, like a closed helical spring, may be subjected to (1)
axial loading or (2) axial twist. In this chapter, we shall discuss only the first case.
Now consider an open coiled helical spring subjected to an axial load as shown in fig
Let
d = Diameter of the spring wire
R
=
Mean radius of the spring coil
P = Pitch of the spring coils
n = No. of turns or coils
C
= Modulus of rigidity for the spring materials
Springs
W = Axial load on the spring
fs =
Maximum shear stress induced in the spring
wire due to loading
f =
Bending stress induced in the spring wire
due to loading
=
Deflection of the spring as a result of axial
load and,

= Angle of helix
The formula for deflection
= 64 WR3n sec Cos2 + 2 sin2
d
4
C E
218 CH- 7
7.4 Close Coiled Helical Springs Subjected to
Axial Load
A closely coiled helical spring carrying an axial load W. Let the spring consist of n turns.
Let d be the diameter of the rod of the spring and R be the mean radius of the coil.
Every section of the rod is subjected to a torque WR.
Figure 1
Maximum shear stress at any section of the rod
= fs =
p
Z
T
=
16
d
WR
3
=
3
d
WR 16
Length of the rod = l = 2 Rn

Strain energy stored by the

spring
=
C
f
2
s
4
X volume =
3
d
WR 16

C 4
1

4
d
2
2
Rn
= 32
4
3 2
Cd
n R W
If be the deflection for the spring i.e., the downward movement of the load,
Work done on the spring =
2
1
W
Equating the work done to the strain energy stored, we have,
2
1
W
= 32
4
3 2
Cd
n R W
CH- 7 219

=
4
3
Cd
n WR 64
Strain energy stored by the spring = work done on the spring
=
2
1
W
Stiffness of the spring s
= load required to produce unit deflection
s =

W
=
n R 64
Cd
3
4
Solved Problems
7.4.1 A close coiled helical spring of 100 mm mean diameter is made of 10 mm
diameter rod and has 20 turns. The spring carries an axial load of 200 N.
Determine the shear this load. Also calculate the stiffness of the spring.
Solution
fs
p
=
3
d
WR 16
=
3
10 x
50 x 200 x 16
= 50.93 N/mm
2
=
4
3
Cd
n WR 64
=
4 4
3
10 x 10 x 8.4
20 x 50 x 200 x 64
mm
=
38.1 mm
Stiffness =

W
=
1 . 38
200
N/mm
= 5.25 N/mm of deflection
7.4.2 A closely coiled helical spring is made out of 10 mm diameter steel rod, the
coil consisting of 10 complete turns with a mean diameter of 120 mm. The
spring carries an axial pull of 200 N. find the maximum shear stress
induced in the section of the rod. If C = 8 x 10
4
N/mm
2
, find the deflection of
the spring, the stiffness and the strain energy stored by the spring.
Solution
fs =
3
d
WR 16
=
( )
3
10
60 x 200 x 16
= 61.10 N/mm
2
=
4
3
Cd
n WR 64
=
10 x 10 x 8
10 x 200(60) x 64
4 4
3
= 34.56 mm
220 CH- 7
Stiffness = s =

W
=
56 . 34
200
= 5.80 N per mm of deflection
Strain Energy stored =
2
1
W =
2
1
x 200 x 34.56 Nmm
Strain Energy stored
= 3456 Nmm.
7.4.3 A close coiled helical spring is to carry a load of 500 N. Its mean coil
diameter is to be 10 times that of the wire diameter. Calculate these
diameters if the maximum shear stress in the material of the spring is 80
N/mm
2
.
Solution
D
=
2R = 10d
R
=
5d
W
=
500 N
T
=
W R =
16
d f
3
s
W x 5d =
16
d f
3
s
d
2
=
80
16 x 5 x 500
d = 12.62 mm
D = 10 x 12.62
=
126.2 mm
7.4.4 A helical spring is made of 12 mm diameter steel wire by winding it on a
120 mm diameter mandrel. If there are 10 active turns what is the spring
constant?
Take C = 8.2 x 10
4
N/mm
2
. What force must be applied to the spring to
elongate it by 40 mm?
Solution
=
4
3
Cd
n WR 64
R =
60 + 6 = 66 mm
Stiffness =

W
=
n R 64
Cd
3
4
=
x10 66 x 64
x12 10 x 8.2
3
4 4
N/mm
= 9.24 N/mm
Force required to produce a
deflection of 40 mm
= 9.24 x 40
= 369.6 N.
CH- 7 221
7.4.5 A close coiled helical spring is to carry a load of 120 N and the mean coil
diameter is to be 9 times the wire diameter. Calculate these diameters if the
maximum shear stress is 100 N/mm
2
.
Solution
D =
2R = 9d
R =
4.5d
W =
120 N
fs =
3
d
WR 16
100 =
3
d
4.5d x 120 x 16
d
2
=
100
4.5 x 120 x 16
d =
5.24 mm
D =
9 x 5.24
= 47.16
7.4.6 A close coiled helical spring is to have a stiffness of 1 N/mm of
compression under a maximum load of 45 N and a maximum shearing
stress of 126 N/mm
2
. The solid length of the spring (when the coils are
touching) is to be 45 mm. Find the diameter of the wire, the mean diameter
of the coils and the number of coils required. Modulus of rigidity C = 4.2 x
10
4
N/mm
2
.
Solution
Stiffness =

W
=
n R 64
Cd
3
4
N/mm
1 =
N R 64
d x 10 x 4.2
3
4 4
d
4
=
,
_

4
10 x 4.2
64
R
3
n
fs =
3
d
WR 16
126 =
3
d
WR 16

R =
45 x 16
d 126
3
R =
0.55 d
3
Solid length of the spring, when the
coils are touching
= nd = 45 mm.
222 CH- 7
n =
d
45
.
Substituting the values of R and n in equation (i), we get
D
4
=
,
_

4
10 x 4.2
64
(0.55 d
3
)
3
d
45
D
4
=
45 x (0.55) x 64
10 x 4.2
3
4
d =
3.06 mm.
R =
0.55 x 3.06
3
R
= 15.75 mm
D
= 2 x 15.75
D
= 31.50 mm.
n
=
06 . 3
45
n
= 14.7.
7.4.7 A 100 mm diameter safety valve is to be designed to blow of at a gauge
pressure of 1.2 N/mm
2
. The valve is held in position by a 180 mm diameter
close coiled compression helical spring whose initial compression is
25 mm, find the diameter of the rod of the spring and the number of turns
required if the shear stress is not to exceed 80 N/mm
2
.
Take C = 8.5 x 10
4
N/mm
2
.
Solution
Total force on the spring W =
4

(100)
2
1.2 = 9424.8 N
fs =
3
d
WR 16
d3 =
f
16WR
s
=
80
90 x 9424.8 x 16
d =
37.8 mm
=
4
3
Cd
n WR 64
n =
3
4
WR 64
Cd
=
3
4 4
90 x 9424.8 x 64
37.8 x 10 x 8.5 x 25
= 9.87 turns, say 10 turns.
CH- 7 223
7.4.8 A weight of 2600 N is dropped on a closely coiled helical spring consisting
of 16 turns. Find the height by which the weight is dropped before striking
the spring so that the spring may be compressed by 220 mm. The coils
have a mean radius of 120 mm and the diameter of the rod of the spring is
30 mm. Take C = 9 x 10
4
N/mm
2
.
Solution
Let P be the gradually applied load, producing the same compression of 220 mm.
4
3
Cd
n PR 64
= 220
P =
6 1 x 64(120)
(30) 10 x 9 x 220
3
4 4
= 9064 N
Equating the energy supplied by the falling load to the strain energy stored by the
spring,
W (h + ) =
2
1
P
2600 (h + 200) =
2
1
x 9064 x 220
h + 220 = 383.5 mm
h = 163.50 mm
7.4.9 A close coiled helical spring has a stiffiness of 10 N/mm. Its length when
fully compressed, with adjacent coils toughing each other is 400 mm. The
modulus of rigidity of the material of the spring is 8 x 10
4
N/mm
2
.
(i) Determine the wire diameter and the mean coil diameter if their ratio =

10
1
.
(ii) If the gap between any two adjacent coils is 2 mm, what maximum load
can be applied before the spring becomes solid, i.e., adjacent coils
touch?
(iii) What is the corresponding maximum shear stress in the spring?
Solution

W
= 10 N/mm
nd = 400 mm.
C = 8 X 10
4
N/mm
2
.
D
d
= 0.1
Gap between adjacent coils = 2 mm.
=
4
3
Cd
n WR 64
224 CH- 7

W
=
n R 6
Cd
3
4
= 10
d
4
=
4
3
10 x 8
n R x 10 x 64
d
4
=
1
]
1

4
10
80
R
3
n
But nd = 400
n =
d
400
and d = 0.1
D = 0.2R
R = 5d
From (i) and (ii), d
4
=
4
10
80
x 125 d
3
x
d
400
d
2
= 400
d = 20 mm.
n =
d
400
=
20
400
= 20 turns
R = 5d = 5 x 20 = 100 mm.
D = 200 mm.
Gap between adjacent coils = 2 mm.
Max. deflection = = 2 x 20 = 40 mm.

W
= 10
W = 10 x 40 = 400 N
T = WR =
16
d f
3
s
fs =
3
20 x
100 x 400 x 16
= 25.46 N/mm
2
.
7.4.10 It is required to design a close coiled helical spring which shall deflect 1 mm
under an axial load of 100N at a shear stress of 90 N/mm
2
. The spring is to
be made out of round wire having modulus of rigidity of 8 x 10
4
N/mm
2
. The
mean diameter of the coils is to be 10 times the diameter of the wire. Find
the diameter and length of the wire necessary to form the spring.
Solution
= 1 mm
W = 100N
fs = 90 N/mm
2
C = 8 x 104 N/mm
2
D = 10d
CH- 7 225
R = 5d
T = WR =
16
d f
3
s
fs =
3
d
16WR
90 =
3
d
5d x 100 x 16
d
2
= 28.29
d = 5.32 mm
R = 5 x 5.32 = 26.60 mm
=
4
3
Cd
n WR 16
n =
3
4
WR 16
Cd
=
3
4 4
26.60 x x100 64
10 x 5.32 x 10 x 8
= 5.32
Length of wire required = 2 x 26.60 x 5.32
= 889.15 mm.
7.5. Open - coiled Helical springs
In open coil helical spring, the spring wire is coiled in such a way, that there is large gap
between the two consecutive turns. As a result of this the spring can take compressive
load also. An open helical spring, like a closed helical spring may be subjected to (1)
axial loading or (2) axial twist. In this chapter, we shall discuss only first case.
Figure 2
226 CH- 7
Now consider an open coiled helical spring subjected to an axial load as shown in
Figure 2.
Let d = Diameter of the spring wire
R = Mean radius of the spring coil
p = Pitch of the spring coils
n = No. of turns or coils
C =
Modulus of rigidity for the spring
materials
Springs
W = Axial load on the spring
fs =
Maximum shear stress induced in the
spring wire due to loading,
f =
Bending stress induced in the spring
wire due to bending
=
Deflection of the spring as a result of
axial load, and

= Angle of helix.
Formula for deflection:
=
4
3
d
sec n WR 64

[
E
2sin
+
C
Cos
2 2
]

Note. If we substitute

= 0 in the above equation, it gives the deflection of a closed

coiled spring i.e.,
=
4
3
cd
n WR 64
7.6. Worked out Problems

7.6.1 An open coil helical spring made of 10mm diameter and of mean diameter
10 cm has 12 coils, angle of helix being 15
0
. Determine the axial deflection
and the intensities of bending and shear stress under a load of 50 kg. Take
C as 0.8

106 kg/cm
2
and E as 2.0

106 kg/cm
2
.
Given data:
Dia of spring wire, d = 10 mm = 1.0 cm
Mean dia of spring, D = 10 cm
Mean radius, R = 5 cm
No. of coils, n = 12
Angle of helix,

=

15
Load W = 50 kg
Modulus of rigidity, C = 0.8 10
6
kg/cm
2
Solution
Youngs modulus, E = 2.0

10
6
kg/cm
2
CH- 7 227
Deflection of the spring
Let = Deflection of the spring.
Using the relation, =
4
3
d
nsec 64WR
[
E
sin 2
C
Cos
2 2

+
]
with usual notation
=
4
1
15 sec 12 53 50 64


= 4800000
0353 . 1
= 6.13 cm
Bending stress
Let f = Bending stress in the section
We know that the bending moment in the coil.,
M = WR Sin = 50

5 sin

15
= 250

0.2588 kg cm
= 64.7 kg-cm
And moment of inertia of the spring wire section,
I =
4
d
64

= 14
64

=
4
cm
64

We also know that the

bending stress, f
=
I
y M
= kg / cm
2
=
64

5 . 0 7 . 64
kg / cm
2
[
y
f
I
M
=
]
f = 659.0 kg/ cm
2
Shear Stress
Let fs = Shear stress induced in the wire.
We know that the twisting moment in the coil,
T = WR cos
= 50

5 cos

15 kg-cm
= 250

0.9659
= 241.48 kg-cm
Now using the relation
T =
3
s
d f
16

with usual notations.
241.48 = ( )
3
s
1 f
16

228 CH- 7
=
3
s
1 f
16

fs =

16 48 . 241
fs = 1229.8 kg / cm
2
7.7 Assignments
1. A closely coiled cylindrical spring of mean diameter 14 cm is made of 12mm
diameter steel wire. Compute the direct axial load, the spring can carry, if the
maximum stress is not to exceed 100 N/mm
2
.
2. A closely coiled helical spring is made of 6 mm wire. The maximum shear stress
and deflection under a load of 200N is not to exceed 80 N/mm
2
and 1.1 cm
respectively. Determine the number of coils and their mean radius.
Take C = 8.4 x 10
4
N /mm
2
.
3. A closely coiled helical spring made of 10 mm diameter wire has 15 coils of
10cm mean diameter. Find the increase in the number of turns and the bending
stress induced in the wire, if it is subjected to a twisting moment of 10 Nm.
E = 2 x 10
5
N/mm
2
.
4. An open coil helical spring made of 1 cm diameter wire has 15 coils of 5 cm
radius with a 20 angle of helix. Determine the deflection of the spring when
subjected to an axial load of 300 N. Take E= 2 x 10
5
N /mm
2
and
C = 8 x 10
4
N /mm
2
.
CH- 7 229