Parallel Processing in LINUX

I. INTRODUCTION

Parallel Processing refers to the concept of speeding-up the execution

of a program by dividing the program into multiple fragments that can execute

simultaneously, each on its own processor. A program being executed across n

processors might execute n times faster than it would using a single processor.

Traditionally, multiple processors were provided within a specially

designed "parallel computer"; along these lines, Linux now supports SMP

systems (often sold as "servers") in which multiple processors share a single

memory and bus interface within a single computer. It is also possible for a

group of computers (for example, a group of PCs each running Linux) to be

interconnected by a network to form a parallel-processing cluster. The third

alternative for parallel computing using Linux is to use the multimedia

instruction extensions (i.e., MMX) to operate in parallel on vectors of integer

data. Finally, it is also possible to use a Linux system as a "host" for a

specialized attached parallel processing compute engine. All these approaches

are discussed in detail in this document.

1) Appropriate Conditions for Parallel Processing

Although use of multiple processors can speed-up many operations,

most applications cannot yet benefit from parallel processing. Basically,

parallel processing is appropriate only if:

 Your application has enough parallelism to make good use of multiple

processors. In part, this is a matter of identifying portions of the program

that can execute independently and simultaneously on separate processors,

but you will also find that some things that could execute in parallel might

actually slow execution if executed in parallel using a particular system. For

example, a program that takes four seconds to execute within a single

machine might be able to execute in only one second of processor time on

each of four machines, but no speedup would be achieved if it took three

seconds or more for these machines to coordinate their actions.

 Either the particular application program you are interested in already has

been parallelized (rewritten to take advantage of parallel processing) or

you are willing to do at least some new coding to take advantage of parallel

processing.

 You are interested in researching, or at least becoming familiar with, issues

involving parallel processing. Parallel processing using Linux systems isn't

necessarily difficult, but it is not familiar to most computer users, and there isn't

any book called "Parallel Processing for Dummies"... at least not yet.

The good news is that if all the above are true, you'll find that parallel

processing using Linux can yield supercomputer performance for some programs that

perform complex computations or operate on large data sets. What's more, it can do

that using cheap hardware... which you might already own. As an added bonus, it is

also easy to use a parallel Linux system for other things when it is not busy executing

a parallel job.

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II. TERMINOLOGY

Although parallel processing has been used for many years in many

systems, it is still somewhat unfamiliar to most computer users. Thus, before

discussing the various alternatives, it is important to become familiar with a

few commonly used terms.

1. SIMD:

SIMD (Single Instruction stream, Multiple Data stream) refers to a

parallel execution model in which all processors execute the same operation at

the same time, but each processor is allowed to operate upon its own data. This

model naturally fits the concept of performing the same operation on every

element of an array, and is thus often associated with vector or array

manipulation. Because all operations are inherently synchronized, interactions

among SIMD processors tend to be easily and efficiently implemented.

2. MIMD:

MIMD (Multiple Instruction stream, Multiple Data stream) refers to a

parallel execution model in which each processor is essentially acting

independently. This model most naturally fits the concept of decomposing a

program for parallel execution on a functional basis; for example, one

processor might update a database file while another processor generates a

graphic display of the new entry. This is a more flexible model than SIMD

execution, but it is achieved at the risk of debugging called race conditions, in

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which a program may intermittently fail due to timing variations reordering the

operations of one processor relative to those of another.

3. SPMD:

SPMD (Single Program, Multiple Data) is a restricted version of MIMD

in which all processors are running the same program. Unlike SIMD, each

processor executing SPMD code may take a different control flow path through

the program.

4. Communication Bandwidth:

The bandwidth of a communication system is the maximum amount of

data that can be transmitted in a unit of time... once data transmission has

begun. Bandwidth for serial connections is often measured in baud or

bits/second (b/s), which generally correspond to 1/10 to 1/8 that many

Bytes/second (B/s).

5. Communication Latency:

The latency of a communication system is the minimum time taken to

transmit one object, including any send and receive software overhead. Latency

is very important in parallel processing because it determines the minimum

useful grain size, the minimum run time for a segment of code to yield speed-

up through parallel execution. Basically, if a segment of code runs for less time

than it takes to transmit its result value (i.e., latency), executing that code

segment serially on the processor that needed the result value would be faster

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than parallel execution; serial execution would avoid the communication

overhead.

6. Message Passing:

Message passing is a model for interactions between processors within a

parallel system. In general, a message is constructed by software on one

processor and is sent through an interconnection network to another processor,

which then must accept and act upon the message contents. Although the

overhead in handling each message (latency) may be high, there are typically

few restrictions on how much information each message may contain. Thus,

message passing can yield high bandwidth making it a very effective way to

transmit a large block of data from one processor to another. However, to

minimize the need for expensive message passing operations, data structures

within a parallel program must be spread across the processors so that most

data referenced by each processor is in its local memory... this task is known as

data layout.

7. Shared Memory:

Shared memory is a model for interactions between processors within a

parallel system. Systems like the multi-processor Pentium machines running

Linux physically share a single memory among their processors, so that a

value written to shared memory by one processor can be directly accessed by

any processor. Alternatively, logically shared memory can be implemented for

systems in which each processor has it own memory by converting each non-

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local memory reference into an appropriate inter-processor communication.

Either implementation of shared memory is generally considered easier to use

than message passing. Physically shared memory can have both high

bandwidth and low latency, but only when multiple processors do not try to

access the bus simultaneously; thus, data layout still can seriously impact

performance, and cache effects, etc., can make it difficult to determine what the

best layout is.

8. Aggregate Functions:

In both the message passing and shared memory models, a

communication is initiated by a single processor; in contrast, aggregate

function communication is an inherently parallel communication model in

which an entire group of processors act together. The simplest such action is a

barrier synchronization, in which each individual processor waits until every

processor in the group has arrived at the barrier. By having each processor

output a datum as a side-effect of reaching a barrier, it is possible to have the

communication hardware return a value to each processor which is an arbitrary

function of the values collected from all processors.

9. Collective Communication :

This is another name for aggregate functions, most often used when

referring to aggregate functions that are constructed using multiple message-

passing operations.

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10. SMP:

SMP (Symmetric Multi-Processor) refers to the operating system

concept of a group of processors working together as peers, so that any piece of

work could be done equally well by any processor. Typically, SMP implies the

combination of MIMD and shared memory.

11. SWAR:

SWAR (SIMD Within A Register) is a generic term for the concept of

partitioning a register into multiple integer fields and using register-width

operations to perform SIMD-parallel computations across those fields. Given a

machine with k-bit registers, data paths, and function units, it has long been

known that ordinary register operations can function as SIMD parallel

operations on as many as n, k/n-bit, field values. Although this type of

parallelism can be implemented using ordinary integer registers and

instructions, many high-end microprocessors have recently added specialized

instructions to enhance the performance of this technique for multimedia-

oriented tasks. In addition to the Intel/AMD/Cyrix MMX (MultiMedia

eXtensions), there are: Digital Alpha MAX (MultimediA eXtensions), Hewlett-

Packard PA-RISC MAX (Multimedia Acceleration eXtensions), MIPS MDMX

(Digital Media eXtension, pronounced "Mad Max"), and Sun SPARC V9 VIS

(Visual Instruction Set). Aside from the three vendors who have agreed on

MMX, all of these instruction set extensions are roughly comparable, but

mutually incompatible.

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12. Attached Processors:

Attached processors are essentially special-purpose computers that are

connected to a host system to accelerate specific types of computation. For

example, many video and audio cards for PCs contain attached processors

designed, respectively, to accelerate common graphics operations and audio

DSP (Digital Signal Processing). There is also a wide range of attached array

processors, so called because they are designed to accelerate arithmetic

operations on arrays. In fact, many commercial supercomputers are really

attached processors with workstation hosts.

13. RAID:

RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks) is a simple technology

for increasing both the bandwidth and reliability of disk I/O. Although there are

many different variations, all have two key concepts in common. First, each

data block is striped across a group of n+k disk drives such that each drive

only has to read or write 1/n of the data... yielding n times the bandwidth of one

drive. Second, redundant data is written so that data can be recovered if a disk

drive fails; this is important because otherwise if any one of the n+k drives

were to fail, the entire file system could be lost.

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III. EXAMPLE ALGORITHM

In order to better understand the use of the various parallel programming

approaches outlined above, it is useful to have an example problem.

The algorithm computes the approximate value of Pi by summing the

area under x squared. As a purely sequential C program, the algorithm looks

like:

#include <stdlib.h>;

#include <stdio.h>;

main(int argc, char **argv)

register double width, sum;

register int intervals, i;

/* get the number of intervals */

intervals = atoi(argv[1]);

width = 1.0 / intervals;

/* do the computation */

sum = 0;

for (i=0; i<intervals; ++i) {

register double x = (i + 0.5) * width;

sum += 4.0 / (1.0 + x * x);

sum *= width;

printf("Estimation of pi is %f\n", sum);

return(0);

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However, this sequential algorithm easily yields an "embarrassingly

parallel" implementation. The area is subdivided into intervals, and any number

of processors can each independently sum the intervals assigned to it, with no

need for interaction between processors. Once the local sums have been

computed, they are added together to create a global sum; this step requires

some level of coordination and communication between processors. Finally,

this global sum is printed by one processor as the approximate value of Pi.

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4. CONCLUSION

We have seen the appropriate conditions for Parallel Processing.

If all points are true, then we find that Parallel Processing using LINUX can

yield Supercomputer performance for some program that perform complex

computations or operate on large data.

Also we discussed few commonly used terms related to the Parallel

Processing. In order to better understand the Parallel Processing, we have

calculated the value of Pi by summing the area under X squared.

That’s why Parallel Processing has been used for many years in many

systems and has great prospects in the field of Supercomputing in future.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. http://googlesearch.com

2. http://aggregate.org

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 Parallel Processing in LINUX

Name : Paresh D. Vaishnav

Address : Kala Maroti Road,

Old City, Akola-444001

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