LATEX maths and graphics

Tim Love
May 26, 2004

This handout assumes that you have already read the Advanced
LaTeX1 document handout, so if you’re unsure about ‘environments’,
read no further.
Note that there’s an alternative way of producing maths in LATEX -
AMS-LATEX. See the online manual2 for details.
If you want to more more about graphics, see Using Imported Graph-
ics in LaTeX2e Documents3 by Keith Reckdahl.
Comments and bug reports to Tim Love ([email protected]).

Contents
1 Maths 2
1.1 Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Special Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Greek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.3 Arrows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.4 Calligraphic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.5 Character Modifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.6 Common functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Subscripts and superscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Overlining, underlining and bold characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 Delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.8 Numbering and labelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.9 Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.10 Macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.11 Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.12 Fine tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.13 Maths and Postscript fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.14 Matlab and LaTeX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.15 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1 http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/latex advanced/latex advanced.html
2 http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/amslatex.dvi
3 http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/epslatex.ps

c
Copyright 2004 by T.P. Love. This document may be copied freely for the pur-
poses of education and non-commercial research. Cambridge University Engineer-
ing Department, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, England.

1
2 Graphics 12
2.1 Postscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.1 psfrag: adding maths to postscript files . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.2 Postscript from PCs/Macs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2 Scaling, rotation, clipping, wrap-around and shadows . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 GIF and jpeg files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1 Maths
There’s more to maths typesetting than meets the eye. Many conventions used in
the typesetting of plain text are inappropriate to maths. LATEX goes a long way to
help you along with the style. For example, in a LATEX maths environment, letters
come out in italics, ‘-’ as ‘−’ (minus) instead of the usual ‘-’ (dash), ‘*’ becomes ∗,
’ becomes 0 and spacing is changed (less around ‘/’, more around ‘+’).
Many of the usual LATEX constructions can still be used in maths environments
but their effect may be slightly different; eg \textbf{ } only affects letters and
numbers. ‘{’ and ‘}’ are still special characters; they’re used to group characters.
As usual in LATEX you can override the defaults, but think before doing it: maths
support in LATEX has been carefully thought out and is quite logical though the
LATEX source text may not be very readable. It’s a good idea to write out the formu-
lae on paper before you start LATEXing, and try not to overdo the use of the ‘\frac’
construction; use ‘/’ instead.

1.1 Environments
There are 2 environments to display one-line equations.

equation:- Equations in this environment are numbered.

\begin{equation}
x + iy
\end{equation}

x + iy (1)

displaymath:- These won’t be numbered. \[, \] can be used as abbreviations

for \begin{displaymath} and \end{displaymath}.

\begin{displaymath}
x + iy
\end{displaymath}

x + iy

Never leave a blank line before these equations; it starts a new paragraph and
looks ugly. ’\displaystyle’ is the font type used to print maths in these display
environments. Other relevant environments are:-
math:- For use in text. \( and \) can be used to delimit the environment, as can
the TEX constructions $ and $ . For example, $x=yˆ2$ gives x = y 2 .
eqnarray:- This is like a 3 column tabular environment. Each line by default is
numbered. You can use the eqnarray* variant to suppress numbering alto-
gether.

2
 \begin{eqnarray}
a1 & = & b1 + c1\nonumber\\
a2 & = & b2 - c2
\end{eqnarray}

a1 = b1 + c1
a2 = b2 − c2 (2)

Maths in these 2 sorts of environments have different default sizes for some
characters and other behavioural differences so that a line of maths won’t impinge
on text lines below or above. If you want to put some non-maths text in amongst
maths then enclose it in an \mbox{...}.

1.2 Special Characters

The amssymb package offers more symbols if the following aren’t enough. The
symbols4 document (a postscript file) has a bigger list.

1.2.1 Greek

α \alpha β \beta γ \gamma δ \delta  \epsilon

ζ \zeta η \eta θ \theta ι \iota κ \kappa
λ \lambda µ \mu ν \nu ξ \xi o o
π \pi ρ \rho σ \sigma τ \tau υ \upsilon
φ \phi χ \chi ψ \psi ω \omega Γ \Gamma
∆ \Delta Θ \Theta Λ \Lambda Ξ \Xi Π \Pi
Σ \Sigma Υ \Upsilon Φ \Phi Ψ \Psi Ω \Omega

1.2.2 Miscellaneous

..
... \ldots ··· \cdots . \vdots
..
. \ddots ± \pm ∓ \mp
× \times ÷ \div ∗ \ast
? \star ◦ \circ •T \bullet
· \cdot ∩
S \cap \bigcap
∪
U \cup \bigcup ] \uplus
F \biguplus u \sqcap t
W \sqcup
\bigsqcup ∨
V \vee \bigvee
∧ \wedge \bigwedge \ \setminus
o \wr  \diamond 4 \bigtriangleup
5 \bigtriangledown /L \triangleleft . \triangleright
⊕ \oplus N \bigoplus \ominus
⊗ \otimes J \bigotimes  \oslash
 \odot \bigodot \bigcirc
q \amalg ≤ \leq ≺ \prec
 \preceq  \ll ⊂ \subset
⊆ \subseteq v \sqsubseteq ∈ \in
` \vdash ≥ \geq  \succ
 \succeq  \gg ⊃ \supset
4 http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/symbols.ps

3
 ⊇ \supseteq w \sqsupseteq 3 \ni
a \dashv ≡ \equiv ∼ \sim
' \simeq  \asymp ≈ \approx
∼ .
= \cong 6= \neq = \doteq
∝ \propto |= \models ⊥ \perp
| \mid k \parallel ./ \bowtie
^ \smile _ \frown ℵ \aleph
h̄ \hbar ı \imath  \jmath
` \ell ℘ \wp < \Re
= \Im 0√ \prime \empty
∇ \nabla \surd > \top
⊥ \bot k \| 6 \angle
∀ \forall ∃ \exists ¬ \neg
[ \flat \ \natural ] \sharp
\ \backslash ∂
P \partial ∞
Q \infty
4
` \triangle R \sum H \prod
\coprod \int \oint

1.2.3 Arrows

← \leftarrow ⇐ \Leftarrow → \rightarrow

⇒ \Rightarrow ↔ \leftrightarrow ⇔ \Leftrightarrow
7 → \mapsto ←- \hookleftarrow ( \leftharpoonup
) \leftharpoondown *
) \rightleftharpoons ←− \longleftarrow
⇐= \Longleftarrow −→ \longrightarrow =⇒ \Longrightarrow
←→ \longleftrightarrow ⇐⇒ \Longleftrightarrow 7−→ \longmapsto
,→ \hookrightarrow * \rightharpoonup + \rightharpoondown
↑ \uparrow ⇑ \Uparrow
↓ \downarrow ⇓ \Downarrow l \updownarrow
% \nearrow & \searrow . \swarrow
- \nwarrow

1.2.4 Calligraphic
These characters are available if you use the \cal control sequence.

${\cal A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z}$

gives ABCDEFGHIJ KLMN OPQRST UVWX YZ

1.2.5 Character Modifiers

\hat{e} ê \widehat{easy} d
easy
\tilde{e} ẽ \widetilde{easy} g
easy
\check{e} ě \breve{e} ĕ
\acute{e} é \grave{e} è
\bar{e} ē \vec{e} ~e
\dot{e} ė \ddot{e} ë
\not e 6e

Note that the wide versions of hat and tilde cannot produce very wide alterna-
tives. The ‘\not’ operator hasn’t properly cut the following letter. The Fine Tuning

4
section on page 9 describes how to adjust this.
If you want to place one character above another, you can use \stackrel,
which prints its first argument in small type immediately above the second

$ a \stackrel{def}{=} b + c $
def
gives a = b + c
See the Macros section for how to stack characters using atop.

1.2.6 Common functions

In a maths environment, LATEX assumes that variables will have single-character
names. Function names require special treatment. The advantage of using the fol-
lowing control sequences for common functions is that the text will not be put in
math italic and subscripts/superscripts will be made into limits where appropri-
ate.
\arccos \arcsin \arctan \arg \cos \cosh \cot
\coth \csc \deg \det \dim \exp \gcd
\hom \inf \ker \lg \lim \liminf \ln
\log \max \min \Pr sec \sin \sinh
\sup \tan \tanh

1.3 Subscripts and superscripts

These are introduced by the ‘ˆ’ and ‘_’ characters. Depending on the base character
and the current style, the sub- or superscripts may go to the right of or directly
above/below the main character. With letters it goes to the right.

$F_2ˆ3$

produces ‘F23 ’. Note that the sub- and superscripts aren’t in line. To make them so,
P an invisible character after the ‘F’. $F{}_2ˆ3$ produces F 2 .
you can add 3

With the default behaviour is different in display and text styles.

$\sum_{i=0}ˆ2 $
P2
produces i=0 (text style) but

\[\sum_{i=0}ˆ2 \]

produces (in display style)

2
X

i=0

This default behaviour can be overridden, if you really need to. For example in
text mode,

$\sum\limits_{i=0}ˆ2$
P
2
produces
i=0

5
1.4 Overlining, underlining and bold characters
$\underline{one} \overline{two}$
produces onetwo. This is not a useful facility if it’s used more than once on a line.
The lines are produced so that they don’t quite overlap the text; lines over or under
different words won’t in general be at the same height.
To be able to reproduce bold maths, it’s best to use the bm package. $E = \bm{mcˆ2}$
produces E = mc2 .
Alternatively, you can use \mathbf{} to create bold characters - $\mathbf{F}_2ˆ3$
produces F32 . or you can use the following idea
\usepackage{amsbsy} % This loads amstext too
\begin{document}
$\omega + \boldsymbol{\omega}$

% Use the following if whole expressions need to be in bold

{\boldmath $\omega $}
\end{document}

1.5 Roots
$\sqrt{4} + \sqrt[3]{x + y}$
√ √
gives 4 + 3 x + y.

1.6 Fractions
Three constructions for putting expressions above others are
frac:- $\frac{1}{(x + 3)}$ produces (x+3) .
1

choose:- ${n + 1 \choose 3}$ produces n+1
3 .
atop:- ${x \atop y}$ produces xy .
These constructions can be used with ones described earlier. E.g.,
\[ \sum_{-1\le i \le 1 \atop 0 < j < \infty} f(i,j)\]
gives X
f (i, j)
−1≤i≤1
0<j<∞

1.7 Delimiters
these are made by these and these are made by these
( ( ) )
[ [ ] ]
{ \{ } \}
b \lfloor c \rfloor
d \lceil e \rceil
h \langle i \rangle
/ / \ \backslash
| | k \|
↑ \uparrow ⇑ \Uparrow
↓ \downarrow ⇓ \Downarrow
l \updownarrow m \Updownarrow

6
 This table shows the standard sizes. To get bigger sizes, use these prefices
(for left delimiters) (for right delimiters) magnification
\bigl \bigr a bit bigger, but won’t overlap lines
\Bigl \Bigr 150% times big
\biggl \biggr 200% times big
\Biggl \Biggr 250% times big
For example,

$\Biggl\{2\Bigl(x(3+y)\Bigr)\Biggr\}$
( )
 
gives 2 x(3 + y) . If you’re not using the default text size these commands

might not work correctly. In that case try the exscale package.
It’s preferable to let LATEX choose the delimiter size for you by using \left
and \right. These will produce delimiters just big enough for the formulae inbe-
tween.

$\left( \frac{(x+iy)}{\{\int x\}} \right)$

 
(x+iy)
R
gives
{ x}
The left and right delimiters needn’t be the same type. It’s sometimes useful to
make one of them invisible

\[ z = \left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1 & (x>0)\\
0 & (x<0)
\end{array}
\right.
\]

produces

1 (x > 0)
z=
0 (x < 0)

Over- and underbracing works too.

$\overbrace{\alpha \ldots \omega}ˆ{\mbox{greek}}

\underbrace{a \ldots z}_{\mbox{english}}$
greek
z }| {
produces α . . . ω a . . z} . The use of \mbox stops the text appearing in math italic.
| .{z
english

1.8 Numbering and labelling

Numbering happening automatically when you display equations. If you don’t
want an equation numbered, use \nonumber beside the equation. Equation num-
bers appear to the right of the maths by default. To make them appear on the left
use the leqno class option (i.e., use \documentclass[leqno,....]{....}).
Use \label{} to label an equation (or figure, section etc) in order to reference
from elsewhere.

7
\begin{equation}
W_{\bf S}(t,\omega) = \int\limits_{-\infty}ˆ{\infty} {
{\cal R}_{\bf S}(t,\tau) eˆ{-j\omega\tau} \,d \tau }
\label{LABELLING}
\end{equation}
Z∞
WS (t, ω) = RS (t, τ )e−jωτ dτ (3)
−∞
Now the following text
refers back to equation \ref{LABELLING}
refers back to equation 3 by number, and
refers back to the equation on page \pageref{LABELLING}
refers back to the equation on page 8.
A file will have to be LATEX’ed twice before the references, both forwards and
backwards, will be correctly produced.

1.9 Matrices
The array environment is like LATEX’s tabular environment except that each el-
ement is in math mode. The number and alignment of columns is controlled by
the arguments - use l, c or r to represent each column with either left, center or
right alignment. The default font style used is \textstyle but you can override
this by changing the \displaystyle.
\begin{math}
\begin{array}{clrr} %
a+b+c & uv & x-y & 27 \\
x+y & w & +z & 363
\end{array}
\end{math}
a + b + c uv x − y 27
produces
x+y w +z 363
The rows are arranged so that their centres are aligned. You can align their tops
or bottoms instead by using a further argument when you create the array.
\begin{array}{clrr}[t]
would produce top-aligned lines, and ‘[b]’ would produce bottom-aligned ones.
The Delimiters section of this document shows how to bracket matrices.
TEX has a few maths facilities not mentioned in the LATEX book. The following
TEX construction might be useful.
\begin{math}
\bordermatrix{&a_1&a_2&...&a_n\cr
b_1 & 1.2 & 3.3 & 5.1 & 2.8 \cr
c_1 & 4.7 & 7.8 & 2.4 & 1.9 \cr
... & ... & ... & ... & ... \cr
z_1 & 8.0 & 9.9 & 0.9 & 9.99 \cr}
\end{math}
a a2 ... an
 1 
b1 1.2 3.3 5.1 2.8
c1  4.7 7.8 2.4 1.9 

...  ... ... ... ... 
z1 8.0 9.9 0.9 9.99

8
1.10 Macros
These aid readability, save on repetitive typing and offer ways of producing stylis-
tic variations on standard LATEX formats.

\def\bydefn{\stackrel{def}{=}}
\def\convf{\hbox{\space \raise-2mm\hbox{$\textstyle
\bigotimes \atop \scriptstyle \omega$} \space}}
def N
produce = and when $\bydefn$ and $\convf$ are typed.
ω

1.11 Packages
The following packages may be of help
• easybmat5 - easy block matrices

• easyeqn6 - easy equations.

• easymat7 - easy matrices

• easytable8 - easy tables

• easyvector9 - easy vectors

• delarray10 - nested arrays

• theorem11 - gives more choice in theorem layout

• subeqnarray - Renumbering of sub-arrays in math-mode

• subeqn - Different numbering sub-arrays

1.12 Fine tuning

It’s generally a good idea to keep punctuation outside math mode; LATEX’s normal
handling of spacing around punctuation is suspended during maths. Sometimes
you might want to adjust the spacing in a formula (e.g., you might want to add
space before dx). Use these symbols :-
a\, b (a b) thin space
a\> b (a b) medium space
a\; b (a b) thick space
a\! b (ab) negative thin space
Long math expressions aren’t broken automatically unless you use the breqn 12
package, which is still a little experimental. In an eqnarray environment you may
want to break a long line manually. You can do this by putting

y & = & a + b \nonumber \\

& & + k
5 http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/easybmat.dvi
6 http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/easyeqn.dvi
7 http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/easymat.dvi
8 http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/easytable.dvi
9 http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/easyvector.dvi
10 http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/delarray.dvi
11 http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/theorem.dvi
12 http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/breqndoc.dvi

9
to give
y = a+b
+k (4)
but the spacing around the ‘+’ on the 2nd line is wrong because LATEX thinks it’s a
unary operator. You can fool LATEX into treating it as a binary operator by inserting
a hidden character.
y & = & a + b \nonumber \\
& & \mbox{} + k
gives
y = a+b
+k (5)
You can use the \lefteqn construction to format long expressions so that con-
tinuation lines are differently indented.
\begin{eqnarray}
\lefteqn{x+ iy=}\\
& & a + b + c + d + e + f + g + h + i + j + k +\nonumber\\
& & l + m \nonumber
\end{eqnarray}

x + iy = (6)
a+b+c+d+e+f +g+h+i+j+k+
l+m
If you want more vertical spacing around a line you can create an invisible
vertical ”struct” in LaTeX. \rule[-.3cm]{0cm}{1cm} creates a box of width 0,
height 1cm which starts .3cm below the usual line base. By adjusting these values
you should be able to create as much extra space below/above the maths as you

like. “ B
A
and” is created by

$A \over B$ \rule[-.3cm]{0cm}{1cm}{and}

1.13 Maths and Postscript fonts

It’s easy to use a postscript font (like helvetica) for the text of a LATEX document.
What’s harder is using the same font for maths. An easy, reasonable option is to
use the mathptmx package to put the maths into the postscript Times and symbol
fonts where possible.
Alternatively, use
• the mathpazo package (loads Palatino as the text font family and a mixture
of the Pazo and CM fonts for math).
• the mathpple package (loads Palatino as the text font family and a mixture
of artificially obliqued Euler fonts and CM fonts for math).
Commercial and free alternatives are under development.

1.14 Matlab and LaTeX

Matlab13 has some support for LaTeX production. For example
13 http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/programs/matlab.html

10
 latex(’(sin(x)+2*x+3*xˆ2)/(5*x+6*xˆ2)’,’math.tex’)

puts the LaTeX representation of the expression into a file called math.tex. Type
“help latex" inside matlab for details.

1.15 Examples
• \begin{equation}
\hat{\theta}_{w_i} = \hat{\theta}(s(t,{\cal U}_{w_i})).
\end{equation}
gives
θ̂wi = θ̂(s(t, Uwi )). (7)

• \begin{eqnarray}
{\cal M}ˆ2(\hat{\theta},\theta) &=& E[(\hat{\theta} - \theta)ˆ2]
\nonumber \\
{\cal M}ˆ2(\hat{\theta},\theta) &=& {\rm var}ˆ2(\hat{\theta}) +
{\cal B}ˆ2(\hat{\theta}).
\end{eqnarray}
gives

M2 (θ̂, θ) = E[(θ̂ − θ)2 ]

M2 (θ̂, θ) = var2 (θ̂) + B 2 (θ̂). (8)

• \begin{equation}
\hat{W}_{s}(t,\omega;\phi) \bydefn
\int\limits_{-\infty}ˆ{\infty}
{\hat{\cal R}_s(t,\tau;\psi) eˆ{-j\omega \tau}
\, d \tau }
\end{equation}
gives
Z∞
def
Ŵs (t, ω; φ) = R̂s (t, τ ; ψ)e−jωτ dτ (9)
−∞

• \begin{eqnarray}
{\cal B}(t,\omega) & \approx &
{1 \over 4\pi}
{\cal D}_tˆ2 W_{\bf S}(t, \omega)
{{{\scriptstyle \infty} \atop
{\displaystyle \int \! \int \!
}}\atop {\scriptstyle -\infty}}
t_1ˆ2
\phi(t_1,\omega_1) \, dt_1 d\omega_1
\nonumber \\
&& +
{1 \over 4\pi}
{\cal D}_\omegaˆ2 W_{\bf S}(t, \omega)
{{{\scriptstyle \infty} \atop
{\displaystyle \int \! \int \!
}}\atop {\scriptstyle -\infty}}
\omega_1ˆ2
\phi(t_1,\omega_1) \, dt_1 \, d\omega_1.

11
 \label{F4}
\end{eqnarray}
gives
Z∞Z
1 2
B(t, ω) ≈ D WS (t, ω) t21 φ(t1 , ω1 ) dt1 dω1
4π t −∞
Z∞Z
1 2
+ D WS (t, ω) ω12 φ(t1 , ω1 ) dt1 dω1 . (10)
4π ω −∞

• \newsavebox{\DERIVBOXZLM}
\savebox{\DERIVBOXZLM}[2.5em]{$\Longrightarrow\hspace{-1.5em}
\raisebox{.2ex}{*}
\hspace{-.7em}\raisebox{-.8ex}{\scriptsize lm}\hspace{.7em}$}
\newcommand{\Deriveszlm}{\usebox{\DERIVBOXZLM}}

\Deriveszlm
gives
*
=⇒
lm

2 Graphics
LATEX has a picture environment in which pictures can be drawn, but you’ll find
graph paper handy. xfig can create code for the picture environment but the
resulting graphics still suffer several limitations: only certain slopes and circles
can be reproduced. The best method presently available on Unix is to use xfig to
produce postscript files, which have no such limitations, but require a postscript
printer or equivalent.
Whatever graphics you want to add, you should use the figure environment
so that LATEX can cope sensibly with situations where, for example, you attempt to
insert near the bottom of a page a graphic that’s half a page high. The figure
environment will float the graphic to the top or bottom of the page, or on the next
page, with preferences that you can provide.
h here
t top of page
b bottom of page
p on a page with no text
Putting ! as the first argument in the square brackets will encourage LATEX to
do what you say, even if the result’s sub-optimal. See the online hints about floats
in LaTeX14 for further details.

\begin{figure}[htbp]
\vspace{0.5in}
\caption{0.5 inch of space}
\end{figure}

It’s possible to have more than one graphic in a figure. See the example later on.
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 Figure 1: 0.5 inch of space

2.1 Postscript
pdflatex supports JPEG, PNG andPDF images - but not postscript. latex sup-
ports Postscript files as long as they have a proper bounding box comment; i.e.
LATEX requires full Encapsulated Postscript15 as produced by (for example) xv and
xfig on Unix. If the file hasn’t got a BoundingBox line near the top, you can use
ps2epsi to generate one. Wherever the postscript file comes from, simply use

\documentclass[dvips]{article}
\usepackage{graphicx}

then include the postscript file using the following commands

\begin{figure}[htbp]
\includegraphics{yourfile.ps}
\end{figure}
LATEX can cope with compressed postscript files too, but since latex can’t read
the BoundingBox line from the compressed file, you need to provide it. If your
compressed file’s called yourfile.ps.gz, copy the BoundingBox line into a file
called yourfile.ps.bb. Then the following works
\begin{figure}[htbp]
\includegraphics{yourfile.ps.gz}
\end{figure}
Just about all of the following facilities use postscript. You’ll need to run la-
tex to generate ‘foo.dvi’. This file can be viewed by the latest xdvi program,
which can cope with embedded postscript. Run dvips -o foo.ps foo.dvi to
convert the resulting DVI/postscript file to pure postscript. This will produce a
file that can be previewed with ghostview or gs. On the teaching system this file
can be printed out using plotview or lp.
See the Creating and Printing graphics on PC, Mac, SUN and HP machines16 and
Xfig17 handouts for more details.

2.1.1 psfrag: adding maths to postscript files

Many packages that produce postscript output don’t provide good maths facilities.
It’s often easier to add the maths in later using the psfrag package. This lets you
replace text in a postscript file (produced with xfig, matlab, etc) by a fragment of
LATEX. For example, doing
\usepackage{psfrag}
...
\begin{figure}
\psfrag{MATHS}{$xˆ2$}
\includegraphics{foo.eps}
\end{figure}
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would display the file with MATHS replaced by x2 . See the online documentation18
for details.

2.1.2 Postscript from PCs/Macs

Modern applications should generate a conforming EPS file. Under windows
when you’re printing to file, look at the PostScript properties (or Advanced op-
tions), and choose (depending on the driver you have) either ’Archive Format’,
’Encapsulated PS’, ’Optimize for Portability’ or ’Page Independence’. People seem
to have more luck with the free Adobe postscript driver than with the Microsoft
one.
The resulting file should begin with %!PS. If it doesn’t it’s not postscript. Re-
move any characters that are before %!PS, and (to be on the safe side) remove any-
thing after the final %%EOF line.Platform-specific considerations do crop up. The
EPS generated on Macintoshes will use ASCII 13 line terminators, while Unix
will use ASCII 10 (and DOS will use both). If this causes trouble, use emacs to
convert, or try (in Unix)
tr "\015" "\012" <original.ps >new.ps

2.2 Scaling, rotation, clipping, wrap-around and shadows

To scale, use some optional arguments
\includegraphics[width=5cm,height=10cm]{yourfile.ps}
would rescale the postscript so that it was 5cm wide and 10cm high. To make the
picture 5cm wide and scale the height in proportion use
\includegraphics[width=5cm]{yourfile.ps}
To rotate anticlockwise by the specified number of degrees, use
\includegraphics[angle=150]{yourfile.ps}
These options can be combined - note that order matters. The following ex-
amples demonstrate how to combine these features and how to use the subfig
package to have more than one graphic in a figure.

Figure 2: Tigers

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\centering
\begin{figure}[hbtp]
\includegraphics[height=40mm]{/export/ghostfonts/tiger.eps}
\includegraphics[angle=120, height=20mm]{/export/ghostfonts/tiger.eps}
\caption{Tigers}
\end{figure}

% remember to do \usepackage{subfig} at the top of the document!

\begin{figure}[hbtp]
\centering
\subfloat[Small]% \quad on the next line adds spacing
{\includegraphics[height=30mm]{/export/ghostfonts/crest.eps}}\quad
\subfloat[Medium]
{\includegraphics[width=40mm]{CUni3.eps}}\quad
\subfloat[Large]
{\includegraphics[height=50mm]{/export/ghostfonts/crest.eps}}
\caption{3 crests}
\end{figure}

(a) Small (b) Medium (c) Large

Figure 3: 3 crests

To clip the postscript image use the viewpoint argument. The following frag-
ment would display only part of the image. The viewport coordinates are in the
same units as the bounding box.

\begin{figure}[htbp]
\includegraphics[viewport=200 400 400 600,width=5cm,clip]%
{CUniv3.eps}
\end{figure}

% Use the floatflt package

\begin{floatingfigure}[l]{4cm}
\includegraphics[width=2cm]{/export/ghostfonts/crest.eps}
\caption{Using floatingfigure}
\end{floatingfigure}

The floatflt19 package lets you insert a graphic and have the text wrap
around it. You can provide 2 arguments to the floatingfigure command: the
first (l or r) selects whether you want the graphic to be on the left or right of the
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15
page. The 2nd argument gives the width of the graphic. Not all text will flow per-
fectly around (for example, verbatim text fails, as illustrated below) so check the
final output carefully.
Using the fancybox package gives you access to
\shadowbox, \ovalbox, \Ovalbox and \doublebox
commands, which can be used with text or with graph-
ics. For example, \shadowbox{shadow package}
shadow package
produces and

\ovalbox{\includegraphics[height=10mm]{CUni3.eps}}
Figure 4: Using floating-
figure  

produces  . Unfortu-

nately, the fancybox package as supplied suppresses
the table of contents. The locally produced contents-
fancybox solves this, but may introduce graphics
problems.

2.3 GIF and jpeg files

CUED users can include a file called keyboard.gif, for example, by doing gif2ps
-b keyboard.gif (as long as you don’t change the GIF file you need only do
this once) and then including the GIF file as you would a postscript one.
For JPEG files run "jpeg2ps -h file.jpg > file.eps" then include the postscript
file in the usual way. The resulting eps file will be little bigger than the original
file. Alternatively, if you put the ’Bounding Box’ line from the eps file and put it in
file.jpg.bb you can include JPEG files in the same way that you do postscript files.

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