Dictionary of Abbreviations for Academic Degrees

Compiled by Andrey Yasharov First Edition

[email protected] http://andreyyasharov.blogspot.com/

Item No. Abbreviated Form

Title Definition Full Form

A.A.S.

Associate of Applied Science

colleges and some bachelor's degree-granting colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study usually lasting two years. An Associate Degree is an academic degree awarded by community colleges, junior

colleges and some bachelor's degree-granting colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study usually lasting two years. 2 A.S. Associate of Science Common abbreviations are A.A. (Associate of Arts), A.S. (Associate of Science), A.A.S. (Associate of Applied Science; or in some cases, Associate of Arts and Sciences), A.O.S. (Associate of Occupational Studies), A.B.A. (Associate of Business Administration), and A.G.S. (Associate of General Studies). An Associate of Science in Nursing is an entry-level tertiary education nursing degree. In the United States, this type of degree is usually awarded by community colleges or similar nursing schools. Students awarded an Associate of Science in Nursing are qualified to sit for the NCLEX-RN and apply for licensure as a 3 A.S.N. Associate of Science in Nursing Registered Nurse. Some hospital-based nursing schools that granted diplomas altered their curriculum to offer associate degrees. Many nursing schools offering a bachelor's degree have "fast-track" programs to enable practicing nurses with an associate's degree to earn a bachelor's degree in approximately two years. This is usually an undergraduate academic 4 A.B. Artium Baccalaureus (Bachelor of Arts) degree awarded for a course or major that generally lasts for three, four, or in some cases and countries, five or six years. It may also be

the name of a postgraduate degree, such as a Bachelor of Civil Law (granted by the University of Oxford.) A Master of Arts is a postgraduate academic master's degree awarded by universities in North America and the United Kingdom (it may now also be awarded in other countries, 5 A.M. Artium Magister (Master of Arts) such as Switzerland). The degree is typically studied for in Fine Art, Humanities, Social Science or Theology and can be either fullytaught, research-based, or a combination of the two. 6 A.C.A. Associate of the Institute of Chartered Accountants See glossary The Amateur Football Alliance is a County Football Association in England. It is unusual among County FAs in not being based around a particular geographical area. It was founded in 1907, as the Amateur Football Defence Foundation, quickly changed to Amateur Football Association, when The FA required all county associations to admit professional Amateur Football Association; Associate of the Faculty of Actuaries clubs. Its aim was, as the decline of amateurism at the highest levels of football set in, to protect and preserve the original amateur spirit. It prides itself on the skill and competitiveness of its leagues, and on its traditions of fair play and respect for opponents and match officials. Many leagues still maintain local rules that require clubs to provide food and drink to their opponents and match officials after the match in a clubhouse or public house. See glossary 8 A.F.R.Ae.S. Associate Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society See glossary The Associateship or Associate of King's College award has been the degree-equivalent qualification of King's College London since 9 A.K.C. Associate of King's College, London 1833. It is the original qualification that the university awarded to its students. Since 1909, only students registered for an University of London degree at King's have been allowed to

A.F.A.

study for the associateship. The three-year course involves weekly lectures concerning theology, ethics and philosophy. At the discretion of the Dean some postgraduates, and medical students who do not intercalate, are allowed to compress the programme into two years. Students take an annual examination. After graduating from King's, students who succeed in the AKC exams will be eligible to be elected as Associates of King's College. Associates use the post-nominal letters A.K.C. after their names, along with the main qualification. The Bachelor of Liberal Arts (B.L.A.; occasionally A.L.B.) is the title of an undergraduate academic degree. Generally, it is awarded to students who major in liberal arts, pursue interdisciplinary studies, or design their own concentrations. Often a Bachelor of 10 A.L.B Bachelor of Liberal Arts Liberal Arts degree is undertaken with the help of a faculty advisor. A candidate designs a unique course of study that sometimes

culminates in a thesis or capstone project. The B.L.A. degree allows for greater curricular flexibility than a traditional Bachelor of Arts degree, enabling students to double major, or pursue a broad-based liberal arts education. 11 A.M.I.C.E. Associate Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers See glossary An Associate of the Royal Academy is a 12 A.R.A. Associate of the Royal Academy practicing artist who has been elected as a member of the Royal Academy, an art institution based in London, England. 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 A.R.A.M. A.R.C.A. A.R.C.M. A.R.C.O. A.R.C.S. A.R.I.B.A. A.R.P.S. Associate of the Royal Academy of Music Associate of the Royal College of Art Associate of the Royal College of Music Associate of the Royal College of Organists Associate of the Royal College of Science Associate of the Royal Institution of British Architects Associate of the Royal Photographic Society See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary

Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy; 20 21 22 23 A.R.S.A. A.R.S.L. A.R.S.M. A.R.S.S. Associate of the Royal Society of Arts Associate of the Royal Society of Literature Associate of the Royal School of Mines Antiquariorum Regis Societatis Socius Fellow of the Royal Society of Antiquaries Associate of Society of Incorporated Accountants and Auditors Bachelor is a person who has received what is usually the lowest degree conferred by a fouryear college, university or professional school; 25 B.A. Bachelor of Arts Bachelor of Arts (B.A. or A.B.), from the Latin Artium Baccalaureus) is an See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary

24

A.S.A.A.

undergraduate bachelor's degree awarded for either a course or a program in the liberal arts or the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Applied Arts is a bachelor's undergraduate degree with more specialization in qualitative aspects of a discipline, often requiring skill. The unfair and inaccurate stereotype of term "Applied Arts" is that it is vocational, not academic, which, by definition, is not the primary mission of most major academic institutions. A Bachelor of Applied Arts degree is distinguished from a Bachelor of Applied Science (B.A.S.) in that it focuses more on qualitative aspects while the latter focuses more on quantitative, mechanical, 26 B.A.A. Bachelor of Applied Arts physical sciences, natural sciences, and such. While applied arts were once considered vocational, it has flourished at many

universities over the last 75 years as highly a sophisticated and complex academic discipline, spanning institutions myriad would fields. likely Major academic the

structure

curriculum of Architecture as applied arts and that of Structural Engineering as applied sciences; many universities would classify the former plainly as "Architecture" and the latter as "Engineering". Most major institutions offer a combination of arts and sciences, partly because the related discipline requires

knowledge of both. 27 28 B.A.A.E. B.A.Comm. Bachelor of Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering Bachelor of Arts in Communication See glossary See glossary The degree of Bachelor of Accountancy is the principal academic degree in accountancy. It is not to be confused with a B.B.A. in Accounting B.Acc., B.Acy., 29 B. Accty. Bachelor of Accountancy and B.Com. in Accounting, which are general business administration and commerce degrees with accounting as an area of concentration. The Bachelor of Accountancy is a specialized degree on its own. Bachelor of Aeronautical Engineering, 30 B.A.E. Bachelor of Agricultural Engineering, Bachelor of Architectural Engineering, Bachelor of Art Education Bachelor of Applied Science, 31 B.A.S. Bachelor of Art and Science; Bachelor of Architectural Studies 32 B.A.A.S Bachelor of Applied Arts and Sciences See glossary A Bachelor of Applied Science is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for a 33 B.A.Sc. Bachelor of Applied Science course of study that generally lasts three years in the UK or four or five years in North America. 34 35 B.A.U.P. B.AgrSc Bachelor of Arts in Urban Planning Bachelor of Agricultural Science See glossary See glossary A Bachelor of Business is a three or four year business degree offered by many universities around the world, particularly in Australia and 36 B.Bus. Bachelor of Business New Zealand. It is similar in format and structure to a Bachelor of Business See glossary See glossary

Administration (B.B.A.), Bachelor of Business Science (B.Bus.Sci.) and Bachelor of Business Studies (B.B.S.). 37 B.C.E. Bachelor of Civil Engineering See glossary A Bachelor of Commerce, is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for a curriculum that 38 B.Comm. Bachelor of Commerce generally lasts three years in Australia, India, New Zealand, Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, Malta and four years in North

America and South Africa. The degree has ties to British colonies and is not common in the United States. A Bachelor of Commerce may cover the same coursework as a Bachelor of Business Administration (B.B.A.), except that it often places more emphasis on theory and business principles. A Bachelor of Commerce can also be known as a Bachelor of Commerce and Administration (B.C.A.). Depending on the institution, a formal academic major may or may not be established. A Bachelor of Applied Science is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for a 39 B.App.Sc. Bachelor of Applied Science course of study that generally lasts three years in the UK or four or five years in North America. 40 41 B.As. B.A.Econ. Bachelor of Asian Studies Bachelor of Economics See glossary See glossary A Bachelor of Education is an undergraduate academic degree which qualifies the graduate as a teacher in schools. 43 B.A.J. or A.B.J. Bachelor of Arts in Journalism The 44 B.Arch. Bachelor of Architecture See glossary Bachelor of Architecture

42

B.A.Ed.

Bachelor of Arts in Education

is

an

undergraduate academic degree awarded for a course of study that generally lasts five years in North America. Bachelor of Business Administration is a bachelor's degree in Business Administration.

45

B.B.A.

Bachelor of Business Administration

In most universities, a Bachelor of Business Administration degree is conferred upon a student after four years of full-time study (120 credit hours) in one or more areas of business.

46 47

B.B.E. B.B.NSc.

Bachelor of Build Environment Bachelor of Behavioural Neuroscience

See glossary See glossary A Bachelor of Business is a three or four year business degree offered by many universities around the world, particularly in Australia and

48

B.Bus

Bachelor of Business

New Zealand. It is similar in format and structure to a Bachelor of Business

Administration (B.B.A.), Bachelor of Business Science (B.Bus.Sci.) and Bachelor of Business

Studies (B.B.S.). A Bachelor of Commerce, or B.Comm., is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for a curriculum that generally lasts three years in Australia, India, New Zealand, Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, Malta and four years in North America and South Africa. The degree has ties to British colonies and is not common in the United States. A Bachelor 49 B.C.A. Bachelor of Commerce and Administration of Commerce may cover the same coursework as a Bachelor of Business Administration (B.B.A.), except that it often places more emphasis on theory and business principles. A Bachelor of Commerce can also be known as a Bachelor of Commerce and Administration (B.C.A.). Depending on the institution, a formal academic major may or may not be established. 50 51 52 B.C.A. B.Ch. B.Ch.E. Bachelor of Creative Arts Bachelor of Chemistry; Baccalaureus Chirurgi - Bachelor of Surgery Bachelor of Chemical Engineering See glossary See glossary Bachelor of Civil Law is the name of various degrees in law conferred by English-language universities. Historically, it originated as a postgraduate degree in the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, but many universities now offer the B.C.L. as an undergraduate Bachelor of Canon Law, Bachelor of Civil Law degree. The reference to civil law was not originally in contradistinction to common law, but to canon law, although it is true that common law was not taught in the civil law faculties in either university until at least the second half of the 18th century. However, some universities in English-speaking countries use the degree in the former sense. See glossary A Bachelor of Commerce, or B.Comm., is an B.Comm. or 54 B.Com. undergraduate academic degree awarded for a Bachelor of Commerce curriculum that generally lasts three years in Australia, India, New Zealand, Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, Malta and See glossary

53

B.C.L.

four years in North America and South Africa. The degree has ties to British colonies and is not common in the United States. A Bachelor of Commerce may cover the same coursework as a Bachelor of Business Administration (B.B.A.), except that it often places more emphasis on theory and business principles. A Bachelor of Commerce can also be known as a Bachelor of Commerce and Administration (B.C.A.). Depending on the institution, a formal academic major may or may not be established. Bachelor of Computing is a bachelor's degree in computing. This degree is offered only in 55 B.Comp. Bachelor of Computing some universities, and is from slightly, a B.Sc. but in

significantly,

different

Computer Science or a B.CS. 56 B.C.P. Bachelor of City Planning See glossary Bachelor of Computer Science is a type of bachelor's degree, usually awarded after four years of collegiate study in computer science. The same core curriculum may, depending on B.C.S. or 57 B.CompSc. Bachelor of Computer Science the school, result in other degrees, including: Bachelor of Arts in Computer Science; Bachelor of Mathematics in Computer Science; Bachelor of Science in Computer Science; Bachelor of Engineering in

Computer Science. Bachelor of Computer and Mathematical Sciences is an undergraduate academic degree awarded to a student after three years of studying computer science, information

technology and/or mathematics at an accredited university in Australia (other countries may 58 B.C.M. Bachelor of Computer and Mathematical Sciences offer this degree, this is unknown at the time of writing). A Bachelor of Computer and

Mathematical Sciences is a flexible academic degree allowing a double major combining majors within the fields of Computer Science, Mathematics and Information Technology, as well as other approved subject areas within the university. Third year units in Computer

Science particularly, offer a wide range of future study interests, including Robotics, Finance and Programming. In Western Christian theology, a Bachelor of Divinity is usually an undergraduate academic 59 B.D., B.Div. Bachelor of Divinity degree awarded for a courses taken in the study of divinity or related disciplines, such as theology or, rarely, religious studies. A Bachelor of Design (B.Des.) degree is 60 B.Des. Bachelor of Design (Visual design discipline) usually an undergraduate academic degree awarded for a course or major that generally lasts three or four years. A Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) is an undergraduate academic degree which qualifies the graduate as a teacher in schools. Bachelor of Engineering (B.A.I. (in latin), B.Eng., or B.E.) is an undergraduate academic degree awarded to a student after three, four or five years of studying engineering at an 61 B.E. Bachelor of Education, Bachelor of Engineering accredited university in the United States, United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Nigeria, China and India. A Bachelor of Engineering is a Professional Degree and therefore a requirement for undertaking some engineering work. This is controlled by the national professional

engineering society or institute who accredit the universities and is also often controlled by law. 62 63 B.Ec. B.Ed. Bachelor of Economics Bachelor of Education See glossary See glossary Bachelor of Engineering is an undergraduate academic degree awarded to a student after three, four or five years of studying engineering at an accredited university in the United States, United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, Australia, B.Eng. or B.E., 64 BAI (in Latin) Bachelor of Engineering, Baccalaureus in Arte Ingeniaria New Zealand, Nigeria and India. A Bachelor of Engineering is a Professional Degree and therefore a requirement for undertaking some engineering work. This is controlled by the national professional engineering society or institute who accredit the universities and is also often controlled by law.

10

65 66 67 68

B.Eng.BioSci. B.Eng.C.S. B.Eng.Mgt. B.Eng.Society

Bachelor of Engineering and Biosciences Bachelor of Engineering and Computer Systems Bachelor of Engineering and Management Bachelor of Engineering and Society

See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary A Bachelor of Environmental Studies is an undergraduate bachelor's degree awarded for courses taken in the study of environmental studies or related disciplines, such as

geography,

urban planning, environmental

resource studies, or architecture. In practice, this is essentially equivalent to a Bachelor of 69 B.E.S. Bachelor of Environmental Studies Arts degree with a specialty in environmental studies. Relatively few institutions award Bachelor of Environmental Studies degrees, and the distinction between institutions which do award such degrees and those which award B.A. degrees for geography, for example, is usually one of university bureaucracy, rather than curriculum. The Bachelor of Fine Arts, is the standard undergraduate degree for students seeking a professional education in the visual or

performing arts. The degree differs from a Bachelor of Arts degree in that the majority of the program consists of a practical studio component, as contrasted with lecture and discussion classes. A typical B.F.A. program consists of two-thirds study in the arts, with 70 B.F.A. Bachelor of Fine Arts one-third in more general liberal arts studies; for a B.A. in Art, the ratio might be reversed. A B.F.A. degree will often require an area of specialty such as: acting, musical theatre, ceramics, creative writing, dance, drawing, fiber, film production, graphic design,

illustration, industrial design, interior design, metalworking, new media, painting,

photography, printmaking, or sculpture. Some schools instead give their students a broad education in many disciplines of the arts. 71 B.G.S. Bachelor of General Studies A Bachelor of General Studies degree is an undergraduate degree, offered by some

11

universities in the Western world. It is very similar to a Bachelor of Arts degree, although there are often fewer requirements for studies in humanities and social sciences. In many cases, the Bachelor of General Studies or B.S. in General Studies (as offered by Drexel University via the Goodwin College of Professional Studies) is offered as a degree program specifically for adult learners that have delayed or interrupted their studies, and typically offers matriculants the ability to design their own curriculum. A Bachelor of Human Kinetics is a four-year academic degree awarded by a university upon the completion of a program of study of Human 72 B.Hk. or B.H.Kin. Bachelor of Human Kinetics Kinetics. Specializations within this degree can include: Athletic Therapy, Kinesiology,

Physical Education, Recreation, and Sport management. 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 B.H.Sc B.Hy. B.I.E. B.InfTech. B.InfSci. B.IntSt. B.J. Bachelor of Health Sciences Bachelor of Hygiene Bachelor of Industrial Engineering Bachelor of Information Technology Bachelor of Information Science Bachelor of International Studies Bachelor of Journalism (see the University of Missouri Columbia) The degree of See glossary Bachelor of Laws (or See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary

Baccalaureate of Laws) is the principal academic degree in law in most common law countries other than the United States, where it has been replaced by the Juris Doctor degree. It is abbreviated LL.B (or LLB, or sometimes 80 B.L. Bachelor of Law; Bachelor of Letters LL.b): "LL" is an abbreviation of the genitive plural legum (of laws), thus "LL.B." stands for Legum Baccalaureus in Latin. In the United States it is sometimes called "Bachelor of Legal Letters" to account for the double "L". In Canada, Bachelor of Laws is the name of the first degree in common law, but is also the name of the first degree in Quebec civil law

12

awarded by a number of Quebec universities. The Canadian common law LL.B. is generally a graduate-entry degree. 81 82 83 B.Lang. B.L.A. B.Lit. Bachelor of Languages Bachelor of Landscape Architecture Bachelor of Literature See glossary See glossary A Bachelor of Music is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by a college, university, or conservatory upon completion of program of study in music. In the United States, 84 B.M. Bachelor of Music, Bachelor of Medicine the Bachelor of Music is a professional degree; the majority of work consists of prescribed music courses and study in applied music, usually requiring a proficiency performing an instrument. Such a program lasts three to four and a half years. 85 B.M.A.Sc. Bachelor of Military Arts and Sciences (used at Royal Military College of Canada) A Bachelor of Mathematics is an

undergraduate academic degree awarded for 86 B.Math. Bachelor of Mathematics courses taken in the study of mathematics or related disciplines, such as computer science or statistics. 87 88 B.Mgmt. B.M.S. Bachelor of Management Bachelor of Maritime Studies See glossary See glossary A Bachelor of Music is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by a college, university, or conservatory upon completion of program of study in music. In the United States, the Bachelor of Music is a professional degree; the majority of work consists of prescribed B.Mus., Mus.B, 89 B.M. Bachelor of Music music courses and study in applied music. Such a program lasts three to four and a half years. A Bachelor of Music may be awarded for Music Performance, Music Education, Composition, Music Theory, Musicology/Music History, Music Technology, Music Business, Music Entertainment, Music Production or Jazz Studies. B.M.Ed. or 90 B.M.E. Bachelor of Music Education See glossary

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91

B.M.S.

Bachelor of Marine Science

See glossary The Bachelor of Science in Nursing (B.S.N., B.Sc.N.) or Bachelor of Nursing (B.N.) is a four year academic degree in the science and principles of nursing, granted by a tertiary

92

B.N.

Bachelor of Nursing

education university or similarly accredited school. This level of education has become the standard that many countries in the world require as an entry-level degree for a licensure as a registered nurse. A Bachelor of Pharmacy is an undergraduate academic degree in the field of pharmacy. The degree is a basic prerequisite, in many

93

B.Pharm.

Bachelor of Pharmacy

countries, for registration to practice as a pharmacist. In some countries it has been superseded (M.Pharm.) by the and Master Doctor of Pharmacy of Pharmacy

(Pharm.D.) degrees. In North America, a Bachelor of Science degree may be a more specialized version of B.A., with more focus on the subject and less on a broad liberal arts background; for example, a B.S. in economics may require several more advanced economics courses than a B.A. in economics, and possibly more support courses (such as statistics). The B.S. is also frequently used for professional areas of study such as engineering, journalism, and

advertising. In the UK, which subjects are B.S., B.Sc. or S.B. 94 or Sc.B. Bachelor of Science, Scientiae Baccalaureus considered science subjects varies, e.g.

economics degrees may be B.A. in one university but B.Sc. in another. In addition, some universities, like the London School of Economics, offer the B.Sc. in practically all subject areas even when they are normally associated with arts degrees, while others award arts qualifications almost exclusively, namely the Oxbridge universities. In both instances, this is generally for historical and traditional reasons. A Bachelor of Science receives the designation B.Sc. or B.S. for a major/pass degree and B.Sc. (Hons) or B.S.

14

(Hon) for an honours degree. Bachelor of Science in Aerospace 95 B.S.A.E. Engineering; Bachelor of Science in Agricultural Engineering 96 97 98 99 100 101 B.S.A. B.S.B.A. B.S.B.E. B.S.C.B.A. B.S.C.E. or B.C.E. B.S.Ch.E. or B.Ch.E. Bachelor of Science in Agriculture Bachelor of Science in Business Administration Bachelor of Science in Biological Engineering Bachelor of Science in Commerce and Business Administration Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering See glossary See glossary See glossary A Bachelor of Science (B.S., B.Sc. or less commonly, S.B. or Sc.B. from the Latin Scientiae Baccalaureus) is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed See bachelor's degree See glossary See glossary See glossary

courses that generally last three years in Australia, Austria, Croatia, Denmark, England, Germany, Hong Kong, India, the Republic of Ireland, Israel, The Netherlands, New Zealand, Northern Ireland, Poland, Quebec, Malaysia, Singapore, Sweden, Switzerland, Wales and South Africa; or four years in North America, 102 B.Sc. Bachelor of Science Iceland, Iran, Japan, Pakistan, the Philippines, Scotland and Brazil. In North America, a Bachelor of Science degree may be a more specialized version of B.A., with more focus on the subject and less on a broad liberal arts background; for example, a B.S. in economics may require several more advanced economics courses than a B.A. in economics, and possibly more support courses (such as statistics). The B.S. is also frequently used for professional areas of study such as engineering, journalism, and advertising. 103 104 105 106 107 B.S.Chem. B.S.C.S. B.S.E. B.S.E.E. B.S.Ed. Bachelor of Science in Chemistry Bachelor of Science in Computer Science Bachelor of Science in Engineering Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering Bachelor of Science in Education See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary

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108 109

B.S.E.H. B.S.F.C.S.

Bachelor of Science in Environmental Health Bachelor of Science in Family and Consumer Sciences Bachelor of Science in Forest Resources Bachelor of Science in Geology Bachelor of Science in Human Environmental Sciences Bachelor of Science in Industrial Engineering Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering

See glossary See glossary

110 111

B.S.F.R. B.S.Geo. B.S.H.E.S.,

See glossary See glossary

112

B.S.Hu.Env.Sci. B.S.I.E.

See glossary

113

See glossary

114

B.S.M.E.

See glossary

B.S.Med.Tech., 115 B.S.Med.T. B.S.Met., 116 B.S.Mt.E. B.S.Micro., 117 B.S.Micr. B.S.Mng.E., 118 B.S.Min.E. (Min.)

Bachelor of Science in Medical Technology

See glossary

Bachelor of Science in Metallurgical Engineering See glossary

Bachelor of Science in Microbiology Bachelor of Science in Mineral Engineering, Mining

See glossary

See glossary The Bachelor of Science in Nursing or is a four year academic degree in the science and principles of nursing, granted by a tertiary

119

B.S.N., B.Sc.N.

Bachelor of Science in Nursing

education university or similarly accredited school. This level of education has become the standard that many countries in the world require as an entry-level degree for a licensure as a registered nurse.

120 121 122 123

B.S.O.T. B.S.P.A. B.S.Pcs. B.S.Pet.E., B.S.Min.E.(Pet.)

Bachelor of Science in Occupational Therapy Bachelor of Science in Physics and Astronomy Bachelor of Science in Physics Bachelor of Science in Mineral Engineering, Petroleum

See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary An undergraduate academic degree in the field

B.S.Phr., 124 B.S.Phar.

Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy

of pharmacy. The degree is a basic prerequisite, in many countries, for registration to practise as a pharmacist. In some countries it has been

16

superseded (M.Pharm.)

by the and

Master Doctor

of Pharmacy of Pharmacy

(Pharm.D.) degrees. 125 126 127 128 B.S.U.P. B.S.W. B. Tech. B.U.P. Bachelor of Science in Urban Planning Bachelor of Social Work Bachelor of Technology Bachelor of Urban Planning See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary Chartered Accountant is the title of members of a certain professional accountancy

associations in the Commonwealth countries 129 C.A. Chartered Accountant; Chief Accountant and Ireland. The term chartered refers to the charter under which Subjects these bodies were

incorporated.

examined

include

financial accounting, management accounting, auditing, taxation and company law. In Western Christian theology, a Bachelor of Divinitatis Baccalaureus (Bachelor of Divinity) Divinity is usually an undergraduate academic degree awarded for a courses taken in the study of divinity or related disciplines, such as theology or, rarely, religious studies. The degree of is Doctor a of Business

130

D.B.

Administration

research-oriented

doctorate. The D.B.A. (like the Ph.D.) often requires significant coursework beyond the masters level. However, depending on the scholastic program and the level of preparation at the bachelors and masters level, coursework 131 D.B.A. Doctor of Business Administration is not always mandatory. The D.B.A. (like the Ph.D.) normally requires a significant thesis or final comprehensive project including a formal defense and and approval qualified by an officially

sanctioned

doctoral review

committee. The degree is conferred when all coursework, testing, and written research is completed satisfactorily and when it is

reviewed and approved by the committee. 132 133 D.C. D.C.H. Doctor of Chiropractic Diploma in Child Health See glossary See glossary Some universities, such as the University of Oxford, award Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.) degrees instead of Doctor of Laws (LL.D.)

134

D.C.L.

Doctor of Civil Law

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degrees. At Oxford, the degree of Doctor of Civil Law by Diploma is customarily conferred on foreign Heads of State, as well as on the Chancellor of the University. (The British Sovereign is unable to receive university degrees, since these would, theoretically, place her under the jurisdiction of the Chancellor of the university. Prior to her accession, the present Queen did accept several honorary degrees, including an Oxford DCL in 1948). 135 136 D.C.M. D.C.M. Doctor of Chiropractic Medicine Doctor of Church Music See glossary See glossary Doctor of Divinity is an academic degree in divinity. Historically, it identified one who had been licensed by a university to teach Christian theology or related religious subjects. The Doctor of Dental Surgery denotes one of two common professional doctorates in the United States for dentists, the other being 138 D.D.S. Doctor of Dental Surgery Doctor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D.). In the past, the difference consisted of having a D.M.D. train for a brief period with general medical students. A Doctor of Humane Letters (Latin:

137

D.D.

Divinitatis Doctor (Doctor of Divinity)

Litterarum humanae doctor; D.H.L.; or L.H.D.) 139 D.H.L. Doctor of Humane Letters is an honorary degree often conferred to those who have contributed to issues of peace and social justice. A Doctor of Letters is a university academic degree. In the United Kingdom, the degree is a 140 D.Lit. or Litt. Doctor of Literature; Doctor of Letters higher doctorate, above the Doctor of

Philosophy (Ph.D.), and is issued by a committee on the basis of a long record of research and publication. The Doctor of Musical Arts degree (D.M.A., or A.Mus.D.), like other doctorates, is a terminal academic degree. The D.M.A. is

141

D.M.A.

Doctor of Musical Arts

intended for musicians who wish to combine the highest attainments in their area of specialization with doctoral-level academic study in music. D.M.A. students typically

18

complete applied studies culminating in several solo recitals, take courses within their area of specialization (as well as related courses in music theory and music history), and write a thesis or dissertation. Some programs

additionally require study in a cognate area within music or in an outside field. 142 143 144 145 D.M.D. D.Min. D.Miss. D.M.S. Doctor of Dental Medicine Doctor of Ministry Doctor of Missiology Doctor of Medical Science See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary A Doctor of Science in Nursing is an advanced-level quaternary education degree for Registered Nurses. A master's-level degree is a 146 D.N.S. Doctor of Nursing Science prerequisite for doctorate-level nursing

education. This type of degree is preferred for nurse educators and nurses in leadership positions. 147 148 149 150 D.O. D.P.A. D.P.H. D.P.M. Doctor of Osteopathy Doctor of Public Administration Doctor of Public Health Doctor of Podiatric Medicine See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary Doctor is person holding one of the highest titles given by a university; -person whose profession is to attend sick people. 152 D.S. Doctor of Surgery See glossary D.Sc., Sc.D., S.D., or Dr.Sc. are common abbreviations for the Latin Scientiae Doctor, meaning Doctor of Science. Doctor is person holding one of the highest titles given by a university. The degree is conferred on a member of the 153 D.Sc., Hon.D.Sc. Doctor of Science (usually honorary) university who has a proven record of internationally recognised scholarship. A

151

Dr.

Doctor

candidate for the degree will usually be required to submit a selection of their publications to the board of the appropriate faculty, which will decide if the candidate merits this accolade. The degree will only exceptionally be awarded to a scholar under the

19

age of forty. A Doctor of Science in Nursing is an advanced-level quaternary education degree for Registered Nurses. A master's-level degree is a 154 D.S.N. Doctor of Science in Nursing prerequisite for doctorate-level nursing

education. This type of degree is preferred for nurse educators and nurses in leadership positions. The Doctor of Social Work is an academic degree for experienced social work

practitioners who wish to further their careers by gaining training in advanced practice, research and/or policy analysis. Much of the course 155 D.S.W. Doctor of Social Welfare, Doctor of Social Work work emphasizes qualitiative and

quantitative analysis methods. The degree typically leads to teaching, research, leadership roles in agencies, or self-employed social work practice. The DSW has become less popular in the past several decades, as most of the top ranked Schools of Social Work now offer only Ph.D. research programs in social work. See glossary A Veterinary Surgeon is a veterinarian qualified in the UK and some other Englishspeaking countries (See: Commonwealth of Nations and Commonwealth realms). In the

156

D.V.M.

Doctor of Veterinary Medicine

UK, veterinary surgeons are regulated by the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons or RCVS. The legislation affecting the activity of UK veterinary surgeons and of the RCVS is the Veterinary Surgeons Act of 1966. The Doctor of Education degree (Ed.D. or D.Ed.) is a professional doctorate which prepares the student for administrative or specialized positions in education. Like other

157

Ed.D.

Doctor of Education

doctorates, (e.g. the Ph.D., D.A., and so on), the Ed.D./D.Ed. is an academic degree of the highest level. In the United States, the Ed.D. tends to be granted by the Schools of Education of Universities; hence, it is designated a Doctor of Education degree.

158

Ed.S.

Educational Specialist

The Education Specialist, also referred to as

20

Educational Specialist, Specialist in Education, or Ed.S., is a terminal academic degree in the U.S. that is designed for individuals who wish to develop additional skills or increase their knowledge beyond the master's degree level, but do not wish to pursue a degree at the doctoral level. Depending on the type of program offering the degree, a Master's degree may or may not be a prerequisite for entry. In school psychology programs, for instance, the Specialist degree is often designed to follow immediately after a bachelor's degree. A fellow in the broadest sense is someone who is an equal or a comrade. The term is most often used in an academic context: a fellow is (at least in theory) part of an elite group of 159 F.A.I. Fellow of the Institute of Actuaries learned people who work together as peers in the pursuit of knowledge. However, there are no precise rules for how the title is used, and each academic institution grants the title as it sees fit. See glossary 160 F.B.S. Fellow of the Botanical Society Professional qualifications in the United Kingdom are generally awarded by

professional bodies in line with their charters. These qualifications are subject to the European 161 F.C.A. Fellow of the Institute of Chartered Accountants directives on professional qualifications. Most, but not all, professional qualifications are 'Chartered' qualifications, and follow on from having done a degree (or equivalent

qualification). See glossary The organization was founded in 1891 and incorporated by Royal Charter in 1902. The initial object of the Institute of Secretaries was the development of the profession of company 162 F.C.I.S. Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Secretaries secretary and the creation of high standards in the Profession. Membership was limited to those successful in the examinations and those who demonstrated the standard of experience set by the Institute.

21

The College of Teachers (formerly known as the College of Preceptors) is a large

association of teachers and associated para163 F.C.P. Fellow of the College of Preceptors professionals in the United Kingdom. The College of Teachers was incorporated by Royal Charter in 1849 as The College of Preceptors. Subsequently, in 1998 it changed its name to the College of Teachers. The Chemical Society was formed in 1841 (then named the Chemical Society of London) as a result of increased interest in scientific matters. One of its aims was to hold meetings for "the communication and discussion of discoveries and observations, an account of which shall be published by the Society". In 1847, its importance was recognised by a Royal Charter, which added to its role in the advancement of science, the development of 164 F.C.S. Fellow of the Chemical Society chemical applications in industry. Its members included eminent chemists from overseas including August Wilhelm von Hofmann, who became its president in 1861. Membership was open to all those interested in chemistry. Its activities expanded over the years, including eventually becoming a major publisher in the field of chemistry. In 1980, it amalgamated with the Royal Institute of Chemistry, the Faraday Society and the Society for Analytical Chemistry to become the Royal Society of Chemistry. 165 166 167 F.F.P.S. F.G.S. F.I.A. Fellow of the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons Fellow of the Geological Society Fellow of the Institute of Actuaries See glossary See glossary See glossary The Institute of Biology (IoB) is a professional body for biologists, primarily those working in the United Kingdom. Membership currently 168 F.I.Biol. Fellow of the Institute of Biology stands around 14,000. It was founded in 1950, received a Royal Charter in 1979 and holds charitable status. The headquarters of the Institue is located in Kensington, London, near to the Natural History Museum and Imperial

22

College London. The IoB is not a trade union, nor does it have regulatory power over its membership, like the General Medical Council. 169 F.I.C. Fellow of the Institute of Chemistry The Royal Academy of Music (sometimes abbreviated to RAM) is a music school in London, England and one of the leading music institutions in the world. It was founded by Lord Burghersh in 1822 and in 1830 was granted a Royal Charter by King George IV 'to 170 F.R.A.M. Fellow of the Royal Academy of Music promote the cultivation of the science of music and to afford facilities for attaining perfection in it by assisting with general instruction all persons desirous of acquiring knowledge thereof'. One of the most revered musical education establishments in the world, many important musicians have studied at the Academy since then. The Royal Astronomical Society began as the Astronomical Society of London in 1820 to support astronomical research (mainly carried on at the time by 'gentleman astronomers' rather than professionals). It became the Royal Astronomical Society in 1831 on receiving its Royal Charter from William IV. A

Supplemental Charter in 1915 opened up the fellowship to women. It is the UK adhering organisation to the International Astronomical Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society; Fellow of the Royal Asiatic Society Union and a member of the Science Council. The Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland was, according to its Royal Charter of August 11, 1824, established to further "the investigation of subjects connected with and for the encouragement of science literature and the arts in relation to Asia." From its incorporation the Society has been a forum, through lectures, its journal, and other

171

F.R.A.S.

publications, for scholarship relating to Asian culture and society of the highest level. It is the United Kingdom's senior learned society in the field of Asian studies. 172 F.R.C.I. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute

23

The Royal College of Organists or RCO, is an educational body of the United Kingdom. Its role is to promote organ and choral music and it offers musical education and training for organists and choral directors. The College 173 F.R.C.O. Fellow of the Royal College of Organists maintains the British Organ Library and provides examinations in organ-playing, choral directing and organ-teaching. These exams are legendary for their exhausting standards and tiny pass rates. They have been criticised by many distinguished organists for their 19thcentury austerity and elitist approach. The Royal College of Physicians of London is the oldest medical institution in England was founded in 1518 and is one of the most active of all medical professional organisations. Since the College's creation as the College of Physicians (it acquired the "Royal" prefix in 1674) by royal charter of King Henry VIII in 1518, it has engaged in a wide range of 174 F.R.C.P. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians activities dedicated to its overall aim of upholding and improving standards of medical practice. Its membership (and the

M.R.C.P.(UK) title) is obtained by doctors who have completed the Membership of the Royal College of Physicians exams. Fellows (the FRCP title) are elected. The Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians (L.R.C.P.) is no longer awarded. The Royal College of Surgeons of England is an independent professional body committed to promoting and advancing the highest standards 175 F.R.C.S. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of surgical care for patients, regulating surgery, including dentistry, in England and Wales. The College is located at Lincoln's Inn Fields in London. The Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons is Fellow of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons the regulatory body for veterinary surgeons in the United Kingdom. Established in 1844 by Royal Charter, its statutory duties are laid out in the 1966 Veterinary Surgeons Act. 177 F.R.G.S. Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society The Royal Geographical Society is a learned

176

F.R.C.V.S

24

society, founded in 1830 with the name Geographical Society of London for the advancement of geographical science, under the patronage of King William IV. It absorbed the 'Association for Promoting the Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa' (founded by Sir Joseph Banks in 1788), the Raleigh Club and the Palestine Association. It was given a Royal charter by Queen Victoria in 1859. The Royal Historical Society was founded in 1868. It is the premier society in the United Kingdom which promotes and defends the scholarly study of the past. The Society has a varied programme of lectures and one-day and 176 F.R.Hist.S. Fellow of the Royal Historical Society two-day Conferences covering a wide range of historical issues. Some of its meetings are held in London; others Great at university They venues provide

throughout

Britain.

excellent opportunities for formal and informal discussion among historians. The Royal Horticultural Society was founded in 1804 in London, England as the

Horticultural Society of London, and gained its present name in a Royal Charter granted in 177 F.R.H.S. Fellow of the Royal Horticultural Society 1861 by Prince Albert. It is a charity and exists to promote gardening and horticulture in Britain and Europe. This is done through a series of flower shows and through many model gardens that are open to the public. The society celebrated its bicentenary in 2004. The Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) is a professional body for architects in the United Kingdom. Originally named the Institute of British Architects in London, it was formed in 1834 by several prominent architects, 178 F.R.I.B.A. Fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects including Philip Hardwick, Thomas Allom, William Donthorne, Thomas Leverton

Donaldson and John Buonarotti Papworth. It was awarded a Royal Charter in 1837, becoming the Royal Institute of British

Architects in London, eventually dropping the reference to London in 1892. The Institute also

25

maintains a dozen regional offices around the United Kingdom. Parts of the London building are open to the public. It has a large architectural bookshop, a caf, galleries for exhibitions, and lecture theatres. Rooms are hired out for events. The Royal Meteorological Society traces its origins back to April 3, 1850 when the British Meteorological Society was formed as a society the objects of which should be the advancement and extension of meteorological science by determining the laws of climate and of 179 F.R.Met.S. Fellow of the Royal Meteorological Society meteorological phenomena in general. It became The Meteorological Society in 1866, when it was incorporated by Royal Charter, and the Royal Meteorological Society in 1883, when Her Majesty Queen Victoria granted the privilege of adding 'Royal' to the title. As of 2006 it has more than 3,000 members worldwide. 180 F.R.M.S. Fellow of the Royal Microscopical Society The Royal Photographic Society was founded in the United Kingdom in 1853 "to promote the 181 F.R.P.S. Fellow of the Royal Photographic Society Art and Science of Photography". It maintains an extensive photographic archive and offers various levels of qualifications in photographic skills. The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as The Royal Society, was founded in 1660 and claims to be the oldest learned society 182 F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal Society still in existence. Although a voluntary body, it serves as the academy of sciences of the United Kingdom (in which role it receives 30 million annually from the UK Government), and is a learned society for science. It is a member organization of the Science Council. The Royal Society of Edinburgh (founded 183 F.R.S.E. Fellow of the Royal Society, Edinburgh 1783) is a separate Scottish body. The Royal Irish Academy (founded 1785) is a separate Irish body. 184 F.R.S.L. Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature The Royal Society of Literature is the "senior

26

literary organisation in Britain." It was founded in 1820 by George IV, with the aim to "reward literary merit and excite literary talent." The Society has an annual magazine, RSL, and administers a number of literary prizes and awards, including the Ondaatje Prize, the Jerwood Awards and the V. S. Pritchett Memorial Prize. It can confer the honour of Companion of Literature for writers of

particular note. It also awards the Benson Medal for lifetime service in the field of literature. The Royal Scottish Society of Arts is a learned society in Scotland, dedicated to the study of science and technology. It was founded as The Society for the

Encouragement of the Useful Arts in Scotland by Sir David Brewster in 1821 and dedicated to "the promotion of invention and enterprise". The Society was granted a Royal Charter in 1841. For many years the promotion of invention and improvements of all sorts was 185 F.R.S.S.A. Fellow of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts the main business of the Society, and its meetings were the focus of a large and active cross-section of Edinburgh society - academics, gentry, professionals such as civil engineers and lawyers, and skilled craftsmen such as instrument makers, engravers and printers. The Society's published Transactions provide a fascinating record of changes in technology, and the Society's extensive archive (publicly accessible in the National Library of Scotland) is a valuable resource used by researchers. The Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce is a British multi-disciplinary institution, based in Fellow of the Society of Arts; Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries London. The name Royal Society of Arts is frequently used by others for brevity, but the Society itself uses either its full name or the initials RSA (not least in the letters Fellows of the Society use after their name FRSA). It was founded in 1754 and was granted a Royal

186

F.S.A.

27

Charter in 1847. Notable members have included Benjamin Franklin, Karl Marx, Adam Smith, William Hogarth, Charles Dickens and Guglielmo Marconi. The Society of Antiquaries of London is a learned society, based in the United Kingdom, concerned with "the encouragement,

advancement and furtherance of the study and knowledge of the antiquities and history of this and other countries". An antiquary was a person interested in the study of the past, particularly the physical traces of the past. The term was current from the late 16th century to the 19th century. Antiquarianism then evolved into more specialised fields of interest such as archaeology, architectural history, art history, conservation, heraldry, anthropology, and

ecclesiastical studies, and there is no such thing as a professional antiquary today. The

continuing use of the word in the Society's name is an anachronism, but reflects both the antiquity of the Society and its continuing broad range of interests. The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants is a British chartered accountancy body with a global presence that offers the Chartered Certified Accountant (Designatory letters ACCA or FCCA) qualification

worldwide. It is one of the world's largest and 187 F.S.A.A. Fellow of the Society of Incorporated Accountants and Auditors fastest-growing accountancy bodies with

110,000 members and 260,000 affiliates and students in 170 countries. The Institute's headquarters are in London with the principal administrative office being based in Glasgow. In addition the ACCA has a network of over 70 staffed offices and other centres around the world. The Royal Statistical Society is a learned society for statistics and a professional body for

188

F.S.S.

Fellow of the Statistical Society

statisticians in the UK. It was founded in 1834 as the Statistical Society of London, in the same week that the Tolpuddle Martyrs were

28

sentenced (see History of Teaching Statistics). It became the Royal Statistical Society in 1887, and merged with the Institute of Statisticians in 1993. Today the society has 7,200 members in the UK and the rest of the world, only around 1,500 of whom are professionally qualified. The RSS team reached the finals of University Challenge: The Professionals 2006. They were beaten 230 to 125 by the Bodleian Library, Oxford. They had previously beaten the Granta team in the first round (first broadcast on 24 July) before going on to beat the team from Prospect Magazine 280 points to 115 in the semi-final, broadcast on 31 July. The Zoological Society of London is a learned society founded in April 1826 by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, Lord Auckland, Sir Humphry Davy, Joseph Sabine, Nicholas Aylward Vigors and other eminent naturalists. Raffles was also the first President, but died shortly after assuming this office in July 1826. He was succeeded by the Marquess of Lansdowne, who obtained a parcel of land in Regent's Park from the Crown at a nominal rent, and who 189 F.Z.S. Fellow of the Zoological Society supervised the building of the first animal houses. It received a Royal Charter from George IV on 27 March 1829. The purpose of the society was to study animals in comparative freedom. In April 1828 the Zoological Gardens were opened to members. In 1831 William IV presented the royal menagerie to the Zoological Society, and in 1847 the public were admitted to aid funding, and Londoners soon christened the Zoological Gardens the "Zoo". The Zoo soon had the most extensive collection of animals in the world. A general practitioner, family physician or family practitioner is a physician/medical 190 G.P. General Practitioner doctor who provides primary care. A G.P./F.P. treats acute and chronic illnesses, provides preventive care and health education for all ages and both sexes. Some also care for

29

hospitalized patients, do minor surgery and/or obstetrics, where they have hospital privileges. However, in the past, they were required to do much more important surgeries, such as tonsillectomies, hernia repairs, and

appendectomies. For instance, it was common for a General Practitioner to operate if a patient had an extremely painful hernia, or an acute appendus. From time to time, however, they will remove minor skin lesions surgically. There has been an steady decrease in family physicians in the last few decades, due to the long work hours and little pay compared to most specialists. The term general practitioner is common in the United Kingdom and some other Commonwealth countries, where the word "physician" is only used for certain specialists and not for GPs. The Royal Historical Society was founded in 191 H.S.S. Historic Societatis Socius Fellow of the Historical Society 1868. It is the premier society in the United Kingdom which promotes and defends the scholarly study of the past. The Advanced Extension Awards were introduced in 2002, in response to the British Government's Excellence in Cities report, as a means of testing students at the most

demanding standards found across the world. 192 H.S.A.A. Health Sciences Advancement Award They are aimed at the top 10% of students in the British A Level tests, and are designed to allow students to "demonstrate their

knowledge, understanding and skills to the full". They are assessed completely by virtue of external examinations. Juris Doctor (Latin for "Teacher of Law") or J.D. is a degree in law offered by universities in a number of countries. It is considered a first Juris Doctor (Doctor of Law) not Juris Doctorate professional degree as one of the main purposes of the degree is to provide the professional training for those who wish to become lawyers. Some U.S. law schools award the first professional degree in law using the English terms Doctor of Law or Doctor of

193

J.D.

30

Jurisprudence rather than the Latin term Juris Doctor. Doctor of Laws (Latin: Legum Doctor, LL.D) is a doctorate-level academic degree in law. In the United States, the LL.D. is almost always 194 J.S.D., S.J.D. Doctor of Juridical Science an honorary degree. The Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D. or J.S.D.), sometimes awarded as Doctor of the Science of Law, is the degree awarded for research in the form of a dissertation, the equivalent to a Ph.D. in law. The humanities are a group of academic subjects united by a commitment to studying aspects of the human condition and a

qualitative approach that generally prevents a single paradigm from coming to define any discipline. The humanities are usually

distinguished from the social sciences and the 195 L.H.D. Litterarum Humaniorum Doctor (Doctor of Humanities) natural sciences and include subjects such as the classics, languages, literature, music,

philosophy, the performing arts, religion and the visual arts. Other subjects at times included as humanities in some parts of the world include archaeology, area studies,

communications, cultural studies and history, although these are often regarded as social sciences elsewhere. A Doctor of Letters (Latin: Litterarum doctor; D.Litt.; or Litt.D.) is a university academic degree. In the United Kingdom, the degree is a 196 Litt.D. Litterarum Doctor (Doctor of Letters) higher doctorate, above the Doctor of

Philosophy (Ph.D.), and is issued by a committee on the basis of a long record of research and publication. The degree of Bachelor of Laws (or

Baccalaureate of Laws) is the principal academic degree in law in most common law countries other than the United States, where it 197 LL.B. Legum Baccalaureus (Bachelor of Laws) has been replaced by the Juris Doctor degree. It is abbreviated LL.B (or LL.B, or sometimes LL.b): "LL" is an abbreviation of the genitive plural legum (of laws), thus "LL.B." stands for Legum Baccalaureus in Latin. In the United

31

States it is sometimes called "Bachelor of Legal Letters" to account for the double "L". In Canada, Bachelor of Laws is the name of the first degree in common law, but is also the name of the first degree in Quebec civil law awarded by a number of Quebec universities. The Canadian common law LL.B. is generally a graduate-entry degree. Bachelor of Laws is also the name of the first degree in Scots law and South African law (both being pluralistic legal systems that are based partly on common law and partly on civil law) awarded by a number of universities in Scotland and South Africa, respectively. The Bachelor of Laws is considered a professional degree as one of the main purposes of the degree is to provide the academic training for those who wish to become lawyers. Doctor of Laws is a doctorate-level academic 198 LL.D. Legum Doctor (Doctor of Laws) degree in law. Plural abbreviations in Latin are formed by doubling the letter, hence the double "L". The Master of Laws is an advanced law degree that allows someone to specialize in a particular area of law. It is commonly abbreviated LL.M. 199 LL.M. Master of Laws (also L.L.M.) from its Latin name, Legum Magister. (For female students, the less common variant Legum Magistra may also be used.) 200 201 L.R.C.P. L.R.C.S. Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians Licentiate of the Royal College See glossary See glossary A Master's degree is an academic degree usually 202 M.A. Master of Arts awarded for completion of a

postgraduate (or graduate) course of one to three years in duration. See glossary Master of Accountancy (M.Acc., M.Ac., or M.Acy.), alternatively Master of Professional

203

M.Acc.

Master of Accountancy

Accounting (M.P.Acc.) or Master Science in Accounting (M.S.Acc.), is typically a oneyear, non-thesis graduate program designed to prepare graduates for public accounting and to

32

provide them with the 150 credit hours required by most states before taking the CPA exam. Or, some graduates entering corporate accounting or consulting may pursue the Certified

Management Accountant (C.M.A.) designation by passing a series of exams. 204 205 206 207 M.A.C. M.A.E. M.A.Ed. M.A.Ext. Master of Arts in Communication Master of Agricultural Economics Master of Art Education Master of Agricultural Extension See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary The Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy is 208 M.A.L.D. Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy a masters degree offered by the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy. 209 210 211 212 213 M.A.M. M.A.M.S. M.A.P. M.A.T. M.A.U.P. Master of Avian Medicine Master of Applied Mathematical Sciences Master of Arts in Planning Master of Arts for Teachers Master of Arts in Urban Planning See glossary See glossary Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery, or in Latin Medicin Baccalaureus et Baccalaureus Chirurgi (abbreviated M.B. B.Chir., M.B. B.Ch., M.B. Ch.B., B.M. B.S., M.B. B.S. etc.), are the two degrees awarded after a course of study in medicine and surgery at a university in the United Kingdom and other places following its usage, such as medical schools in Australia, Hong Kong, Malaysia, 214 M.B. Medicine Baccalaureus Bachelor of Medicine; Musiae Baccalaureus Bachelor of Music Singapore, New Zealand, Jamaica, South Africa, Pakistan and India. The naming suggests that they are two separate degrees; however in practice they are usually treated as one. A Bachelor of Music (B.M., B.Mus. or Mus.B) is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by a college, university, or

conservatory upon completion of program of study in music. In the United States, the Bachelor of Music is a professional degree; the

33

majority of work consists of prescribed music courses and study in applied music, usually requiring a proficiency performing an

instrument. Such a program lasts three to four and a half years. Master of Business Administration is a master's degree in business administration, which attracts people from a wide range of academic disciplines. The M.B.A. designation originated in the United States, emerging as the country industrialized and companies sought out scientific approaches to management. The first American business school, Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, was established in 1881 (initially as an exclusively undergraduate institution). The Tuck School of 215 M.B.A. Master of Business Administration Business, part of Dartmouth College, was the first graduate school of management in the US. Founded in 1900, it was the first institution conferring advanced degrees (masters) in the commercial sciences, the forebearer of the modern MBA. Founded in 1898, the University of Chicago Graduate School of Business, the second oldest US business school, was the first graduate school in 1940 to offer working professionals the Executive M.B.A. (E.M.B.A.) program, a mainstay at most business schools today. Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery, or in Latin Medicin Baccalaureus et Baccalaureus Chirurgi (abbreviated M.B. B.Chir., M.B. B.Ch., M.B. Ch.B., B.M. B.S., M.B. B.S. etc.), are the two degrees awarded Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of 216 M.B.B.S. Surgery (Medicin Baccalaureus et Baccalaureus Chirurgi) after a course of study in medicine and surgery at a university in the United Kingdom and other places following its usage, such as medical schools in Australia, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, New Zealand, Jamaica, South Africa, Pakistan and India. The naming suggests that they are two separate degrees; however in practice they are usually treated as one.

34

217 218

M.C.B. M.C.E.

Master of Clinical Biochemistry Master of Christian Education; Master of Civil Engineering

See glossary See glossary Master is a person holding an academic degree

219

M.Cl.Sc.

Master of Clinical Sciences

higher than a Bachelors but lower than a Doctors

220 221 222 223

M.C.L. M.C.M. M.C.P. M.C.S.

Master of Comparative Law Master of Church Music Master of City Planning Master of Computer Science

See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary Doctor of Medicine (M.D. or MD, from the Latin Medicin Doctor) is an academic degree

224

M.D.

Medicinae Doctor (Doctor of Medicine)

for

medical

doctors.

It

varies an

between entry-level

countries,

from

being

professional degree, to being a relatively rare higher doctoral research degree. In Christian theology, the Master of Divinity is the first professional degree in Divinity in North America, and is a common academic degree in theological seminaries. In many Christian denominations, and of some other religions, this degree is the standard

prerequisite for ordination to the priesthood or pastorship or other appointment, ordination or licensing to professional ministry. At most seminaries this degree requires around 90 credit hours of study. It generally includes studies in 225 M.Div. Master of Divinity Christian ministry and theology. Coursework usually includes studies in New Testament Greek, theology, philosophy, church history, pastoral theology, and Old and New Testament studies. Many programs also contain courses in church growth, ecclesiology, Christian evangelism, education,

systematic

theology,

liturgical studies, Latin, Hebrew, canon law, patristics, and the like. Courses in pastoral counseling and psychology are also standard parts of an M.Div. program. In addition, the degree may or may not include a thesis. 226 M.Ed. Master of Education The Master of Education (M.Ed. or M.A.E.) is a degree conferred by American institutions for

35

educators moving on in their field. Most states require a Master's-level degree and the

certificate that goes with that work to be hired for educational administration (principal,

assistant principal, dean, consultant, etc). For the superintendent level, typically that required Doctoral-level work to be completed. Another issue is that most states require continuing course work in order for teachers to maintain certification (especially since No Child Left Behind requirements were implemented in 2001). Admission into a Master's-level program typically required a Bachelors of Education (B.S., B.A., or B.Ed) and several years' experience in an elementary, secondary, or special education classroom. Education

programs tend to have strict standards to stay in the program and often take more time to complete than other programs. 227 M.E.P. Master of Environmental Planning See glossary A Master of Fine Arts is a graduate degree in an area of applied or performing arts typically requiring two to three years of study beyond the bachelor level. Coursework is primarily of an 228 M.F.A. Master of Fine Arts applied or performing nature (versus research and academic inquiry) with the program often culminating in a major work or performance. Common fields of study include Theater, Creative Writing, Filmmaking, and Visual Arts. 229 230 M.F.R. M.H. Master of Forest Resources Master of Humanities See glossary Humanities the branches of learning having primarily a cultural character The Master of Health Administration is a postgraduate professional Masters degree that provides training in health policy, economics, project and program implementation. It is 231 M.H.A. Master of Health Administration designed to give graduates of health disciplines (in particular) greater understanding of

management issues and prepare them for senior management roles, and is awarded by many American, European and Australian

universities. The degree traditionally focuses on

36

health administration at the local, state, and federal level as well as in the nonprofit sector. This contrasts with the generalist Master of Business Administration or the Master of Public Administration. 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 M.H.E. M.H.P. M.H.S. M.H.S.A. M.I.Biol. M.I.S. M.L.A. Master of Home Economics Master of Historic Preservation Master of Health Science Master of Health Services Administration Member of the Institute of Biology Master of Information Science Master of Landscape Architecture See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary The Master of Library and Information Science is a masters degree required for most professional librarian positions. The M.L.I.S. is a relatively recent degree; an older and still common degree designation for librarians to 239 M.L.I.S. Master of Library and Information Studies or Master of Library and Information Science acquire is the Master of Library Science, or M.L.S. degree. The M.L.I.S. and M.L.S. degrees are widely considered to be equivalent. In the United Kingdom it is more common for a vocational degree in library and information science to bear the standard designation M.A. or M.Sc. The Master of Letters is a postgraduate Master's degree which has two main systems of use. The M.Litt. (T) is a one-year full-time taught degree at the ancient Scottish

universities. Usually, the degree involves nine months of postgraduate-level courses, followed 240 M.Litt. Master of Letters (Magister Litterarum) by a short research dissertation written during the summer months. Often the M.Litt. is awarded here because for the ancient

universities the first degree in the Arts and Humanities is an undergraduate M.A. (Hons), and contrasts with the M.Phil. degree, a more advanced one-year research Masters. 241 M.L.S. Master of Library Science See glossary The Master of Music (M.M. or M.Mus.) is the 242 M.M. Master of Music first graduate degree in Music. It is usually earned after one or two years of further study

37

following the achievement of a first degree. Some universities in the UK (e.g. Sheffield University) utilise it as a special research degree. 243 244 245 M.M.C. M.M.E. M.M.Ed. Master of Mass Communication Master of Mechanical Engineering Master of Music Education See glossary See glossary See glossary The Master of Music (M.M. or M.Mus.) is the first graduate degree in Music. It is usually earned after one or two years of further study 246 M.Mus. Master of Music following the achievement of a first degree. Some universities in the UK (e.g. Sheffield University) utilise it as a special research degree. 247 248 249 250 M.Mus.Ed. M.O. M.O.H. M.O.H. Master of Music Education Medical Officer Master of Occupational Health Medical Officer of Health See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary The Master of Public Administration degree is one of professional public affairs degrees that 251 M.P.A. Master of Public Administration provides training in public policy and

project/program implementation (more recently known as public management). The Master of Public Affairs historically has been a professional Master's degree offered in 252 M.P.A. Master of Public Affairs public policy schools that provides training in public policy and the operation of government, similar to a Master of Public Policy. The Master of Public Health is a professional master's degree awarded for studies in areas related to public health. The Council on 253 M.P.H. Master of Public Health Education for Public Health has accredited 37 schools of public health in the U.S. through a formal review process, however, many other schools have MPH programs. Philosophy all learning exclusive of technical precepts and practical Arts (history, language, 254 M.Phil. Master of Philosophy etc.) In the usage of the United Kingdom, United States, Australia, New Zealand and some other countries, the Master of Philosophy is a

38

research degree, requiring the completion of a thesis. It is a lesser degree than the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), greater than (or sometimes equal to) the Bachelor of Philosophy (B.Phil.,) and in some instances may be awarded as a substitute for a Ph.D. thesis, which is a marginal fail. It may also serve as a provisional enrolment for the Ph.D. It is generally thesis only, and is regarded as a senior or second masters degree. An M.Phil. is generally considered equivalent to the French Diplme d'tudes Approfondies or D.E.A., Spanish Diploma de Estudios Avanzados D.E.A., or First Doctoral Degree. The Master of Public Policy is a professional Master's degree that provides training in policy analysis and program evaluation at public policy schools. Over time, the curriculum of Master of Public Policy and the Master of Public Administration (M.P.A.) degrees have blended and converged, due to the realization that policy analysis and program evaluation could benefit from an understanding of public administration, and vice versa. Today, the core course offerings of many M.P.A. and M.P.P. 255 M.P.P. Master of Public Policy programs are similar, with M.P.A. programs providing training in policy analysis, and M.P.P. programs providing coursework in program implementation. However, M.P.P. programs still place more emphasis in policy analysis, research and evaluation, while M.P.A. programs place more emphasis on

operationalization of public policies and the design of effective programs and projects to achieve public policy goals. Some universities have begun offering a combined M.P.P.A. degree, Master of Public Policy and

Administration. 256 M.P.P.P.M. M.P.S., or 257 M.Prof.Studs., or Master of Plant Protection and Pest Management Master of Professional Studies See glossary Master of Professional Studies is a (usually terminal) interdisciplinary academic degree and

39

M.Prof.Studies.

is sometimes used for programs that do not fit into any traditional categories.

258 259 260 261 262

M.R.A.S. M.R.C.C. M.R.C.P. M.R.C.S. M.R.C.V.S.

Member of the Royal Asiatic Society; Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences Member of the Royal College of Chemistry Member of the Royal College of Physicians Member of the Royal College of Surgeons Member of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons

See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary The Master of Religious Education is a terminal academic degree in preparation for

263

M.R.E.

Master of Religious Education

professional teaching ministry, usually offered by Christian institutions. The curriculum

includes two years of theological study and sometimes a thesis. 264 265 266 267 268 M.R.G.S. M.R.I. M.R.I.A. M.R.P. M.R.Pharm.S. Member of the Royal Geographical Society Member of the Royal Institution. Member of the Royal Irish Academy Master of Regional Planning Member of the Royal Society of Pharmasists See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary The Master of Arts (Magister Artium) and Master of Science (Magister Scienti) degrees are the basic degree types in most subjects, and may be either entirely course-based or entirely 269 M.S. Master of Science; Master in Surgery; research-based, or (more typically) a mixture. The Master of Surgery is an advanced medical degree. It is commonly abbreviated M.Ch. or Ch.M. (as well as M.Chir.) from its Latin name, Magister Chirurgiae, as well as M.S. by programs in India. 270 271 272 M.S.A.E. M.S.Bio.C. M.S.C. Master of Science in Aerospace Engineering Master of Science in Biochemistry Master of Science in Commerce See glossary See glossary See glossary The Master of Arts (Magister Artium) and Master of Science (Magister Scienti) degrees 273 M.Sc. Master of Science are the basic degree types in most subjects, and may be either entirely course-based or entirely research-based, or (more typically) a mixture. 274 275 M.S.C.E. M.S.C.E. Master of Science in Chemical Engineering Master of Science in Civil Engineering See glossary See glossary

40

276 277 278 279 280 281

M.S.Chem. M.S.C.J. M.S.C.S. M.S.E. M.S.Ed. M.S.E.E.

Master of Science in Chemistry Master of Science in Criminal Justice Master of Science in Computer Science Master of Science in Engineering Master of Science in Education Master of Science in Electrical Engineering

See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary The M.E.M. (Master of Environmental Management) is a degree designed for students with primary interests in careers in

environmental policy and analysis, stewardship, education, consulting, or management dealing with natural resource or environmental issues. Master of Science in Environmental Management The program requires course work in both the natural and social sciences, with a particular focus on the relationship among science, management, and policy. The ultimate purpose of the degree program is to prepare students to address ecological and social systems with scientific understanding and an ability to make sense of the complex underlying social and ecological context. 283 M.S.E.S.M. M.S.H.E.S., 284 M.S.Hu.Env.Sci. M.S.I.E. M.S.I.S. M.S.J. M.S.L.S. M.S.M. M.S.Marine Sc., 290 291 292 293 294 M.S.M.Sci. M.S.M.E. M.S.Mh. M.S.Micro. M.S.Min.E. Master of Science in Engineering Science and Mechanics Master of Science in Human Environmental Sciences Master of Science in Industrial Engineering Master of Science in Information Science Master of Science in Journalism Master of Science in Library Science Master of Sacred Music Master of Science in Marine Science Master of Science in Mechanical Engineering Master of Science in Engineering Mechanics Master of Science in Microbiology Master of Science in Mineral Engineering See glossary See glossary

282

M.S.E.M.

285 286 287 288 289

See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary

41

Master of Science in Metallurgical 295 296 297 298 299 M.S.Mt.E. M.S.N. M.S.O.T. M.S.P. M.S.P.H. Engineering Master of Science in Nursing Master of Science in Occupational Therapy Master of Science in Planning Master of Science in Public Health See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary See glossary A Master of Social Science is a taught Master's degree in the United Kingdom. M.S.Sc. degrees are unusual, and are almost 300 M.S.Sc. Master of Social Science always postgraduate in nature. Common

subjects that would lead to the award of M.S.Sc. include, but are not limited to, social work, criminology, politics and sociology. 301 M.S.S.W. Master of Science in Social Work See glossary The Master of Science in Taxation is a professional graduate degree (Master's degree) 302 M.S.T. Master of Science Technology Master of Science in Taxation specifically designed for Certified Public Accountants professionals. See glossary 303 M.T.A. Master of Tax Accounting See glossary A Master of Theological Studies is a two-year first theological degree offered by several seminaries and divinity schools. The degree is generally equivalent to a Master of Arts degree in religious studies. Unlike the Master of 304 M.T.S. Master of Theological Studies Divinity, the Master of Theological Studies is an academic degree, and its goal is not to prepare one for ordination. As such, it does not necessarily include field education or (CPAs) and other tax

coursework in ministry studies. It usually requires the completion of a scholarly thesis. The Master of Social Work is a type of master's degree in the field of social work which is received from a graduate school that has been approved by the Council on Social 305 M.S.W. Master of Social Work Work Education. The M.S.W. requires two years of postgraduate study, in combination with field experience. While some people get a Bachelor of Social Work (B.S.W.) before pursuing a Master's, most M.S.W. programs

42

accept applicants with undergraduate degrees in broad range of liberal arts degrees. In North America, the Master of Theology (Th. M. or M.Th.) is a postgraduate masters degree which is sometimes earned after (or instead of) a Master of Divinity (M.Div.) or a Master of Theological Studies. This is generally a one or 306 M.Th. Master of Theology two year specialized advanced degree in theological research that many theology

students undertake in order to better prepare for Th.D., D.Min. or Ph.D. programs. A

comparable degree, the Master of Sacred Theology seminaries. A Master of Theological Studies is a two-year first theological degree offered by several seminaries and divinity schools. The degree is generally equivalent to a Master of Arts degree in religious studies. Unlike the Master of Divinity, the Master of Theological Studies is 307 M.T.S. Master of Theological Studies an academic degree, and its goal is not to prepare one for ordination. As such, it does not necessarily include field education or (S.T.M.), is offered at some

coursework in ministry studies. It usually requires the completion of a scholarly thesis. The Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada accredits many such programs. The Master of Urban Planning is a two-year academic/professional Master's degree that qualifies graduates to work as urban planners. Some schools offer the degree as a Master of City Planning (M.C.P.), Master of Regional Planning 308 M.U.P. Master of Urban Planning (M.R.P.), Master of Planning

(M.Plan.), or in some combination of the aforementioned (e.g., Master of Urban and Regional Planning), depending on the

program's specific focus. Yet other schools offer a Master of Arts or Master of Science in planning. Regardless of the name, the degree remains generally the same. 309 Mus.B. Bachelor of Music A Bachelor of Music (B.M., B.Mus. or

43

Mus.B) is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by a college, university, or

conservatory upon completion of program of study in music. In the United States, the Bachelor of Music is a professional degree; the majority of work consists of prescribed music courses and study in applied music, usually requiring a proficiency performing an

instrument. Such a program lasts three to four and a half years. The Doctor of Music degree (D.Mus., Mus.D. or Mus.Doc.), like other doctorates, is an academic degree of the highest level. The 310 Mus.D. Doctor of Music D.Mus. is intended for musicians and

composers who wish to combine the highest attainments in their area of specialization with doctoral-level academic study in music. The Master of Music (M.M. or M.Mus.) is the first graduate degree in Music. It is usually earned after one or two years of further study following the achievement of a first degree. 311 Mus.M. Master of Music Some universities in the UK (e.g. Sheffield University) utilise it as a special research degree. Normal components includes a

dissertation, recital, portfolio and composition. The degree often includes research training in preparation for doctoral research. Nuclear engineering is the practical

application of the atomic nucleus gleaned from principles of nuclear physics and the interaction between radiation and matter. This field of engineering includes the design, analysis, development, testing, operation and

maintenance of nuclear fission systems and 312 Nuc.E. Nuclear Engineer components, specifically, nuclear reactors,

nuclear power plants and/or nuclear weapons. The field can also include the study of nuclear fusion, medical applications of radiation, nuclear safety, heat transport, nuclear fuels technology, nuclear proliferation, and the effect of radioactive waste or radioactivity in the environment.

44

313

O.D.

Doctor of Optometry

See glossary Bachelor of Philosophy (B.Phil.; occasionally

314

Ph.B.

Philosophiae Baccalaureus (Bachelor of Philosophy)

B.Ph. or Ph.B.) is the title of an academic degree. Despite its name, in many universities for example, the University of Oxford it is a graduate degree. Doctor is person holding one of the highest titles given by a university; PhD is an advanced university degree The preferred form for Ph.D. is to say a person holds a doctorate in (name their field of specialty). Second best is to say Doctor's degree. Doctor of Philosophy, alternatively, "Doctor philosophi", D.Phil. (meaning "Teacher of Philosophy"), is a doctoral degree granted upon completion of extensive academic work in a field of study. In medieval times, any research outside the fields of theology or medicine was called "philosophy", hence the Ph.D. degree covers a wide range of subjects. Contemporary Ph.D. degrees are awarded in nearly every field

315

Ph.D.

Philosophiae Doctor (Doctor of Philosophy)

of the sciences and the humanities. In most countries Ph.D. students traverse phases; in the first phase, students typically complete required courses and a comprehensive examination, the successful completion of which marks the beginning of the second phase, and entitles the student to refer to him or herself as a Ph.D. candidate. The principal task of the doctoral candidate is writing and defending a major, original contribution to his or her academic disciplineusually a written dissertation

ranging in length, per the discipline, from 50 to 800 pages (10,000200,000 typically consist of words). (i) a

Dissertations

comprehensive literature review, (ii) an outline of methodology, and (iii) several chapters of scientific, social, historical, philosophical, or literary analysis. 316 317 Ph.G. Pharm.D. Graduate in Pharmacy Doctor of Pharmacy In the United States the Pharm.D. (Doctor of

45

Pharmacy) degree is a first-professional degree or professional doctorate that prepares the graduate for pharmacy practice. The

multidisciplinary curriculum may focus on pharmacy-biomedical sciences, pharmaceutical sciences, social and administrative sciences, pharmacy law and policy, clinical sciences and experiential training. Entrance into a Pharm.D. program generally does not require prior completion of a college degree, although the majority of accepted applicants hold one. Typically, it takes a minimum of six academic years after high school graduation to complete the Pharm.D. program. Traditionally in the United States, the bachelor's degree in

pharmacy was the first-professional degree for pharmacy practice. However, in 1990, the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP) mandated that a doctorate in pharmacy would be the new first-professional degree. As of the year 2000, all pharmacy schools in the U.S. have discontinued the B.S.Pharm.

(Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy) degree program. 318 319 P.M.O. Pod.D. Principal Medical Officer Doctor of Podiatry See glossary See glossary Professor is a faculty member of the highest 320 Prof. Professor academic rank at an institution of higher education The Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.) degree is a professional doctorate, which is earned through 321 Psy.D. Doctor of Psychology one of two established training models for Clinical Psychology. In the United States, the other doctorate-level degree in Clinical

Psychology is the PhD. A Bachelor of Science (B.S., B.Sc. or less commonly, S.B. or Sc.B. from the Latin Scientiae Baccalaureus) is an undergraduate 322 S.B. Scientiae Baccalaureus (Bachelor of Science) academic degree awarded for completed

courses that generally last three years in Australia, Austria, Croatia, Denmark, England, Germany, Hong Kong, India, the Republic of

46

Ireland, Israel, Latvia, The Netherlands, New Zealand, Northern Ireland, Poland, Quebec, Malaysia, Singapore, Sweden, Switzerland, Wales and South Africa; or four years in North America, Iceland, Iran, Japan, Pakistan, the Philippines, Scotland and Brazil. In North America, a Bachelor of Science degree may be a more specialized version of B.A., with more focus on the subject and less on a broad liberal arts background; for example, a B.S. in economics may require several more advanced economics courses than a B.A. in economics, and possibly more support courses (such as statistics). The B.S. is also frequently used for professional areas of study such as engineering, journalism, and advertising. In the United Kingdom and Ireland and certain other European countries, the degree of Doctor of Science is one of the Higher Doctorates, typically having precedence after Divinity, Laws or Civil Law, Medicine, and Letters, and above Music. The degree is conferred on a member of the university who has a proven record of internationally recognised

scholarship. A candidate for the degree will usually be required to submit a selection of their 323 S.D. Doctor of Science publications to the board of the

appropriate faculty, which will decide if the candidate merits this accolade. The degree will only exceptionally be awarded to a scholar under the age of forty. The status of the degree has declined because it is not widely

understood, but in former times the doctorate in science was regarded as a greater distinction than a professorial chair and hence a professor who was also a DSc would be known as Doctor. The introduction of the Ph.D. in the twentieth century of course devalued the title Doctor, and this practice is now defunct. 324 325 S.J.D. S.M. Doctor of Juridical Science; Doctor of the Science of Law Scientiae Magister (Master of Science) See doctor of laws See master's degree

47

326 327 328

S.M.D. S.Sc.D. S.T.B.

Doctor of Sacred Music Doctor of Social Science Sacrae Theologiae Baccalaureus (Bachelor of Sacred Theology)

See glossary See glossary See glossary The Master of Sacred Theology (S.T.M.) is a second level professional degree conferred by seminaries and theological colleges. One must normally have an M.Div. or an M.A. in a religious or theological field before being admitted to study for the S.T.M. The S.T.M. typically is designed to enhance a students academic credentials for entrance to a doctoral program or as a way of furthering theological education for ordained ministers. S.T.M.

degrees are typically awarded after having completed thirty hours of study at the Masters 329 S.T.M. Sacrae Theologiae Magister (Master of Sacred Theology) level beyond that required for the first professional degree. While the degree may be awarded solely on the basis of taught academic courses, most programs have the option for the student to write a thesis. The thesis option is especially helpful for those individuals who wish to use the S.T.M. to further their qualifications for doctoral study and who did not complete a thesis or major research project as a part of the first professional degree. Some seminaries will also credit part of the work done for the S.T.M. towards a student moving on to the D.Min. degree once the S.T.M. has been awarded. The Bachelor of Theology (B.Th.; Th.B. or Btheol) is a three to five year undergraduate degree in theological disciplines. Candidates for this degree typically must complete course work in Greek or Hebrew, as well as systematic 330 Th.B. Theologicae Baccalaureus (Bachelor of Theology) theology, biblical theology, ethics, homiletics and Christian ministry. It does not require a thesis but is often a year longer than a Bachelor of Religious Education or Bachelor of Arts. In some denominations, notably the Church of England, it is considered sufficient for formal ordination.

48

Doctor of Theology (in Latin Theologiae Doctor) is a terminal academic degree in theology. It is a research degree and is considered to be equivalent to a Doctor of Philosophy. Traditionally, the Th.D. is

designed for Christian theological scholarship, whereas Ph.D. is for the study of Christianity in a secular context. Clear distinction between 331 Th.D. Theologicae Doctor (Doctor of Theology) Th.D. and Ph.D. are indicated in the

prerequisites of both programs at Harvard Divinity School and Boston University School of Theology (that is, both require a professional degree in divinity such as the MDiv). However, in recent decades there has been a trend in some institutions (e.g., Princeton Theological Seminary and Dallas Theological Seminary) to replace Th.D with Ph.D programs in the same fields. In North America, the Master of Theology (Th. M. or M.Th.) is a postgraduate Masters degree which is sometimes earned after (or instead of) a Master of Divinity (M.Div.) or a Master of Theological Studies. This is

332

Th.M.

Theologicae Magister (Master of Theology)

generally a one or two year specialized advanced degree in theological research that many theology students undertake in order to better prepare for Th.D., D.Min. or Ph.D. programs. A comparable degree, the Master of Sacred Theology (S.T.M.), is offered at some seminaries.

49

Glossary
An actuary is a business professional who deals with the financial impact of risk and uncertainty. Aerospace engineering is the branch of engineering that concerns aircraft, spacecraft, and related topics. Originally called aeronautical engineering and dealing solely with aircraft, the broader term "aerospace engineering" has replaced the former in most usage, as flight technology advanced to include craft operating outside the Earth's atmosphere. In analogy with "aeronautical engineering", the branch is sometimes referred to as astronautical engineering, although this term usually only concerns craft which operate in outer space. Agricultural economics applies the principles of economics to the production of crops and livestock. Agricultural engineers develop engineering science and technology in the context of agricultural production and processing and for the management of natural resources. They apply their engineering knowledge and skills to solve problems relating to sustainable agricultural production. Agricultural extension was once known as the application of scientific research and new knowledge to agricultural practices through farmer education. The field of extension now encompasses a range of communication and learning activities organised for rural people by professionals from different disciplines, including agriculture, health, and business studies. Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic, and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. Applied arts refers to the application of design and aesthetics to objects of function and everyday use. Whereas fine arts serve as intellectual stimulation to the viewer or academic sensibilities, the applied arts incorporate design and creative ideals to objects of utility, such as a cup, magazine or decorative park bench. The fields of industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, interior design, decorative art and functional art are considered applied arts. Arts 1. a branch of learning or university study especially one in the fine Arts or the humanities; Art education is the area of learning that, in the United States of America, is based upon the visual, tangible arts drawing, painting, sculpture, and design in jewelry, pottery, weaving, fabrics, etc and design applied to more practical fields such as commercial graphics and home furnishings. The term "arts education" implies many things, but is definable as: Instruction and programming in any arts area including the performing arts (dance, music, theater) and visual arts, creative writing, media arts, history, criticism, and aesthetics. Within the schools "visual arts education" encompasses all the visual and performing arts delivered in a standards-based, sequential approach by a qualified instructor as part of the core curriculum. Asian studies is a field in Cultural studies that is concerned with the meaning and practices of everyday life among Asian peoples. Within the Asian sphere, Asian studies combines aspects of sociology, and cultural anthropology to study cultural phenomena in Asian traditional and industrial societies. Asian studies forms a field of post-graduate study in many universities. Associate degree - An associate degree is an academic degree awarded by community colleges, junior colleges and some bachelor's degree-granting colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study usually lasting two years. Common abbreviations are A.A. (Associate of Arts), A.S. (Associate of Science), A.A.S. (Associate of Applied Science; or in some cases, Associate of Arts and Sciences), A.O.S. (Associate of Occupational Studies), A.B.A. (Associate of Business Administration), and A.G.S. (Associate of General Studies). In the United States and, more rarely, Canada, an associate degree is equivalent to the first two years of a four-year college or university. It is the lowest in the hierarchy of postsecondary academic degrees offered in these countries. It is also equivalent to the UK's foundation degree. In 2000, Hong Kong introduced associate's degrees, as an equivalence to higher diplomas. These programmes are mainly provided through affiliated colleges at universities. In 2004, Australia added

50

"associate degree" to the Australian Qualifications Framework. This title was given to more academically focused advanced diploma courses. However, very few courses yet use the new title. An avian veterinarian is a veterinarian who has undertaken additional training to treat birds. Birds are very different in anatomy and physiology to dogs and cats, and to specialize in their treatment, a veterinary student must seek out coursework and residencies that are beyond the scope of standard veterinary school. A bachelor's degree (Artium Baccalaureus, A.B. or B.A.) is usually an undergraduate academic degree awarded for a course or major that generally lasts for three, four, or in some cases and countries, five or six years. It may also be the name of a postgraduate degree, such as a Bachelor of Civil Law (granted by the University of Oxford.) Behavioral neuroscience is a field that relates behavior to bodily processes such as the inner workings of the brain. The field is often referred to as biological psychology and psychobiology. Behavioral neuroscience is often considered a subdiscipline within psychology or neuroscience. The main goal of behavioral neuroscience is the understanding of behavior and experience in terms of their biological substrates. Biological engineering (also biosystems engineering and bioengineering) deals with engineering biological processes in general. It is a broad-based engineering discipline that also may involve product design, sustainability and analysis of biological systems. Building indoor environment covers the environmental aspects in the design, analysis, and operation of energyefficient, healthy, and comfortable buildings. Fields of specialization include architecture, HVAC design, thermal comfort, indoor air quality (IAQ), lighting, acoustics, and control systems. In total, the indoor experience is known as the indoor environmental quality (IEQ). Canon law is the term used for the internal ecclesiastical law which governs various churches, most notably the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Anglican Communion of churches. The way that such church law is legislated, interpreted and at times adjudicated varies widely among these three bodies of churches. In all three traditions, a canon was initially a rule adopted by a council (From Greek kanon / , for rule, standard, or measure); these canons formed the foundation of canon law. Chemical engineering is the branch of engineering that deals with the application of physical science, e.g. chemistry, physics, and mathematics, to the process of converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms. As well as producing useful materials, chemical engineering is also concerned with pioneering valuable new materials and techniques; an important form of research and development. A person employed in this field is called a chemical engineer. Chemical pathology (also known as clinical biochemistry or clinical chemistry) is the area of pathology that is generally concerned with analysis of bodily fluids. The discipline originated in the late 19th century with the use of simple chemical tests for various components of blood and urine. Subsequently other techniques were applied including the use and measurement of enzyme activities, spectrophotometry, electrophoresis and immunoassay. In modern usage, civil engineering is a broad field of engineering that deals with the planning, construction, and maintenance of fixed structures, or public works, as they are related to earth, water, or civilization and their processes. Most civil engineering today deals with power plants, bridges, roads, railways, structures, water supply, irrigation, the natural environment, sewer, flood control, transportation and traffic. Child health nursing is an area of nursing and medical practice with a focus on providing holistic care to infants, children and adolescents. It differs from paediatrics, in that the emphasis in paediatrics is ill-health and the alleviation of symptoms or disease. Church music or Christian music is music created by or adapted for the Christian church. It also includes Contemporary Christian music, in which the music explores Christian themes but is designed to be played in places

51

other than churches. Music during service for many churches is a big part of the worship. Hymns are sung, psalms are vocalized and spiritual songs are uplifted to praise God. Sometimes, musical instruments are played while singing is implemented in the service. On the other hand, some times churches use just a cappella to worship God. At times, just musical instruments are only used to express praise towards God. All of these ways are used by one church or another in this period of time. Child health nursing is an area of nursing and medical practice with a focus on providing holistic care to infants, children and adolescents. It differs from paediatrics, in that the emphasis in paediatrics is ill-health and the alleviation of symptoms or disease. Chiropractic is a complementary and alternative health care profession which focuses on diagnosing, treating, and preventing mechanical disorders of the musculoskeletal system, their effects on the nervous system, and on general health. Chiropractic's premise is that spinal joint misalignments, which chiropractors call vertebral subluxations, can interfere with the nervous system and result in many different conditions of diminished health.[1] Their treatments consist of a variety of techniques and methods which chiropractors refer to as spinal adjustments. In contrast, the term subluxation, as used in conventional medicine, is usually associated with specific conditions which are a direct consequence of injury to joints or associated nerves. Civil engineering is a broad field of engineering that deals with the planning, construction, and maintenance of fixed structures, or public works, as they are related to earth, water, or civilization and their processes. Most civil engineering today deals with power plants, bridges, roads, railways, structures, water supply, irrigation, the natural environment, sewer, flood control, transportation and traffic. In essence, civil engineering may be regarded as the profession that makes the world a more agreeable place in which to live. Communication is not only the process of sharing information. Communication processes are in most cases signmediated interactions which are governed by three levels of semiotic rules: Syntactic, pragmatic and semantic. Therefore, communication is a kind of social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. In a simplistic form, information is sent from a sender or encoder to a receiver or decoder. In a more complex form feedback links a sender to a receiver. This requires a symbolic activity, sometimes via a language. Communication development is the development of processes enabling one to understand what others say(or sign, or write) and speak(or sign, or write), translate sounds and symbols into meaning and learn the syntax of the language. Communication is based on the idea of respect, promises and the want for social improvement. Communications management is the systematic planning, implementing, monitoring, and revision of all the channels of communication within an organization, and between organizations; it also includes the organization and dissemination of new communication directives connected with an organization, network, or communications technology. Aspects of communications management include developing corporate communication strategies, designing internal and external communications directives, and managing the flow of information, including online communication. New technology forces constant innovation on the part of communications managers. Comparative law is the study of differences and similarities between the law of different countries. More specifically, it involves study of the different legal systems in existence in the world, including the common law, the civil law, socialist law, Islamic law, Hindu law, and Asian law. It includes the description and analysis of foreign legal systems, even where no explicit comparison is undertaken. The importance of comparative law has increased enormously in the present age of internationalism, economic globalisation and democratisation. Computer science, or computing science, is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and their implementation and application in computer systems.[1][2][3] Computer science has many sub-

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fields; some emphasize the computation of specific results (such as computer graphics), while others (such as computational complexity theory) relate to properties of computational problems. Still others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, programming language theory studies approaches to describing computations, while computer programming applies specific programming languages to solve specific computational problems. Creative Arts is the term used to describe multi-disciplinary forms of expression. It is generally used as an umbrella for Dramaturgy, Music (Music theory, Music history, Musicology), Graphic Arts/Cartooning,

Mathematics/Egglepple, and the Visual arts. Criminal justice refers to the system used by government to maintain social control, prevent crime, enforce laws, and administer justice. Law enforcement (police), courts, and corrections are the primary agencies charged with these responsibilities. When processing the accused through the criminal justice system, government must keep within the framework of laws that protect individual rights. The pursuit of criminal justice is, like all forms of "justice", "fairness" or "process", essentially the pursuit of an ideal. Dental medicine or Dentistry is the art and science of prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of conditions, diseases, and disorders of the oral cavity, the maxillofacial region, and its associated structures as it relates to human beings. A dentist is qualified to practice dentistry. In most countries, several years of training in a university (usually 4-8) and some practical experience working with actual patients' dentition are required to become a qualified dentist. The patron saint of dentists is Saint Apollonia, martyred in Alexandria by having all her teeth violently extracted. Economics, as a social science, studies the production, distribution, and consumption of resources. Electrical engineering (sometimes referred to as electrical and electronic engineering) is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics and electromagnetism. The field first became an identifiable occupation in the late nineteenth century with the commercialization of the electric telegraph and electrical power supply. The field now covers a range of sub-disciplines including those that deal with power, optoelectronics, digital electronics, analog electronics, computer science, artificial intelligence, control systems, electronics, signal processing and telecommunications. Engineering is the application of scientific or mathematical principles to develop economical solutions to technical problems, creating products, facilities, and structures that are useful to people.[1][2] One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and those licensed to do so have formal designations such as Professional Engineer. Engineers use imagination, judgment, and reasoning to apply science, technology, mathematics, and practical experience. The result is the design, production, and operation of useful objects or processes. The broad discipline of engineering encompasses a range of specialized subdisciplines that focus on the issues associated with developing a specific kind of product, or using a specific type of technology. Environmental health comprises those aspects of human health, including quality of life, that are determined by physical, chemical, biological, social, and psychosocial factors in the natural environment. It also refers to the theory and practice of assessing, correcting, controlling, and preventing those factors in the environment that can potentially affect adversely the health of present and future generations. Environmental planning is a relatively new field of study that aims to merge the practice of urban planning with the concerns of environmentalism. Essentially speaking, while urban planners have traditionally factored in economic development, transportation, sanitation, and other services into their decisions, environmental planners add environmental (social, ecological & economic) outcomes as important factors in the decision-making process. What exactly constitutes the "environment", however, is somewhat open to debate among these practitioners, as is the exact scope of the intended environmental benefits. Chief concerns among environmental planners include the

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encouragement of sustainable development, green building technologies, and the preservation of environmentally sensitive areas. Family and consumer sciences, human sciences, human ecology or home economics, is an academic discipline which combines aspects of consumer science, nutrition, cooking, parenting and human development, interior decoration, textiles, family economics, housing, apparel design and resource management as well as other related subjects. Family and consumer sciences combines social science, including its emphasis on the well-being of families, individuals, and communities, and natural science with its emphasis on nutrition and textile science. The field as it is today originated from home economics; in the U.S. the discipline developed at Kansas State University in 1882 and spread quickly to other land grant universities after women appealed to have their own niche while the men studied subjects such as agriculture or shop. Forest Resources - "The Forestry major prepares you for a broad range of career opportunities involving the management, utilization or study of forest resources." The Geological Society of London is a learned society based in England with the aim of "investigating the mineral structure of the Earth". It is the oldest national geological society in the world and the largest in Europe with over 9000 Fellows entitled to the postnominal FGS - over 2000 of whom are Chartered Geologists (CGeol). The Society is a Registered Charity, No 210161. The Society was founded in 1807. It was partly the outcome of a previous club known as the Askesian Society, and among the more prominent founders were William Babington, Humphry Davy and George Bellas Greenough. It received its Royal Charter in 1825 from George IV. Health science is the discipline of applied science which deals with human and animal health. There are two parts to health science: the study, research, and knowledge of health and the application of that knowledge to improve health, cure diseases, and understanding how humans and animals function. Research builds primarily on the pure sciences of biology, chemistry, and physics as well as social sciences (for example medical sociology). Other fields which made an exceptionally significant contribution to the health sciences include biochemistry, biotechnology, engineering, epidemiology, genetics, nursing, pharmacology, pharmacy, public health, and medicine. The health sciences industry, a multi-billion dollar business, is a subset of the life sciences, medical care, and diagnosis industries. Historic preservation or Heritage management is the theory and practice of creatively maintaining the historic built environment and controlling the landscape component of which it is an integral part. The Secretary of the Interior of the U.S. government defines the historic environment as districts, sites, buildings, structures, objects, and landscapes which are significant in American history, architecture, archeology, engineering, and culture. Home Economics Consumer Economics, as a field of research and an acamedic major, is a branch of both Consumer Science and Economics. It is a broad field, principally concerned with microeconomic analysis behavior in units of consumers, families, or individuals (in contrast to traditional economics, which primarily government or business units). It sometimes also encompasses family financial planning and policy analysis. The term largely describes what was more commonly called "Home Economics" in the past. Hygiene and Good Habits are commonly understood as preventing infection through cleanliness. In broader call, scientific terms hygiene is the maintenance of health and healthy living. Hygiene ranges from personal hygiene, through domestic up to occupational hygiene and public health; and involves healthy diet, cleanliness, and mental health. Industrial engineering is a branch of engineering that concerns the development, improvement, implementation and evaluation of integrated systems of people, knowledge, equipment, energy, material and process. Industrial engineering draws upon the principles and methods of engineering analysis and synthesis, as well as mathematical,

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physical and social sciences together with the principles and methods of engineering analysis and design to specify, predict and evaluate the results to be obtained from such systems. Industrial engineers work to eliminate wastes of time, money, materials, energy and other resources. Information science (a.k.a. information studies) is an interdisciplinary science primarily concerned with the collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information.[1] Information science studies the application and usage of knowledge in organizations, and the interaction between people, organizations and information systems. It is often, though not exclusively, studied as a branch of computer science or informatics and is closely related to the cognitive and social sciences. Information Technology (IT) known as Information and Communication(s) Technology (ICT) and Infocomm in Asia is concerned with the use of technology in managing and processing information, especially in large organizations. In particular, IT deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to convert, store, protect, process, transmit, and retrieve information. For that reason, computer professionals are often called IT specialists or Business Process Consultants, and the division of a company or university that deals with software technology is often called the IT department. Other names for the latter are information services (IS) or management information services (MIS), managed service providers (MSP). The Institute of Actuaries is one of the two professional bodies representing actuaries in the United Kingdom. The Institute is based in England, while the other body, the Faculty of Actuaries, is based in Scotland. While the Institute and Faculty of actuaries are separate institutions, they work very closely together, and the professional qualifications and professional standards for actuaries are identical in each of them. The Institute of Biology (IoB) is a professional body for biologists, primarily those working in the United Kingdom. Membership currently stands around 14,000. It was founded in 1950, received a Royal Charter in 1979 and holds charitable status. The headquarters of the Institue is located in Kensington, London, near to the Natural History Museum and Imperial College London. The IoB is not a trade union, nor does it have regulatory power over its membership, like the General Medical Council. The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England & Wales (ICAEW) is the largest English and Welsh accountancy body for chartered accountants and auditors, with over 128,000 members. There is, however, no legal requirement for an accountant to be a member of one of the many Institutes as the term accountant does not have the same legal protection in the United Kingdom as that given to, say, doctors and lawyers. There are, though, certain legal rights and duties which are available to professionally qualified accountants. For example, individuals who operate in the areas of audit and insolvency must be registered and only members of certain chartered accountancy bodies (such as the ICAEW) are eligible for such registration. Likewise individuals who describe themselves as "chartered accountants" must be a member of an accountancy body which holds a 'Royal Charter' and if working in public practice these chartered accountants must comply with additional regulations such as holding indemnity insurance and submitting to regular and independent inspections. Journalism is a discipline of collecting, analyzing, verifying, and presenting news regarding current events, trends, issues and people. Those who practice journalism are known as journalists. Since the beginning of the 20th Century, most journalists have traditionally been paid professionals holding a degree in this field. However, since the late 1990s, the Internet has given birth to a new form of citizen journalists. Landscape architecture is the art, planning, design, management, preservation and rehabilitation of the land and the design of human-made constructs. The scope of the profession includes architectural design, site planning, housing estate development, environmental restoration, town or urban planning, urban design, parks and recreation

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planning, regional planning, and historic preservation. A practitioner in the field of landscape architecture is called a landscape architect. Library science or library and information science (abbreviated LIS) is the study of issues related to libraries and the information fields. This includes academic studies regarding how library resources are used and how people interact with library systems. These studies tend to be specific to certain libraries at certain times. The organization of knowledge for efficient retrieval of relevant information is also a major research goal of LIS. Basic topics in LIS include the acquisition, cataloging, classification, and preservation of library materials. In a more present-day view, a fervent outgrowth of LIS is information architecture. LIS should not be confused with information theory, the mathematical study of the concept of information, or information science, a field related to computer science and cognitive science. Licentiate is the title of a person who holds an academic degree called a license. It exists in various African, European and Latin American countries and represents different educational levels. The term "management" characterizes the process of and/or the personnel leading and directing all or part of an organization (often a business) through the deployment and manipulation of resources (human, financial, material, intellectual or intangible). Maritime Studies - Seamanship is the art of operating a ship or boat. Marine science is a multidisciplinary field of study and research of ocean life and physics. Overlap areas between the different marine science disciplines are increasingly targeted as it seems necessary to investigate these areas in order to fully understand the workings of the marine environment. Mass communication is the term used to describe the academic study of various means by which individuals and entities relay information to large segments of the population all at once through mass media. In the United States, many university journalism departments evolved into schools or colleges of mass communication or "journalism and mass communication," as reflected in the names of two major academic organizations. In addition to studying practical skills of journalism, public relations or advertising, students also may major in "mass communication" or "mass communication research." The latter is often the title given to doctoral studies in such schools, whether the focus of the student's research is journalism practice, history, law or media effects. Departmental structures within such colleges may separate research and instruction in professional or technical aspects of newspaper and magazine publishing, radio, television, and film. Mass communication research includes media institutions and processes, such as diffusion of information, and media effects, such as persuasion or manipulation of public opinion. Mechanical engineering is a professional engineering discipline that involves the application of principles of physics for analysis, design, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. It requires a solid understanding of key concepts including mechanics, kinematics, thermodynamics and energy. Practitioners of mechanical engineering, known as mechanical engineers, use these principles and others in the design and analysis of automobiles, aircraft, heating & cooling systems, buildings and bridges, industrial equipment and machinery, and more. The chief medical officer is an official in the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom who regularly advises their respective government on health related matters. Such a person is the most senior advisor on health matters in both systems of government, and the term has also found some usage in non-government circles such as policing. In England, the CMO is a member of the board of the National Health Service (NHS), a civil servant in the Department of Health, and head of the medical civil service. Medical Science or Medicine is a branch of health science and the sector of public life concerned with maintaining or restoring human health through the study, diagnosis, treatment and possible prevention of disease and injury. It is

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both an area of knowledge a science of body systems, their diseases and treatment and the applied practice of that knowledge. Medical technology refers to the diagnostic or therapeutic application of science and technology to improve the management of health conditions. Technologies may encompass any means of identifying the nature of conditions and intervening with devices, pharmacological, biological or other methods to increase life span and/or improve the quality of life. Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and of materials engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys. Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, which are unicellular or cell-cluster microscopic organisms. This includes eukaryotes such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes such as bacteria and certain algaes. Viruses, though not strictly classed as living organisms, are also studied. Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth, usually (but not always) from an ore body, vein, or (coal) seam. Materials recovered by mining include bauxite, coal, copper, gold, silver, diamonds, iron, precious metals, lead, limestone, nickel, phosphate, oil shale, rock salt, tin, uranium, and molybdenum. Any material that cannot be grown from agricultural processes must be mined. Mining in a wider sense can also include extraction of petroleum, natural gas, and even water. Missiology, or mission science, is the area of practical theology which investigates the mandate, message and work of the Christian missionary. Missiology is a multidisciplinary and crosscultural reflection on all aspects of the propagation of the Christian faith, embracing theology, anthropology, history, geography, theories and methods of communication, comparative religion, Christian apologetics, methodology, and interdenominational relations. Music education comprises the application of education methods in teaching music. Music education encompasses many areas of teaching, including music history, music theory, instrumental proficiency, singing skills, and general music skills. Nursing is a profession focused on assisting individuals, families, and communities in attaining, re-attaining, and maintaining optimal health and functioning. Modern definitions of nursing define it as a science and an art that focuses on promoting quality of life as defined by persons and families, throughout their life experiences from birth to care at the end of life. Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) is a cross-disciplinary area concerned with protecting the safety, health and welfare of people engaged in work or employment. As a secondary effect OSH may also protect employers, customers, suppliers, and members of the public who may experience an impact from the workplace environment. Occupational therapy (OT) is an applied science and health profession that provides skilled treatment to help individuals develop, regain or maintain the skills necessary to participate in all facets of their lives. OT gives people the "skills for the job of living" necessary for living meaningful and satisfying lives. Optometry (Greek: optos meaning seen or visible and metria meaning measurement) is the health care profession concerned with examination, diagnosis, and treatment of the eyes and related structures and with determination and correction of vision problems using lenses and other optical aids Osteopathy is a theory of disease and method of cure founded on the assumption that deformation of some part of the skeleton and consequent interference with the adjacent nerves and blood-vessels are the cause of most diseases. (Oxford English Dictionary). Practitioners of osteopathy, called osteopaths (or osteopathic physicians in the US), have a holistic approach; osteopathic philosophy requires addressing the whole person in diagnosis, prevention and treatment of illness, disease and injury, using manual and physical therapies (Osteopathic Manipulative Medicine, or OMM).

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Pest control refers to the regulation or management of another species defined as a pest, usually because it is believed to be detrimental to a person's health, the ecology or the economy. Pharmacy (from the Egyptian = drug) is a transitional field between health sciences and chemical sciences and a profession charged with ensuring the safe use of medication. Traditionally, pharmacists have compounded and dispensed medications on the orders of physicians. More recently, pharmacy has come to include other services related to patient care including clinical practice, medication review, and drug information. Some of these new pharmaceutical roles are now mandated by law in various legislatures. Pharmacists, therefore, are drug therapy experts, and the primary health professionals who optimise medication management to produce positive health-outcomes. A physician is a person who practices biological medicine. In the United States, the term physician is commonly used to describe all medical doctors. In Britain, Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Africa, India, Indonesia, Republic of China (Taiwan), Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Zimbabwe and Hong Kong, the term doctor is prevalent (and in formal/legal contexts, medical practitioner as well), as physician refers to specialists in internal medicine. Podiatry or "Podiatric Medicine" is a field of healthcare devoted to the study and treatment of disorders of the foot, ankle, and sometimes knee, leg and hip (collectively known as the lower extremity). The terms podiatry and chiropody are not interchangeable, with the word chiropody being most used in the UK, and podiatry in the US. Public administration can be broadly described as the study and implementation of policy. As a moral endeavor, public administration is linked to pursuing the public good through the creation of civil society and social justice. The adjective 'public' often denotes 'government', though it increasingly encompasses Non-governmental organizations such as those of civil society or any entity and its management not specifically acting in self-interest. Public health is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis. Health is defined and promoted differently by many organizations. The World Health Organization, the United Nations body that sets standards and provides global surveillance of disease, defines health as: "A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity." Public health experts agree this definition is incomplete. Other components included in an individual's health are nutritional, spiritual, and intellectual. The Royal Academy of Music (sometimes abbreviated to RAM) is a music school in London, England and one of the leading music institutions in the world. It was founded by Lord Burghersh in 1822 and in 1830 was granted a Royal Charter by King George IV 'to promote the cultivation of the science of music and to afford facilities for attaining perfection in it by assisting with general instruction all persons desirous of acquiring knowledge thereof'. One of the most revered musical education establishments in the world, many important musicians have studied at the Academy since then. Founded in 1866 The Royal Aeronautical Society, also known as the RAeS, is a multidisciplinary professional institution dedicated to the global aerospace community. The objectives of The Royal Aeronautical Society include; to support and maintain the highest professional standards in all aerospace disciplines; to provide a unique source of specialist information and a local forum for the exchange of ideas; and to exert influence in the interests of aerospace in both the public and industrial arenas. The Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (RAS) was, according to its Royal Charter of August 11, 1824, established to further "the investigation of subjects connected with and for the encouragement of science literature and the arts in relation to Asia." From its incorporation the Society has been a forum, through lectures, its

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journal, and other publications, for scholarship relating to Asian culture and society of the highest level. It is the United Kingdom's senior learned society in the field of Asian studies. A Royal Charter is a charter given by a monarch to legitimize an incorporated body, such as a city, company, university or such. In medieval Europe, cities were the only place where it was legal to conduct commerce, and Royal Charters were the only way to establish a city. The year a city was chartered is considered the year the city was "founded", irrespective of whether there was settlement there before. A Royal College in some Commonwealth of Nations countries is technically a college which has received a Royal Charter to add the prefix Royal to its name. The charter normally confers a constitution with perpetual succession and the right to sue or be sued independently of the members from time to time, and rights of recourse to the Queen in Council. Although incorporation is now cheaply and easily obtainable by registration, the distinction of a Royal Charter means that such charters are still sought by and granted to institutions considered to be in the public interest, typically learned professional societies. The Royal College of Art (RCA) is a university in London, England, housed in the Darwin Building in Kensington Gore, South Kensington. It is the worlds only wholly postgraduate art and design institution, offering the degrees of M.A., M.Phil. and Ph.D. The college was founded in 1837, and was then known as the Government School of Design. It became the National Art Training School in 1853, and in 1896 received the name The Royal College of Art. After 130 years in operation, the RCA was granted a Royal Charter in 1967, which gave it the status of an independent university with the power to grant its own degrees. The Royal College of Chemistry (RCC) was a college originally based on Oxford Street in central London, England. It existed between 1845 and 1872.The college was set up to teach practical chemistry. Many politicians donated funds to establish the college, including Benjamin Disraeli, William Gladstone and Robert Peel. It was also supported by Prince Albert. The Royal College of Music is a prestigious music school located in Kensington, London. Founded in 1882 as a successor to the National Training School for Music by the then-Prince of Wales (later Edward VII), the school opened in 1883 with George Grove as its director. It moved to its present location in the Albertopolis cultural quarter, next to Imperial College London and opposite the Royal Albert Hall in 1894. In the same year Hubert Parry became director, remaining until 1918. The college teaches all aspects of western classical music from undergraduate to doctorate level. There is a Junior Department, where 300 children aged 8 to 18 are educated on Saturdays. It also has an extensive museum of musical instruments which is open to the public. The Royal College of Organists or RCO, is an educational body of the United Kingdom. Its role is to promote organ and choral music and it offers musical education and training for organists and choral directors. The College maintains the British Organ Library and provides examinations in organ-playing, choral directing and organteaching. These exams are legendary for their exhausting standards and tiny pass rates. They have been criticised by many distinguished organists for their 19th-century austerity and elitist approach. The Royal College of Physicians of London is the oldest medical institution in England was founded in 1518 and is one of the most active of all medical professional organisations. Since the College's creation as the College of Physicians (it acquired the "Royal" prefix in 1674) by royal charter of King Henry VIII in 1518, it has engaged in a wide range of activities dedicated to its overall aim of upholding and improving standards of medical practice. Its membership (and the MRCP(UK) title) is obtained by doctors who have completed the Membership of the Royal College of Physicians exams. Fellows (the FRCP title) are elected. The Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians (LRCP) is no longer awarded.

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The Royal College of Science was a higher education institution located in South Kensington; it was a constituent college of Imperial College London from 1907 until it was wholly absorbed by Imperial in 2002. Alumni include H. G. Wells and Brian May and are distinguishable by the letters ARCS (Associate of the Royal College of Science) after their name. Organisations linked with the college include the Royal College of Science Union and the Royal College of Science Association. The Royal College of Science originated in classes run by the Science and Art Department. Like the South Kensington Museum, the Science and Art Department benefited from land acquired for "educational purposes" by the commissioners of the Great Exhibition of 1851. The South Kensington classes became increasingly well-regarded under the influence of T.H. Huxley. The Royal College of Surgeons of England is an independent professional body committed to promoting and advancing the highest standards of surgical care for patients, regulating surgery, including dentistry, in England and Wales. The College is located at Lincoln's Inn Fields in London. The Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons is the regulatory body for veterinary surgeons in the United Kingdom. Established in 1844 by Royal Charter, its statutory duties are laid out in the 1966 Veterinary Surgeons Act. The Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) is a professional body for architects in the United Kingdom. Originally named the Institute of British Architects in London, it was formed in 1834 by several prominent architects, including Philip Hardwick, Thomas Allom, William Donthorne, Thomas Leverton Donaldson and John Buonarotti Papworth. It was awarded a Royal Charter in 1837, becoming the Royal Institute of British Architects in London, eventually dropping the reference to London in 1892. The RIBA is a member organisation, with 30,000 members. Chartered Members are entitled to append the letters RIBA after their name; Student Members are not permitted to do so. A fellow of the institute may add FRIBA. The Royal Photographic Society was founded in the United Kingdom in 1853 "to promote the Art and Science of Photography". It offers various levels of qualifications in photographic skills and runs an extensive programme of lectures and events throughout the United Kingdom and abroad, through local groups and special interest groups. The Society owns a major historic collection of photographs, photographic equipment and books which was deposited with the National Media Museum in Bradford. Royal School of Mines comprises the departments of Earth Science and Engineering, and Materials at Imperial College London. The Royal School of Mines was established in 1851, as the Government School of Mines and Science Applied to the Arts. The Royal College of Chemistry was merged into it in 1853. The School developed from the Museum of Economic Geology, a collection of minerals, maps and mining equipment made by Sir Henry De la Beche, and opened in 1841. The Museum also provided some student places for the study of mineralogy and metallurgy. Sir Henry was the director of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and when the collections outgrew the premises the Museum and the Survey were placed on an official footing, with Government assistance. The Museum of Practical Geology and the Government School of Mines Applied to the Arts opened in a purpose designed building in Jermyn Street in 1851. The officers of the Geological Survey became the lecturers and professors of the School of Mines. The name was changed in 1863 to the Royal School of Mines, and was moved to South Kensington in 1872, leaving the Museum of Practical Geology behind in Jermyn Street. In 1907, the RSM was incorporated into Imperial College of Science and Technology, but remains a "Constituent College" of Imperial. The current Dean of the Royal School of Mines is Professor John Monhemius. The Royal Scottish Academy is Scotlands premier organisation promoting contemporary Scottish art. Founded in 1826, the RSA maintains a unique position in Scotland as an independently funded institution lead by eminent artists and architects whose purpose is to promote and support the creation, understanding and enjoyment of the visual arts through exhibitions and related educational events.

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The Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland is a learned society based in Ireland, whose aims are 'to preserve, examine and illustrate all ancient monuments and memorials of the arts, manners and customs of the past, as connected with the antiquities, language, literature and history of Ireland'. Founded in 1849, it has a countrywide membership from all four provinces of Ireland. The affairs of the Society are conducted by the President, Officers and Council, whose services are entirely voluntary. Anyone subscribing to the aims of the Society, subject to approval by Council, may be elected to membership. Current and past members have included historians, archaeologists and linguists, but the Society firmly believes in the importance of encouraging an informed general public, and many members are non-professionals. The Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce (RSA) is a British multidisciplinary institution, based in London. The name Royal Society of Arts is frequently used by others for brevity, but the Society itself uses either its full name or the initials RSA (not least in the letters Fellows of the Society use after their name FRSA). It was founded in 1754 and was granted a Royal Charter in 1847. Notable members have included Benjamin Franklin, Karl Marx, Adam Smith, William Hogarth, Charles Dickens and Guglielmo Marconi. The Royal Society of Literature is the "senior literary organisation in Britain." It was founded in 1820 by George IV, with the aim to "reward literary merit and excite literary talent." The Society has an annual magazine, RSL, and administers a number of literary prizes and awards, including the Ondaatje Prize, the Jerwood Awards and the V. S. Pritchett Memorial Prize. It can confer the honour of Companion of Literature for writers of particular note. It also awards the Benson Medal for lifetime service in the field of literature. Sacred music is the common Anglicized term for music related to religious rituals. The social sciences are a group of academic disciplines that study human aspects of the world. They diverge from the arts and humanities in that the social sciences tend to emphasize the use of the scientific method in the study of humanity, including quantitative and qualitative methods. The social sciences, in studying subjective, intersubjective and objective or structural aspects of society, are sometimes referred to as soft sciences. This is in contrast to hard sciences, which may focus exclusively on objective aspects of nature. Social scientists engage in research and theorize about both group and individual behaviors. A social welfare provision refers to any government program which seeks to provide a minimum level of income, service or other support for disadvantaged groups such as the poor, elderly, disabled and students. Social welfare payments and services are typically provided free of charge or at a nominal fee, and are funded by the state, or by compulsory enrollment of the poor themselves. Social workers are concerned with social problems, their causes, their solutions and their human impacts. Social workers work with individuals, families, groups, organizations and communities, as members of a profession which is committed to social justice and human rights. Surgery (from the Greek cheirourgia meaning "hand work") is the medical specialty that treats diseases or injuries by operative manual and instrumental treatment. Surgeons may be physicians, dentists, or veterinarians who specialize in surgery. A surgery can also refer to the place where surgery is performed, or simply the office of a physician, dentist, or veterinarian. Technology is a word with origins in the Greek word technologia (), techne () "craft" and logia () "saying." It is a broad term dealing with the use and knowledge of humanity's tools and crafts. Urban, city, or town planning is the discipline of land use planning which explores several aspects of the built and social environments of municipalities and communities. Other professions deal in more detail with a smaller scale of development, namely architecture, landscape architecture and urban design. Regional planning deals with a still larger environment, at a less detailed level.

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