1

Introduction to
Computer Fundamentals
and
Information Technology
(Series 1 – With Simple Visual Basic 2008 Jumpstart)

Copernicus P. Pepito

Note from the Author:

This e-book version is for Promotion Purposes only. You can buy your
hardcopy of this e-book from National Bookstore (the Publisher of this
book). Thanks.
 2

Dedication

To Tara B. Williams, my true north, south, east and west…joke.

This book is also heartily dedicated in loving memory to Dean Michelle Diaz-Navarro
who died without seeing this book in person (But I know you saw this book in spirit,
Dean Mitch! Thank you for being a good friend and boss to me…seriously speaking.)
 3

Acknowledgement

From the bottom of my heart, I am so grateful to have a mom like you, Mama
Glo. But you passed away so soon, leaving your family in great pain and agony. Your
best encouragement that tells me to keep on writing books, still echoes in my mind. That
encouragement sustains me to live my life happily, again.
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Ms. Letty Custodio of National
Bookstore - Purchasing Department who is very instrumental to the success of my
books. Without her uncommon understanding and patience that are so rare to most human
beings, my books could not have been written.
I am very thankful also to Madam Zeny Alulod of Cacho Hermanos Publishing,
for the heart-to-heart talks and to Ms. Lyn Francisco of National Bookstore – Accounting
Department whose inspiring words (based on biblical wisdom) can never be forgotten .
Well, if there is someone who motivated me to be brave in expressing myself
through written-words, she was no other than my beloved grandmother, Dr. Roberta
Pepito. Her editing-style made me feel very confident about my English-grammar
proficiency (eventhough, I’m not good at it - honestly speaking!). By the way, I have
other grandmother who taught me to be caring and loving, by being caring and loving
herself - Lola Bening Prietos. And grandfather too, who taught me a lot of wisdom in his
own little way – Lolo Ciano Prietos.
Lastly, I give thanks to our Almighty God who unceasingly poured out a lot of
blessings to me, and whose plan to my life and the lives of my loveones I cannot
questioned, and who answered my questions about life, trials, and death through the
books written by His servants.
 4

About the Author

Copernicus P. Pepito is formerly an Assistant Professor of AMA Computer University –
Quezon City Campus for 11 years and presently an Instructor and Training Consultant of
Mapua IT Center – Makati Campus. He holds 4 degrees: Bachelor of Science in
Computer Science (BSCS), Bachelor of Science in Computer Engineering (BSCoE),
Master of Science in Computer Science (MSCS), and Master in Business Administration
(MBA). Professor Pepito earned 7 international certifications in computer: Cisco
Certified Network Associate (CCNA), Cisco Certified Academy Instructor (CCAI),
Microsoft Certified Professional (MCP), Microsoft Certified Systems Administrator
(MCSA), Microsoft Certified Database Administrator (MCDBA), Microsoft Certified
Solution Developer (MCSD), and Microsoft Certified Systems Engineer (MCSE).
Professor Pepito is an author of 9 computer books, all of which are published by National
Bookstore.
 5

Preface to the First Edition

“Power comes not from knowledge kept, but from knowledge shared.”
-Bill Gates

Hello out there! This book is written, because deep in my heart and soul, I’m
craving to share the knowledge I learned about computers. As a teacher, I felt this urge to
extend my classes from the four corners of my classroom to the far-reaching part of the
Philippine archipelago. Invading every classroom, every library, and every home. I’d like
to imagine that this book would be read by thousands of students with great interest and
enthusiasm. I want them to enjoy reading the way I enjoyed writing it. This is my
message to all students in Introduction to computer class, “our adventure to learn about
computer has just begun”. Well, what can I say more, but: bon voyage, adventurer!
This is a common overheard statement: “there is nothing constant in this world
but change". I believe that this one is true with computers. Every year, we heard and read
news about new computer models, new software versions and releases. We even wonder
if what we have learned today can still be applied for tomorrow’s technology.
As a matter of honesty, we even got discouraged and felt inferior to other high-
tech countries like the U.S.A., Japan, and some other parts of Europe. We feel as though
we cannot catch up with their technological advancement.
I know this because I feel also the same. This book is written as an attempt to
playing “catch up” with the modern trends of information technology in the whole world.
I feel that as a teacher in computer science, I have the responsibility to help in elevating
our computer literacy-level through research with the different available resources at
hand, and compile them into a book ready to be read and learned by the Filipino youth.
I see another obstacle to our learning endeavor. This is about the high cost of
computer books nowadays. In other words this book is designed to be updated as possible
in terms of technological trends and as affordable as possible in terms of price or cost of
ownership. I could express it in these words: “This book is written by the heart and soul
of a teacher whose very intention is to help and share, withholding nothing, not even his
very intimate secret. Dare? Enjoy!

I Believe

I firmly believe that computer fundamentals should embrace the past, present and
future of information technology. Otherwise, we fall short of how computer evolves
completely. Serving in the field of computer studies, I have the responsibility to build a
bridge to link this past, present and future of computer revolution. And I’m hoping that
those students who would like to pass on this bridge could be able to see the whole
picture of what the computer is all about. Then next, how the computer enriches our lives
and what to expect in the near future about its never-ending evolution. This book is
written for the purpose of building that bridge.
 6

Reading this book is your journey starting from the past, then to the present and
to the future. I’d like to end this preface by quoting Microsoft’s corporate motto: “ Where
do you want to go today?”. My answer is: to SM (ShoeMart) watching movies and
doing some window-shopping. That is how I spend my leisure time, most of the time.
Very simple, very normal. But I have a dream.

Copernicus P. Pepito
AMA Computer University
Quezon City Campus
 7

Preface to the Second Edition

This is the first book I published under National Bookstore. I am so very happy
and thankful that thousands of Filipino students were patronizing the books I wrote. I
cannot think of other ways to share with you what I learned in the best way I can, but
only through writing a book like this. I could be not your Instructor inside your
classroom, but I am, in the other way around, for I write this book which primary purpose
is to extend the four corners of my classroom at AMA Computer University – Quezon
City campus (and now at Mapua IT Center - Makati Campus) to the far-reaching part of
the Philippine archipelago.
I felt honored and fulfilled to received an e-mail from a student in Camiguin
Islands (somewhere near in Cagayan De Oro, Mindanao) asking for help about her
subject in programming. I didn’t expect that such a far away place, my book was read by
a student like her who was eager to learn.
I am hoping that this second edition will add more to your basic knowledge in
computer and provides you an insights about Information Technology (IT). Have a
happy day learning IT now!

Copernicus P. Pepito
Mapua IT Center
Makati Campus
 8

Table of Contents

Dedication i
Acknowledgement ii
About the Author iii
Preface to the First Edition iv
Preface to the Second Edition vi

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

What’s New with this New Edition 2

Why We Study Computer 2
So, What Is A Computer 2
History of Computers At a Glance 3
Computer Revolution: Timeline (From 1930’s to 1960’s) 3
Computer Revolution: Timeline (In 1970’s) 4
A Short History Of Calculating Machines 5
The Computer Age Generation 8
The Computer Today 16
Mainframes and Minicomputers 17
Personal Computers and Workstations 17
Laptop Computers and Pocket PC’s 18
Supercomputers 19
Embedded and Special Purpose Computers 20
Computers Are All The Same 21
The Computer Number System (Series I) 22
The Essence of Learning These Number Systems 22
Presenting: The Binary Number System 23
Decimal Number System 23
Binary to Decimal Number Conversion 24
Decimal to Binary Number Conversion 24
LEC ACTIVITY TEST 1 26

Chapter 2 The Basics of Computer Hardware 27

History of Computer Hardware Revolution 28
Hardware Revolution: Timeline: (In 1980’s) 28
Hardware Revolution: Timeline: (In 1990’s) 29
Hardware Revolution: Timeline: (In early 2000) 30
The Computer Sub-System and Peripherals 31
The CPU (Central Processing Unit) 31
Intel Dual-Core Technology 32
Intel Core 2 Duo Technology 33
Intel Quad Core Technology 33
AMD Turion 64x2 Dual Core Mobile Technology 34
Cache Memory 34
The RAM and ROM 35
 9

The CMOS 36
Flash Memory 36
The Input Devices 39
The Output Devices 39
The Storage Devices 42
Computer Ports 45
Computer Bus 45
Bus Standards 46
Expansion Slots 46
The UPS 46
The Computer Number System (Series II) 47
Presenting: The Octal Number System 47
Decimal to Octal Number Conversion 47
Octal to Decimal Number Conversion 47
Octal to Binary Number Conversion 48
Binary to Octal Number Conversion 49
LEC ACTIVITY TEST 2 51
Chapter 3 The Basics of Computer Software 52
History of Computer Software Revolution 52
Software Revolution: Timeline (In 1970’s) 52
Software Revolution: Timeline (In 1980’s) 53
Software Revolution: Timeline (In 1990’s) 54
Bits, Bytes, Data and Information 56
The Computer Programming Languages 57
Structured Programming Language 57
Object-Oriented Programming Language (OOP) 58
Different Categories of Programming Languages 58
C Programming Language 58
C++ Programming Language 59
Visual BASIC Language 60
C# Programming Language 61
About Visual Web Developer 63
A Special Note about IDE 63
Java Programming Language 64
Python Programming Language 64
The Scripting Languages 65
The HTML 65
The JavaScript 66
The PHP 67
The XML 68
The CGI 68
Authoring Software 69
The Operating System 69
The DOS (Disk Operating System) 69
Microsoft Windows Operating System 70
Other Operating System 73
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The Four Categories of Operating System 76

Utilities Software 79
The Word Processor 81
The Desktop Publishing Software 82
The Electronic Spreadsheet Software 83
Other Application Software of Microsoft Office 2007 84
The Microsoft Office 2007 Nemesis: The OpenOffice 86
Mathematical, Scientific and Statistical Software 88
Computer Simulation 88
Database Management 89
Corporate Databases 89
The Computer Number System (Series III) 94
Presenting: The Hexadecimal Number System 94
Decimal to Hexadecimal Number Conversion 95
Hexadecimal to Decimal Number Conversion 96
Hexadecimal to Binary Number Conversion 97
Binary to Hexadecimal Number Conversion 98
LEC ACTIVITY TEST 3 101

Chapter 4 The Basics of Computer Networking 103

So What is a Computer Network, Anyway? 103
History of Computer Network Revolution 103
Network Revolution: Timeline (In 1960’s and 1970’s) 104
Network Revolution: Timeline (In 1980’s) 104
Network Revolution: Timeline (In early 2000) 105
Local Area Network (LAN) 106
Wide Area Network (WAN) 108
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) 108
Wireless Area Network 109
The Internet 111
How Internet Started 112
Intranet (The private Internet) 113
Extranet 114
Virtual Private Networks (VPN) 114
Basic Network Structure 115
Hardware Used in Networks 116
Digital Connections 123
Flowcharting and Algorithms (Part 1) 125
Flowchart 125
Algorithms or Pseudo-codes 127
Flowchart and Algorithm Elements and Its Structure 128
Operators or Notations Used in Flowcharting 129
Logical AND, OR, and NOT tables 131

Chapter 5 Business At the World Wide Web 138

World Wide Web (WWW) 138
 11

How the World Wide Web Started 138

The Web Browser 139
How to Use the URL and Hyperlink 140
The Web Server 141
The Web Site 141
Electronic Mail (E-Mail) 141
The E-Mail Advantage 143
The E-Commerce 144
Internet Sales 144
Online Shopping 145
Online Catalog 145
Online Purchase 146
Online Banking 146
Online Window Shopping 146
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) 148
Telecommuters: A New Breed of Workforce 148
Cool Stuff That We can Enjoy with the Web 148
Online Dictionary and Encyclopedia 154
Simple Input/Output Statements (Formula-Oriented) 155

Chapter 6 The Basics of Graphics and Multimedia 160

The Pixels and Bitmaps 160
Graphics You Can See Everywhere 161
Graphics File Formats 161
How to Load Images into Your PC 162
LEC ACTIVITY TEST 5 173

Chapter 7 Artificial Intelligence and Information Systems 174

AI Defined 174
Computerized Language Translator 174
The Advantages of Expert System 176
Pattern Recognition 176
Image Analysis 177
Speech Recognition Software 177
Neural Networks 178
The Robotics Technology 179
Information System (IS) Defined 181
Different Types of Information Systems 181
The IS Department 182
Managing Data Effectively 182
IS Storage System 183
Storage Area Network (SAN) 183
Information System Development 184
Data Warehouse and Data Mining 184
Application of Simple If-Else Conditional Statements 184
LEC ACTIVITY TEST 6
 12

Chapter 8 Computer Application at Work, School and Home 188

Computer Application In Airlines and Shipping Industry 188
Computer Application In Medicine 188
Computer Application In Banking Industry 189
Computer Application in TV and Movies 190
Computer Application in Factory 191
Computer Application in Offices 192
Telecommuting: A New Way to Work At Home or At the Road 193
Computer Application in Business Management 194
Computer Application at School 196
Computer Application at Home 197
Application of If/Else If Statements 198
LEC ACTIVITY TEST 7 202

Chapter 9 Understanding Basic Computer Security 204

Threats and Countermeasures 204
Identity Theft 204
Computer Viruses 205
Online Spying Tools 207
Cybercrime 208
Hacking 209
Cyber terrorism 209
Firewalls 209
Application of Looping Statement 211
LEC ACTIVITY TEST 9

Chapter 10 The Future of IT 215

Application of Subroutines or Subprograms 218
LEC ACTIVITY TEST 10 227
Answer Key to Odd Numbers of LEC ACTIVITY TESTS 228
 13

Chapter 1
Introduction

“Information Technology makes many things possible

but it is only education that makes things happen.”
-Bill Gates

What’s New with this New Edition

If you have read my previous book’s edition, you can really feel the well-added
improvement when it comes to topics, figures, pictures and images. What is more
noticeable is that in the first edition, no pictures or images can be found. It is purely text
and figures and line drawings and symbols. In this new edition, pictures and images are
its main offering. I am also a believer of a common overheard statement, that “a picture
can speak a thousand words,” or something like it. To make it a practice in my book
writing endeavor, I will adhere to such old wisdom of the times. Here are the summary of
the added exciting topics on this new edition:

• well-researched pictures and images

• more history of the computer revolution in terms of hardware, software, and
networking technologies
• more predictions of the future computer technology
• mathematical, relational, and logical expressions (or equations) discussions are
included with examples and laboratory exercises
• subroutine (subprogram) example in flowcharting and algorithm is also included
and discussed
• additional significant discussions on the basics of hardware, software, and
networking technologies,
• two chapters added - the first one is the “Business at the World Wide Web” and
the next one is about “Basic Computer Security”

Note:
This second edition’s revision and updates is mainly based on the latest book written by Peter Norton
(principal developer and creator of Norton Anti-Virus and Utilities) entitled “Introduction to
Computers”. So, if you find this new edition as something more “meatier” than the first edition, it is
because this book stands in the shoulder of a giant.
 14

Why We Study Computer

We can accomplish many tasks in using this most amazing machine called
“computer”, whether you are working on your case study, term paper or thesis written in
Microsoft Word. This is in the case of the students. In the case of the teachers, they are
using spreadsheet application software such as the Microsoft Excel to compute the grades
of their students. Seminar and conference speakers are presenting their topics animatedly
in the LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Projector using Microsoft PowerPoint.
Let us go to the company on how they use computer to enhance their office-work
productivity. The Sales Manager in the company is using the Microsoft PowerPoint for
his or her sales report presentation. An office secretary is using the Microsoft Word to
type the company’s circular memorandum.
How about other professionals? Are they too used the computer to enhanced their
productivity? Let us see if they are. Architects are using Autocad software to design
buildings and houses. Combat pilots are using computer to simulate and practice landing
an F14 fighter plane on the deck of an aircraft carrier.
This time, we have to go to some business establishments. Banks are using
Automated Teller Machine (ATM) so that we can withdraw anytime or anywhere we
want. Remember that an ATM is 100 percent computer, nothing less. Airlines and
shipping companies are using computer for their online reservation systems so that we
can book our flight online and anywhere conveniently.
How about for the small people? Are they too enjoyed the many things a
computer could offer? Yes, indeed! Today’s children are enjoying playing their favorite
computer games.
Imagine, all of these are made possible because we have this computer
technology. What we are discussing here are but just a tip of an iceberg of what the
computer can do for us to enjoy life. There are actually hundreds of reasons why we have
to study computer for our own good. I cannot remember them all. But I am sure you
have already a lot of reasons of your own to add on the listed reasons above which I had
previously presented.

So, What Is A Computer

A computer is simply an electronic device that processes data, converting it into

meaningful information that becomes useful to us. Any computer, regardless of its type
or category, is controlled by the software that tells it, what it has to do. This software
serves as the instructions to make the computer run.

Note:
For technical reason, this book’s title did not contain the words “Second Edition”. One of the reasons
being considered is its new title; since the old title is “Introduction to Computer Fundamentals: Concepts
and Applications”, while the new edition is titled with “Introduction to Computer Fundamentals &
Information Technology”. Furthermore, the new edition is a major revision that doubles the pages of the
first edition. Aside from many added topics to almost all chapters and with enhanced discussions, another
 15

chapters were added to offer more important topics to the student most especially in the area of the World
Wide Web and basic computer security.

History Of Computers At A Glance

A long, long time ago (not in a far distant galaxy), humans had invented abacus.
An Arabic number system that is used for calculation. But out of more human needs,
abacus can no longer satisfy the new demands for highly complicated and repetitive tasks
of calculations. This new demand had prompted the humans to invent more calculating
tools. And to make it short, one of these, is the computer.

Figure 1.1 An Abacus

The following are the important landmarks of the early computer revolution:

Computer Revolution: Timeline (From 1930’s To 1960’s)

-1939
- A German engineer Konrad Zuse invented the first general-purpose
computer.
- An American professor John Atanasoff of the Iowa State College (now a
university) invented the first electronic computer called the Atanasoff-Berry
Computer (ABC).

-1940’s
- Harvard University professor Howard Aiken invented the automatic general-
purpose calculator called Mark I in 1944 which in turn was financed by the
International Business Machine (IBM).

- John Mauchly and Presper Eckert invented the Electronic Numerical

Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) that was used in World War II to
calculate trajectory tables for new guns. When the World War II was over,
Mauchly and Eckert developed the UNIVAC 1, the first general-purpose
commercial computer. (This was used by the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951).
 16

The UNIVAC 1 was considered as the first generation of computers that was
built using vacuum tubes.

-1948
- The three physicists at Bell Laboratories – J. Bardeen, H.W. Brattain, and W.
Shockley invented the transistor that could perform and accomplish the same
function like the vacuum tube. Transistors were first used to build computers in
1956. This is the beginning of the computer’s second generation.

-1960’s
- In mid 1960’s transistor-based computers were replaced by smaller and more
powerful third-generation computers built around the concept of integrated
circuit (IC). The IC is a technology that integrates hundreds of transistors in
one single tiny similar chip.

-1965
- In 1965, the first home computer is introduced by Honeywell Corporation in the
United States. It is called the “H316 Kitchen Computer”.

-1969
- In 1969, the first microprocessor (the brain of the computer ) was first
invented. This invention was considered the beginning of the fourth
generation of computers.

Computer Revolution: Timeline (In 1970’s)

-1970’s
- In mid 1970’s, Apple, Tandy, and Commodore computer companies had
introduced the first low-cost computers that are considered as powerful as
many of the room-sized computers in early 1950’s and 1960’s.

-1971
- In 1971, the world’s first commercially available microprocessor (the brain of
the computer) was designed and created by Dr. Ted Hoff of Intel Corporation. It
is originally designed for use in calculator that paves the way in its use in
computer. At the same year, Steve Wozniak (co-founder of Apple Computer)
together with his colleague Bill Fernandez design and create a computer which
they called Cream Soda Computer. They named it after they had drank Cragmont
cream soda during the construction of the computer.

-1972
- In 1972, the 5.25 floppy disk (diskette) is first introduced in the market. This
limited storage device makes it easy to transfer data, program, or any software
from one computer to another. Today, computer users are typically using a USB
Mass Storage Device (Thumb Drive or Flash Drive) to move their data, program
or software anywhere, anytime.
 17

-1973
- In 1973, the hard disk as mass storage device was introduced by IBM
Corporation. It is originally designed to hold 70 MB of data. Today’s hard disk is
over 160 GB in capacity.

-1974
-In 1974, Intel Corporation and Motorola Inc. introduced an 8-bit micro-
processor with 64 KB of RAM memory and runs a speed of 2 MHz. Today’s
microprocessor is a 64-bit, with 2 GB of RAM and runs over a speed of 2.3 GHz.

-1975
-In 1975, the first commercially available Personal Computer (PC) called Altair
was introduced in the United States.

-1976
-In 1976, the first Apple I computer was designed and marketed by the founders
of Apple company: Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak. Their company Apple,
Incorporated was established and named it after their favorite snack food.

-1978
- In 1978, the Epson company introduces their first dot-matrix printer with model
number MX-80.

A Short History Of Calculating Machines

Before computers came into existence, there were already calculating machines
invented. If computers can be compared to lions and tigers, then these early machines are
the dinosaurs. Like the dinosaurs, they were extinct. Their flesh and blood were long
gone (as well as their usefulness) but their skeletons remained. Maybe to remind us, that
they exist a long, long time ago and worth remembering as part of our past, part of our
history. Now let us travel back in time (with our time machine?).

In 1642, Blaise Pascal a French mathematician and philosopher invented an

adding machine called “Pascaline”. His concept and design was used and adapted by the
mechanical calculator inventors in the early 20th century.
 18

Figure 1.2 The Pascaline

Figure 1.3 Blaise Pascal Pictures

In 1830, Charles Babbage an English mathematician invented the “Difference

Engine” that would solve certain equations. After the British government withdrew its
financial support to his project, he later conceived the idea to invent the “Analytical
Engine” which he hoped would perform many kinds of calculations. His idea embodied
the five key features of our modern computer today: an input device, a place for storage,
a processor, a control unit, and an output device. This invention earns him the title
“Father of Computer”. After Babbage’s death, his son was able to design and construct
the analytical engine based on his model. Charles Babbage has a colleague in his work
with the analytical engine. Her name is Augusta Ada Byron, a gifted mathematician
who helped him develop the instructions for doing computations on it. She is a daughter
of the English poet Lord Byron, and later become the Countess of Lovelace. Because of
her close association with Babbage and her publications of notes about his work, she was
named “the first computer programmer”.

Figure 1.4 The Difference Engine

 19

Figure 1.5 The Analytical Engine

Figure 1.6 Augusta Ada Byron Pictures

In 1890, Herman Hollerith devised a punched-card tabulating machine. His

invention was used to tabulate the 1890 U.S. census. Six years later, he founded the
Tabulating Machine Company. Then five years afterwards, his company was merged
with several companies and form the Computing–Tabulating Recording Company.
Thomas J. Watson Sr.’ the company’s general manager changed its name to
International Business Machine (IBM) in 1924. Today, IBM is still one of the world’s
biggest and largest computer company.

The Computer Age Generation

Within the span of 40 years, we leap-frog through five generations of computer
technology. The subsequent generations are defined here briefly.

First Generation Computer (1951-1958) : The Age of Vacuum Tube

The vacuum tubes were used as the internal components for the first generation
computer. The first generation of computers begun with the introduction of the first
commercially viable electronic computer: the UNIVAC I. The short term for the
 20

Universal Automatic Computer. The UNIVAC I was designed and patterned after the
ENIAC (an acronym for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator).

Figure 1.7 The ENIAC

Figure 1.8 Vacuum tubes

Second Generation Computer (1959-1964) The Age of Transistor

The transistor was used as the internal components of the second generation
computer. Transistors were much smaller, faster, and reliable than vacuum tubes. They
consumed less electrical energy and needed no warm-up time.

Figure 1.9 The Transistors

Third Generation Computer (1965-1970) : The Age of Integrated Circuit (IC)

In 1965, integrated circuits began to replace transistors as the internal components

used to construct the computer. Even the entire circuit board of transistors can be
replaced completely with one chip (integrated circuit). This chip can be much smaller
 21

than one transistor. Integrated circuits are made of silicon chip. A silicon is a
semiconductor crystalline substance that can conduct electric current.

Figure 1.10 The Integrated Circuits (IC)

Fourth Generation Computer (1971-present) : The Age of Microprocessor

The fourth generation is just an extension of the third –generation technology.

This next technological development is to put more power and capabilities in one chip
called microprocessor. Microprocessor is considered as the brain of the computer. It is
where almost all computations and operations of the computer circuitry are being done
and coordinated. The application of microprocessor technology is not limited to
computers alone. It can be used and applied for digital watches, pocket calculators, copy
machines, television sets, cars, audio and video appliances.

Figure 1.11 The Microprocessors (Brain of the Computer)

Fifth Generation ( Onward) : Information Superhighway

The Japanese coined the term fifth generation computer to describe their plan to
build a powerful computer by mid-1990’s. Later the term evolved to encompass
computer intelligence: artificial intelligence, natural language, and expert system.
However, the fifth generation’s focus is more on connectivity. This is to permit computer
users to connect their computers to other computers. Like the way that happened with the
Internet today. Can the Internet be the precursor of Information Superhighway? Who can
tell?

The Computer Today

Today, there are many types of computers which the people are using and talking
about. Let us now know and learn their different categories:
 22

Mainframes and Minicomputers

Even today, large companies are still using computers for massive computing
tasks and to utilize their big investments on these expensive room-sized machines. These
mainframes are housed inside an air-conditioned room in big companies to keep them in
good working condition. That’s the reason why most of us have not seen them,
personally.
Even-though most of the people are not aware of their existence, most of us are
really using them indirectly and benefiting from their power and capability. Like for
example when we are withdrawing money from an ATM (Automatic Teller Machine) or
depositing money in our bank accounts. Big and large banks are still utilizing their
mainframe computer for their banking operations, though these banks are using PCs
(Personal Computers) at the same time for their other daily transactions.
Minicomputers are also like mainframes, though they are smaller and less
expensive compared to mainframes. However, they are less powerful than mainframes
but more powerful than personal computers . In today’s present technology, this
description can no longer be true. The new breed of Personal Computes (PCs) which are
called high-end network servers can surpass the power and capabilities of
minicomputers in terms of speed, accuracy and reliability.

Figure 1.12 Mainframe computer

Personal Computers and Workstations

As the name implies, Personal Computer (PC) is for single or personal use by
a certain individual. Most of the computers that we see and read about today are under
this category. They are almost everywhere, from the comfort of our home to every office
of a well-established company. When the personal computer is connected to a main
computer called “server” (to form a network), it is called a workstation.
 23

Figure 1.13 Personal Computer (PC) and a Flat-screen

Note:
Personal computer is also called microcomputer and desktop computer. The PC is also called
microcomputer since it is smaller than the minicomputer in terms of its size and weight. It is also known as
desktop computer, because PC always sits at the top of the desk.

Laptop Computers and Pocket PCs

In late 1980’s portable computers were approximately 20-pound suitcase look-
alike with fold-out keyboards and small TV-like screens. They are called portable,
because we can carry them from one place to another. Today, those portable computers
were replaced by flat-screen and battery-powered laptop computers. They are so light
and handy enough to rest in our lap while we are working with our company memo,
budget estimates or simply our e-mail to be sent when we get our Internet connections in
the office or at home. In our present trend, the typical laptop is called notebook
computer that weighs much less and can be carried like a book.
Not only that, the palmtop computers (hand-held) are the fast emerging type of
portable computers now. They are small enough to be put into a jacket’s pocket.
Generally, portable computers are more expensive than their personal computer (desktop)
counterparts.
The next big wave in portable computers is the Pocket PC such as the famous Palm Pilot
PC. Have you seen them in the latest computer magazine today? Or to your favorite
computer store?
 24

Figure 1.14 Laptop and Palmtop computers

Supercomputers

The supercomputer like Cray 1 generates data for aerodynamics research using
computational fluid dynamics. Supercomputer primarily used for scientific research that
involves with the manipulation of highly complex mathematical data and equations.
These data requires trillions of operations to resolve.
Physicists use supercomputers to study and analyze the results of explosions of
nuclear weapons which are presently being tested. Meteorologists use supercomputers to
analyze and study the formation of tornadoes. Scientists and engineers are using
supercomputers to sort through, analyze, and interpret mountains of seismic data gathered
during oil-seeking explorations. There are only few hundred supercomputers presently
used in the whole world today.

Figure 1.15 Supercomputers

 25

Embedded and Special Purpose Computers

There are computers that are made for a special purpose. They perform specific
tasks such as controlling the temperature and humidity in a big building offices, and to
monitor the heart rate of patients in the hospital. Embedded computers can be found in
almost all electronic consumer goods: game machines, video player, phones, stereos,
ovens, and in some parts of automobile’s electronic systems. Yet, we didn’t know that
they are inside on that electronic devices we are using in our day-to-day living.
We may wonder how this embedded computers are being put inside our stereos,
video player, or phones. Do they have keyboards, mouse, monitor, and disk drives? No,
they haven’t . What they have are the capabilities of performing tasks which are similar
to personal computers. These embedded computers are usually built-in to a chip
(integrated circuit) with a special-purpose program inside it. This program inside
performs the task such as temperature control and heart rate monitoring. In other words,
they are a combination of hardware (the IC) and software (the program) in one
microprocessor-like packaged chip. The program inside it is technically called firmware.

Computers for the People like Us

These are the types of computers that we are using personally:

• Personal Computer (PC) or Desktop computer

• Laptop Computer or Notebook computer
• Smart Phone or Handheld computer

Handheld personal computer is a computing device that is small enough to fit in our
hand. A popular type of handheld PC is the Personal Digital Assistant (PDA). It is a small
appointment book and is normally used for special applications, such as taking notes,
displaying phone numbers and addresses and keeping track of dates or agendas.
Smart Phone is a cellular phone with advanced features such as an Internet Web surfing
capability and access to e-mails, as well as a personal organizer at the same time.

Computers for the Company

• Mainframes and Minicomputers (Midrange)
• Supercomputers
• Network Servers

Network Server is usually a powerful personal computer with powerful software and
peripherals that enables it to function as the primary computer in the network.
Workstations that are used by the employees in the company are usually connected to the
network server which served as the central main computer. Most of the company’s
resources are stored to this main computer, that is why the employee can use any
workstation in any department to access their files or folders or any information they
need anywhere they are in the company premises.
 26

Computers Are All The Same

Have you heard someone who is angry about men’s promiscuous affair? That
particular woman would surely say (at the top of her voice), “All men are the same!”. But
before we go on with this battle of the sexes, let us apply that to the computer. As you
will learned later on, all computers regardless of their types, categories, sizes, or specific
functionalities – they are basically the same. Why? Because all of them are made up of
the same basic components or parts, such as every computer has as CPU, memory,
motherboard, adapter cards, and so on. Plus, they can only run if they have the needed
software that instructs them to accomplish a certain task.
By the way, if you would ask me if I agree with what that cheated woman said at
the first sentence of this paragraph, frankly speaking, I don’t. Why? Because some men
are not really a cheater by nature or by design, they are but just “only human”. Born to
give-in to temptations, and so weak to resist or fight back the feeling…or whatever it is.
Or probably they forgot that they are married, happily married (what an excuse, this
excuse, forgive me, is only mine, and mine alone). Joke, only.

Did You Know That?

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Even Great Scientist Needs Recognition and Appreciation Too!
( Charles Babbage – In His Own Words)
“ I have sacrificed time, health, and fortune, in the desire to complete these Calculating Engines. I
have also declined several offers of great personal advantage to myself. But, not withstanding the sacrifice
of these advantages for the purpose of maturing an engine of almost intellectual power, and after expending
from my own private fortune a larger sum than the government of England has spent on that machine, the
execution of which it only commenced, I have received neither an acknowledgment of my labors, nor even
the offer of those honors or rewards which are allowed to fall within the reach of men who devote
themselves to purely scientific investigations…
If the work upon which I have bestowed so much time and thought were a mere triumph over
mechanical difficulties, or simply curious, or if the execution of such engines were of doubtful
practicability or utility, some justification might be found for the course which has been taken; but I
venture to assert that no mathematician who has a reputation to lose will ever publicly express an opinion
that such a machine would be useless if made, and that no man distinguished as a civil engineer will
venture to declare the construction of such machinery impracticable…
And at a period when the progress of physical science is obstructed by that exhausting intellectual
and manual labor, indispensable for its advancement, which it is the object of the Analytical Engine to
relieve, I think the application of machinery in aid of the most complicated and abstruse calculations can no
longer be deemed unworthy of the attention of the country. In fact, there is no reason why mental as well as
bodily labor should not be economized by the aid of machinery.”

Note:
Charles Babbage is considered the Father of Computer.
 27

Figure 1.16 Charles Babbage in Pictures

The Computer Number Systems (Series I)

The Essence of Learning These Number Systems

Sometimes in our lives as students has this question in our minds why we study
this and that. Are all these difficult subjects are applicable and useful when we work in
the company? How about this algebra, trigonometry and analytic geometry? Can I apply
this when I work abroad? Well, I cannot answer you with a resounding yes. Maybe
because, I am not a mathematician. Or simply I didn’t know the answer (honestly
speaking). However, I can answer you that we can use and apply our knowledge that we
learned in studying number system conversion, because it is really an applied knowledge.
Wise men said that knowledge can only becomes power when it is applied. I strongly
agree. So here is now the reason :
Computers and networking equipment such as routers and switches work with
binary digits (bits). In other words, the base 2 number system (binary number system) is
what the computers and data communication devices are using for its design,
implementation, and operation. Bits can be either a binary 1 or binary 0 that can
represent as the absence (0) or presence (1) of current which flows within a cable, wire or
circuitry in the computer system. In switching system application, 1 can be an ON state,
while 0 can be an OFF state. In writing the programming logic or algorithm, 1 can be
interpreted as True or Yes, while 0 can be interpreted as False or No.
The bits are encoded internally in the computer system and on networking media
(cables or wires) as either electrical voltages on copper cable such as unshielded twisted
pair (UTP) cable or a light pulses on fiber optic cable and electromagnetic waves in the
wireless communication.
Now let us consider the application of these number systems to the Internet
technology. We, the human beings are more comfortable working with decimal numbers,
therefore, Internet Protocol (IP) addresses are usually written as dotted-decimal
numbers separated by periods (dots), each representing an octet, so that we can read
them easily. This is referred to as “dotted decimal notation”. This is in IP version 4
(IPv4) of the Internet Protocol which uses the 32-bit address scheme (divided into 4
octets) to identify a particular network and a host on the network. In IP version 6
(IPv6), the IP address is written in hexadecimal format. We have to remember that these
IP addresses which are written in decimal and hexadecimal numbers will be converted
 28

into its equivalent binary numbers so that the network equipments such as computers,
modems, network interface cards (NIC), routers and switches could understand them.
Knowing and learning binary numbers and how they relate to decimal and
hexadecimal numbers are critical to understanding successfully the network routing, IP
addresses, subnets, and computer circuitry. Not to mention on becoming a successful
network administrator or network engineer someday. Who knows?

Presenting: The Binary Number Systems

The binary number system is used in the design and implementation of
computer‘s hardware and software. Binary method of notation uses two numbers only,
the 0 and 1. The number 1 can be interpreted as logical true, yes, or on or simply a
representation of the presence of current or signal. While 0 can be interpreted as logical
false, no, off or a representation of the absence of current or signal. The 0 and 1 are
called bits, the short term for binary digits.
Binary is a base 2 number system while the decimal is a base 10 number system.
The base 2 number system is what all computers and data communications used to
communicate and process data. Binary numbers are the key to understanding how router
works and how packets get from one workstation (host) to another on a Transport Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) network.

Decimal Number System

A decimal number can be expressed as the sum of each digit times a power of ten
in expanded notation. With decimal fraction, this can be expressed also in expanded
notation. However, the values at the right side of the decimal point are the negative
power of ten.

Examples:

1.) 7642 = 7 x 103 + 6 x 102 + 4 x 101 + 2 x 100

= 7 x 1000 + 6 x 100 + 4 x 10 + 2 x 1
= 7000 + 600 + 40 + 2
= 7642

2.) 28.36 = 2 x 101 + 8 x 100 + 3 x 10-1 + 6 x 10-2

= 2 x 10 + 8 x 1 + 3/10 + 6 / 100
= 20 + 8 + 0.30 + 0.06
= 28.36
 29

A.) Binary To Decimal Number Conversion

Binary numbers can be converted into decimal number using an expanded notation in
base 2 instead of base 10 (in the case of decimal numbers).

Examples:

1.) 102 = 1 x 21 + 0 x 20

=2+0
= 210

2.) 1102 = 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20

= 4 +2+0
= 610

3.) 11112 = 1 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 20
= 8+ 4+ 2+1
= 1510

B.) Decimal To Binary Number Conversion

Decimal numbers can be converted into binary numbers by dividing it by 2. The
remainders are considered as its binary equivalent by reading it upward or the last
remainder is the first to be read. You have to neglect the numbers after the decimal point
in the quotient.

Divide Quotient Remainder

1.) 1410 = 14/2 7 0
= 7/2 3 1
= 3/2 1 1
= ½ 0 1

= 11102

2.) 910 = 9/2 4 1

= 4/2 2 0
= 2/2 1 0
= ½ 0 1

= 10012
 30

3.) 12010 = 120/2 60 0

= 60/2 30 0
= 30/2 15 0
= 15/2 7 1
= 7/2 3 1
= 3/2 1 1
= ½ 0 1

= 11110002
 31

LEC ACTIVITY
TEST 1

TEST: Binary to Decimal Conversion

A.) Convert the following Binary numbers to Decimal numbers

1. ) 112 = ______ ?10

2.) 1012 = ______?10
3.) 1112 = _______?10
4.) 10002 = ______?10
5.) 10112 = ______?10
6.) 11012 = ______?10

TEST : Decimal to Binary Conversion

B.) Convert the following Decimal numbers to Binary numbers

1.) 810 = ________?2

2.) 2610 = ________?2
3.) 4810 = ________?2
4.) 2110 = ________?2
5.) 11010 = _______?2
6.) 23610 = _______?2
 32

Chapter 2
The Basics Of Computer Hardware
“Man is still the most extraordinary computer of all.”
-John F. Kennedy, Jr.

The computer is very powerful and useful that they make our life very convenient
and comfortable. They are used in scheduling airlines flight which makes ticket
reservation so easy and fast, not to mention accuracy and convenience. They are even
used to predict or forecast the weather conditions, making us well-informed about the
incoming typhoon (or even a tidal wave). Automated Teller Machines (ATM) are
computers that allow us to withdraw cash anytime, anywhere. These are all but the few
benefits which we have enjoyed because of the invention of computers. Imagine, living
without computers, how lousy life could be.
But, what the computer can really do? Why can they accomplish such incredible
tasks? The truth is, computers can do only four simple tasks: receive an input, process
information, produce output, and store information. The question here is why they can
accomplish such tremendous task? The answer is: man made them so. Behind every
computer’s power and tremendous capabilities is an intelligent man. Man’s boundless
creativity and brilliance are the driving forces that power-up this computer; and they
express it in terms of a program. A program is a set of commands or instructions for a
computer to follow. We usually call this end-product: a software. This will be our topic
in the next chapter. As of this moment, we will just limit and focus our discussions to the
hardware aspects of computer.
Every computer system contains hardware components that are used for receiving
input, processing information, producing the output, and storing information. Let us start
with the input device. The most common input devices are keyboards, mouse, and
joystick (used in computer games). And the most common output devices are monitor
(screen) and printer.
Let us go to the microprocessor. The microprocessor is used in processing
information such as performing arithmetic computations and making decisions based on
given choices or alternatives. Technically speaking, the microprocessor is also called the
central processing unit (CPU) or the brain of the computer.
The most common storage devices that are used for storing information are floppy
diskettes, hard disks, CD-ROMS, DVD-ROMS, USB Flash Drive and backup tapes.
Computer’s memory (both temporary or permanent storage) such as RAM (Random
Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory) are considered storage devices
(technically speaking). It’s because they are capable of holding information temporarily
(in the case of RAM chips) and permanently ( in the case of ROM chips). The computer
is made of these major components.
 33

History of Computer Hardware Revolution

One of the best ways to understand the computer hardware is to study its history
and how it evolves all throughout these years. The progression of its evolution is as
important as the present hardware technology in itself. This will give you a glimpse of the
past, and how and when the computer hardware started. So let us start its history first
before going into the details of what a computer hardware is all about.

Hardware Revolution: Timeline (In 1980’s)

-1981
- In 1981, the first portable computer called Osborne I was introduced. It has two
floppy drives and no hard disk. It has pre-installed software – an operating system
called CP/M (Controlled Processor for Microcomputer), word-processing
software called WordStar and spreadsheet software called SuperCalc.
In August 1981, IBM Corporation introduces its first IBM PC running an
operating system called DOS (Disk Operating System) provided by Microsoft
Corporation. It runs a speed of 4.77 MHz, 16 KB of RAM with two floppy disk
drives and an 8-bit microprocessor with a model number of 8088 designed and
developed by Intel Corporation.
At the same year, Xerox Corporation introduces Xerox Star computer with the
use of a mouse. This is the first time, the mouse is used as an input device and as
an alternative (partially) to the keyboard for navigation of the PC’s screen.

-1982
-In 1982, the Sun Microsystems, Inc. was established (founded) and introduces
its first workstation called Sun 1. At the same year, Intel corporation, introduces
its 16-bit 80286 micro-processor.

-1983
-In 1983, Compaq computer company releases the first successful 100 percent
IBM-PC compatible.

-1985
-In 1985, Intel corporation introduces its 32-bit 80386 microprocessor. Another
giant computer company Hewlett-Packard, releases the LaserJet laser-printer with
its main feature is a 300 dpi (dot per inch) resolution.

-1986
-In 1986, IBM corporation introduces its first laptop computer. At the same
year, CD-ROM technology is being introduced as a promising storage device in
an international conference held in Seattle, Washington, U.S.A.

-1987
-In 1987, the Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) bus design is
introduced by a group of independent computer manufacturers to compete with
 34

IBM’s proprietary bus design – the Micro-Channel Architecture (MCA). At the

same year, the Video Graphics Array (VGA) interface card was introduced by
IBM corporation that offers 256 colors at 320x200 resolution. Hewlett-Packard
(HP) corporation releases the first ink jet printer called HP Deskjet.

-1988
-In 1988, Next Inc. a computer company established by Steve Jobs after he left
the Apple Computer company which he co-founded, introduces the first PC to use
Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) in its operating system and uses CD-ROM
drive instead of a floppy disk drive.

-1989
-In 1989, Apple Computer introduces its laptop computer called PowerBook. At
the same time, the Apple Computer together with IBM and Motorola companies
signed a cooperative agreement to design and produce a RISC-based (Reduced
Instruction Set Computing) chips, object-oriented operating system, and
develop common multimedia standards. Their collaborative efforts resulted to the
invention of the microprocessor called PowerPC.

Hardware Revolution: Timeline (In 1990’s)

-1992
-In 1992, IBM corporation releases their ThinkPad laptop computer.

-1993
- In 1993, IBM corporation introduces its first RISC-based workstation, the
RS/6000, powered by the PowerPC 601 microprocessor chip.

-1994
- In 1994, Apple Computer follows IBM by introducing its own RISC-based
computer powered by PowerPC microprocessor chip.

-1995
-In 1995, Intel Corporation introduces the Pentium microprocessor. Power
Computing company releases its first-ever Apple-Macintosh clones. It is called
Power 100.

-1996
-In 1996, the U.S. Robotics company introduces the PalmPilot. This is the start of
the world-renowned Personal Digital Assistant (PDA). At the same year, Sun
Microsystem introduces its first workstation with 64-bit micro-processor called
Sun Ultra.

-1997
-Intel Corporation introduces its Pentium II microprocessor. At the same time,
they introduced MMX (Multi-Media Extension) technology that increases the
 35

multimedia capabilities of the designed microprocessor. It is also in the same

year, the Digital Video Disc (DVD) technology was introduced in the market,
which has more storage capacity than the VCD technology. The DVD is predicted
to become the standard CD-ROM technology in PC and home entertainments
systems, (replacing the VCD), such as used in our TV and stereo players.

-1998
-Intel Corporation releases the Pentium II Celeron microprocessor which offers
slower performance but with reduced price. Ideal for home-user or for companies
whose users do not need a fast PC. Intel Corp. names their new Pentium II as
“Xeon” which is designed for high performance network servers and workstations
used by companies or universities who need fast PC’s.
At the same year, Apple Computer introduces its colorful iMac. It features the
new G3 microprocessor and USB connections but without a floppy disk drive. It’s
microprocessor is more faster than Intel’s Pentium II.

-1999
Intel releases its Pentium III microprocessor which features an enhancements for
Website’s graphic application. In the same year, the Advance Micro Devices
(AMD) Corp., a premier competitor of Intel Corp. introduces its Athlon
microprocessor that competes with Pentium III’s Xeon and Celeron market.
Apple Computer at the same time, releases its iMac computer with a G4
microprocessor, faster than Intel’s Pentium III or AMD’s Athlon microprocessor.

Hardware Revolution: Timeline (In early 2000)

-2000
Both AMD and Intel Corp. announced to release the world’s first microprocessor
to run in 1GHz speed.

-2001
Apple Computer introduces iPod, the first music player with an internal 5 GB
mass storage device that can store 1,000 CD songs. The 3 general categories of
Apple iPods are: iPod Shuffle (the smaller one with 1Gb capacity), iPod Nano (8
Gb capacity), and iPod Video (with 160 Gb of capacity). The iPod Shuffle was
designed and introduced to the market late, compared to the Nano and Video
version.

-2003
Another supercomputer was created by Mike Showerman and Craig Steffen. It
can perform 6.5 billion mathematical operations per second and it uses Linux as
its operating system. At the same year, Intel and AMD release its respective 64-
bit microprocessor, as well as Apple Computer with their Power Macintosh- a
G5-64 bit microprocessor.
We saw also around this year, the emergence of the Intel Centrino technology for
Laptop computers which are commonly known as “wireless” technology. This
 36

means that you can surf the Internet with your Laptop without wires. Bringing
your Laptop to Starbucks and Robinsons Shopping Center, will give you a free
access to the Internet connection.

-2005
The Bluetooth-enabled devices allow sharing of text, pictures, videos, music or
files, across a broad range of devices such as on your cell-phone, PDA, or iPod.
The Intel’s dual core processors (also known as Core Duo) are hot in the market.

-2006
Intel’s Core 2 Duo is the emerging microprocessor technology in the market. It
boasts an increase of 40 percent more performance to its predecessor, the Core
Duo microprocessor.

-2007
Intel’ Quad Core is now in the market for Desktop computers. We are waiting
excitedly for the Quad Core CPU that will also be used to power-up the Laptop
computers.

The Computer Sub-System and Peripherals

The CPU (Central Processing Unit)

The CPU is also called microprocessor. It is considered as the brain of the

computer. The CPU interprets and carry out the instructions or commands in each
program or software. Moreover, it does arithmetic and logical data manipulations, and
communicates with all the other parts of the computer system. This may be the reason
why the microprocessor is considered as the brain, since it has these capabilities as
though it has a capability to think and decide on its own when given a tasks, situations or
alternatives.
The speed of the microprocessor to perform its tasks is measured in units called
megahertz (MHz). So a CPU with 300 MHz means its speed to accomplish a tasks is 300
MHz. Todays computer runs in 2 GHz or more. We have to remember that mega is an
engineering term which means- million while the term giga is an engineering term that
refers to a meaning of a billion. So in other words, 2 GHz means two billion hertz. Many
software applications that use intensive graphics (such as pictures, images, and drawings)
and large number calculations (in over ten digits) require faster CPU speed.
The performance of the microprocessor is dictated mainly by its internal design,
or commonly known in computer engineering field as “architecture”, and the number of
bits of data it can process at any one time. For example some microprocessor design or
architecture is based on the complex instruction set computing (CISC). The computer
you owned now is based on this microprocessor (unless you are holding a supercomputer
right this time which is impossible if not improbable), since IBM-compatible PCs are
designed with CISC. The other microprocessor architecture is called reduced
 37

instruction set computing (RISC). Most of the UNIX-based computers (such as the
high-end servers and workstations) are RISC-powered and as well as other Apple
Macintosh computers too. Todays Macintosh is powered by Intel Core 2 Dou and Quad
Core microprocessor technology, which means that the new breed of Macintosh
computers are CISC microprocessor designed.
Another microprocessor design technology is emerging in the present time (though it is
not a new idea, historically-speaking). Its hype is so overwhelming. It is popularly known
as parallel processing microprocessor design. This system has a multi-processing
capability. We have to remember also that the microprocessor’s architecture has the
biggest influence on how many transistors it has. And in microprocessor design, the more
transistors a microprocessor has, the faster and powerful it is.

Intel’s model of microprocessors are the following:

• Pentium for Personal Computers (PCs)

• Celeron for Budget PCs
• Centrino for Laptops
• Itanium for Server computer
• Xeon for High-end Workstation and Server PCs

AMD’s model of microprocessors and their primary use are the following:

• Athlon for Personal Computers (PCs)

• Duron for Budget PCs
• Opteron for Server computer
• Turion for Laptops

The other factor that affects the performance of a computer is its capability to process the
number of bits of data at any one time. For example, the older Intel 8088 microprocessor
can only move data in 8-bit chunks. Then followed by the Intel 80286 microprocessor
that can move data in 16-bit chunks. The succeeding Intel microprocessors can move data
in 32-bit. And presently, AMD and Intel are producing microprocessor that can move
data in 64-bit. So the higher data bit-rate transfer, the faster the microprocessor. So if we
compare the data to vehicles running on the road, then bit-rate transfer can be compared
to road lanes. An 8-bit could be a one lane, and 16 bit could be two lanes, 32 bits are four
lanes, while 64-bits could be 8 lanes. The more lanes in the road, the more vehicles can
run. The same thing with bit-rate transfer in the computer. The more bit-rate transfer, the
faster the computer.

Intel Dual-Core Technology

The Intel Dual-Core micro-processor technology is designed for energy-efficiency
performance. It also boosts multi-tasking power with improved performance for highly
multi-threaded and calculation-intensive applications. It improves multi-media
application such as in intense network-gaming.
 38

Figure 2.1 Dual-Core Technology Logo

Intel Core 2 Duo Technology

The Intel Core 2 Duo technology increases the performance of Dual-Core
technology by 40 percent. The shared L2 cache is increased by 4 MB. It has five more
features compared to its predecessor, the Dual-Core. And here are the summary features:

• Advanced Smart Cache – provides more cache system, thus, delivers higher
processing performance.
• Smart Memory Access – provides optimization of the available data bandwidth,
thus, improves system performance.
• Advanced Digital Media Boost – accelerates a broad range of applications,
including engineering and scientific applications, video, image, photo, and audio
processing, data encryption, and financial applications.
• Intelligent Power Capability – delivers more energy-efficient smarter battery
performance.
• Wide Dynamic Execution – delivers more instructions per clock cycle to
improve execution time.

Figure 2.2 Core 2 Duo Technology Logo

Intel Quad Core Technology

The Intel Quad core technology is an integration of two Core 2 Duo dual-core
micro-processors on a single substrate for a total of 4 CPU cores in a single LGA 775
socket, with 8 MB L2 Cache. The Land Grid Array (LGA) is a new design technique
wherein the pins of the LGA socket is directly built into the socket not on the CPU. This
total reversal of earlier design resulted to better power distribution, thus increasing the
speed of the Front Side Bus. The front side bus on a computer connects the processor to
the north side bridge, which comprises the memory bus, PCI (Peripheral Component
Interface) bus and AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) bus. In general, a faster front side
 39

bus means higher processing speeds and a faster computer. The PCI bus is a computer
bus used for attaching peripheral devices to a computer motherboard. While the AGP bus
is the specification for a type of dedicated video card interface over which the card can
access system memory (RAM) at a very high transfer rate (up to 2.1GB per second at the
66 MHz PCI bus clock speed). This provides up to eight times the bandwidth of the PCI
bus. AGP is one part of the solution to the memory requirements of accelerated 3D video.
Video cards use on-board memory for storing images, textures, and geometry data, which
allows the video hardware direct, rapid access to it. The amount of data is very large, and
the speed at which it must be transferred from the system memory is too high for the PCI
bus. The high bandwidth capability of the AGP allows data to move rapidly from main
memory to video RAM (Random Access Memory).

Figure 2.3 Quad Core Technology Microprocessor

AMD Turion 64 x 2 Dual-Core Mobile Technology

The archrival of Intel is the Advance Micro Devices (AMD) Corporation has their
own version of Intel’s Dual Core technology called the AMD Turion 64 x 2. The AMD
Turion 64 delivers exceptional multi-threading and multi-tasking performance for both
32-bit and 64-bit environments. It boosts long battery life and better system security with
Enhanced Virus Protection feature. And here are the other features:

• HyperTransport technology – delivers system agility that makes application

more responsive.
• AMD Digital Media Xpress- enables stellar performance and playback quality
on digital entertainment such as streaming audios and videos, music, DVDs, and
intense network-gaming.
• AMD PowerNow! technology – extends battery life up to 65 percent.

Cache Memory

This type of memory is extremely fast! It is placed inside the computer’s

microprocessor (brain) or directly on the motherboard circuitry. This memory is
represented through levels, such as Level 1 (L1), Level 2, (L2), or Level 3 (L3).
 40

The RAM and ROM

The RAM (Random Access Memory) is the computer’s main memory. RAM’s
are integrated circuits (IC) or chips that can be used to store program instructions and
data temporarily. The computer accesses information through this main memory
randomly by using a unique memory address number for each data stored. This unique
address (memory location) scheme is applied so that the computer would easily find
where to retrieve the data or information needed. Remember that the RAM is capable of
holding millions of data temporarily. In other words, to make it easier to search the data
needed, the computer use this memory address scheme to locate it. RAM is a volatile
type of memory , because whatever we stored into it during the time we use the
computer would vanish completely once we turn off the computer’s switch.
The RAM has a tremendous impact on the speed, power and performance of your PC.
Generally speaking, the higher the bytes of RAM in your computer, the more it can
perform certain tasks faster and better. So, you better upgrade your computer’s RAM to
enjoy some higher speed and better performance.

Figure 2.4 The RAM and the ROM chips

The ROM (Read Only Memory) is a non-volatile type memory because the
program and data stored into it are permanent. Like RAM , the ROM is also a chip. The
computer can only read information or instructions from it, but it can never write or store
any new information or program on it. The ROM is used to check the basic subsystems
of the computer hardware, in order to ensure that all basic parts are working and in good
condition. Otherwise, the ROM won’t let the computer to function. In short, the ROM
holds the instructions (programs or software, technically speaking - a firmware) that the
PC needs to operate.

The CMOS
The CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Semi-conductor) chip is used to hold
and record all the basic setups of the computer system such as the number of hard disks
installed, the system date and time, and if other computer peripherals are connected to it
such as modem, sound card and others. The CMOS is a type of semi-conductor design
technology that consumes less electrical energy.
In desktop personal computer, this chip is powered by a battery. That’s the reason
why your computer has an updated time clock and date, even if you had switched it off
 41

for a day or week. All settings of hardware and software are recorded on CMOS chip.
Once we boot-up our computer, all the settings will be read and restored so that the
computer can function properly. In this way, the computer would know what are the
hardware peripherals are installed or connected to the computer‘s main system, the exact
date and time, and its software and hardware configurations.

Flash Memory

This type of non-volatile memory is often used in digital camera, MP3/MP4

players, and USB (Universal Serial Bus) Flash Disk to store voluminous of data,
information, software, music, video and pictures. Flash memory is so small that it can be
transported and carried in your wallet or pocket.

Note:
The MP4 technology works like the MP3. The MP3 compresses music and audio files without affecting its
quality, while MP4 compresses video or movie files. MP4 is also known as MPEG-4 AVC (Advanced
Video Coding).

The Input Devices

The most common types of input devices are the keyboard and mouse. The
other input devices are also listed here to let you know that there are many of them.

The computer keyboard is similar to typing on a typewriter’s keyboard.

Whatever you typed from the keyboard will be displayed into the screen or monitor at the
position of the blinking cursor. The cursor is the current position indicator.

Figure 2.5 Computer keyboard

The mouse or trackball are both pointing devices that are designed to move a big
arrow pointer around the screen and point to a specific characters or objects.

Figure 2.6 Computer mouse

 42

The touch screen can respond when the user points to or touches a particular
part of the screen regions. These touch screen is commonly used in a well-established
malls, airports, and libraries.

The touch tablet is used by designers, engineers, and artists. They use it for
drawing or designing a particular object.

Figure 2.7 PC Touch tablet

The barcode readers use light rays to read a product code for the purpose of easy
inventory and monitoring of product movements and status. In a well-established stores,
barcode readers are attached to the POS (Point-of-Sale) machines or to the ECR
(Electronic Cash Register) machines. POS machines resemble like the ECR, but it is 100
percent computer since all the basic parts and features of Personal computer (PC) can be
found on it.

Figure 2.8 Barcode reader

A scanner is an input device that can convert photographs, drawings, charts, and
other printed information into bit patterns which can be saved or stored in a computer’s
storage device or main memory. This stored information can be manipulated, revised,
modified or changed by the user using a special type of software.

Figure 2.9 Scanner

A digital camera looks like an ordinary camera that we are using in taking
pictures to preserve a treasured memories and special moments in our lives. However, a
 43

digital camera is not limited to capturing printed images; it can capture snapshots of the
real images. Instead of capturing images or pictures on the film, a digital camera stores
bit patterns on disks or other digital storage devices.

Figure 2.10 Digital camera

We use the webcam when we want to see our relatives, friends and acquaintances in a
distant places while chatting with them using the Internet. A webcam is a small camera
which images can be accessed through the Internet, instant messaging, or in video
conferencing. This webcam is attached to our desktop computer or already built-in in our
laptop computer.

Figure 2.11 Webcam (Internet Web Camera)

The microphone is an input device to record speech. This is really important in

multimedia application when the presentation can benefit from the narration of the user.
With the microphone or a headset microphone with an earphone, we can use computer to
make telephone calls or use it in video-conferencing over the Internet. By using audio
recording software packaged with Windows Operating System (OS), we can record our
voice and save it on a disk or flash drive. We can incorporate it in our multimedia
presentation, embed in Web pages or send it through e-mails.

Figure 2.12 Headset equipped with a microphone (headphone)

 44

The pen can be used on personal digital assistants (PDA), handheld-computers,

or tablet PCs, for inputting data. The other term for pen is a stylus. To use the pen, we
have to hold the pen and write it on a special pad or directly on the PDA’s screen or on
the screen of the tablet PC. Because of the reason that human’s handwriting is so difficult
to recognize (most especially if you write like a doctor, my gosh!), pen-based computers
or PDA’s are not used to input large amounts of data or text, instead it is used frequently
to take short notes or messages. It is also used for data collection, where the touch of a
pen might place a check in a check box or a dot on a radio button to indicate a product to
be ordered or a service that has been requested by a customer.

The audio digitizers contain circuitry to digitize sounds from microphones and
can be stored into a computer’s main memory or storage device. Once it was stored, it
can be modified, manipulated or enhanced through the use of a special type of software.
There are also other input devices such as sensing devices which are designed
specifically to monitor temperature, pressure, and humidity. The data provided by these
sensing devices is used in scientific research and application, robotics, medical
monitoring, weather forecasting, and environmental climate control.

The joystick and game pad are game controllers used by the users to play games in the
computer alone or by groups or teams through a network-based computer games in a
Local Area Network (LAN) or in an Internet settings. The joystick enables the user to
“drive” or “fly” through a game, directing a vehicle such as a plane or car or directing a
character such as a soldier or warrior in a battle-ground.

Figure 2.13 Joystick Pictures

The Output Devices

There are two main types of computer output devices: monitor and printer.
There are two classes of monitors. The first one is cathode ray tube (CRT), a television-
style screen. The second one is liquid crystal display (LCD), a flat-panel model. Well
this time, even our TV is using the flat-panel model. The LCD is the newest technology
in designing and manufacturing a computer monitor (as well as TV screen too!). It
produces crisper images, high-resolution color, and totally improved quality for viewing.
The term resolution refers to the sharpness or clarity of an image we can see in our
computer’s monitor. A monitor’s resolution is determined by the number of pixels on the
screen, expressed as a matrix. The more pixels a monitor can display, the higher, better
 45

and clearer its images appear on the screen. We have to take note, that as the resolution
increases, the image on the screen gets smaller. The resolution settings are expressed in
pixels horizontally across the screen such as 640 x 480 or 1280 x 1024 and so on. Higher
settings of resolution are not always better, because they can cause images on the screen
to appear too small which causes eyestrain. An eyestrain means a fatigue of the eyes.
The muscle of our eyes becomes strained when we look at the screen for so long.
The quality of the images or pictures that a monitor can display is defined as much by
the video card, also commonly known as video controller or video adapter. This video
card is a device we plug in to one of the expansion (input/output) slots in the PC’s
motherboard. In some newer designed motherboard, this video card is already built
directly on it. The most commonly used video cards are nVidia, ATI, and Intel’s GMA
(Graphics Media Accelerator).
Personal Computer replaces the old-fashioned slide projectors and overhead
projectors as the source of presentation. Instead, we are now using Data Projector
(LCD Projector), to present our slides with Microsoft PowerePoint presentation
software. This makes our presentation so attractive, alive and animated. We can show our
presentation directly to the white-painted wall, whiteboard or on a white large screen as
though we are watching the presentation the way we watch movies in the cinema’s
theater.
A printer is used to produce a hard copy on paper for whatever information or
images are displayed on the screen. There are two basic groups of printers: impact and
non-impact. Dot-matrix printers are the best example of impact printer. It prints text
and graphics by using pinpoint-sized hammers that transfer into the paper; while the ink-
jet and laser printers are the best examples of non-impact printer.

Figure 2.14a Printer

An ink-jet printer sprays an ink directly into a paper, while the laser printer use
a laser beam that creates patterns of electrical charges on a rotating drum. The patterns of
electrical charges attract black toner and transfer it to paper while the drum rotates.
 46

Figure 2.14b The HP 900 Inkjet Printer Help Guide

A plotter is typically like a printer, but its primary use is in scientific and
engineering applications, since it can print large format images such as house blueprint
drawing designed by architects.

Figure 2.14c The Epson Plotter

Synthesizers are specialized type of computers that are designed to generate

sounds electronically. It can be used to produce music or noise. Most PC’s have built-in
synthesizers for producing sounds.

By using headphones or headsets, we can play MP3 music in our PC or Laptop

without disturbing others. We will simply plug it in, into the sound-card’s microphone
port at the back of our PC or in front of our Laptop.
 47

The LCD Projector (Data Projector) is used for presentation purposes which is
usually connected to our PC or Laptop. With it, we can watch the output of our computer
like the way we watch movies. We display the output into the big white screen, to a
whiteboard, or to a white-painted wall.

Figure 2.15 The LCD (Data) Projector

The Storage Devices

Floppy disk (Diskettes) is a magnetically sensitive and flexible plastic wafer

housed in a plastic case. The disk drive can retrieve or store information from any part of
a diskette. The PC usually include one disk drive that allows the computer to read from or
write to the diskette.

Figure 2.16 Floppy Drive

Note:
Today’s Laptop has no floppy drive. Instead, we use USB drive (or USB Flash disk) to store our
data, software, pictures, graphic images, MP3s, and .avi (video files or MP4s).

Hard disk is rigidly solid and magnetically sensitive disk that spins rapidly and
continuously inside the computer system unit case. We would know if the hard disk drive
is active when the small red light (located usually in-front of the CPU casing) is flashing
or blinking. This means that our computer is storing or retrieving data or information in
our hard disk.

Figure 2.17 Hard Disk

 48

CD/DVD-ROM disk (Compact Disc – Read Only Memory) is an optical disk,

which is physically identical to musical compact disc which we are using in our hi-fi CD
cassettes and stereo players. An optical disk drive uses laser beams rather than magnets
to read and write a data or information on the disk surface. A CD/DVD-ROM can hold a
large and voluminous content of data or information, thus, making it an ideal storage
device for storing pictures and sounds at the same time. Pictures, graphics, and sounds
consume a large capacity of bytes.

Figure 2.18 CD-ROM Drive

USB Flash Disk (Thumb Drive) is a small and lightweight flash memory mass storage
device that is rewritable and removable. USB Flash drive is generally faster and can hold
more data and yet reliable to use. Its size is as small as our thumb, that is why the other
name of it is “thumb drive”. We have to plug the USB Flash Disk into the USB port or
hub so that we can access the data or software stored into it. We can see a small printed
circuit board (PCB) inside a transparent or a see-through Flash Drive case.

Figure 2.19 USB Flash Drive

Tape Drive is a type of storage device that reads and writes data or information on a
magnetic tape. We usually used the tape drive to backup our important data or files from
our hard disk. The main disadvantage of this type of storage device is its slower seek
time, that results to slow access of data.

Figure 2.20 Tape Drive

 49

Computer Ports
The computer ports allow the user to connect to the input and output devices or other
peripherals into the PC or Laptop. These ports are usually can be found at the back of our
PC or in some cases, in-front of it.

. Keyboard and Mouse ports – as the name implies, we can plug our PC’s keyboard and
mouse into them.

. Monitor port – the LCD monitor is plug into this computer port.

. Network port – to connect our PC or Laptop to the company or school’s Local Area
Network (LAN), this is the port we use, as well as to connect to the Internet via the
company or school’s LAN. Presently, we call this port as RJ-45 port, the standard port
used in LAN technology. RJ stands for Reference Jack.

. Modem port - this is the port we use to connect our PC to a phone line in order to
access to the Internet. We usually call this port as RJ-11 port.

. Parallel port - the older model printer should be connected to this port for hardware
compatibility. Newer model of printers are using the USB (Universal Serial Bus) ports to
connect them.

. Serial port – this port is the one we use to connect our external modem. This is mostly
applied if we want to connect our PC or Laptop to the Internet via phone line and by
using open-source software such as Linux operating system (O.S). External modem is a
small box with light-emitting diode (LED) on it that indicates if the data are transmitted,
received or a signal is on. Microsoft Windows-based OS such as Windows XP or Vista is
using an internal modem that is directly installed and plugged inside our computer’s
motherboard and central processing unit (CPU) case.

. USB port – the universal serial bus (USB) is a newly designed port for computer
devices or peripherals to connect to, such as the printers, USB flash drive, iPod, and
digital cameras.

. Audio port - there is a color coding or symbols (sometimes called an icon) used and
applied to this port to distinguish it from one another. The yellow speaker out port is
designed to connect to home stereos, while the green speaker out is for desktop speakers
or headphones. The pink microphone port is for small microphone we use in chatting
over the Web.

Note:
Some Laptop most especially the Acer, has a color coding like the way we can find in our
PC. But some Laptop used only two ports, without any color-code. In this case, the icon
 50

or symbol is used. The icon for audio port is used to connect your speaker or sub-woofer
on it, while the icon for microphone port is used to connect your small microphone on it.

Computer Bus
The computer bus is a group of parallel wires that is a path or route between the
different interconnecting components of a computer system. The two main buses in a
computer are the internal or system bus and external or expansion bus.
The expansion bus connects external devices such as mouse, printer, keyboard or
modem to the CPU, while the system bus connects the CPU to other devices that resides
on the motherboard (main board of a computer).
The system bus has two parts. They are called data bus and address bus. Since 1 byte is
equivalent to 8 bits, then a 16-bit data bus can transfer two bytes of data at a time, while a
32-bit data bus can transfer four bytes of data, and 64-bit data bus can transfer 8 bytes of
data. Like the microprocessor, the speed of the bus is measured in megahertz (MHz). The
address bus connects only the RAM and CPU and carries only memory location
addresses.

Figure 2.21 The Computer Motherboard

Bus Standards

. Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus is used in many computers to connect

slower devices such as modem and other input devices.

. Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a hot swappable bus which means that a computer user
can connect then disconnect a USB device without affecting the PC or Laptop.
 51

. Local Bus is designed to attach faster devices to the CPU.

. Accelerated Graphics Bus or Port (AGP bus) allows the video card to access the
RAM directly, thus increasing the speed of graphics performance for 3-D (Dimensional)
and full motion video applications.

. PC Card bus is used exclusively on Laptop computer and is used as network cards,
external modem WiFi card, thumb scanner and biometric security system.

. FireWire (IEEE 1394) bus is used to connect digital and video cameras. We can use
the FireWire bus to transfer data in high speed rate.

Expansion Slots

Through expansion slots, we can increase the capability of our computer. Like for
example, you can add a new high-end video card to your PC so that you can enjoy
playing your computer games that demand higher video graphics display resolution. If
your PC is older and it has no internal modem attached to it, you can buy an internal
modem adapter card and plug it in - in one of the available expansion slots of your PC.
In that way, you can connect your PC to the telephone lines to surf the Internet.
The expansion slots are but just an extension of the computer bus that we have discussed
earlier. Can you still remember it?

The UPS
The Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is a standby battery backup for your
computer or company’s server. The UPS provides temporary and limited electrical
energy while your computer and company’s server is experiencing electrical brown-outs
or any electrical power failure or when electrical current fluctuates abnormally.

Note:
The surge suppressor is a device that protects your computer against voltage spikes. There is also a device
called line conditioner that protects the PC with line noise which came from high-demand electrical
equipment that operates near your PC.

Figure 2.22 Uniterruptible Power Supply (UPS) Pictures

 52

The Computer Number System(Series II)

Presenting : The Octal Number System

The Octal Number System has eight basic digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 7. It is a
Base 8 number system. The octal number system is used to conserve memory storage
location of the computer system by grouping the binary digits into three. Meaning, 3 bits
is equivalent to 1 octal number.

A. Decimal To Octal Number Conversion

To convert decimal number into octal number, first we divide the decimal number
by 8. Then we have to take note the remainder after each computation of division
operation. The computation process will stop when the quotient becomes 0. Again we
have to read the remainders in upward direction or the last number is to be read first.

Examples:

Divide Quotient Remainder

1.) 1010 = 10/8 1 2

= 1/8 0 1
= 128

2.) 13610 = 136/8 17 0

= 17/8 2 1
= 2/8 0 2
= 2108

3.) 149010 = 1490/8 186 2

= 186/8 23 2
= 23/8 2 7
= 2/8 0 2
= 27228

B. Octal To Decimal Number Conversion

To convert octal number to decimal number, we have to multiply each octal number
by its positional value. Then we sum up all the resulting products.
 53

Examples:

1.) 148 = 1 x 81 + 4 x 80
= 8+4
= 1210

2.) 2308 = 2 x 82 + 3 x 81 + 0 x 80
= 128 + 24 + 0
= 15210

3.) 68 = 6 x 80
= 610

C. Octal To Binary Number Conversion

Using the given table below, we can convert octal number to its equivalent binary
number. Each octal number must be converted one at a time by its equivalent binary
number.

Octal Binary
0 000
1 001
2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111

Examples:

1.) 368 =
3 = 0112
6 = 1102

= 0111102

2.) 1428 =
1= 0012
4 = 1002
2 = 0102
 54

= 0011000102
3.) 75.038 =

7 = 1112
5 = 1012
0 = 0002
3 = 0112

= 111101.0000112

Other Solution
We can solve this octal to binary conversion by using the following technique:

4 2 1 The Octal Equivalent

1 1 1 The Binary Equivalent

For example, we want to convert an octal number 7 to binary number equivalent.

Obviously, we have the answer : 1 1 1. Now if you try to analyze the process, you could
notice that we can easily get the answer by adding the octal number equivalent at the top
of each binary number (4+2+1) .
For example again, we want to convert an octal number 6 to binary number equivalent.
We have the answer: 1 1 0 since we simply add the octal number equivalent of each
binary number (4+2). What if we want to convert an octal number 5 to its binary number
equivalent? Going back to our technique, we have the answer : 1 0 1 since we add the
octal number equivalent above each binary number ( 4 + 1). In other words, when we
combine the three octal numbers (7658), we will arrive to the answer : 1111101012.
What we did with the excess binary number is to simply make it a zero number.
Can you now solve it by your own?

D. Binary To Octal Number Conversion

We just simply reverse the procedure when we convert the binary number into
octal number. You could notice that every octal number has three equivalent binary
digits (bits). That’s why we group the bits in three during the conversion process. We
will add zeroes to complete the group when incomplete groupings occur. Now refer to
the table above to know the corresponding equivalent.

Other Solution
We can solve this binary to octal conversion by using the following technique:
 55

4 2 1 The Octal Equivalent

1 1 1 The Binary Equivalent

For example, to convert the binary number to its equivalent octal number we simply
group them into three bits: 4 2 1 / 4 2 1
1 1 1 / 1 0 1
By summing up all the octal numbers equivalent at the top of each respective binary 1
we can get the right answer : 758 (4 + 2 + 1 / 4 + 1).

Another example; to convert the binary number 100110000 to its equivalent octal
number, we group them again into three bits: 4 2 1 / 4 2 1 / 4 2 1
10 0 11 0/ 0 0 0

Now summing up all the octal numbers at the top of each respective binary 1, we will
arrive to the answer : 4608 ( 4+0+0 / 4 + 2 + 0 / 0 + 0 + 0 ). We simply didn’t
include in our summation any octal number equivalent at the top of each respective
binary 0.

Examples:

1.) 1110001012 =
1112 = 7
0002 = 0
1012 = 5

= 7058

2.) 110.1112 =
110 = 6
111 = 7

= 6.78

3.) 1002 =
100 = 4
= 48
 56
LEC ACTIVITY
TEST 2

TEST: Decimal to Octal Conversion

A.) Convert the following Decimal numbers to Octal numbers

1.) 1110 = _______ ?8

2.) 13410 = _______ ?8
3.) 2810 = _______ ?8
4.) 76510 = _______ ?8
5.) 168910 = _______ ?8
6.) 238710 = _______ ?8

TEST : Octal to Decimal Conversion

B.) Convert the following Octal numbers to Decimal numbers

1.) 708 = ________ ?10

2.) 428 = ________ ?10
3.) 1658 = ________ ?10
4.) 4368 = ________ ?10
5.) 3,2168 = ________ ?10
6.) 2,5438 = ________ ?10

TEST : Octal to Binary Conversion

C.) Convert the following Octal numbers to Binary numbers

1.) 478 = __________ ?2

2.) 658 = ___________ ?2
3.) 1328 = ___________ ?2
4.) 5478 = ___________ ?2
5.) 23.618 = __________ ?2
6.) 44.128 = __________ ?2

TEST: Binary to Octal Conversion

D.) Convert the following Binary numbers to Octal numbers

1.) 1112 = ___________ ?8

2.) 1012 = ___________ ?8
3.) 111.1012 = _________ ?8
4.) 1011012 = _________?8
5.) 1111001112 = __________?8
6.) 1010001112 = __________?8
 57

Chapter 3
The Basics Of Computer Software
“The heart has its reason which reason knows not of.”
-Blaise Pascal

The software is the one that drives the hardware (the computer) to do amazing
things. Without it, a computer is but just a box, nothing but a lifeless box. Software truly
brings the computer to life. Basically, the software enables a computer to perform
specialized task. In other words, the software contains a set of instructions for a computer
to follow willingly, like a servant following his or her master’s commands. Generally, the
software is categorized into two. The first one is the system software, while the other is
the application software.
Operating systems such as Windows Vista and Linux, and utility software such as
anti-virus program and anti-spyware are belong to the system software category. While
Microsoft Office 2007, database software, graphics software, computer games,
multimedia authoring software, entertainment and education software, are under the
application software category.

History of Computer Software Revolution

Like the computer hardware revolution, it is also noteworthy to study the history
of the software revolution and when or where it took place and how it evolves all
throughout these years. Here is now its timeline.

Software Revolution: Timeline (In 1970’s)

-1970
The UNIX Operating System (OS) was created by Dr. Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thomson
of AT&T Bell Laboratories. This is a multi-tasking and multi-user OS that powers up
high-end computers, network servers and workstations. The OS is written in assembly
language.

Note:
The Pascal programming language was created by Dr. Niklaus Wirth became the most
popular structured programming language in its time. During this decade, Pascal
language was used and popularized as the easiest programming language of choice by the
academicians, and in fact the most recommended programming language for introductory
course in programming in the United States and in other parts of the world.

-1972
The C Programming Language (PL) was created by Dr. Dennis Ritchie and Brian
Kernighan. The UNIX OS was re-written in C.
 58

-1975
Bill Gates and Paul Allen (founder and co-founder) of Microsoft Corporation created
BASIC (Beginner’s All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) computer programming
language to run on Altair microcomputer (PC). It is also in this same year they
established their company.

-1979
The VisiCalc was released by Software Arts, Inc. This is the first commercial
spreadsheet software for PC users. Today, we are using Microsoft Excel as our
spreadsheet software. On the same year, WordStar was released by MicroPro
International Incorporated. This is the first commercial word-processing software for PC
users. Today, we are using Microsoft Word as our word-processor. The Oracle
Corporation (formerly Relational Software Inc.) releases the ORACLE relational
database management system (RDBMS) software to the market. The Oracle Database is
the world’s first commercial SQL (Structured Query Language) language.

Software Revolution: Timeline (In 1980’s)

-1980
The Lotus 1-2-3 was released by Lotus Development Corporation. Mainly, this software
is a spreadsheet, but also features a database system and capable of graphically
presenting the data.

-1981
The Disk Operating System (DOS), an IBM PC-DOS and Microsoft’s MS-DOS
teamed-up and introduces it to the PC users. For over a decade, DOS dominates the PC
world as the most popular and widely used operating system, conquering more than half
of the market for IBM PC and Compatible users.
During this time also, the CP/M (Controlled-Processor for Microcomputers) operating
system is introduced to power up the first created portable computer, bundled with
SuperCalc (a spreadsheet software) and WordStar (a word-processing software).

-1982
The AutoCAD, an engineering and architecture software is introduced by Autodesk, Inc.
It is primarily used to design 2-D and 3-D (D stands for Dimensional) drawings or
objects.

-1983
The first version of C++ Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) language was
developed at AT&T Bell Laboratories, lead by Dr. Bjarne Stroustrup.

-1984
The free software project called GNU (GNU’s not UNIX) was initiated by Richard
Stallman of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). The Free Software Foundation
supports the undertaking, as an alternative to expensive proprietary software like the
 59

Microsoft products and technologies. At the same year, another word-processing software
called WordPerfect was released by Satellite Software International. This software has
more capabilities than the previous WordStar word-processor.

-1985
The first desktop publishing software called PageMaker was released by Aldus Inc.
Although it was originally developed for Apple Macintosh computer, sooner it was also
developed for IBM PC and Compatible computers.
At the same year, the first Graphical User-Interface (GUI) operating system for IBM PC
and Compatibles called Windows 1 was announced by Microsoft Corporation.

-1987
The visual programming language called HyperCard was introduced by Apple
Computer.

-1988
The first multi-tasking and multi-user operating system for IBM PC called OS/2 1.0 was
introduced by IBM and Microsoft corporations. They jointly developed this operating
system (O.S.).

-1989
In 1989, the Word-processor of Microsoft called MS Word for Windows O.S. was
introduced in the market.

Software Revolution: Timeline (In 1990’s)

-1991
In 1991, the Chief Software Architect of Nokia company, Linus Torvalds releases the
source code of Linux. This is a clone of UNIX operating system that is specifically
designed for the personal computer (PC) with an Intel 80386 microprocessor.

-1993
In 1993, Microsoft Corporation releases the Windows NT operating system (OS).

-1994
In 1994, the most commonly used Linux distribution called Red Hat Linux was
introduced to the market.

-1995
In 1995, Microsoft Corporation releases the Windows 95 operating system. At the same
year, the computer scientists at Sun Microsystems created and developed the Java
programming language that runs on any hardware and software platforms.
 60

-1996
In 1996, the Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML) was introduced to the PC
users. This is an authoring tools that provide simple interfaces and drag-and-drop editing
features to create three-dimensional worlds with color, sound texture on the Internet Web.

-1998
Microsoft Corporation releases the Windows 98 as an upgrade version of Windows 95.
Microsoft Visual Studio 6.0 which consist of Visual Basic 6.0, Visual C++ 6.0, Visual
FoxPro 6.0 and Visual InteDev was also released for programmers and developers.

-1999
In 1999, the Linux O.S.-based Star-Office which is a fully-featured alternative to MS
Office was released in the market by Sun Microsystems.

-2000
In February 2000, Microsoft Corporation releases Windows 2000 operating system as
well as the SQL (Structured Query Language) Server 2000. At the same year, the
giant computer hardware company (IBM) announces to ship their PC’s bundled with
Linux operating system.

-2001
In 2001, Microsoft Corporation introduces Windows XP operating system as an update
to Windows 2000 Professional, a client-operating system. At the same year, the Apple
Computer company introduces a new operating system called OS X. It is based on BSD
(Berkley Software Distribution) UNIX with magnificent graphical user-interface (GUI).

-2002
In 2002, an operating system developer Michael Robertson introduces Lindows, a Linux-
based O.S. with a fully graphical user-interface (GUI). This O.S. is packaged with an
OpenOffice software, an MS Office counter-part in Linux world. During this year, the
OpenOffice is a file-format compatible with MS Office, meaning you can open your MS
Office application to OpenOffice. The beauty about OpenOffice is that it can run on
Linux, as well as in Windows, Apple Mac OS (OS X), and even in Sun Solaris (a UNIX
O.S.). The first release of Visual Studio .NET framework happened in year 2002. The
new programming language called C# (C Sharp) was also introduced to the developer’s
community.

Note:
The C# programming language was originally launch in 2000. However, its official release as part of the
Visual Studio bundled programming language product was in 2002.

-2003
The Microsoft Corporation releases a family of Windows server-operating system called
Windows Server 2003 which include the Windows Server 2003 Standard Edition,
Enterprise Edition, Web Server Edition, Small Business Edition, and Data Center
 61

Edition. At the same year, the MS Office 2003 was also introduced to computer users as
well as the Visual Studio .NET framework’s second release.

-2005
The Microsoft Corporation releases an enhancement to the .NET framework which is the
Visual Studio 2005. Microsoft SQL Server 2005 was also introduced. This is a major
enhancement to the previous SQL Server 2000.

-2007
The long-awaited client-operating system popularly known as Windows Vista was
released in 2007. This will replace Windows XP operating system. At the same year, the
Microsoft Office 2007 was also introduced to PC users. In the third week of November
2007, Microsoft corporation releases the Visual Studio 2008 which exclude the J#
programming language. The remaining programming languages packed into Visual
Studio 2008 are Visual C# 2008, Visual Basic 2008, Visual C++ 2008, and Internet
web development software called - Visual Web Developer 2008.

-2008
Microsoft Corporation releases a new family of server-operating system called Windows
Server 2008, and at the same time, the SQL Server 2008 is also introduced to the
systems administrators and database administrators.

Bits, Bytes, Data and Information

A bit is a short term for binary digit and the smallest unit of information (in
computer term). Usually, a bit is a value represented by zero (0) or one (1). Other
representations of bit is True, Yes, or On as equivalent to 1; and False, No, or Off as an
equivalent to 0. A byte is a grouping of 8 bits. A single letter, number, or special symbol
is made up of 8 bits which in turn equivalent to one byte. In other words, one character
consumed one byte of storage capacity. So a diskette that has 1.2 Mb (Megabytes) of
storage capacity (density) can hold approximately 1,200,000 characters since the word
Mega is an engineering term which is equivalent to 1,000,000 (one million). Well, you
have to include the space or spaces between words because a space is considered as one
character.
Technically and in reality, 1 MB is more than 1,000,000 since 1KB (kilobytes) is
exactly equivalent to 1024 bytes. Kilo is an engineering term which means 1,000. The
1024 is a resulting computed value of 210 (base 2 exponent 10), since computer operation
is using a binary-based number system. This number system denotes all numbers with
combinations of two digits only : 0 and 1.
The term information has many meanings. We only consider the definitions that
are applicable to computer usage. Information can be applied to anything that can be
communicated through any form of media. In computer application, information is
usually called the end-product of the input data, while data is considered the raw
materials to be processed by the computer in order to produce meaningful and useful
information.
 62

For example, in a computerized enrollment system, the data are the names,
student numbers, subjects enrolled, and number of units taken. When the computer
processed these data, it produces the information: the registration form that contains the
list of subjects with its corresponding units, the different fees to be paid, such as
miscellaneous fees, library fees, and laboratory fees. From the registration form, you
would know how much tuition you have to pay, what room you are assigned and how
much you would pay for the next payment period such as on midterm exam or final
exam. These information are helpful to you for your budgeting tasks, otherwise you
wouldn’t know exactly how much you spend for leisure and fun without sacrificing your
budget for the tuition fee. In short, information can help us to decide effectively. This is
also applicable to other computerized business application systems. They are designed
and constructed to help managers and executives to decide and manage effectively.
Information Technology (IT) is truly an indispensable tool that aids our decision-making
process.

The Computer Programming Languages

In the early evolution of computers, programmer and computer scientists are
forced to write every program in machine language level, translating each instructions or
commands into binary codes. Today, almost all programmers use high-level
programming languages that are easy to write, debug, and understand. The most
commonly used are: C/C++, Visual Basic, Visual C#, and Java. To program and use
these languages require considerable patience, interest, careful analysis, brain power, and
time investment. Programming languages are used to solve complicated problems
encountered in business operations, scientific research, and other industrial and
manufacturing operations.
Since most of these programming languages are written and expressed in English-
like instructions, these must be translated into a machine language. This is because the
computer can only understand machine-level language. These translator programs are
usually called: interpreter, compiler and linker. A compiler converts all the source code
into machine code, which eventually creates also the executable file. This executable file
is usually has a .EXE filename extension.
The interpreter converts also the source code to machine code. However, instead of
creating the executable code, the interpreter translates and then executes each line of the
program, one line at a time.

Structured Programming Language

The Pascal and C programming languages are the most popularly used structured
programming language in the world and the most widely used worldwide in 1970’s,
1980’s and early 1990’s. In structured programming language, the programmer constructs
programs out of small modules which are easy to understand, maintain or enhance. Each
module which is also called sub-routine, performs(action) a specific task (logic). The
action and logical structures of the code are local only to the module. It cannot affect
 63

other module. The module can be reused by other parts of the program. The program in
structured programming language is viewed as a logical procedure that takes an input
data from the keyboard or disk, process the input data by the microprocessor, and
produces output data into the monitor’s screen.

Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)

The C++, Java, and C# programming languages are originally designed and
developed as 100 percent pure OOP language. An OOP is another programming
paradigm which approach to program design and development organizes the programs
around objects rather than actions, and data rather than logic. In object-oriented
programming, we view the programming tasks more on the objects that we want to
manipulate, rather than focusing on the logic required to manipulate them; the way we do
with structured programming paradigm. Anything we can see in our world is considered
as object such as people, computer, buttons, lists, buildings and so on.

Different Categories of Programming Languages

There are two broad categories of programming languages. The first one is
combined – the machine and assembly languages as one category. The second is high-
level language. Historically, the machine language is the first-generation language
while the assembly language is the second-generation language. The high-level
language is considered as the third-generation language (3GL).
Machine language and assembly language are difficult to program. An assembly
language use a short English-like abbreviations to represent common elements of the
machine code.
High-level language was developed to make programming easier to read and understand.
It uses syntax or commands that is more like the language used by humans in their daily
conversations.
There is also another generation of computer programming languages. They call them:
fourth-generation language (4GL) and fifth-generation language. The fourth-
generation language uses integrated development environment (IDE), where the
programmer uses a Toolbox or Control Bar to drag and drop various controls such as
buttons, text box, check boxes, radio buttons, list box, scrollbars and more into the Form
control when designing and developing their programs or systems. This will provide
visual definitions and representation of their application program to the intended users.
The most common and popular IDEs today are Microsoft Visual Studio, Sun
Microsystems Java Studio, and Oracle JDeveloper Studio.

The fifth-generation language (5GL) in principle, uses artificial intelligence (AI) to

create and build software based on our description and desire of what the software would
do and accomplish. As of the time of this writing, 5GL is still just in its conceptual stage,
though some computer experts claim that some authoring languages today are already a
fifth-generation language.
 64

C Programming Language
The C programming language was invented by Dr. Dennis Ritchie at AT&T Bell
Laboratories, New Jersey, USA in 1970’s. This is considered as one of the most powerful
programming language in its time. Its main objective why it was created is to replace
Assembly language as a programming language to design and develop operating systems
and system programs such as compilers, interpreters, utilities and databases. C language
was so very successful in its attempt. In fact, C was used and implemented by Dr. Ritchie
to develop the UNIX operating system. And almost all of its codes are written in C. Some
minor codes are written in Assembly language. The C programming language is
considered as middle-level programming language, because it combined the power of a
low-level language such as the Assembly language and the elegance of high-level
language like Pascal language. This further means that C language can directly
manipulate the bits, bytes, and even the computer hardware memory addresses. This
makes the C programming language so powerful and ideal for system programming and
embedded intelligence programming. Embedded intelligence programs are embedded
inside an Integrated Circuit (IC) that can be found in some intelligent electronic devices.

Figure 3.1 The Turbo C Programming Language Integrated Development Environment

C++ Programming Language

The C++ is a superset of C programming language. This language was invented
by Dr. Bjarne Stroustrup of AT&T Bell Laboratories, in 1985. This is the standard Object
Oriented Programming (OOP) language, meaning, the other newly invented
programming languages that are OOP language in nature adheres to its design
philosophy.
 65

The computer scientists had observed that the Structured Programming languages
like Pascal and C can no longer meet the present demand of computing. More and more
users wanted more graphics; programmers and developers wanted more powerful
language that can make larger programs easier to develop, manage, and maintain. This is
the very reason why C++ was created: to come up with a programming language that
makes larger programming tasks easier and faster to design and construct.

Figure 3.2 The Visual C++ 2008 Integrated Development Environment

Visual Basic Language

The Visual Basic programming language was developed by Alan Cooper, an
American computer scientist in the late 1980’s. This programming language was created
with the main purpose of teaching programmers and developers how to design and
develop graphical-user interface (GUI) programs easily. The reason behind the GUI name
is that we work more with graphics, forms, and icons, than typing text to accomplish a
particular task. In GUI approach, rather than trying to remember a hard to remember
command and its corresponding parameter, we can remember easier by using pictures,
objects and images.
 66

Figure 3.3 Microsoft Visual Basic 2008 Integrated Development Environment

C# Programming Language
The Microsoft corporation releases officially the C# programming language
version 1.0 in July 2000, which primary objective is to change the way how the
programmer and developer construct their Windows and web applications. This language
was invented by Anders Hejlsberg and Scott Wiltamuth – the two distinguished
Microsoft engineers. Anders Hejlsberg is legendary in the circle of programming
language invention arena, because he was the one who created Turbo Pascal
programming language and lead-creator of Delphi IDE at Inprise company (formerly
Borland International).
C# is created and developed by combining the strengths found in three
programming languages: C++, Java, and Visual Basic, and avoids its respective weakness
points. The objective of C# is to provide an object-oriented, Internet-centric, high-
performance and yet simple language for the .NET framework development
environment.
 67

Figure 3.4 Visual C# Integrated Development Environment

About Visual Web Developer 2008

Microsoft Visual Web Developer is an Integrated Development Environment
(IDE) where you can design and develop your web page and website using either the
Visual Basic 2008 or Visual C# 2008 syntax. Most of the work of the web page designer
and developer can be done by the guide of a wizard or with a combination of hard-
coding. This will make web page and website development easy and fast, adding more
productivity to the developer or designer. Rapid Application Development (RAD) is truly
applied and implemented in Microsoft Visual Studio 2008.

Figure 3.5 Visual Web Develop 2008 Integrated Development Environment

 68

A Special Note about IDE

The Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is the term use to describe the
working environment of a particular programming language where you can compile,
debug, and run your program in a menu-driven and graphical-user interface (GUI)
manner. Plus, coding your program with the programming language’s IDE is easier and
faster, because it has many tools integrated to it, that will make the task of the
programmer better and more productive. One of these features is the “intelli-sense” that
provides (automatically and instantly) the developer a list of command syntax, class,
object, and method name, and many more, as he or she writes the code. Errors will also
be automatically highlighted with some color (usually in red), to make you easily
visualize them. In an IDE, some of the code with ready-made templates will be
automatically provided to you. You just have to invoke them. One of these templates are
the Get() and the Set() methods which functionality is about assigning and initializing
values to particular parameters, variables, or objects.

Java Programming Language

Java is an object oriented programming (OOP) language invented by Dr. James
Gosling of Sun Microsystems, in early 1990s. It was designed to run on almost any
computers and in any operating systems, or literally speaking- in any hardware or
software platforms you are using. Java is primarily designed as a programming language
for Internet-based program development. Meaning, from the ground-up, its strength lies
in its ability to work with the Internet technology and its inherent idiosyncrasies.
In Java, we can write program called applets. The applet can be embedded in web
pages to provide some intelligence, so that the web pages we designed becomes dynamic,
animated, or alive in the face of the website visitors and web surfers. This will not limit
to animation and graphics alone, but also to interact with the user or surfer. In other
words, to become interactive with the visitors where they can input data, and get a reply
or result from it.
The Java application programs are stand-alone programs that we can run in any
platforms. This further means that the application program will run without any
modifications or problems to any software or hardware where we implement it. The good
thing about Java application program is that we can develop and implement it in a stand-
alone computer or network computers. In other words, Java application programs are not
Internet-based programs like the applets do.
This short discussion of Java capabilities cannot justify its immense power. In
reality, Java is so very powerful. It can do a lot of things that you can imagine. I just can’t
explain it here in a way of listing it one by one. Afterall, this is a book about introductory
computer concepts and applications, not an intensive discussion and treatment about Java
programming language.
 69

Figure 3.6a The Java Application Platform Software Development Kit

Figure 3.6b The Java Runtime Environment (JRE) Setup

Note:
I am also writing about Java book. If you are intrigued enough about Java’s immense power and capability,
then I’d like to suggest that you have to read books about Java programming, especially the one I wrote. I
explain Java programming in that book in a way that is easy to learn, understand, and enjoyable to program
with. I promise.

Python Programming Language

The Python language is known in the open-source community for its dynamic
semantics and binding capabilities which are very ideal for Rapid Application
 70

Development (RAD). These capabilities of Python language are suitable for scripting
operating system administration tasks or as a glue language to connect system
components together. Like any new high-level programming languages, Python is also an
Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) and interpreted language. One of the most
outstanding features of Python is its simplicity in the implementation and design. For
example, it is easy to debug your Python program, because any error or bad input data
found in your program will not cause a segmentation fault. Instead, the Python interpreter
will simply raise an exception when an error or bad input occurs. And if in case the
Python program was not able to raise an exception, the Python interpreter will simply
print a stack trace for a programmer to easily trace the error in his or her program.

Note:
The exception is an error-handling mechanism within your program. Usually, this exception code is written
with the combination of try-catch and finally statements.

The Scripting Languages

The scripting languages evolved during the Internet revolution. They were the
languages used so that the Internet or the World Wide Web became available for us to see
it, enjoy it, and having fun with.

The HTML
The HTML is a scripting language that was developed by Tim Berners-Lee back
in 1989. We will use HTML in writing simple web pages.
The HTML stands for Hypertext Markup Language, which defines a set of
common styles for web pages. These common styles or elements are the tags, headings,
paragraphs, lists, tables and character styles (fonts) such as boldface, italics, or
underlined. The HTML describes also the structure of a document.
Markup language means that we start with the text of our page and add special
tags around paragraphs and words. The tags indicate the different parts of the page and
produce different effects in the browser. The HTML tags are the information inside the
bracket (< >). This indicates the elements or features of a page. The pages written in
HTML are plain text file. They can be read by any text editor that supports text writing.
Each HTML page needs a title to indicate what the page describes. The title
indicates what the web page is about and how it is used to refer to that page in bookmark
or hotlist entries.
 71

<HTML>
<HEAD>
<BODY>
</TD>
<<FONT FACE="Helvetica, Arial"
COLOR="#000000">
<B>Our Portable
<BR>GenLab is ushering
<BR>in a new age.</B></FONT>
<FONT FACE="Helvetica, Arial"
COLOR="#0000FF">
<B>Would you
<BR>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;like to see
it?</B>
</FONT></FONT></TD>
</HEAD>
Figure 3.7 Sample HTML code
</BODY>
</HTML>

Figure 3.7 The HTML Code Sample

The JavaScript
The JavaScript is a scripting language that enhances the functionality and
usefulness of the mere static HTML web pages. With the use of JavaScript, we can create
dynamic and interactive web pages such as validate information in our Form that is filled-
up and submitted by a visitor of our website, add alert boxes to our web page, customize
reactions to mouse actions and keystrokes, perform calculations, and much much more.
The JavaScript was developed by Brendan Eich at Netscape Communications in 1995,
the company that releases the first world renowned web browser – Netscape Navigator.
The good thing about JavaScript is that it adheres to Object-Oriented
Programming (OOP) design principles, though not completely. In other words, you can
apply your OOP knowledge and skills in designing and developing JavaScript code.

<html>
<head>
<title>Displaying Hello World!</title>
<script type="text/javascript">
var datenow = Date();
var msg = 'Hello, World! The date today is ' + datenow;
alert(msg);
</script>
</head>
<body onload="hello();">
</body>
</html>
 72

Figure 3.8 Sample JavaScript code

The PHP
The PHP (Hypertext Preprocessor) scripting language is used to create dynamic
Internet web pages. This PHP is an embedded and a server-side scripting language
which goal is to allow the Web developers to write dynamically generated pages quickly
and efficiently. Most of the command and function syntax of PHP are borrowed from C
programming language, Java, and Perl scripting language. The PHP is also very excellent
in database connectivity, whether you are using MySQL database, Oracle database,
PosgreSQL database, and others. Rasmus Lerdorf, invented PHP which was originally
defined as Personal Home Page. His original main purpose of inventing this scripting
language is to be able to monitor the Web page views. However, it was developed into a
more powerful language that is capable of developing dynamic web pages and database
connectivity in a simple and straight-forward manner.

<html>
<head>
<title>Hello World</title>
</head>
<body>
<?php

echo("Hello world!<br />");

print('Goodbye.<br />');

?>
</body>
</html>

Figure 3.9a Sample PHP code

Figure 3.9b The PHP Setup Wizard

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The XML
The XML is a markup language developed by the World Wide Web Consortium
(W3C) which main goal is to overcome the limitations of HTML. The acronym XML
stands for the eXtensible Markup Language. In XML, there is no predefined tags, unlike
in HTML. Meaning, the designer and developer of the web page and website will create
the tags only if they are needed for his or her applications. This is how the XML
developer would do to his or her documents, to structure it the way he or she wants it.
Structuring a document is providing format to a document. This formatting process will
dictate how a document must be processed, manipulated, or presented. Like for example,
the price tag means a price tag in XML. Now this price tag has no equivalent tag in
HTML because the XML developer is the one who assigned this tag to his or her Point-
Of-Sale application system. Truly, XML extends the capability of HTML and made it
more useful, powerful, and flexible.

<?xml version=”1.0”?>
<productlist>
< product code=”01”>
<name> Hamburger </name>
<price> 35.00 </price>
</product>

<product code =”02”>

<name> French Fries </name>
<price> 20.00 </price>
</product>

<product code = “ 03”>

<name> Spaghetti </name>
<price> 25.00
</price>
</product>
</productlist>

Figure 3.10 Sample XML code

The CGI
The CGI stands for Common Gateway Interface, a method for running
programs on the web server that is triggered by an input from a web browser. The CGI
scripts enable our reader to interact with our web pages. These interactions can be a
simple search for a chunk of information in a database, or to select an item from a form
and get a reply in return, or to offer a comment on what we have written.
When we encounter a search dialog or a fill-in form (in case of membership
application) on the web, then we have to use a CGI script in real application. A CGI
 74

script is an extremely powerful feature of server interaction and web browser. The script
is usually a link between the server and some other program running on the Internet
system. This is usually a database program. The script performs some action based on the
input from the browser. The action includes calling other program from the system,
querying a database information, or calculating a value. The script also generates an
output which the server can understand. When the server receives the output from the
script, it passes back to the Web browser. Finally, the browser formats and displays the
output for the readers.

Note:
The Perl and other operating system scripting languages, particularly in the UNIX and Linux environment
are not included in the discussion above, because most of these scripting language originated as a system
administrator’s tool to accomplish his or her task in managing the network. They are not originally part of
the scripting language that revolutionizes the Internet technology. Though, in one way or another, they are
used in some cases to accomplish some Internet-related processes, they cannot be classified as scripting
language for the Internet web design and development purposes. The “opinion” is purely mine.

Authoring Software

The authoring software is a special-purpose programming tools for creating

computer-based training (CBT) programs, Web pages, and multimedia applications.
Using authoring software such as the Adobe Director, we can create multimedia titles
combining music clips (MP3s), animation (avi files or MP4s), graphics, and text
messages - all in one application. Plus, the code of the application is written
automatically. We can also design and develop Web pages in an easy way using
Microsoft Front Page or Macromedia Dreamweaver and Flash. These authoring tools
allow the designer and developer to visually write Web pages, most especially if he or
she wants to create forms, tables, and other components for HTML pages.

The Operating System

The Operating System is a collection of programs that perform a variety of tasks
or functions. The tasks performed by the operating system (OS) involve communicating
with the disk drives, printers, hard disks, CD-ROMs, monitor, modem and other
peripheral devices. The operating system performs also memory management task such
as keeping track of how the memory of the computer is being used so that no job would
conflict with another job performed at the other parts of the memory.
Moreover, operating system performs data management. It provides a level of
system security that protects a certain type of data or information. It acts like a clerk
locating and accessing files and programs which are requested by the user.

The DOS (Disk Operating System)

In 1980’s and early 1990’s, DOS dominates the market as a standard operating
system for personal computers. This operating system is designed with a character-based
user interface, meaning we have to type a command to perform a particular task, like
 75

copying, deleting, transferring, or running a certain program or software. Unlike in

Windows operating system, we just simply use the mouse to point and click and drag to
accomplish the above mentioned task.
There are two versions of DOS that reigned as an operating system of choice during that
time. The first one is called IBM PC-DOS and Microsoft MS-DOS. The DOS operating
system suffered a lot of weaknesses or limitations. For example, it supports a limited
amount of RAM, it has no built-in support for networking and supports only 16-bit
programs.

Figure 3.11 Different Editions of Microsoft Windows NT

Microsoft Windows Operating System

In early 1990’s, Microsoft released Windows 3.0, 3.1 and 3.11 that requires MS-
DOS to be installed first completely. It runs on top of DOS to provide a GUI and
additional capabilities.
In August 1995, the Microsoft released their Windows 95. A total enhancement
of the Windows 3.1 and 3.11 which were used by few computer users in the early 1990’s
who wanted to a graphical user-interface (GUI) type of operating system. This time, the
DOS is no longer needed for its installation, configuration and operation. Windows 95
puts all data communication activities in a single screen icon. These activities are e-mail,
downloads, and Internet access. Windows 95 supports the “plug-and-play” feature. This
concept lets the computer to configure itself when a new computer peripheral is added,
connected, or installed.
Windows 98 is considered just an update to Windows 95. One noticeable change
in Windows 98is the inclusion of the Internet Explorer (IE) Web browser, and the Active
Desktop that lets the user to browse the Internet and local drive of the PC or Laptop in a
similar manner.
The Windows Me (Millennium Edition) offers ore enhancements such as digital
video editing, improved multi-media support and capabilities, and enhanced Internet
features. The main problem with Windows Me is that its unstable operation results to
frequent crashes.
The Windows 2000 Professional combines the user-friendly interface of
Windows 98 and a networking power of Windows NT. Its main feature is a support for
symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) with up to two microprocessors (CPUs).
The Windows NT (New Technology) was released in 1993 before Windows 95.
It was originally designed as the successor of DOS, but it turned out to be repositioned as
 76

a high-end operating system for powerful workstation (Windows NT Workstation) and

network servers (Windows NT Server) used heavily in business operations.
With the release of Windows XP (Home Edition for personal use and Professional
Edition for corporate networks operations) in October 2001, the PC desktop has more
three-dimensional (3D) look, with more shading and rounded corners, and offers more
brighter color choices. It supports 64-bit CPU. With its digital media support, the user
can take advantage of video and audio rendering rendering for multimedia projects and
digital broadcast support. The Advanced Networking and Communications feature of
Windows XP, the user can now enjoy the more enhanced Plug and Play support which
enable the computer to find and use the hardware connected via a network, without
forcing the user to configure the sysem or install the required drivers. With the Internet
Connection Sharing feature, the user can connect multiple PCs to the Internet via a single
connection. Through the use of Advanced Mobile Computing automatic configuration
feature, the user can connect an XP-based Laptop to a PC without the need to know
different type of network settings. Plus the IrComm modem support will allow us to use
a cellular phone to connect to the Internet.

Figure 3.12 Different Editions of Microsoft Windows 2000 Operating Systems.

Windows Vista
(A Real-Life Example of a Client or Workstation Operating System )

The Microsoft Windows Vista is a computer operating system. The World Wide Web is easily
accessible from anywhere in Windows Vista. By using Windows Vista, we can access the Support Online
Web site for answers to our common questions . It has tools that can help us to regularly test our hard disk
and check system files. Plus, it can even correct some of the problems found.
Windows Vista is a truly Web integrated. The Internet connection wizard makes the connection
to the Web fast and simple. Using Microsoft Outlook Express, we can send e-mails to our friends or post
messages to the newsgroups in the Internet. With the use of Microsoft NetMeeting, we can collaborate with
others on documents edited by teams. Plus, we can even hold a teleconferencing over the Internet. Using
Microsoft NetShow, we can play live media over the Internet.
Windows Vista supports DVD technology and high definition digital audio, so we can play high
quality digital movies and music on our computer. Using Microsoft Web-TV, we can watch television
broadcasts and check TV program listings.
Windows Vista includes a wide range of helpful troubleshooters that assist us with common
computer problems. When we have difficulty setting up a new high-tech printer, the Print troubleshooter
can walk us through the process step by step. We can use the Support Online Web site to find answers to
technical questions about Windows Vista.
The Windows Vista includes the Discover Windows Vista online tutorial, which teaches us about
the basics of Windows operating system. We can subscribe to our favorite Website, we can schedule times
 77

for Windows Vista to automatically check the website on a regular basis and notify us when the website is
updated.
The Web pages that we subscribe to can be automatically downloaded to our computer or sent via e-mail.
By subscribing, we are free from the hassle processes of downloading, connecting times, and busy Web
servers.
In Windows Vista, we can browse the computer contents the same way we surf the Web sites.
More than ever, the PC’s now has more three-dimensional look, more shading and rounded corners. It
offers also some brighter color choices. It supports also the capabilities of a new microprocessor in 64-bit
to take full advantage of it.
With Windows Media Player 11, users can take advantage of digital broadcast support, as well as
video and audio rendering for multimedia presentations. Windows Vista enables the computer to find and
use hardware connected via a network by taking advantage of the universal Plug and Play support feature.
The automatic configuration feature of mobile computing in Windows Vista makes it easy to connect to the
Internet on this present time of wireless technology.
With Windows Vista’s IrComm modem support, we can use a cellular phone to connect to the
Internet. In addition, we can protect our data, programs and other files through its complete PC Backup
and Restore feature. This particular feature is ideal for disaster recovery when our PC malfunctions.
With Windows Firewall feature, we can stop many kinds of malware before they can infect our PC
or other computers on our Local Area Network (LAN). This feature is a critical first-line of defense to
protect our PC against many types of malicious software such as viruses, Trojan, and worms.
The Wireless Networking of Windows Vista, allows us to create a PC to PC wireless network
right in the comfort of our home. With wireless technology, playing computer games can be very exciting
and comfortable anywhere in the house or in the backyard or in the “sala” or in the kitchen.
Now you can easily edit your family affair videos with Windows Vista’s Movie Maker feature.
This affair could be your first baby’s birthday, your debut of last year, or simply your family’s yearly
reunion. These are just among the Windows Vista’s features. Discover the other features by yourself. Are
you ready now?

Here are the summary of the things you can do with Windows Vista:

• Finding the File in a few quick clicks – you can save time by instantly tracking down any file,
document, MP3, video, software, or photo by using the Instant Search capability of Windows
Vista.
• Keeping Photos Organized – with Windows Vista, you can tag your photos with a keyword or
date, or any label that you can remember easily, so that you can search them quickly using those
labels.
• Create a Customized Movie – the Windows Movie Maker feature of Windows Vista can blend
photos and videos into a personalized movie with soundtracks of your own choice, and proper
titles that you can imagine, and credits and acknowledgements for those people involved in the
movie-making process. After-all, movie-making is a team effort.
• Keeping track of your Music – With Windows Media Player 11 (all-black effect), you can
easily browse and play your MP3 and WMA files or your entire music library. It takes only a
single click to create a new playlist of your favorite music album or your most played tracks of
songs.
• Watch and Record TV drama series - this time, you can record any TV drama series (or
comedy series) any time you want, and watch it at your own convenient schedule. The computer
hardware you just need is a TV tuner that you can buy from your favorite computer store, and the
software you need is the Windows Vista’s Media Center.
• Surfing Multiple Web at once – with the new Internet Explorer 7, you can open multiple web
pages in one window and easily click between them with its tab browsing feature. A similar
feature and capability that you can find with Mozilla Firefox (a reincarnation of the Netscape
Navigator’s glorious days).
• More System Security- with Windows Vista’s Defender security software, you can be protected
from spam and phishing. Plus, you can protect your children from encountering some “for adults
stuff” in the Internet by using the centralized Parental Controls feature. With Parental Controls,
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you can set boundaries on what your kids can do on the computer connected to the Internet to
provide them a safer web-surfing experience.
• See everything you have open lately – with the Windows Flip 3D, you can easily track of what
files you have open lately, by flipping through all the files and windows with a simple click of the
mouse.

Figure 3.13 The famous Windows XP Operating System

Other Operating System

Linux

The Linux is a multi-tasking operating system that supports multiple users and
multiple processors. Linux can run on nearly any type of computers (from Desktop,
Laptop, Server, and Supercomputers), and supports almost any type of software
applications. The most popular Linux operating system distributions are from Red Hat
Linux and Novell Linux. Most of the Linux distributions are free. Meaning, you can get it
without worrying about licenses or online activation.

Figure 3.14 Linux Operating System Screenshot

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UNIX
The UNIX operating system has been popular for high-powered workstations that
are used in engineering and scientific applications. It is also heavily used in a mission-
critical applications such as Web servers that are used for online transactions,
maintaining Internet domain names, large database servers of banks, manufacturing
companies, and pharmaceutical firms.

Figure 3.15 The Solaris (UNIX) Operating System Screenshot

Mac OS X
The new Apple Macintosh operating system, popularly known as Mac OS X, is
based on the UNIX operating system code (the BSD (Berkley System Distribution)
UNIX). The Mac OS is heavily favored by graphics artists, multi-media developers, and
media publishers. This is due to its highly powerful graphics features and capabilities.
Graphics artists who created cartoon movies and TV cartoon series, TV, magazine, and
newspaper advertisements, are using iMac computers as their tools for their creative
works.

Figure 3.16 The Apple Macintosh Operating System Screenshot

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Palm Pilot OS and Microsoft Windows CE

(Embedded Operating System)

There is another kind of operating system that is not popular to us, but we usually
used them already through some of our electronic gadgets. This kind of operating system
is directly built into the circuitry of an electronic device such as in our PDA’s (Personal
Digital Assistant), cell phones, medical equipments, bar-code scanners, and electronic
devices found in automobiles. The widely used embedded operating systems are the
following:
• Microsoft Windows CE.NET and Windows XP Embedded
• Palm Pilot OS ( found in Palm PDAs and Sony PDAs)
• Microsoft Pocket PC OS
• Symbian OS (found in smart phones of Nokia and Sony-Erricson)

Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS)

The Internet devices called routers and switches use an operating system that is
specifically designed for them to operate and work. Most of the popular router and switch
are designed and developed by Cisco Systems, the world leader in Internet device design
and manufacturing. It is called the Cisco IOS. A router is simply a special type of
computer with very specific function and purpose. Like the computer we use that needs
an operating system to run, the router needs an OS to run too. The router needs the Cisco
IOS to run configuration files that contain instructions and parameters that control the
traffic in and out of the Cisco router or switch. The configuration files specify all the
information for the correct setup of selected routing protocols on the router to
communicate with other routers, successfully. By using routing protocols, the router can
decide effectively how to send the packet that contains data or information to the best
path to reach its destination in a fast and efficient way.

Figure 3.17 The Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS) Screenshot

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The Four Categories of Operating System

The Operating Systems are actually categorized in four classifications. The first
one is the Workstation OS which are used primarily by computers that are not connected
to the networks. These are usually the type of operating system that we used at home, or
installed in our laptops. The Microsoft Windows, Linux, and UNIX, have their own
individual version for this workstation operating system. The most popular are from
Microsoft which are called the Windows XP Home Edition and Windows XP
Professional and Windows Vista. The Windows XP Professional operating system is used
primarily in the computers found in the company that are connected to the Local Area
Network, Intranet, Internet or Extranet. It is specifically designed for a computer
(workstation) that connects to the server in the network that needs system security
settings.
The second category is a Network Operating System (NOS) that is specifically
designed for network servers. Network servers act as the main computers used in the
company. The most famous server operating systems are still from Microsoft. They are
the Windows Server 2003 and Windows Server 2008. The Linux and UNIX operating
systems are usually used as server operating system in the company.
The third in the category of an operating system is the one used for PDAs, cell phones,
bar-code readers, and electronic devices found in automobiles. It is called the embedded
operating system. The most popular embedded system are Windows CE.NET,
Windows Pocket PC, Palm OS and Symbian OS.
The last category is an operating system called the Internetwork Operating System
(IOS) which specific application is in the Internet devices called routers and switches.
Because of the IOS that powers up the router and switch, the computer connected to the
Internet can communicate to each other, regardless of distance or time. The router and
switch made this possible.

Utilities Software
The operating system has already the utility software programs included in its
package. These utility programs perform system maintenance, repair, enhance or extend
the capabilities of the operating system.
The utility software is used when damaged system files happened during the time
we forget to shutdown our computer properly. Some other cases involve the sudden
electrical power outage and hard disk’s head crash. This would result to many bad sectors
and lost clusters in our hard disk. This is reported during the time we boot our computer.
When the damage is a severe case, it is advisable that we have to reformat and
repartition the hard disk. Although some of the stored or saved software and data can be
back-uped, the affected files are possibly cannot be restored. There are commercial utility
programs such as the famous Norton Utilities that can repair these affected files. You
have to purchase this utility software separately. The Norton Utilities can diagnose and
repair damaged disk, recover files that have been accidentally deleted, resurrect a crashed
hard disk, and optimize hard disk drive performance by defragmenting the disk.
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The antivirus software, backup utilities, and firewalls are also classified as
utilities software. They can enhance or extend the capabilities of the operating system.
The antivirus utility can examine or check the contents of the hard disk, USB drive, and
RAM for hidden viruses that might be lurking on these storage devices. The firewall
software or hardware (or a combination of both), can examine or block traffic coming
from or going to the Internet. In this way, your computer could detect (and will inform
you) if you are being attacked by a hacker or simply an intruder that violates your right to
privacy.

These are the following type and examples of these utilities:

Type Examples

Backup Utilities Nero

Antivirus software Norton, McAfee, AVG
Firewalls Cisco, 3COM, CheckPoint FireWalls
Compresssion Utilities WinZip, WinRAR

Figure 3.18 The Nero Main Menu

Note:
Download manager software such as IDM (Internet Download Manager), Torrent, and Kazza, are
classified as software utilities too. They are used in downloading files in the Internet in a fast and easy way.
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Figure 3.19 Internet Download Manager Screenshot

Figure 3.20 WinZip Compression Utility Software

Figure 3.21 WinRAR Compression Utility Software

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The Word Processor

The word processing technology today makes it possible to enjoy typing
effectively. The typist will no longer suffer the agony of retyping the text to produce
clean and a net draft. Through the use of word processing software such as the
Microsoft Word and its OpenOffice counterpart, a user(typist) can concentrate on
thinking about the ideas and let the computer handle the details of laying out the words
and spacing neatly on the page. This can be accomplished because we can easily insert
text at any point in the document, delete text from any part of the document, move text
from one part of the document to another section of the same document or to another
document, search and replace selected words or phrases throughout a document, copy
text from one part of a document and duplicate it in another section of the document.
These are but the basic features of word processing software. As a matter of fact, there
are dozens more capabilities a word processor can do such as automatic underlining of
important words or phrase, changing fonts and sizes, adding colors to any words you
want to be highlighted, automatic footnoting and hyphenation, and automatic checking
the spellings of all words you typed in the document, and the ability to incorporate
graphics or picture created with other software applications.

Microsoft Word 2007

( A Real-World Example of a Word-Processor)

The Microsoft Word 2007 is a full-featured word-processor designed to help us work efficiently
with our paper works in the office. Typing text in MS Word is similar to typing on a mechanical typewriter.
The letter arrangement of the keys is the same. So if we have a background in using a typewriter, it is easier
for us to learn how to use the keyboard.
We could find that MS Word 2007 is easier to use than a typewriter. Moreover, it helps us to
accomplish our task faster, more neat and presentable. For example, when we type enough words to reach
the end of the line, MS Word automatically moves to the next line. This feature is called a word wrap.
With this feature, we don’t have to watch for the end of the line.
The most outstanding feature of MS Word is its editing capability. If we change our mind after we
write something, we can edit what we have written, delete the word or sentence we do not want or add a
word or sentence to our document. And then the MS Word will automatically adjust the spacing of the text.
We can also apply formatting to control the appearance of our document. We can format the text
appearance by making it in italic, underlined, or bold form. We can even specify to center the text, to left
justify or to right justify the text. Plus, we can add or insert pictures and graphs to our documents. Not only
that, the MS Word can automatically check the spelling of our text. So you don’t have to worry about
wrong spelling anymore. With this feature of MS Word, we can be perfect in our spelling. How about our
grammar? Well, the time will come, the MS Word can accurately pinpoint our grammatical errors. For
now, let us be just contented with what it can do.
When an MS Word, finds a wrong spelling, it underlines the word with a red zigzag line. You
could notice that it underlines your first name, last name, address or tagalog expressions you typed in your
document. Take note that the word “tagalog” here was underlined with a red zigzag line by the Microsoft
Word 2007 at the time I typed this document . This means that the spelling checker of MS Word can only
understand English words and consider other foreign words as misspelled words as its default. When an
MS Word, suspects a wrong grammar in your sentence constructs, it underlines the phrases with a green
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zigzag line. Now remember, MS word is like humans, it is not perfect (the grammar correction pinpoints
only some possibilities, not accuracy of pinpointing it).
The new Microsoft Word 2007 features a translation tool tip option available for English (US), Spanish,
and French. When selected, pointing the mouse cursor over a word will display its translation in the
particular language. With the Document Inspector feature, it can strip MS Word documents of information
such as author name and comments. The feature of building blocks lets us save frequently used content,
so that they are easily accessible for further use. The contextual spell checker feature catches incorrect
usage of correctly spelled words. With MS Word 2007, we can write directly our blog entries to a blog
sites. These are but just few of the features of MS Word 2007.

Note:
This book is written using MS Word 2007!

Figure 3.22a Microsoft Word 2007

Figure 3.22b Adobe Reader 8.1

Note:
The Adobe Reader 8.1 is used to open a .PDF (Portable Data Format) formatted document. You oftenly
encounter this type of document when you are downloading a document from the Internet.
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The Desktop Publishing Software

Desktop publishing is the process of producing magazines, newspapers, books
and other publication materials. In today’s modern desktop publishing technology, the
personal computer can be used to produce these publication materials in less cost.

Before the advent of personal computer, publishing required expensive

equipments and highly trained personnel to operate the equipments. A modern desktop
publishing system includes a computer, a laser printer, and a desktop publishing
software. A highly knowledgeable person can possibly do all the writing, editing, graphic
production, page layout and typesetting a desktop publication.

Microsoft PowerPoint 2007

( A Real-World Example of a Presentation Software)
The Microsoft PowerPoint is the leader in presentation graphics software. It has all the tools
needed by the presenters to show sales figures charts, profits and losses analysis, and any presentations for
business meetings.
The PowerPoint has text handling, outlining, graphing, and drawing features. We can refine the
content of our presentation by rearranging and editing text in the Outline and Slide views menu. We can
even move the slides around in the Slide Sorter view to adjust to the look we want.
In our presentation, we can add clip art, drawings, graph and charts. We can even produce speaker
notes pages and hand-outs to support our presentation. Microsoft PowerPoint can help us create overhead
slides, audience hand-outs, speaker’s notes, and an outline, easily; all in a single presentation file. It has
also a Wizard to help us organize and design our presentation task in a step by step manner.
The PowerPoint has five views to assist us in our presentation task. The first one is the Slide view
that allows us to work individual slides. Second, is the Outline view that allows us to work on the title and
body text of our presentation. Third, the Slide Sorter view allows us to organize each slide of our
presentation. Fourth, the Slide Show view will display our slides. Fifth, the Notes Pages view will allow
us to create speaker’s notes.
The new Microsoft Power Point 2007 can now render 3D graphics. It can support for tables pasted
from Microsoft Excel 2007. The Slide Library feature lets us reuse any slide or presentation as a template.
Any of our presentation or slide can be published to the Slide Library. Now in PowerPoint 2007, we can
sign our presentation digitally. There is an added support for Widescreen slides and allows us of custom
placeholder.
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Figure 3.23 Microsoft PowerPoint 2007

The Electronic Spreadsheet Software

A spreadsheet software allows the user to easily compute repetitive calculations in
a fast and accurate manner. A spreadsheet document called worksheet are composed of
numbered rows and alphabetically lettered columns. The intersection that forms a
highlighted box is called a cell.
For example, the cell B2 means the intersection of column B, and row 2. A cell
can contain a numeric value, a formula or a label. The worksheet must use a formula to
compute a group of numeric values in vertical or horizontal listings. For example, cell
B7, might contain the formula : (B1+B2+B3+B4+B5)/5. This formula commands the
computer to add numbers in cells B1, B2, B3, B4, and B5, then divide the total by 5.
And finally displays the resulting computation in the cell B7 where the formula was
located. We cannot see the formula in cell B7, we can see just the computed value.
Most of the spreadsheet software contains the following features: automatic
replication of values and formulas, automatic recalculations, predefined mathematical
functions and macros. Spreadsheet software is also useful and helpful in answering “what
if” questions, because it allows the user to change the numbers and see the effects
instantly upon changes. Spreadsheet software includes a feature where we can turn the
figures in our worksheet into a graph or chart automatically. These graph can be a line
chart, pie chart, or bar chart (graph).

Microsoft Excel 2007

( A Real-World Example of a Spreadsheet Software)
Microsoft Excel 2007 is an excellent software for calculating and organizing numeric data. The
Excel software is under the spreadsheet category. It displays data in row-and-column format, with gridlines
between rows and columns, similar to accounting ledger books or graph paper.
Excel is primarily used for numeric data in accounting tasks, statistical computations, and even in
scientific research. In Excel, we use workbook or group of worksheets. This workbook is a file that can
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contain multiple worksheets. A worksheet is a grid of rows and columns in which we can type the data or
value. The cell is designated by a thick border, and it is the intersection of rows and columns in a
worksheet. An active cell is a cell in which you can enter data in a worksheet.
Excel provides capabilities for moving the existing content of one or more cells to a different
location. This approach is called cut and paste because you cut or remove data from its original location,
and then paste or insert the data at a different location.
A font is a general appearance of text, numbers, and other character symbols. To make our
worksheet attractive, we have to change the font and font size for selected headings, labels, and values.
Using the AutoFormat feature, we can format the data in our worksheets, applying a professionally
designed template. It adds different colors, shading, and font effects to provide clarity and visual appeal to
the worksheet.
The Microsoft Excel contains graphing functions too, which has its own ChartWizard. With the
use of ChartWizard, Excel can walk us through the four necessary steps required to create a chart (graph).
Excel has a database manipulation capability. It can organize the data or information in systematic way. In
other words, Excel spreadsheet software can store and retrieve data, in the same way we use database
management system software such as Microsoft Access or Microsoft SQL Server. But maybe not that good
enough like the way Microsoft Access can do.
The new Microsoft Excel 2007 features conditional formatting that support Color Scales, Icon
Sets, and Data Bars. The color scales will automatically color the background of a group of cells with
different colors. The icon sets will precede the text in a cell with an icon that represents some aspect of the
value of the cell. The data bars show a gradient bar in the background of the cell.
The Formula Auto-complete feature of MS Excel 2007 automatically suggests function names,
arguments and name ranges and automatically completing them if desired. The feature of CUBE functions
allows the importation of data including a set of aggregated data from data analysis services coming from
SQL Server Analysis Services.
The Page Layout View feature shows the spreadsheet in a way that mirrors the formatting that
will be applied when printed. The Quick Filter option allows the selection of multiple items from a drop
down list of items in the column. The option to filter based on color has been added to the choices
available. Its new charting engine feature supports advanced formatting, including 3D rendering, shadows
and transparencies. The chart layouts can also be customized to highlight various trends in the data.
The User-Defined Functions (UDF) feature of Microsoft Excel 2007 are custom functions
written by the user to supplement Excel’s set of built-in functions. This is handy if the function needed by
the user cannot be found in Excel 2007.

Figure 3.24 Microsoft Excel 2007

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Other Application Software of Microsoft Office 2007

Most of us are using Microsoft Word 2007, Microsoft Excel 2007, Microsoft
PowerPoint 2007, and Microsoft Excel 2007, to accomplish our paper works in the office
or in the school. There are other application software that are bundled with Microsoft
Office 2007 which most of us are not aware of or not familiar with. What they are and
what they can do to make our work better and life easier, are listed below:

• Microsoft Office Groove 2007

-is a collaboration software that enables a team to work together of a particular
project effectively, efficiently and dynamically. This is regardless of their
respective location or what company they work for. They can collaborate with
the team members even if they work offline or working away in other site. With
Office Groove 2007, the team can keep the files, tools, and information in one
place and can be accessible anytime and anywhere, with the most up to date
revision available for each and every member. This is possible with the
synchronization feature.

• Microsoft Office Outlook 2007

-this is a personal information manager software that is used mainly for e-mail
application and shared mailboxes, contact management, meeting time allocation
and calendar, and web browsing. With the new feature such as the Instant Search,
you can organize your e-mails and view them alongside with your other e-mail
accounts, plus, the ability to access your information even when you are offline.
With Office Outlook 2007, you can also track business data and manage sales
using the Business Contact Manager feature.

• Microsoft Office OneNote 2007

-is a tool for taking notes, gathering information and data, and collaborate with
other computer users. You can add drawings, pictures, audio, or movie to the
information you gathered with Office OneNote 2007. You can also perform some
calculations using the calculator capability of OneNote. This is handy if your
notes need some calculations. With Office OneNote, you can easily gather,
search, and share notes and information wherever you are, conveniently.

• Microsoft Office Publisher 2007

-is the business publishing software that helps you design, create, and publish
communication and marketing materials, intuitively and superbly. You can create
any publication materials for e-mail, print, and the Web, informing (or even yet,
enticing) your target customers about your products and services. With Office
Publisher 2007, producing marketing campaign materials is so easy, fast, and
professionally designed by you.
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• Microsoft Office InfoPath 2007

-is the software you use to collect business data and information from the people
whom you work and deal with. These people could be your customers, clients,
suppliers, partners or colleagues. Some application of Office InfoPath 2007 is
when you want to create a Form template Christmas party expense reports for the
employees in your company. Or in some cases, a group of sales executives can
use the Office InfoPath 2007 to collect and share data or information about the
sales per region, per city, or per class of customer’s buying behavior.

• Microsoft Access 2007

-is a personal database software. Most of us are not using it directly. Some
company departments are using Office Access 2007 for managing departmental
data and record keeping operations. It has inherently limited capability to handle
small database files (a typical of a few thousands of records ) with up to 10
database users are allowed to access the database engine of MS Access 2007
simultaneously.

Figure 3.26 Microsoft Access 2007

Figure 3.27 Microsoft Office OneNote 2007

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Figure 3.28 Microsoft Publisher 2007

The Microsoft Office 2007 Nemesis: The OpenOffice

The OpenOffice is the counterpart of Microsoft Office 2007 in the open-source

community. If Linux operating system competes with Windows Vista and Windows
Server 2008, then OpenOffice competes directly with Microsoft Office 2007. They are
both an office suite application software. The OpenOffice supports the OpenDocument
standard which further means that it is compatible with Microsoft Office document. In
other words, you can open your Microsoft Word document to OpenOffice word-
processor without encountering any problems, and vise-versa. Like the Linux operating
system, you can acquire the OpenOffice for free. So download it now! By the way,
download the Linux operating system first, because you have to run the OpenOffice
under the Linux OS environment or in Solaris UNIX operating system. Try it!

Figure 3.29 OpenOffice Home Page

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Mathematical, Scientific and Statistical Software

Most businesses and businessmen use professional accounting and financial
management software. Accounting software automatically adjusts the balance in every
account after a transaction so that the history can be traced later when the demand or need
arises in the near future. Aside from fast and easy record-keeping, financial management
software can automate the generation of check writing, budgeting, and bill paying.
Example of this application software is Quicken and MS Money. Mathematical
processing software are used by many professional and students whose needs are beyond
the capabilities of spreadsheet software. This software can handle complex equations,
formulas, and calculations.
Mathematicians can easily create, manipulate and solve equations, the same way
the word processors help the writers. These software can handle the calculations for
matrix and linear algebra, complex trigonometry and polynomial factoring.
Statistics is the branch of applied mathematics and considered as the science of
collecting and analyzing data. Statisticians depends heavily on computers in speeding up
the collections and analysis of raw data. Statistical analysis software can produce graphs
that shows how two or more variables relate to each other. The statisticians can analyze
and uncover trends by looking for unusual patterns in the graph of dots and lines that
appear on the monitor.
Scientific visualization software uses location in space, shape, and color to help
us understand the relationship of things and objects that are invisible in our eyes. The
user usually used or wears some polarized lenses or electron microscope that are
connected to the computer. This peripherals will permit the user to see three dimensional
(3-D) images of molecules to be analyzed.
In some application that study the outer-space, this peripheral can be used to see
and observe the mysterious clustering of galaxies. This visualization software can help
the researcher to see the relationship that might have been obscure to grasp without it.
Computer Modeling and Simulation software is use to create abstract models
of objects, organizations, processes, and organisms. The marketing executives who
design a worksheet to forecast monthly profits and losses is trying to model or simulate
the economic condition that would affect the company’s financial status.
A statistician who examines and analyzes the data collected from the respondents
has created statistical models to describe a particular trend or phenomena. An engineer
who uses mathematical and engineering software can test the stress capacity of a bridge
before it is constructed.
Most computer games are models or simulations of an actual or imaginary ideas,
processes, works, or situations. Chessboards, ballgames, sports arenas, battlefield,
medieval dungeons, mythological societies and interplanetary cultures have been
modeled through computer games. This computer model is an abstraction to reality,
which means that it is a set of concepts and ideas designed to emulate an actual situation.
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Computer Simulation
Schools, military, and businesses use simulation techniques for training. User-
oriented simulations allow the person to temporarily live their fantasies. Sports
simulation like the world re-known athlete stars are among the favorite computer games
of the new generation today.
In military application, the fighter jet pilot can simulate the right and safe landing of F14
in an aircraft carrier using the computer.

Database Management System

A database management system is a type of software that is used for organizing

storage and retrieval of information. In other words, this software allows people to store,
search, retrieve, process, or access data fast and easy. The Internet is the world’s richest
source of voluminous information. To store and retrieve the information in a fast and
easy way from the Internet, database management system is applied. Take for example,
with the Google. In Google, you just simply type the word or words that you would like
to search. In a matter of seconds, you will get the list of links to choose from so that you
can narrow your search to find what you searched for.
A database is considered as a computerized version of an inventory file stored in
an office file cabinet, a library card catalog or a card index containing the names and
addresses of business contacts.
Here are the basic components of the database management system:

a. Database – is a collection of information stored in a systematic form in a

computer.
b. Table– a complete collection of related records in a row and column format.
c. Record – is a collection of related data about a person or object.

The following are the basic operations and uses of database:

a. Query. This is an information request.

b. Indexing. This is a database command that allows us to arrange records in
alphabetical or numerical order.

Database software allow users to efficiently and quickly manage, organize, store and
retrieve large amounts of information. We can view data in many ways, arrange records
in any order, and print reports in any form and arrangement.
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Figure 3.30 The Google Desktop

Corporate Databases

SQL Server 2008

The SQL Server 2008 is the database of Microsoft corporation and considered as
the fastest-growing DBMS today. Presently, it runs only in Windows operating system
such as in Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows Server 2003 or 2008.

Figure 3.31a Microsoft SQL Server Installation Wizard

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Figure 3.31b Microsoft SQL Server Management Studio

Note:
The Microsoft SQL Server Management Studio is a database utility that is used mainly to manipulate the
table and other parts of SQL Server database.

Oracle Database 11g

The Oracle Database is the world’s first commercially-available relational
database management system (RDBMS). Currently, it is the number one RDBS used
worldwide. It runs in Windows operating system, Mac OS, Linux, and UNIX Solaris.
Oracle Database is packed with a large suite of business application software, utilities,
and languages that can be used together to solve business process problems.

Figure 3.32a Oracle Database Installation Wizard

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Figure 3.32b Oracle SQL Developer

Note:
The Oracle SQL Developer is a database utility software which is the graphical-user interface (GUI)
equivalent to the Oracle SQL Plus console-based manipulation of the Oracle database. This Oracle SQL
Developer can also be used to manipulate the database of SQL Server, MySQL, and Microsoft Access,
graphically.

IBM DB2 Universal Database

The IBM DB2 Universal Database is a suite of business application software that
can be used by companies for their data analysis, integration, and data-mining, data-
warehousing, and other data management tasks. Like Oracle Database, IBM DB2 has a
version that will run in Windows, Linux, and UNIX operating systems. IBM DB2 offers
a superb service and technical support by its company- the IBM Corporation. It is also a
stable and robust database server for high-volume activity transactions.

MySQL
This is the most popular and widely used RDBMS in the open-source community.
Well, it doesn’t mean that MySQL Database runs only in Linux, it will also run in
Windows operating system environment. MySQL is definitely simple to use, probably
because it has less features than Oracle or SQL Server. This does not mean that MySQL
RDBMS is not powerful. As a matter of fact, there are about over 4 million installed
MySQL Database applications worldwide, estimatedly. Since MySQL is an open-source
RDBMS, therefore, it is free. Now when cost is the main factor why your company
cannot afford a high-end RDBMS like Oracle or SQL Server, then settle with MySQL
first. Later on, if you have the ready budget in your pocket, switch-on to Oracle or SQL
Server. This is only in the case of a company. For personal use, like for experimentation
purposes, you can have every database you want, from Oracle, to SQL server and many
others, free of charge (by downloading the Express Edition at the Internet). Believe me, it
is true.
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Figure 3.33a The MySQL Setup Wizard

Figure 3.33b The MySQL Query Browser

Note:
The MySQL Query Browser is a database utility software that is used to manipulate the MySQL database.

PostgreSQL
The PostgreSQL is dubbed as the world’s most advanced open-source database.
This RDBMS was originally developed in early 1970’s and was formerly called “Ingres”.
Ingres database became a commercial database success. As time goes by, many interested
RDBMS creators enhance and improve the capabilities of PosgreSQL, until such time
that today, it was developed by many developers around the world to become a highly-
scalable object-relational database server.
 98

Figure 3.34a The PostgreSQL Installation Wizard

Figure 3.34b The PostgreSQL (PG) Explorer

Note:
The PG (PostgreSQL) Explorer is a database utility software that is used in manipulating the PostgreSQL
database.
 99

Express Edition Too, Is A Free Software

Okay, we already heard that the Open Source Community or the Open Software
Foundation is giving their software for free. Yes, definitely yes! That is the very reason
why you got your Linux operating system for free. You get your PHP and MySQL free,
and Java programming language too! Plus, a dozen of cool and powerful software are
given away for you to learn and master.
But, we must not forget also that commercial software that cost millions of pesos
have their own free version. The giant computer software companies such as Microsoft
and Oracle call their free software version as Express Edition. Though it has some
inherent limitations, these limitations are purely more of limited storage capacity of data
to be stored and computer memory and CPU usage, not actually with software features
and capabilities. You can download these software directly from their website. This
further means, that whatever you want to learn and dream to design and develop, you
have the tools you need to transform them into reality. And all these tools are free for
your constant practice and experimentation in honing your programming knowledge and
skills.

The Computer Number System (Series III)

Presenting : The Hexadecimal Number System

The actual application of Hexadecimal Number System is in the way how the
computer assigned memory addresses. Memory addresses are the actual memory location
where each data is stored systematically for easy and fast search and retrieval process.
Moreover, our data, information, program, or software are stored in hexadecimal number
format. Needless to say, it’s like Octal Number System that is used to conserved memory
storage space. We have to take note that the computer system has done many conversion
process involving a binary to decimal number conversion and vise-versa to store, retrieve,
manage, and control our data, program, or software.
In computer networking, Hexadecimal Number System is applied as the physical
address of the LAN-card which is called MAC (Media Access Control) address. In other
words, each and every LAN-card in a computer network has a unique MAC address that
is in hexadecimal format. The new IP address scheme in the Internet is also in
hexadecimal format. It is the IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6). The older IP address is
expressed in decimal format. The old IP address scheme was called IPv4(IP version 4).
With this consideration in mind, our learning experience will never go in vain.
These reasons are the very essence why we study this different number system which the
computer is using extensively. The hexadecimal number system consists of ten numbers:
0 to 9 and six letters. These six letters: A through F are also considered as numerical
values. This is a base 16 number system. The given table that follows is the comparison
 100

between the decimal and hexadecimal numbers. The letter A in hexadecimal is 10, while
B is 11, C is 12, and so on.

Decimal Hexadecimal
Number Number
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 A
11 B
12 C
13 D
14 E
15 F
16 10
17 11
18 12
19 13
20 14
21 15
22 16
23 17
24 18
25 19
26 1A
27 1B
28 1C
29 1D
30 1E
31 1F

A. Decimal To Hexadecimal Number Conversion

To convert a decimal number into hexadecimal number, we simply divide it by 16

and we get the remainders. The remainders are read in reverse order to get the
hexadecimal equivalent numbers.
 101

Examples:
Quotient Remainder
1.) 4210 = ?16

42/16 = 2 10 (is A)
2/16 = 0 2
.
. . 4210 = 2A16

2.) 33810 = ?16

338/16 = 21 2
21/16 = 1 5
1/16 = 0 1

.
. . 33810 = 15216

3.) 2110 = ?16

21/16 = 1 5
1/16 = 0 1

.
. . 2110 = 1516

B. Hexadecimal To Decimal Number Conversion

To convert hexadecimal number into decimal number, we have to multiply each

digit by its positional notation value. Since we are using letters for 10 up to
15(A to F), we should change A into 10, and B into 11, and so on and so forth.
Finally, we will compute the sum to get the final answer.

Examples :

1.) 9B516 = ?10

9B516 = 9 x 162 + 11 x 161 + 5 x 160

= 2304 + 176 + 5

= 248510
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2.) F1C16 = 15 x 162 + 1 x 161 + 12 x 160

= 3840 + 16 + 12

= 386010

3.) E816 = 14 x 161 + 8 x 160

= 224 + 8

= 23210

C. Hexadecimal To Binary Number Conversion

To convert hexadecimal number into binary number system, simply replace each
hexadecimal number by its 4 binary digit equivalent. Use the given table below as a
guide.

Hexadecimal Binary Digit

Number
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
A 1010
B 1011
C 1100
D 1101
E 1110
F 1111
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Examples :

1.) 3BD616 = ?2

3= 0011
B= 1011
D= 1101
6 = 0110
.
. . 3BD616 = 00111011110101102

2.) 4F.9A16 = ?2

4= 0100
F= 1111
9 = 1001
A = 1010
.
. . 4F.9A16 = 01001111.100110102

3.) E716 = ?2

E = 1110
7 = 0111
.
. . E716 = 111001112

Other Solutions

We too, can solve this hexadecimal to binary conversion by using the following
technique (like the way we did in octal to binary conversion):

8 4 2 1 The Hexadecimal Equivalent

1 1 1 1 The Binary Equivalent

For example, we want to convert a hexadecimal number F to binary number equivalent.

Obviously, we have the answer : 1 1 1 1. Now if you try to analyze the process, you will
notice that we can easily get the answer by adding the hexadecimal number equivalent at
the top of each binary number (8+4+2+1). For example again, we want to convert a
hexadecimal number A to binary number equivalent. We have the answer: 1 0 1 0 since
we simply add the hexadecimal number equivalent of each binary number (8+2). What if
we want to convert a hexadecimal number 8 to its binary number equivalent? Going
back to our technique, we will have the answer : 1 0 0 0 since we add the hexadecimal
 104

number equivalent above each binary number ( 8+0+0+0). In other words, when we
combine the three hexadecimal numbers (FA816), we will arrive to the answer : 1111
1010 10002. What we did with the excess binary number was to simply make it a zero
number. Now solve it by your own?

D. Binary To Hexadecimal Number Conversion

To convert binary digit into hexadecimal number, the binary digit is to be grouped
by 4 first, before replacing to its equivalent hexadecimal number. The grouping of 4
digits will start from the right then to the left. Add zero (at the left side group) to make
the digits a multiple of four when lacking of digit arises. Use the previous table as a
guide.

Examples:

1.) 11110102 = ?16

0111 1010 { We add zero at the left side group }

7 A
.
. . 11110102 = 7A16

2.) 1010111110112 = ?16

1010 1111 1011

A F B
.
. . 1010111110112 = AFB2

3.) 00012 = ?16

0001
1
.
. . 00012 = 116

Other Solutions

Now this time we reverse the process by converting the binary number into
hexadecimal number equivalent. Again, we can solve this binary to hexadecimal
 105

conversion by using the following technique (like the way we did in hexadecimal to
binary conversion):

8 4 2 1 The Hexadecimal Equivalent

1 1 1 1 The Binary Equivalent

For example, we want to convert 1111 binary number to hexadecimal number

equivalent. Obviously, we have the answer : F. Now if you try to analyze the process,
you could notice that we can easily get the answer by adding the hexadecimal number
equivalent at the top of each binary number (8+4+2+1 = 15(F)) .
For example again, we want to convert a binary number 1011 to hexadecimal number
equivalent. We have the answer: B since we simply add the hexadecimal number
equivalent of each binary number (8+0+2+1). What if we want to convert a binary
number 0011 to its hexadecimal number equivalent? Going back to our technique, we
will have the answer : 3 since we add the hexadecimal number equivalent above each
binary number ( 0+0+2+1). In other words, when we combine the three groups of binary
numbers (1111 1011 00112), we will arrive to the answer : FB316.
What we did with the excess binary number is to simply make it a zero number. Now
solve it by your own?
 106

LEC ACTIVITY
TEST 3

TEST : Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion

A.) Convert the following decimal numbers into hexadecimal numbers

1.) 6210 = ?16

2.) 3410 = ?16

3.) 23910 = ?16

4.) 95110 = ?16

5.) 71910 = ?16

6.) 86010 = ?16

TEST : Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion

B.) Convert the following hexadecimal numbers into decimal numbers

1.) 8A216 = ?10

2.) E1D16 = ?10

3.) F416 = ?10

4.) CC16 = ?10

5.) F9A216 = ?10

6.) 6E7B16 = ?10

TEST : Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

C.) Convert the following hexadecimal numbers into binary numbers

1.) 9A16 = ?2

2.) 7F16 = ?2
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3.) E3.5D16 = ?2

4.) 4B2816 = ?2

5.) 1CE16 = ?2

6.) CE116 = ?2

TEST : Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion

D.) Convert the following binary numbers into hexadecimal numbers

1.) 101011002 = ?16

2.) 111100002 = ?16

3.)1100111100002 = ?16

4.) 11012 = ?16

5.) 11101112 = ?16

6.) 10111012 = ?16

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Chapter 4
The Basics Of Computer Networking
“Make it simple as simple as possible
but not simpler.”
-Albert Einstein

So What is a Computer Network, Anyway?

A computer network is an interconnection of two or more computers through the

use of cables, telephone lines, radio transmitter, satellites and other wireless
telecommunication devices which goal is to successfully communicate to each other
through information interchange and resource sharing. A network is a set of technologies,
including the media used to connect computers together, as well as the software and
hardware used to construct and operate it. These media are the copper wire, fiber optic
cable or radio frequency in the case of a wireless technology. The network allows many
users to access shared data, programs, software, movies, pictures. MP3s, e-books, and
many others, almost instantly. Moreover, the networks open up new ways and means to
communicate, such as Internet chat and e-mails, and other instant messaging, and phone-
calls by long-distance which is free-of-charge using the Voice Over IP (VoIP)
technology. See, how this network technology makes our life so easy, so exciting, and so
enjoyable. I cannot imagine life without it!
In addition to e-mails and Internet chat, the company employees and officers
enjoy the benefit of teleconferencing, one of the best technologies that evolves because
of networking technology. Through teleconferencing, the companies meeting is no longer
limited to physical presence of the attendee, but anywhere and anytime she or he can join
the meeting, virtually. The attendee just need a computer connected to the networks or
Internet to make this high-tech way of communicating, possible. In a teleconference
settings, data, audio, and video signals travel across a Local Area Network (LAN),
through the use of wires, access points, hubs, switches; or across the network’s Internet
connections to company branches located anywhere in the world. The three categories of
teleconferencing that you would always hear or encounter in daily technology “talks” are:
videoconferencing, audio-conferencing, and data-conferencing.
Computer networks are mostly categorized in two main types: Local Area Network
(LAN) and Wide Area Network (WAN).

History of Computer Network Revolution

Without studying the history of how the computer networks evolve all throughout
these years, we are left wondering what transpired in the past that made our network
technology today. Here are the most significant timeline of the network revolution:
 109

Network Revolution: Timeline (In 1960’s and 1970’s)

-1969
In 1969, the seeds of the Internet were planted. It is called ARPANET, and this is the
year when the Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. Department of
Defense began connecting computers at the different defense contractors and universities.

-1977
In 1977, the first commercial LAN technology was introduced. It’s called ARCnet or a
short term for Attached Resource Computing Network. Datapoint Corporation is the
company that invented this LAN technology.

-1978
In 1978, the next LAN technology called Ethernet was introduced by its inventor, Bob
Metcalf who at the same time established the networking company called 3COM
corporation.

Network Revolution: Timeline (In 1980’s)

-1980
The National Science Foundation (NSF), another U.S. federal agency, joined the
Internework project after the U.S. Defense Department stopped funding the ARPANET.
Their own version is called NSFnet.

-1981
In 1981, the first modem was introduced by Hayes Microcomputer Products, Inc. It’s
called SmartModem.

-1982
The term “Internet” was first used to refer to the worldwide network of networks of
computer (International Networks). The global network that emerges from the
ARPANET and NSFnet.

-1984
In 1984, the IBM Corporation introduces its own LAN technology called Token Ring
networking system.

-1987
The HyperCard programming language was introduced by Apple Computer that leads to
the development of HTML.

-1988
The computer virus called “Internet Worm” crippled about 10 percent of all Internet
host computers.
 110

-1989
The European Particles Physics Laboratory in Geneva, Switzerland called CERN created
the World Wide Web (WWW).

Network Revolution: Timeline (In 1990’s)

-1990
The ARPANET was replaced by NSFnet as the backbone of the Internet.

-1992
The Internet becomes the world’s largest e-mail network with an estimated 25 million
Internet users.

-1993
The first commercial graphical-user-interface (GUI) Web browser called “Mosaic” was
developed at the National Center For Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) in the
U.S.

-1994
The Netscape Navigator, a Web-browser was introduced by Netscape Communications
company. It is based on Mosaic standard, but with more advanced and powerful features.

-1995
The first online auction company called e-Bay was founded.

-1997
In 1997, both Netscape Communication and Microsoft Corporation release the new
version of their respective Web-browser, the Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer
4.

-1998
The new Internet Protocol standard called IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) was drafted
and released by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).

-1999
The new Internet term called “blog” was coined by Peter Merbolz.

Network Revolution: Timeline (In early 2000)

-2002
The XML ( Extensible Markup Language) becomes very popular for Web-based
applications. At the same time, the boom of wireless networking started.

-2003
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The Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) of the IEEE 802.11 b/g standard for wireless network is
widely used in the U.S. with hotspots springing up in companies or other commercial
locations such as Starbucks Coffee.

-2004
In 2004, the unsolicited e-mail called Spam causes major problems across the Internet.

-2005
All IP (Internet Protocol) addresses of the old IP standard called IPv4 (version 4) were all
used, thus it can no longer be assigned. After 2005, the network devices must use the new
IPv6 standard in assigning IP addresses.

Local Area Network (LAN)

The Local Area Network (LAN) is an interconnection of personal computers that

are close to each other, usually in the same building, campus or area. In a LAN, one
or more computers can serve as a “server” (the main computer), while the
computers connected to it are called workstations or client PCs. The server serves as
a storehouses for software and data that are shared by many users who are connected
to it through cables or antenna (for wireless connection). The user is usually using
the workstation. This is the term used for a computer connected to the main
computer called server. In real setting, there are many workstations connected to a
server. To use this workstation, the user is required to enter a login name and its
corresponding password. This kind of set-up is applied to protect the software
resources and confidential information that can be found in the whole network. The
term used for this application is called system security.

Figure 4.4a The LAN Connection

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Figure 4.4b LAN Connection with a Hub or Switch

Figure 4.4c LAN Connection

Figure 4.5 The LAN Connection with High-tech Devices

Figure 4.6 The old LAN Connection with Big Servers

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Wide Area Network (WAN)

The Wide Area Network (WAN) is an interconnection of many computers that
are located from different cities or countries. WAN is made up of two or more LANs
which are separated by geographic distance and linked through phone lines,
microwave towers, and communication satellites.
Wide Area Network allows users to share computer hardware, software,
information or data even if they are separated by a long distance. The user can send
(upload) or receive (download) data, information, software, pictures, images, MP3s,
eBooks and movies through the network. In a network environment, the users can
possibly work together for a particular project. All users can see the changes made by
other users. For example, a company may have its main office and manufacturing
plant in one city or province, and its marketing office in another city. Each site needs
resources, such as data, programs, or projects to work to, locally, but it also needs to
share data with the other sites. To accomplish this need of data communication, the
company can use a WAN setup. This is possible because some telecommunication
network usually a phone company or an Internet Service Provider (ISP) will link the
different LANs of the company that are located in different cities so that it can
communicate to each other.

Figure 4.7 WAN Connection

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

The metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large-scale network that connects

multiple corporate LANs together, across a wide geographical area such as by
regions. Usually, the users are sharing resources with other regional resources. This
type of networks are not owned by one company, but usually owned by two or more
 114

different companies. The network devices and communication equipments of

Metropolitan Area Networks are maintained by the network provider that offers
network services to corporate customers.

Wireless Networks (WLAN,WWAN,WMAN)

Wireless LAN is so common today. Even Wireless MAN and Wireless WAN are
prevalent in todays present technology. We can see and hear how this present
emerging technology works to make our life better and better. A wireless network
simply enables people to communicate anytime and anywhere, and access application
and information without being required to connect to the network using wires or
cables. This literally provides freedom of movement and the ability to extend
applications to different parts of a building, cities, or practically anywhere in the
world.
For example, if I want to connect to the Internet to research some topics of interest or
opening my e-mail, and yet free-of-charge, I will simply bring my Laptop to
Robinsons. Robinsons mall provides free access to the Internet, wirelessly. You can
try it! You will enjoy it.

Figure 4.8a The Wireless Connection

Figure 4.8b Wireless Connection with users

 115

Figure 4.8c Wireless Connection using Laptops

Figure 4.8d Wireless Local Area Network with Wireless Network Adapter

Figure 4.8e Wireless Local Area Network with Wireless Access Point 1
 116

Figure 4.8f Wireless Local Area Network with Wireless Access Point 2

Figure 4.8g The Cisco LinkSys Administrator’s Menu

The Internet

The Internet is an interconnection of networks all over the world that links
schools, companies, government agencies, and research institutions. It is a collection
of millions of interconnected computers located in countries throughout the world -
all linked by phone lines and high speed cables, satellite discs, satellite space-
stations to form a gigantic computer network system. In reality, the Internet is a
collection of thousands of smaller networks, each network linked to the next network
to form one large worldwide network.
It enables us to communicate to other millions of people around the globe. In the
Internet, we can send or receive Electronic Mail (E-mail) to any of these millions of
people who have their own E-mail address. These people could be our relatives,
 117

friends, lovers, clients, or new acquaintances whom we have some special feelings or
interests.
We can connect to any computer server or network from any parts of the world
that is open to public users. Connections and accessing of information that are not
classified or confidential are possible even those that we can find in NASA, The
Whitehouse, and other big companies. We can enjoy these benefits in using the
Internet without worrying to pay long distance charges. We just simply pay a
minimum charge for a monthly rate that is fixed or with an equivalent of hours to be
spent in using the Internet. We pay our bills to an Internet Service Provider (ISP) such
as the Pacific Internet, or Network Service Provider (NSP) like PLDT SmartBro, or
Globe’s Broadband.
We can do our research work without the need to go to a particular library or
school. We simply type or choose a particular topic of interest on a Uniform Resource
Locator (URL) commonly known as websites such as whatis.com and asks.com
websites, then the browser like the Internet Explore (IE) or Firefox would take us to
the topics we are researching. There are many different search engines software in the
Internet like Google.com or yahoo.com which will simplify our research tasks and
make our search endeavor so quick and easy. We can also get a meaning to a
particular word by using the free online encyclopedia – the Wikipedia.
We can exchange messages, thoughts, beliefs, philosophies, and principles to other
students or teachers in other universities here in the Philippines or abroad. We can
reach these people by sending messages to them through E-mail or chatting with them
through Internet Relay Chat (IRC). We can have real-time discussions and forum
with them anywhere they are in the world.
IRC is subdivided into hundreds of categories where users talk live around the
clock and around the world about everything under the sun (the moon and the stars).
The IRC would even permit us to go to a private chat room to talk about topics that are
confidential, rated-R, or personal in nature.
The UseNet produces thousands of pages of discussions everyday and organized
subject categories. These subjects can be about politics, cultures, society, history, or
business. We can choose, view or read only those areas or topics that are important to
us. And we can participate the discussion freely and interestingly. The UseNet
Newsgroup is a highly sophisticated venue to broadcast messages or articles in which
we can receive feedbacks, comments, and even answers to our questions.

How Internet Started

The Internet started as ARPANET which means, an “Advanced Research Projects

Agency” , a project started by the U.S. Department of Defense. In other words,
historically, the Internet was invented and created as a tool for war. Indeed, the best tool
to win the war. Why? Because, based on the history of wars in the world, the country or
countries who has the best communication systems, eventually wins the war. In short, the
Internet is a communication system. To understand it well, we have this succeeding
discussion. The goal of this communication system project called ARPANET is to create
and build a large computer network with multiple paths (telephone lines) that could
 118

survive a nuclear attack or natural disasters such as tornado, tidal wave, super typhoon, or
an earthquake. When such attack or disaster happens, the network must still function so
that the communication of the people will not stop or totally hindered. Yes, in the Internet
design and implementation, because of its multiple paths or redundant paths, even if one
part of the network was destroyed, the other parts of the network would still remain
operational, thus the data communication could continue to flow through other surviving
lines of the network.

Peter Norton says:

“But what is the Internet? Simply put, the Internet is a network of networks – global communications
system that links together thousands of individual networks. As a result, virtually any computer on any
network can communicate with any other computer on any other network. These connections allow users
to exchange messages, to communicate in real time (seeing messages and responses immediately), to share
data and programs, and to access limitless stores of information.”

Figure 4.9 The Internet Connection Depiction

Intranet (The private Internet)

How about Intranet? The Intranet is the private network version of Internet (the
public network). In private network, only those authorized users are permitted to
access information or resources to the Intranet server or computer system network.
Unlike in the Internet, any user can have access anytime, anywhere. The Intranet is
most commonly used in private big companies. Usually, employees only in these
companies have the right to access in their company’s Intranet.
Intranet is a secure and a reliable enterprise-wide network and associated
applications which use Internet technologies and standards. Most Intranet
implementations today focus primarily on internal corporate World Wide Web
(WWW) servers (Intrawebs) for the purpose of simple document distribution. The full
potential of Intranets can be realized only if the diverse management capabilities and
functionality available in a Local Area Network (LAN) environment can be replicated
at an enterprise-wide level using the Internet platform. Like for example the speed in
accessing resources is faster in the Local Area Network, compared to the Intranet.
 119

Extranet
Maybe you heard also about Extranet. The Extranet is an Intranet which is
partially accessible by authorized users who are physically located outside the company
or employees in the other companies that are business partners such as distributors,
suppliers, or contractors. These other company employees need to have a valid login
name with the corresponding password to successfully access and use the Extranet.
In the Extranet setup, these authorized outside users are also limited to view or
access some specific resources in the hosting networks. Based on the users login name,
password, or possible domain name, the outside users can be managed and controlled
effectively on what particular web pages or information they are allowed to view or get.
This is also applicable on other shareable resources in the networks such as downloadable
files, videos, pictures, images, company marketing campaign materials, product demos in
mpeg format. So this is how extranet differs from intranet.

Virtual Private Networks (VPN)

Before the popularity and emergence of Internet, organizations with their
branches nationwide or worldwide connect their WAN, through expensive dedicated
leased lines provided by telecommunication companies. Generally, the faster the service
of the leased lines, the higher the cost. The development of VPN lowers the cost of WAN
connections. This technique on network setup simply utilizes the Internet infrastructure
(both its software and hardware components), so that there is no need of a dedicated lines
to connect smaller networks from one city to another, or from one country to another.
The main issue on VPN implementation is about system security because of the
inherent danger posed by the basic design and operation of Internet which operate as a
public network. To solve this issue, the VPN network employs a method called
tunneling, in which each data from the transmitting source network is encapsulated and
encrypted as it travels through the Internet’s gigantic network infrastructure until it
reaches to the receiving destination network.

Figure 4.10a The Cisco Systems VPN Configuration Wizard

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Figure 4.10b The VPN Connection Depiction 1

Figure 4.10c The VPN Connection Depiction 2

Basic Network Structure

Two popular basic network structures that we always heard about are client/server
and peer-to-peer networks. These two differs in many ways, most especially in terms of
system security, accessing resources, reliability and scalability. Let us examine them one
by one.

Peer-to-Peer Networks
The peer-to-peer network is characterized by its simplicity in implementation
and operation. However, system security and scalability suffer because of these
characteristics. For example, in peer-to-peer, all computers connected to the network
have equal relationships to each other and have similar types of software and hardware
that support the sharing of resources. Accessing resources are almost free for all, because
every computer can access other computer, though it requires login-name and password.
There is no centralized management of systems security. Since, every computer is free to
access other computer, scalability is also difficult to achieve. Centralization of managing
resources and system security administration is vital to a successful and scalable network
which is not part of a peer-to-peer design structure and implementation.
 121

Figure 4.11 Peer-to-Peer Network Connection

Client/Server Networks
A client/server network is a server-based network. Meaning, the server will act as
the central or main computer, while other computers called clients or workstations will
access it for resources request. Each and every client PCs on the network share the
processing and storage workload with the main computer called server.
One of the most common application of client/server settings is in the operation of
a relational database management system (RDBMS). The corporate database such as
Oracle, SQL Server, and PostgreSQL is commonly installed on the main computer for
centralized access of its resources. When a user needs to find information in the database
server, he or she will simply use the database client software to send a query to the server
computer, which in turn searches that particular information in the database and returns
the needed information to the user who requested it.
Main computers (servers) and client PCs (workstations) are the two most important
devices found in the computer networks. They are the network devices that the computer
users have interacted with, most of the time in their office works.

Figure 4.12 Client/Server Architecture Connection

Hardware Used in Networks

In the discussion of the two most common network structures, we learned that
computers are the most important hardware used in networking. There are other hardware
or devices used in networks, which enable these computers to communicate to each other
successfully. Like for example, how the client computer can access with the server
computer? They have to be connected in some ways, such as through cables or radio
 122

frequency signal (in the case of a wireless network) or other networking devices that links
them. This is now the main focus of our discussion. What are these networking devices?
Here they are.

Networking Media
Todays organization use both the wire-based networking media and the wireless
media to form a hybrid computer network. Most of the cables or wires that we can see
at the back of our company PCs are called unshielded-twisted-pair (UTP) wire. This
cable consists of four pairs of wires inside it. Each pair has two wires that are separately
insulated or coated in rubberized plastic, then they are twisted around each other. This
cable is made of copper and the signal that passes through it, is an electric current or
voltage.

Figure 4.13 Unshielded- twisted- pair cable and the RJ 45 plug

The two cable design that is used to connect networking devices are called
straight-through or cross-over cable. When we connect similar network devices such as
computer to computer, switch to switch, router to router, or a router to computer, or hub
to switch, we need to connect them with cross-over cable. Router and computer are
considered similar devices because their design or architecture are the same. In other
words, most of their components are the same in functionality. The same holds true with
switch and hub. The switch networking device simply enhances and extended the
capability of a hub. As a matter of fact, a switch is but an intelligent hub. It is capable of
being configured and administered so that the network can achieve high performance.
In a cross-over cable design, some pair of wires are cross-connecting to other pair
of wires, as though they form an X as they are crossing over to each other’s path. The
cross-connect design can be achieved easily by color coding of wires.
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Figure 4.14 Cross Over Connection of Wires Standard

The straight-through designed cable is just the opposite of cross-over when it

comes to its implementation in the network operation. Straight-through designed cable is
used to connect dissimilar networking devices such as connecting the computer to a
switch or hub, and connecting a router to a switch or hub.
Straight-through designed cable is the easiest to design compared to cross-over or
roll-over designed cable. As its name implies, straight-through wires are the same in
color-code from both on its extreme edge.

Figure 4.15 Straight-Through Connection of Wires Standard

There is also a special type of cable design that is primarily used to be plugged
into the port of a router or a switch so that a network administrator or network engineer
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can configure and administer them. This is called the roll-over cable. The roll-over cable
is designed specifically to this purpose.
There are eight wires inside a twisted pair cable. In a roll-over designed cable, the first
wire at the extreme edge has the same color of the last (8th wire) wire found at the other
extreme edge of the cable, while the second wire has the same color of the 7th wire found
at the other extreme edge of the cable, and so on, hence the term “roll-over” implies.
Unlike the first two cable designs (straight-through and cross-over) where most of them
are designed by network administrators or network engineers or systems administrators
and systems engineers, the roll-over cable is already a packaged component with a router
or switch purchase.
One cable used also in networking is called fiber-optic cable. Unlike the UTP
wire which is made of copper, the fiber-optic cable is made of fiber-glass. And the signal
that passes through it is in the form of light. That is why, this type of cable is so very
expensive and its data transmission capability is very fast compared to the UTP cable.
Wireless media uses radio signal or infrared signal (in the case of a Bluetooth
technology implementation) that travels through the air for transmitting data. The
Laptops today are equipped with wireless media (cellular modem) which allow the user
to connect to the companies LAN, Intranet and Internet without the use of a wire or cable.

Note:
There is another cable used in the network which has a specialized function. It is used to configure the
router and switch. This cable is known as rollover cable. This type of cable does not need to be designed
and terminated by the network administrator, because it is already bundled with the router or with the
switch.

Network Interface Card

The network interface card (NIC) is used to control the data that is being
transmitted through a cable or wirelessly from one computer to another. This printed
circuit board which is also known as network adapter card is inserted to the PC’s
expansion slot and provides an RJ-45 (Reference Jack) port where the network cable such
as the UTP is attached or plugged.

Figure 4.16 Network Interface Card (NIC) – Front View & Side View

Switch
The switch is an intelligent hub which has its own Internetwork Operating
System(IOS) inside it. The IOS is the very reason why the switch has enough intelligence
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of its own to learn how to manage network traffic in a fast and efficient manner. In other
words, a switch is used to ease bandwidth shortages and network bottlenecks. This
network device acts as the concentration point for the connection of client computers
(workstations), servers, hubs, routers, and other switches in the network. In a hub, two or
more computers could possibly send data at the same time within a single path or link in
the network, that is why a collision happened, because two or more data would collide to
each other when they pass at the same time within a single path or link. In using a switch,
this collision will no longer occur because the switch provides a dedicated, point-to-point
virtual circuit (logical link) between two connected network devices such as the
workstations. Moreover, a switch can segment a LAN into microsegments.
Microsegmentation is a technique wherein the network administrator can organize his or
her network to be subdivided into two or more virtual LANs (VLANs). These VLANs
are simply smaller LANs within one physical LAN. Each and every VLAN domain is a
collision-free domain, so no collision of data will happen.

Figure 4.17a Cisco Network Switch with connected cables on it

Figure 4.17b Cisco Network Switch without connected cables

Note:
The repeater, hub and bridge are three networking devices that are rarely used in today’s networking
operation, (though most commonly used in early 1980’s up to late l990’s). Why? The functionality of a
hub (as well as repeater) and bridge are already incorporated within the switch capabilities and features. So
why use hub or bridge, when you can use a switch that makes your network to rock and roll.

Router
A router is a network device with the most intelligence of any networking devices
found in the network. It is capable of determining and deciding where to transmit the data
from one computer to another and choose the best path in order to deliver the data to its
recipient, successfully - regardless of distance and time. Within a router is a very
powerful operating system called Internetwork Operating System (IOS). This is the
driving force behind the router’s capability to choose the best path in transmitting data.
The router makes all things possible in the Internet. Actually, without the invention of it,
an Internet cannot be what it is today. The Internet operates 24 hours a day, 7 days a
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week, and 265 days a year with millions of routers scattered and installed around the
world.

Figure 4.18a High-end Cisco Routers

Figure 4.18b Cisco Routers for Medium-Scale Enterprise

Wireless Access Points

This wireless access point is needed so that we can design and implement a
wireless LAN or a hybrid LAN. A hybrid LAN refers to a LAN design and
implementation that uses both the cable-based connections and wireless connections.
Meaning, the company or school are using workstations connected to the LAN with
Category 5 cable at its back, while some students are using Laptops that connect to their
LAN via wireless connections. The cable-based connections are using usually a Class C
Private IP addresses while the Laptops uses a Class B Private IP addresses or both if the
Laptops are also connected using Category 5 cable.
Wireless access point has an access limitation due to distance. Only Laptops or
PCs equipped with wireless LANcard within 50 to 150 meters radius from wireless
access point antenna can access the network.
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Figure 4.19 LINKSYS Wireless Router and Access Point

Note:
Older Laptops (pre-Centrino technology) need a wireless adapter to be able to connect to the network
wirelessly.

Figure 4.20 LINKSYS wireless adapter for Pre-Centrino technology Laptops

What is a Gateway?
Historically, in the early invention of a router, it was commonly called a gateway.
Network engineers and scientists found the term unsuitable for the present capabilities of
a router. A router is not just a gateway to connect to a larger network like the Internet and
Intranet, it is more than that. That is why, today a gateway has a lot of meanings. The
question is, what is a gateway? A gateway, in its simplest definition and description, is a
node on a network that serves as an entrance to another network. In a small or medium-
scale businesses, the gateway is the network device (usually a router or a computer
server) that routes data from one local computer to an outside larger network such as the
Internet. The router or server accepts and redirects and filters any data packets passing
through the network.
When we configure our internal network such as our LANs or Intranets to be able
to connect to the Internet, we need to point each and every workstations (client PCs) to
the gateway’s IP address. This means, that all our workstations must be configured with
a Gateway IP address of our router or server’s fast Ethernet IP address. The gateway IP
addresses are automatically supplied and assigned by the Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP) server that is also configured to manage needed IP addresses of our
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network, from IP addresses of our Domain Name Service (DNS) server, Web Server,
Mail Server, Application Server, and Windows Internet Naming Service (WINS) Server,
and all workstations and switches connected in our network.

Ethernet Technologies
In networking world, the quality of networking media is measured in terms of its
speed and the distance a data can travel down the cables or wires (whether it is a
Category 5 or Fiber optic), or through air (in the case of wireless technology).
Bandwidth is the measurement of speed of networking media which is expressed in
cycles or bits per second (Hertz) or (bps). In other words, this is the amount of data a
networking media can carry. This further means also that the higher the bandwidth of the
networking media, the faster it can transmit data.
Originally, the Ethernet (10Base-T) technology’s speed is in 10 Mbps (Mega-bits-per
second). Today, we have the Fast Ethernet (100Base-T) technology that runs 100
Mbps. The next wave is the Gigabit Ethernet which can achieve a speed of 1000 Mbps
or 1Gbps data transfer rate.

Networking Protocols
Networking protocols are set of rules and conventions that govern a particular
aspect of how networking devices on a network communicate. The most common
protocol in use today in the Internet or LAN is the Transport Control Protocol- Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP). One of the common uses of a protocol is how the data should be
formatted as it is transmitted between two networking devices.

Note:
There are other protocols used by different operating system (OS) vendors before, the two widely used are
IPX/SPX of Novell IntranetWare and NetBIOS/NetBEUI of Microsoft Windows Server.

Digital Connections

DSL Connections
The Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is usually used by Internet users at home. This
is the most affordable and easy to setup and install. Though it has a limited bandwidth, it
is typical for Internet users whose needs are mostly for e-mails using Hotmail or Yahoo,
school-research through Google search-engine, and high-tech socialization with friends
using Friendster, or watching short movies (.avi or mpeg) with YouTube.
 129

Figure 4.21 Depiction of DSL Connection

Broadband Connections
Broadband connections simply describe a network connection that can transmit
data faster than a DSL technology can do. Some of the broadband connections utilize
WAN technologies such as the T1, T3, Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN), and
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM).

Cable Modem Connections

This is a technology that utilizes the present Cable TV technology infrastructure.
This means that a cable modem connection enables home PC users to connect to the
Internet through their cable TV connection with higher speeds than those offered by DSL
connection.

Wireless Connections
The wireless connections technology allows connectivity so that portable and
handheld computers such as Laptops and PDAs can move around while being
continuously connected to the network, and can communicate to each other successfully
without wires. There are many situations when mobility plays an important role for a
particular employee in accomplishing his or her tasks, as well as increasing his or her
productivity level.

Note:
Few years back, I’m using a Dial-up connection. A dial-up connection is simply to dial-up a particular
telephone number given by an Internet Service Provider (ISP) in order for you to connect to the Internet.
You need to have a telephone lines and a modem (internal or external) so that you can have this type of
network connection. You can get a connection to the Internet by setting up an inexpensive account with the
ISP provider or buy an ISP pre-paid card with a specific maximum number of hours you can use the card to
access the Internet. It works like your cell-phone pre-paid cards.
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Flowcharting and Algorithms ( Part 1)

Flowchart

A flowchart is a graphical representation of a program. It shows the logical

sequence of instruction which a computer has to follow. The individual instructions in the
flowchart are connected by arrow lines. These lines indicate the order on how the
instructions are followed or executed by the computer. The major uses of flowchart are in
program documentation and program presentation. Some of us can communicate easily
and effectively through the use of symbols or drawings. That is why we present our ideas
or concepts in terms of these techniques: drawing presentation.
Like any other techniques, drawing or symbol presentation has its own advantages
and limitations. For example, flowchart is easier to understand compared to the actual
program. However, there are some ideas or concepts that are so difficult to express in a
drawing form. We have two types of flowcharts: The first one is the system flowchart.
This type of flowchart illustrates which data is used and how it interacts with the
hardware and the user. The second one is the program flowchart which illustrates
graphically the logical sequence of the program. We will use the program flowchart in
our example. Let us just leave the study of system flowchart to your advance subject in
computer science or information technology course. Mostly, system flowchart is
intensively used and discussed in Systems Analysis and Design subject, as well as in
Software engineering subject. The program flowchart is also partly discussed in the first
part of any introductory programming subjects such in C programming, Pascal
programming, or Visual Basic programming.
The flowchart can help us to view the relationships between the two or more parts
and subparts of the program. How they relate or interact to each other. Moreover, it
improves the clarity of our logical thoughts, since we had seen its relationships to each
other in graphical form. The computer program involves the three basic main operations:

Input (to enter data)

Process (to calculate or make choices)
Output (to produce a result or report)
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Here is the graphical representation of these operations:

Input

Process

Output

Figure 4.22 The Input-Process-Output (IPO) Flow (From Top To Bottom)

Input Process Output

Figure 4.23 The Input-Process-Output (IPO) Flow (From Left To Right)

The basic flowcharting symbols are given below:

Symbol Name Meaning and Usage

Terminal symbol Signifies the start or end of a program

Oval

Input/Output symbol Indicates where the data are to be entered

Parallelogram or results to be displayed

Processing symbol Specifies processing procedures that usually

Rectangle involves calculations

Decision symbol Denotes a choice or decision to be made by

the computer
Diamond
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Flow lines Specifying the sequence or order of instruc-

tion
Arrow heads

Connect various subparts of a flowchart.

Flow connectors This circle (flow connector) can contain
(On-Page Connector) a number or letter. The sequence of
instruction continues to another flow
connector which has the same number
or letter.
Connectors

Initialization symbol Initialize or store the first values of the

Hexagon variables.

Off-Page Connector Connects the Flowchart to the next page,

if the Flowchart won’t fit to one page.

Sub-routine symbol A subprogram that executes a particular

(Subprogram or Procedures) tasks. It is also called ‘Procedure’ or
(Functions) ‘Functions’ in programming term.

Figure 4.24 Different Flowchart Symbols

Algorithms or Pseudo-codes

An algorithm is an English-like way of writing and expressing a solution to a

problem. It is a step by step list of instructions. Algorithm or pseudo-code is like a
flowchart. It helps us to construct the actual program easily and clearly. As a matter of
fact, flowchart is a visual or graphical representation of an algorithm. It is also like a
blueprint of a program, since it served as an effective guide to our programming tasks.
The advantage of using algorithm or flowchart before designing a program, is that
it relieves us from worrying the rules or syntax of a specific programming language.
Instead, it helps us to concentrate more on the logic of our ideas and programs.
Furthermore, we can change, improve or modify our algorithm easily compared to the
actual program. In actual program, some of the variables or statements will be affected
by the latest improvement or development of the system that takes place. In reality, this
kind of situation demands more time, energy, and patience, in the part of the programmer
and analyst. It is helpful to solve the programming problems using algorithm and
flowchart at the same time, but not always. In my own experience, algorithm is already
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sufficient to successfully solve the programming problem. Remember that this algorithm
is the product or result of our ideas which we think logically through analysis. In other
words, we need an analytical minds or brains that can think in logical way. Have you
learned to think logically in your subject: LOGIC? Think again.
Let me finish this discussion by sharing with you about a very short story of Isaac
Newton, the scientist who discovered and formulated the “Law of Gravity”. He was
asked how he discovered the law of gravity. His answer is very simple and
straightforward. This is his answer: “I think always about it”.
In constructing flowchart, algorithm or even writing our program, the best way to
come up with the solution is simply to think about it all over and over again. And if you
are as crazy as me in programming, never go to sleep until you find the idea on how to
solve the present programming problem at hand. Are you willing to go to that extent?
Then if you would, I’m sure you’ve got what it takes to be a programmer, by blood and
by flesh.
To end this discussion (again, this time I really mean it!) let me tell you about the
importance of the word “think” in the programmer’s life. The late Thomas J. Watson, Sr.
founder of IBM Corporation (one of the world’s largest and biggest computer companies)
put an inscription above his table. And you know what is that? This inscription is a single
word : THINK. I think why? Would you like to think why too? Okay, let us put it this
way: in our programming task, let us “think”. Don’t ask me why, period!

Flowchart and Algorithm Elements and Its Structure

We will have here the following elements and structure used commonly in our Flowchart
and Algorithm. Since Algorithm and Flowchart are the guides and blueprints in order for
us to design and develop computer programs successfully, then the following structures
and elements are also applicable or “ready-to-apply” in the actual coding of our
programs.

A.) Constants – are literal values that do not change during program execution. It can be
of the numeric or string data type.

Numeric Constant - may be an integer (whole number) or a real number (with a decimal point).
It may be preceded by a positive (+) or negative( - ) sign.

Examples:

11 -26 +3.5 -0.2130 20119

We have to take note that there should be no other characters that should be used in
conjunction with constant values such as the following incorrectly written constant
values: 20,000 $44.60 450/hr ½. The foregoing incorrectly written constants are
natural for us humans, but for the computer to process constant values, they are not. The
comma is not allowed, as well as the dollar sign. The / (slash) symbol is not allowed in
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declaring a constant value. This will result to a “syntax error” when you convert your
Algorithm to an actual computer program.

String Constant – is a character or group of characters enclosed in double quotation

marks (“ ) or in some cases, in a single quote (‘ ). The numbers 0 through 9, alphabetical
letters from letter A through letter Z and all special characters such as a space, *, %, $, _
, & and many others are also considered as string constants if they are enclosed with a
pair of quotes.

Examples:

‘9’, “Ms.” “This, I promise you!” ‘Y’ “d@#ghter of @ g#%???”

Note:
The entire string constant values must be enclosed in quotation marks, one before the first character and the
other after the last character. In the third example of the list, the double quotation mark can be found before
the letter T and the other quotation mark can be found after the exclamation mark of the string, ‘This, I
promise you!’.

B.) Variables – Is a portion of the computer’s main memory used to store

a numeric or string constant. The value stored in the variable must be given a
unique variable name, and it can only hold one value at a given time.

Variable names must conform to the following requirements:

• Must contain only letters, numbers or an underscore.
• Must begin with a letter.
• Must end either with a letter or a number.
• Must be unique that is, not a name of another variable.
• Must not be any of the programming language keywords such as for, while, do,
case, switch, if, else, default, break, try, catch, finally, and many others.

Note:
A variable may be one of the following types: Numeric, String, or an Array. Numeric types are in
numbers, while String types are in character or series of characters. The Array is a special type of variable
which has only one name referenced to it, but can hold one or more similar data type values at the same
time. Ordinary variable can only hold one value at a time.

Operators Or Notations Used In Flowcharting

We are already familiar with most of these operators such as the mathematical and
relational operators that we had used in our high school mathematics subjects (well, with
a slight difference only). In programming, there’s another important operators: logical
operators. These logical operators were originated and patterned from the formulas used
to invent the computer itself. They call it the “Truth Table”. Without further ado, let me
introduce them: the logical AND, OR, and NOT.
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Here are the summaries of the mentioned operators:

Mathematical Operators

+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Modulus
** Exponent

Hierarchy or Priority of Mathematical Operators Calculations

1. Expressions in parenthesis (inner-most expressions are first to be computed)

2. * / %
3. + -
4. From Left to Right

Relational Operators

> greater than

< less than
>= greater than or equal to
<= less than or equal to
<> not equal to
!= not equal to

Logical Operators Name of the Symbols (Special Characters)

&& (Logical AND) Double Ampersand Symbol

|| (Logical OR) Double Pipe Symbol
! (Logical NOT) Exclamation Mark

Operators Rules

And (&&) If both or all expressions are evaluated to True, then the result is True.

Or ( | | ) When either or any (or just one) of the expression(s) is True, the result is
True.

Not ( ! ) If the expression is True, then the result is the opposite of the expression.
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Note:
The pipe ( | ) symbol which is used as logical OR symbol can be found at the top of the Enter key and
below the Backspace key in the keyboard. In other words, it is located between these two keyboard keys.
In some keyboard design, this symbol is below the Enter key.

The Logical AND (&&) is also equivalent to logical multiplication with the use of the
symbol asterisk(*), while the Logical OR (||) is also equivalent to logical addition with
the use of the plus (+) symbol.
In logical operators, 0 is equivalent to False and 1 is equivalent to True. So the first table
below is equivalent to the second table that follows:

Logical AND Truth Table

X Y Z=X * Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
First Table of Logical AND

X Y Z = X&&Y
False False False
False True False
True False False
True True True
Second Table of the Logical AND

Logical OR Truth Table

X Y Z=X +Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

X Y Z = X || Y
False False False
False True True
True False True
True True True

Logical NOT Truth Table

X !Z
0 1
1 0
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X Z
False True
True False

In logical Not operator, the value of variable X is simply inverted, so the value of
variable Z is the inverted value of variable X.

Hierarchy or Priority of Logical Operator’s Evaluation

1.Not ( ! )
2. And (&& )
3. Or (| |)

The logical NOT operator has a higher precedence than the others. The AND operator
has higher precedence than the OR operator. Both the logical AND and OR operators
have lower precedence than the relational and arithmetic operators.

Note:
When Mathematical and Logical Operators are found in an equations or expressions, then, the
Mathematical Operators have higher priorities than Logical Operators in the calculation process.
The computer follows usually the rules in mathematics when it comes to calculating mathematical
expressions.

A.) Mathematical Expressions

Examples:

1. 12 + 10 * 3
= 12 + 30
= 42

2. 11 % 2 – 5
=1–5
= -4

3. 20 / 4 * 3
=5*3
= 15

B.)Relational Expressions
Examples:

1. I<=5
2. Ctr>60
3. Ans !=’Y’
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We will see the actual application of the Relational Expressions in the Flowchart,
Algorithm or Pseudocode, as well as to actual computer program.

C.) Logical Expressions

Examples:

1. 9>= 5 && 4 <= 8

T && T
T

Explanation:
We know that 9 is greater than 5, so this results to the evaluation of True, while 4 is less
than 8, so it results to True also. Based on the AND (&&) Truth Table, the True (T)
AND True (T) evaluation will result to True. If we convert the True (T) to the value of
logical 1, then we can calculate it logically as 1 * 1 where logical AND is equivalent to
logical multiplication (*). The resulting calculation is 1 which is equivalent to True (T).

2. 5>=9 | | 8<=4
F || F
F

Explanation:
We know that 5 is not greater than 9 so this results to the evaluation of False, while 8 is
not less than 4, so it results to False also. Based on the OR ( | | ) Truth Table, the False
(F) OR False (F) evaluation will result to False. If we convert the False (F) to the value of
logical 0, then we can calculate it logically as 0 + 0 where logical OR is equivalent to
logical addition ( + ). The resulting calculation is 0 which is equivalent to False(F).

3. (9>=5 && 4<=8) | | (5>=9 | | 8<=4)

( T && T ) | | ( F | | F)
T || F
T

Explanation:
We know that 9 is greater than 5 so this results to the evaluation of True, while 4 is less
than 8, so it results to True also. Based on the AND (&&) Truth Table, the True (T)
AND True (T) evaluation will result to True. If we convert the True (T) to the value of
logical 1, then we can calculate it logically as 1 * 1 where logical AND is equivalent to
logical multiplication (*). The resulting calculation is 1 which is equivalent to True (T).
We know that 5 is not greater than 9 so this results to the evaluation of False, while 8 is
not less than 4, so it results to False also. Based on the OR ( | | ) Truth Table, the False
(F) OR False (F) evaluation will result to False. If we convert the False (F) to the value of
 139

logical 0, then we can calculate it logically as 0 + 0 where logical OR is equivalent to

logical addition ( + ). The resulting calculation is 0 which is equivalent to False(F).
This time, we have to evaluate the last remaining logical expression which is T | | F.
Based on the OR ( | | ) Truth Table, True (1) | | False (0) is equal to True (1). We can
calculate it easily to use its numerical equivalent by this logical addition operation:
1 + 0 = 1.

4. (9>=5 && 4<=8) && (5>=9 | | 8<=4)

( T && T ) && ( F | | F)
T && F
F

Explanation:
We know that 9 is greater than 5 so this results to the evaluation of True, while 4 is less
than 8, so it results to True also. Based on the AND (&&) Truth Table, the True (T)
AND True (T) evaluation will result to True. If we convert the True (T) to the value of
logical 1, then we can calculate it logically as 1 * 1 where logical AND is equivalent to
logical multiplication (*). The resulting calculation is 1 which is equivalent to True (T).
We know that 5 is not greater than 9 so this results to the evaluation of False, while 8 is
not less than 4, so it results to False also. Based on the OR ( | | ) Truth Table, the False
(F) OR False (F) evaluation will result to False. If we convert the False (F) to the value of
logical 0, then we can calculate it logically as 0 + 0 where logical OR is equivalent to
logical addition ( + ). The resulting calculation is 0 which is equivalent to False(F).
This time, we have to evaluate the last remaining logical expression which is T && F.
Based on the AND ( && ) Truth Table, True (1) && False (0) is equal to False (0). We
can calculate it easily to use its numerical equivalent by this logical multiplication
operation:
1 * 0 = 0.

D.) Combination of Mathematical, Relational and Logical Operators

1. 9 / 3 = = 9 % 3
3 == 0
F

Explanation:
It is obvious that 3 is not equal to 0. That is why our answer is False (F). The left side of
the equation divides 9 by 3, and the result is 3, while at the right side of the equation is
the number 9 divided by 3 and its remainder is zero (0). This is how the percent (%)
works in Flowcharting, Algorithm, Pseudo-code, and Program. The operation of percent
(%) symbol will return the remainder value.

2. 7 != 15 / 2
7 != 7.5
T
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Explanation:
The exclamation mark (!) together with the equal (=) symbol, means “not equal” in
programming application. Since 7 is not equal to 7.5, therefore, our answer is True (T).

3. (5 > 3) && (7 != 7) | | !(9 <= 9)

T && ( F ) | | ! ( T )
T && F | | F
F || F
F

Explanation:
The Relational expression 5>3 evaluates to True (T) while the Relational 7!=7 evaluates
to False, and Relational expression 9<=9 evaluates to T (eventhough 9 is not less than 9,
however it is equal to 9). Obviously, 5 is greater than 3; and 7 not equal to 7 is False,
because they are actually equal to each other. The 9<=9 evaluates to True because of the
equal (=) symbol after the less than (<) symbol that results to 9=9. The True and False (T
&& F) evaluates to False, because using the equivalent logical multiplication that
translates to 1 * 0 = 0, where True is equivalent to 1 and False is equivalent to 0. Now the
!(T) just simply evaluates to False, because this translates to NOT True, which means it is
False. The False Or False ( F | | F) evaluates to False, because using the equivalent logical
addition that translates to 0 + 0 = 0, where True is equivalent to 1 and False is equivalent
to 0.

4.(10 = = 10 % 2 * 2) && !(( 4 > 2) && (6<4))

F && !(( T) && ( F))
F && ! ( F )
F && T
F

Explanation:
The expression 10 = = 10 % 2 * 2 evaluates to False (F) because the expression at the left
side of our equation will never be calculated to 10. The inner expression in the
parentheses T && F will evaluate to False because using the logical multiplication 1 * 0
= 0, where True is equivalent to 1 and False is equivalent to 0. The !( F ) negates the
value, so it evaluates to True.

E.) Assigning Values to Variables

Giving the following variable declarations:

A = 1, B = 2, C = 3, D = 4

1. (A < B) && (C < D)

(1<2 ) && (3<4)
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T && T
T
Explanation:

The variable A has a value of 1, while the variable B has a value of 2. Therefore the
expression A < B evaluates to True. The variable C has a value of 3 and variable D has a
value of 4, that is why the expression C < D evaluates to True.

2. ((A * C) <= (B + D)) | | (C>=B)

((1 * 3) <= (2+4)) | | (3>=2)
( 3 <= 6 ) | | (3>=2)

T || T
T

Explanation:

We first substitute the variable with its respective value. In the case of variable A, it has a
value of 1, while B has a value of 2, and so on. The expression 3 <= 6 evaluates to True,
as well as also the expression 3 >= 2. Then finally, we have the logical evaluation True
Or True (1+1=1), which evaluates to True.

Note:
In actual programming practice, the variables used are usually longer characters (not a single character) that
denotes what a particular variable is all about. For example, the variable for Quantity could be Qty, or the
variable used for Centimeter is Cm. In some instances, programmers and developers use the entire word as
a variable name. In this way, the variable stands out what it means.
We used single characters here in our example, for the sake of simplicity. This is opposite in programming
practice, because the longer the name of the variable, the easier it is to understand the code.

3.(( A+D) > (C-A)*2)) && ((B>A) | | (D<C))

(1+4) > (3-1)*2 && ((2>1) | | (4<3))
5 > 4 && ( T || F)
T && T
T

Explanation:
The expression (3-1)*2 is calculated as 4, because the inner expression in the parentheses
was first calculated (3-1), which computed value is 2. Then we multiply this computed
value 2 to 2 that results to the computed value of 4.
Now the expression 2>1 evaluates to True while the expression 4<3 evaluates to False,
and yet this will be logically results to True since (1 + 0 =0), where 1 is equivalent to
True and 0 is equivalent to False.
Finally we have the expression T && T ( 1 * 1 = 1), that evaluates to True.
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LEC ACTIVITY
TEST 4

General Instructions: Evaluate and determine if the following expressions are True or
False.

A. Combination of Mathematical, Relational, and Logical Operators

1. 100 / 2 = = 21 % 3
2.100 / 2 ! = 21 % 3
3. (15>=15) && (7==7) | | (1001!=1001)

B. Assigning Values to Variables

Where:
W = 10 X = 20 Y = 30 Z = 40

4.(W>Z) | | ( X != Y)
5. ((W*Z) < (X * W)) | | ( Z > W)
6. (( W+X) <= (Y-W)*3)) && ((W<Z) | | (Z>Y))
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Chapter 5
Business At The World Wide Web
“If you can dream it, you can do it.”
-Walt Disney

World Wide Web (WWW)

The World Wide Web is a global, cross-platform, and graphical system of
organized hypertext information on the Internet, which links web pages on similar
subjects located at different websites around the world. We can simply type or click a
certain topic or website, then it will take us to that particular site on the Internet easily.
Hypertext information system enables us to read and navigate text and visual information
in a nonlinear way, based on what we want to know or see next.
Cross-platform means that we can access Web information equally well regardless of
computer hardware or software we are presently using. Whether we are using the Apple-
Macintosh, Unix PowerStation, IBM-compatible computers running Windows Vista, or
even a multi-million dollar mainframe.
We can gain access to the Web by using an application software called - Internet
browser. A browser is used to view and navigate Web pages and other information on the
World Wide Web, while a website is a location on the Web that publishes some kind of
information or entertainment. When we view a Web page, our browser connects to that
website to get that information. The two famous and widely used browsers today are
Microsoft Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox( which source code is originated from
Netscape Navigator web browser).

How the World Wide Web Started

Some of us thought that the Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW) are the
same or synonymous from each other. But it is not, definitely not. They are two distinctly
different things. As a matter of fact, the Internet was invented two decades before the
World Wide Web was created. The Internet is the network infrastructure of a gigantic
global networks, while the Web is a service - a type of system for accessing documents
online using the network infrastructure of the Internet.
If the Internet started in the United States at the Department of Defense, the
World Wide Web started in Europe. It was invented and created in 1989 at the European
Particle Physics Laboratory in Geneva, Switzerland. The World Wide Web was
originally a method for cross-referencing an online documents and incorporating them
with footnotes and figures. This is how one document is link from another documents.
The other documents could be stored in different locations on a single PC, or on different
workstations on the Local Area Network (LAN), Wide Area Network (WAN), or on the
Internet. The goal of the inventors of the Web is to create a simple way to access any
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document that was stored on a network, without having to search through indexes or
directories. And without having to manually copy the documents from one computer to
another before opening them.
Web documents or commonly known as Web pages can be linked together because they
are designed and developed in a hypertext format. This hypertext formatting is a system
that provides an easy way to manage large collection of different documents. These
documents can include static and moving text, graphics, image, sound, movies, pictures,
and much much more. The hypertext system enables us to view other documents that are
linked to the present web document (web page) that we are currently viewing - by
clicking its respective link. The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the type of
protocol we used to design and develop this web document (web page).

The Web Browser

If we got our Internet connection from PLDT Bro or Globe Broadband, we may
have two or more browsers to use. Either the famous Microsoft Internet Explorer (IE) or
the secured Mozilla Firefox. The web browser is a type of software application designed
and developed to find hypertext documents (web pages) on the Web and use to open the
document (web page). This web browser provides a graphical-user–interface (GUI) that
enables the Web surfer to click the hyperlinked text and images to jump to other
documents (web pages) or view other information on the Web.
The Web browser’s job is to be able to access the information pointed by the
Uniform Resource Locator (URL). In other words, URL is a pointer to a specific bit of
information on the Internet. The URL is simply an Internet addressing scheme with a
special formatting. The following is the sample of URL’s format:

Type: //InternetAddress/Path

Where the Type specifies the type of Server in which the file is located, the
InternetAddress refers to the address of the Server, while the Path is the location within
the file structure of the Server. The Path includes the list of folders where the desired
Web page is located.
When it comes to hypertext Web documents, the browser will communicate with
the Web server using the Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP). The HTTP protocols are
set of rules on how the computers connected to the Internet would communicate to each
other.
Most of the time, the browser is dealing with formatting and displaying Web
documents (pages). The most common scripting languages use to design and develop a
Web page are Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) and JavaScript. The HTML
program includes the text of the Web page, the structure of it, and the links to other Web
page or images. JavaScript extends the capability of HTML by making web pages to
become alive, dynamic and interactive. There are also other commercial software that are
use to design and develop web pages such as Microsoft’s FrontPage, Macromedia’s
Dreamweaver, Adobe Flash, and many others.
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There is also other technology to know besides HTTP. It is the FTP. The FTP
(File Transfer Protocol) protocol enables us to send or receive files, images, pictures,
MP3s, videos, or software from a computer connected to the Internet anywhere in the
Philippines or anywhere in the world.

Figure 5.1 Microsoft Web browser: Internet Explorer 7 Screenshot

Figure 5.2 Open Source Web browser: Mozilla Firefox Screenshot

How to Use the URL and Hyperlink

The URL is the key to navigate or explore the World Wide Web. When we
provide a URL to the Web browser by typing it on its Address box, the Web browser will
find the URL’s web page and then transfers the web page to our computer. The content of
the Web page will appear on our computer’s screen through the window of the Web
browser.
We can also go to a particular Web page by clicking the hyperlink of a particular URL.
The hyperlink is usually written in our Web page with an underline on it. The hyperlink
can appear as pure text with an underline on it, or it can be an image, or a navigational
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control such as a button with an arrow drawn on it. We can click a hyperlink and jump or
transfer from our present location to the URL specified by the hyperlink.
When the mouse pointer touches the hyperlinked text, the hyperlink’s URL appears in the
Web browser’s status bar, and then the mouse pointer changes its shape. The shape of the
mouse pointer becomes a hand icon with a pointing index finger. Other hyperlinked
design is expressed in an image map where we can click on its different parts to jump or
transfer to different links or Web pages.

The Web Server

A web server is the program that runs on web site. Its primary responsibility is to
reply the browser’s requests for files. We need a web server before we can publish
documents on the Web. To request a page on a website, the web browser establishes a
connection to a Web server using the HTTP protocol. The server accepts the connection,
sends the requested file, and finally closes the connection. After that, the web browser
formats the information it got from the server.
The web server is also responsible for managing information storage, linking
forms and browser with programs such as large array of databases. There are many
servers available for different platforms or environments with different features and
capabilities.

The Web Site

The Web site is simply a collection of related Web documents (web pages). The
Website is housed on Web servers. The Web server is a powerful and high-performance
Internet host computer that often store thousands of Web documents. The Web pages are
used to offer products through online catalogs, distribute online news, offer interactive
educational services such as certification exams, and live playing of online audio such as
in esnips.com or an online video of your own self-directed and choreographed comedy
through YouTube.com.

Electronic Mail (E-Mail)

E-mail is the electronic letter equivalent of our postal mail. Instead of sending our
mail through the post office, we send it through the computer connected to the Internet.
Like our postal mail, to reach the destination we have to specify the address of the
recipient. In e-mail, the address is also applied. But we can shortcut the specifications.
For example my actual e-mail address is [email protected]. The coper7 is my e-mail
address and hotmail.com is the E-Mail company that serves as the international mail
server where all E-Mail users of Hotmail can be found. Our e-mail address must be
unique from the other e-mail users in a particular e-mail service company. Actually,
that’s the reason why I put the number 7 after my nickname, because someone out-there
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somewhere (on planet earth) and at hotmail.com company was already using the “coper
e-mail address”. Once you registered your e-mail address on a particular e-mail service
company, you and you alone is the only one who has the sole and reserved right to use it.
However, your e-mail address can have a similar address in other e-mail service company
such as the Yahoo.com mail or gmail.com (a Google mail). Like for example, my e-mail
address in [email protected] has similar e-mail address in yahoo.com which is
[email protected] whose owner is someone other than I. This is okay since
[email protected] and [email protected] are not the same e-mail service company.
The disadvantage in my part is that when I want to have my other e-mail address at
yahoo.com , I have to use other e-mail address because coper7 has already been owned
by someone else. This is also the very reason why I use this e-mail address in my Yahoo
mail account as: [email protected]. So much for this stuff about e-mail address
idiosyncrasies. Let us go to its application in the company setting.
E-mail is one of the most important communication tools a company can use to its
advantage. Bill Gates, in his book, “Business at the Speed of Thought”, has pointed out
that his company, Microsoft, has a flat organizational chart. An opposite to a bureaucratic
hierarchical type of organization. Gates explained that at Microsoft, any employee who
has a genuine concern to the company can send him an e-mail anytime he or she wants.
In other words, this particular employee doesn’t have to ask permission to his immediate
superior about the thing he would like to communicate with the Chairman of the Board.
This makes Microsoft with a flat organizational chart. According to Gates, the employee
of Microsoft can talk anything even though this could be a bad news to him. He even
encourages his company officers that such news must be given full attention, and must
travel fast - up, up, and up to him. With this technique, according to Gates, the middle
manager cannot have the opportunity to intercept, regulate, screen, or worst of all, cover-
up a bad news, that is eventually beneficial to the company as a whole. So at Microsoft,
“bad news must travel fast”, so that solutions can be formulated to solve any problems a
company has.

Figure 5.3 Yahoo Mail Screenshot

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Figure 5.4 The Microsoft Hotmail Screenshot

The E-Mail Advantage

To those of us who used e-mails to communicate with our family, relatives and
friends; here are some advantages that we can enjoy with electronic mail. The following
are the advantages of Electronic Mail (E-mail) compared to the traditional postal service
mail. E-mail is fast. It takes a few minutes to send the E-mail in order to reach its
destination, whether across the office or other branches of the company, or across the
ocean (or all over the sea) or anywhere in the world.
The E-mail message can be read by the recipient from any computer which is
connected to the Internet. That computer can be at home, in the office, or anywhere in the
globe. It is like receiving your e-mail anywhere you are and anytime you want. As long
as the Internet exists on the area where you are in. It is more economical to send E-mail
to many people compared to the postal mail. You don’t need an individual stamp for each
letter with the same content and you don’t need to use individual paper and envelop for
each recipient.

Figure 5.5 The Gmail Home Page (A Google Mail Server)

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The E-Commerce
The e-commerce is a high-tech term that means doing and conducting business
online with the use of Internet. For example, when a customer buys a product over the
Web, instead of going to a store physically to buy it.
The study of electronic commerce (E-Commerce) often focuses on security,
cryptography, and electronic currency and payments. But e-commerce is more than just
the exchange of money in business transaction. It also includes research, development,
marketing, advertising, negotiation, sales and support.
The e-commerce has given companies around the world a new opportunities in
conducting business in a totally different way compared to the traditional business
transactions. Using large online databases and powerful websites, companies can sell
goods, and customer can order them online, send invoices to customers and receive
payments through credit cards or other form of electronic payment (e-payment).
In e-commerce, the B2B (Business-to-Business) transaction is the most popular
implementation. In B2B, the business transaction is more of company to company, not
from a company to a customer or consumer. Hence, the term B2B implies.

Internet Sales

Internet sales are likely to take two general forms: ordinary commerce in tangible
things and information commerce. Ordinary commerce in tangible things will greatly
resemble common transactions today: purchases that are currently carried out by
telephone, ordinary mail-order, and even in person. In information commerce, unlike
ordinary commerce in tangible things, there may be no package to help identify the
sender after the goods are delivered. Instead, both parties will conduct the exchange
electronically: the buyer will send digital cash using credit cards or some form of
electronic payment such as fund-transfer, and the seller will send information or the
goods. Some of these transactions may be sizable, such as the sale of access to
proprietary databases or the purchase of computer software, videos (MP4s), music
(MP3s), eBooks and other products that needs intellectual capital to produce. For
example, providers of information on the World Wide Web might choose to charge a
fraction of a penny to each person accessing their pages, downloading files or software,
MP3s, MP4s, eBooks, or Online exam reviewers from their website.
The common issue that this online sale is suffering is that credit cards used in
purchasing products through the Internet can be used illegally by hackers for their own
spending. The micro-commerce solves this issue. Micro-commerce in information will
require a digital payment system that does not rely on the participation of a third party
such as credit bureau or credit card issuer. If such payment system could be widely
deployed, the potential for growth of Internet information commerce is enormous.
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Online Shopping

You can buy a computer directly from Dell via their website. Or a company can
purchase their routers and switches directly to Cisco Systems through its website. These
two great companies rake big profits through online purchases by their customers. As a
matter of fact, most of their sales came from online buyers. These are just among the few
celebrated success stories of online shopping.
Online shopping is the very example of the Internet buzzword called B2C or
business-to-consumer transactions. Though, in the case of our second real-world
example of Cisco Systems, the sales transaction is called B2B (Business-to-Business)
because it is a company to company sales transaction.
There are other celebrated success stories of online shopping. Two of these are the
Amazon.com that originally sells books online, and eBay where you can bid on just any
kind of products you can think of. The Amazon.com is a type of an online shop, while
eBay is an online auction.

Figure 5.6 Amazon.com Homepage

Online Catalog

The online catalogs are set up like directories in the Amazon.com. These online
catalogs are presenting the products and services into categories and subcategories. For
example, if we want to buy a PDA at Amazon.com, we have to select first the Electronics
category on the list, secondly the Personal Electronics subcategory list, then to the
Handheld Devices subcategory list, and finally choosing the PDA item on the list.
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Figure 5.7 eBay Homepage

Online Purchase

To shop online, we have to choose the products or items we want to buy using the
online catalogs. Now to select these items (like the way we buy in the supermarket where
we use a push carts to fill in with the goods we buy), we have to fill a shopping cart – an
electronic holding area that stores information about the products that we have selected to
buy. After we are ready to make our purchase, we can pay for it through our credit cards
or through an online account that we set up with an online vendors.

Online Banking

If you are using your bank’s website to accomplish the following task: paying
your credit card bills, monthly telephone bills, water and electric bills, view your sons or
daughters ATM withdrawal transactions or simply checking if the check you deposited
had already been posted into your bank account; then you have made an online banking
without you noticing it.

Online Window Shopping?

Though this discussion is purely my own idea, without any reference to foreign
books, most especially the book written by Peter Norton, “Introduction To Computers”, I
find it very interesting to talk about it – online window shopping. Most of us, do a lot of
window shopping. Sometimes we do this for our “canvassing” purposes, or in most cases,
we do window shopping because we have no money to buy what we want, at all.
Now, I share with you this high tech way of online shopping with realistic
example. Well, to make realistic, let us make it happen. If you are connected to the
Internet right now, we can do our online window shopping right away. Like for instance,
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you would like to shop by the window only (through the Internet) on other books that I
have written, you can simply type my name at the Google, (and then presto!) you will be
presented with the hyperlink to National Bookstore website where you can be taken and
directed to navigate more. Try it!
Are you ready now? If you are ready, type this is what you have to do:

1. Type my full name (including my middle initial such as Copernicus P. Pepito) at the
Google search engine. You will be taken to the hyperlink of National Bookstore website.
2. Click the hyperlink of National Bookstore. This time you will see the National
Bookstore website.
3. Now at the top-right portion of the National Bookstore home page, you can see the
Search by: List box. Choose now the Author item, so that you will have now the
Search by Author category. After this, type my full name: Copernicus P. Pepito at the
Search text box.
4. Finally, click the Search button.

Can you see now the list of the other books I have written? I hope you did it right! Here
are the figures below, to give you a glimpse on our online window shopping:

Figure 5.8 Online Window Shopping Using the Google Home Page
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Figure 5.9 Online Window Shopping using National Bookstore Home Page

Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)

The electronic data interchange is a form of e-commerce, because it is the

electronic transfer of information companies over computer networks. These information
ranges from purchase orders and invoices sending a very sensitive patient medical
records from one hospital to another, or from a hospital to a company that requests the
records.

Telecommuters: A New Breed of Workforce

The employee who just stayed home to do their company’s job is a telecommuter
type of employee, though some telecommuters are employees who are constantly moving
from one location to another. Most of these employees are technical support engineers
and consultants who constantly travelling to serve their client’s needs and need to send
reports of accomplishments back to their headquarters. They can also troubleshoot some
of their clients network and information systems while they are at home or while they are
on the road. This saves them time, money and effort than being physically present to the
office or in the client’s place.
Telecommuters rely heavily on computers and Internet connections to
accomplish their tasks. They are constantly on the go, while some others are constantly
present at the comfort of their house. In either way, they are very productive.

Cool Stuff That We Can Enjoy with the Web

To make it easy in finding the information we need at the Web, we need tools
such as search engine, online encyclopedia, and the right Web site to surf. In this way, we
can get what we want such as finding downloadable eBooks, Online Certification exam
reviewers, MP3’s, cellphone ringtones, 3G videos, free long distance call using VoIP
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technology (Voice Over IP), and much, much more. It seems that the long time held
belief that the best thing in life is free - is now a reality with Internet technology. Well,
there is always a price to pay – a rampant violation of intellectual property rights owned
by the creators and producers of the intellectual products and services. Some of these are
legal, some are don’t. It is up to you how you can enjoy without being feeling guilty.
Here are the cool Web sites that we can enjoy surfing with:

• The Google is a search engine where we can easily find the hyperlinked of the
Web sites we need to go to:

http://www.google.com

Figure 5.10 The Google.com Homepage

• The Wikipedia is an online encyclopedia where we can learn the meaning of the
word we want to know or to check the exact meaning of the word we presently
encountered:

http://en.wikipedia.org

Figure 5.11 The Wikipedia.org HomePage

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• The YouTube is a website where you can watch your favorite singer with their
MTV or some clips of their recent concert. Or just simply watching some comedy
videos created and directed by a common and normal humans like you. You can
publish your own video too at YouTube.com.

http://www.youtube.com

Figure 5.12 YouTube HomePage

• The Friendster is a website for communicating with your friends online, and share
with them your thoughts, pictures, events, and hobbies. This is where you can
socialize to them in a high tech way.

http://www.friendster.com

Figure 5.13 Friendster HomePage

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• The Esnips is a website where you can share your favorite songs. You can also
play MP3’s online with this website. With the use of a download manager
software such as the Internet Download Manager or Torrent, you can download
the MP3s you like.

http://www.esnips.com

Figure 5.14 Esnips Website

• The Ebooksboard is a website where you can find the eBooks you need. You can
download them freely.

http://www.ebooksboard.com

Figure 5.16 Ebooksboard Homepage

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Note:
You can surf the http: www.knowfree.net too, so that you can find other eBooks. It’s also an excellent
web site to download eBooks. Try it now!

• The Sadikhov is a website where you can get your IT related certification exams
reviewers such as for Cisco Systems certification, Microsoft certification, Sun
Microsystem certification, Oracle certification, and much, much more.

http://www.sadikhov.com

Figure 5.17 Sadikhov Homepage

• The Zedge is a website where you can download your cellphone ringtones, 3G
videos, wallpaper, screensavers, and cellphone games.

http://www.zedge.net

Figure 5.18 Zedge Homepage

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• The Download is a website where you can download your PC or Laptop hardware
components drivers and software utilities, computer games, and more.

http://www.download.com

Figure 5.19 Download Homepage

• The Net2Phone is a website where you can use your PC or Laptop to call long-
distance to your family, relatives, or friends who lived or work in any countries
around the world using the VoIP (Voice Over IP) technology for free. Yes, the
best thing in life is free like this one. Unbelievable, isn’t it?

http://www.net2phone.com

Figure 5.20 The net2phone Home Page

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Note:
You can use also the http://www.skype.com to call a long-distance, free-of-charge using the VoIP
technology.

• The meebo is an instant messaging software like your Yahoo Messenger (YM)
and your Microsoft Instant Messaging software. Chatting with your friends,
relatives, and families becomes so high-tech with meebo and YM.

Figure 5.21 The Meebo Instant Messaging Home Page

Online Dictionary and Encyclopedia

We can also install an online dictionary and encyclopedia directly to our PC or
Laptop. For example, I bought a dictionary at National Bookstore which is the Merriam-
Webster Collegiate Dictionary, 11th Edition which has a CD-ROM at the back cover. This
CD-ROM is the online equivalent dictionary. What I did is leaving my very thick
Dictionary in my province (in Cebu, actually in a remote barrio where I grew up), and
install the Online Dictionary at my Laptop while I’m working in Manila as a teacher. As I
write the revision of this book , I enjoyed so much in checking the word or term I used to
express my ideas using the online dictionary. It’s really a great help in my writing
endeavor. So amazing, and so enjoyable!
There is also a very popular online dictionary and encyclopedia produced by Microsoft
Corporation. It has also a printed version (book-type) that you can buy at National
Bookstore or other bookstores in the city. It is called the Microsoft Encarta. You can
choose whatever you prefer to use as your online dictionary.
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Figure 5.22 Microsoft Encarta Homepage

Figure 5.23 Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary Screenshot

Simple Input/Output Statement

( Formula-Oriented Worded-Problems)
In this example, we will use and apply the input/output symbol and process
symbol to accomplish the tasks. Remember, that the ideas and logic which we can
learn from these examples are readily applicable to actual programming tasks to any
computer programming languages.

Example:

1.) Draw a flowchart that computes and prints the area of a circle. Use the
formula: A= πr2 where Pi (π) is approximately equivalent to 3.1416.
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Solution: In Algorithm

Enter the value of r (for radius)

Compute the Area (A=3.1416*r*r)
Display or print the value of A (for Area)

First Solution: In Flowchart

Begin

Enter r

A=3.1416*r*r

Print A

End
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Second Solution : In Algorithm

( Using Initialization symbol for constant value of Pi (3.1416) )

Begin

Pi=3.1416

Enter r

A = Pi * r * r

Print A

End

This famous example about the area of a circle gives us an idea on the classical
truth, “that there are many solutions in a particular problem”. Or like the way we said,
“there are many ways to kill a chicken, if the chicken is your problem”. But a computer is
no chicken. It is a mind game. Yes, a mind game. In this example, we have two correct
solutions, but we arrived with the same correct final answers. So think more, to come up
with more solutions. In actual programming task, the second solution presented is more
preferred and recommended. Because declaring a constant value at the top of the
program, makes the program more readable and easily modifiable. This is a good
programming habit. The famous philosopher Aristotle once said: “We are what we
repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act but a habit.” Let us practice this good
programming habit now, to achieve par excellence. Who knows, Aristotle could be right?
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Example:

2.) Draw a flowchart that converts an input temperature in degree Celsius into
Fahrenheit . Display or print its result. Use the formula : F= (9/5)*C+32.

Solution : In Algorithm

Enter the value of C (for Celsius)

Compute the Fahrenheit (F=(9/5)*C+32.)
Print the value of F (for Fahrenheit)

Note:
You could notice that in formula –oriented worded problems, the input part is always the variables (r or c)
at the right side of the equation. And the output part is always the unknown (A or F in our example). Never
say “Enter Area” if the area is the unknown. This is the technique in formula-oriented worded problems.

Solution: In Flowchart

Begin

Enter C

F=(9/5)*C+32

Print F

End
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LEC ACTIVITY
TEST 5

1.) Draw a flowchart that converts an input temperature in degrees Fahrenheit into
Celsius. Display or print its result. Use the formula : C=(5/9)*F-32

2.) Draw a flowchart that computes and prints the area of a sphere. Use the formula :
A= 4πr2 where Pi (π) is approximately equivalent to 3.1416.

3.) Draw a flowchart that will compute and print the volume of a sphere. Use the
formula : V=4/3πr3 where Pi(π) is approximately equivalent to 3.1416.

4.) Draw a flowchart that computes the simple interest (I) on a short-term loan and
print its result. The given input data are P for pesos. R for annual interest, and L
for the number of days of the loan. Use the formula : I = P*R*(L/365).
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Chapter 6
The Basics of Graphics and Multimedia
“The last thing one knows in constructing
a work is what to put first.”
-Blaise Pascal

The Pixels and Bitmaps

An image on a computer screen is made of tiny dots of white, black, or color

which are arranged in rows. These tiny dots are called pixels. The pictures, words, and
numbers we see on the screen are patterns of pixel produced by software. Painting
software such as Paintbrush and ClarisWorks allows us to paint pixels on the screen by
using pointing devices. These pointing devices are input devices like the keyboards,
mouse, trackball, light pen, or joystick, translating the pointer movements into lines and
patterns on the screen. A pointing program offers many tools on screen. Some tools
emulate real-world painting tools. Line and shape tools are used to draw lines, ovals,
rectangles, and other shapes on the screen. Air brusher and spray cans, can produce
special shading effects in a particular area of a drawing.
There are editing tools also to be used for erasing, rotating, or magnifying a
particular object in a drawing before it is printed on paper. Painting programs produce
bit-mapped graphics (BMP) such as the Microsoft Paint software. BMP is a picture that
shows simple maps on how the pixels are represented on the screen.
The resolution is the density of the pixels, usually expressed in dots per inch
(dpi). If the computer we use has a high resolution monitor and video card capabilities,
painting software and other bit-mapped image editing software can even be used to edit
photographic images and pictures.

Figure 6.1 Microsoft Paint software

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Graphics You Can See Everywhere

We may not realize it, but many of the pictures and images we saw in printed
papers and in movies and TV cartoon movies are drawn and created using a computer.
Printed papers such as what we can see in magazine illustrations. Even the giant
billboards of advertisement we can see in different parts of the highways are designed
with computer using graphics software. Television programs and movies are developed
and created using highly sophisticated multimedia software.
With today’s computer capability, whatever the artist can do using brushes,
pencils, and other tools for drawing, can now be done using the computer instead. Plus,
redrawing the drawn image is easier and more flexible on the computer screen than on
the actual canvass. With this flexibility, the artist now can produce designs and
renderings so visually appealing, accurate, and stunning to the onlookers.

Graphics File Formats

The computer is so very powerful and flexible compared to a manual drawing by
hands of the painter or artist. Computer is capable of designing and creating graphics in
as simple as line drawings or as highly complex as three dimensional animations.
There are two categories of graphics files. The first one is the bitmapped file and the
other one is the vector file.
The cells of bitmap are filled with one or more colors, or each cell can contain its
own color. The grid of the bitmap is composed of cells. Our computer’s monitor displays
images as collections of individual colored pixels. Each pixel is a cell in the grid of a
bitmapped image. In other words, the pixels are the individual pieces that make up a
bitmapped image. The bitmapped image is also known as raster in the graphics world.
The vectors are mathematical equations that describe the shape, size, color, position, or
thickness of lines in an image or picture. The vectors are ideal to use when you draw an
image which you want to resize or tweak, while bitmapped is good when you design 3-D
images, Web pages, or retouching a photo.
There are many graphics file format. Here are the formats of graphics that we
usually encounter. The BMP format, which is a short term for BitMaP. This graphics
format is native to Microsoft Windows and IBM Personal Computer compatibles.
The PICT which is short term for PICTure is a native file format of Apple Macintosh
computer. It is widely used and implemented by artists who are “die-hard” Apple
Macintosh users. We also see the JPEG(or JPG) as short term for Joint Photographic
Expert Group. This bitmap file format is widely used in World Wide Web application as
well as with high-resolution images that will be viewed on the computer screen.
The GIF (Graphic Interchange Format) is also the file format that we always encounter.
This file format of graphics is very common also in Web application, though GIF has
lower resolution compared to JPEG. It can contain only 256 colors or less. The last but
not the least is the TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) bitmap format which was jointly
defined by Aldus (division of Adobe Systems company) and Microsoft Corporation. This
format is widely used both by PC and Macintosh artists, due probably with its flexibility
in editing the image or picture and for bitmap file exchanges between PC and Mac.
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How to Load Images into Your PC

There are many ways we can load images or pictures or even videos to our
computer. We need to load these pictures or images to enhance their presentation by
editing some parts of it that are not perfectly captured by our digital camera or digital
video camera.
By using a scanner, we can scan our picture so that we can transfer it into the PC.
The image scanner works like a photocopier machine, however instead of copying a
picture onto a paper, it transfers the image directly into our computer.
By using a digital camera, we can store digitized pictures which we can transfer
into our computer. By using the digital video camera, we can capture and store full-
motion video on optical disc or USB drive. We can transfer the content into the
computer, so that we can edit it to make the video more attractive and professionally-
taken.
We can also load clip-arts into our documents to enhance its presentation. Historically,
clip-arts are professionally designed graphics and drawings that could be easily clipped
from the pages and glued to a paper layout.

Digital Image Processing

A photograph captured or taken by a digital camera is a bit-mapped image(.bmp).

Digital image software allows us to modify and manipulate photographs and other
images. We can use painting tools similar to those we can find from Paint software.
By using this kind of software, the photographers can easily remove unwanted
reflections, brush away facial blemishes, and eliminate a red-eye effect on the pictures.

Drawing Software

Drawing software stores drawing as collection of lines and shapes. A drawing

software stores text as text and shape as shape. Drawing tools are similar to pointing tools
used in paint software. Drawing software such as Adobe Illustrator, Adobe Photoshop
and Aldus Freehand are using PostScript to store images. PostScript is a standard page-
description language for describing text illustrations, fonts and other elements of the
printed page. PostScript is built into laser printers. That is why laser printer follows and
understand PostScript instructions in printing the page. Desktop publishing software is
also using PostScript standard. Bit-mapped image editing software helps artists,
photographers, and editors to modify and manipulate textures and shading of an image or
picture with unsurpassed control and capability.
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Figure 6.2 Adobe Photoshop Screenshot

Presentation Graphics Software

Presentation graphics software is developed to computerize the designing of

visual aids for seminars, training sessions, sales presentation, and product demonstration.
This software includes animation, spreadsheet charts, and video editing. Microsoft
PowerPoint is one of the best examples of this software category.
It is easy to add or include graphics to our presentation, when we are using
PowerPoint. We can simply import an image of a particular object from a clip-art
collections that comes with the software package and other third-party clip-art software.

Figure 6.3 Microsoft PowerPoint 2007

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3-Dimensional Modeling Software (3D)

A 3-D (3-Dimensional) modeling software designer can design three dimensional

object using tools similar to those found in drawing software. The designed object can be
rotated or viewed from different angles. The designer can “walk-through” a 3-D
environment before it can be built in reality. Architects can use 3-D modeling software to
design and walk-through with the modeled buildings before they are constructed. Modern
televisions and movies special effect involve combinations of simulated 3-D animation
and actual live action. One of the best example and one of the most famous 3-D
animation software is Autodesk’s Maya.

Figure 6.4 Maya 3-D modeling and animation software Screenshot

Animation Software

Before the invention of animation software, to produce an animated cartoon

movie takes many months for a painstaking process of manual drawing by hand to a
series of images, and filming them one by one. Todays animation software that employs
the computer-generated imaging (CGI) technique automates most of the drawing
process for each and every images involved in creating the animated cartoon movie. The
former manual drawing of images that would take weeks for an artist to draw can now be
accomplished in a matter of seconds. More than this automation of drawing process, the
artist can now animate three-dimensional cartoon characters and create photorealistic
scenes. Actually, the artist and designer of graphics-rich movies today can incorporate
animated characters with real-life actors and sound-effects.
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CAD/CAM Software

Computer-Aided Design (CAD) is the use of computers to design or draw a

product. CAD software allows designers and engineers to design a product on screen in
three-dimensional model. This model can have physical characteristics, volume, weight,
and height. It can be viewed from any angle and can be rotated in different angle.
It is easier and faster to alter a design to meet the specifications and goals of a
designed project. In some industrial or manufacturing applications, computer-aided
design is linked to computer-aided manufacturing(CAM). After designing the
product, the computer is connected to a manufacturing machine. This machine will
manufacture and produce the products in accordance with the design shown from the
computer’s screen. They have a new term for this technology, which they call:
“Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)” . The CIM is a combination of CAD and
CAM technology.

Figure 6.5 AutoCAD software Screenshot

The HyperCard

The hypercard is a combination of database, painting, graphics, and

programming language software in one package. A hypercard document might contain
graphics, text, animation, sound, video clips, and numbers. A stack is a hypercard
document that is based on the concept of a stack of index cards.
Each screen can contain command buttons that respond to mouse clicks or key-
presses. Clicking on a command button will transport us to another screen. This screen
can be the next or previous screen. HyperCard buttons can be programmed to play
music, launch other software applications, perform messages and a lot more tasks.
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Defining Multimedia

Multimedia is a term used in describing a computer technology that combines

graphics, text, video, voice, music, sound, and animation effects to communicate with the
user. Multimedia is heavily applied in show business. The entertainment professionals
use computers to design animated sequence, construct special video effects, edit sound
tracts, synthesize music, and coordinate communication and other tasks in producing
modern motion pictures in movies and television programs. Whatever we watch in TV or
in movies, whether cartoons or actions, we are enjoying the benefits of multimedia
technology.

Figure 6.6 Microsoft Media Player 11

Note:
This multimedia player - Microsoft Media Player 11 is bundled with Windows Vista. You can play movies
(.avi) and audio/music files (MP3s) with it.
 172

Figure 6.7 WinAmp Multimedia Player

Note:
WinAmp multimedia player is very excellent when you want to play your MP3’s with it. The sound is so
great. You can play your videos (.avi) with it, too.

Figure 6. 8 The Apple Macintosh iTunes Multimedia Player

Note:
The iTunes Multimedia player is very excellent when you want to play your MP3’s with it. The sound is so
great. This is the same multimedia player that powers Apple iPod Nano, iPod Shuffle, iPod Video, Apple
iPhone, and other Apple products. You can download iTunes free-of-charge at the Apple website. This is
my favorite MP3 player at my Laptop. This software is so amazing! Truly, the best thing in life is FREE!
 173

Figure 6.9 The Apple QuickTime Multimedia Player

Note:
The Apple QuickTime Multimedia Player is very excellent when you want to play your videos (MP4s) with
it.

Figure 6.10 The DivX Multimedia Player

Note:
The DivX multimedia player is very excellent when you want to play your videos (.avi) with it. This is my
favorite multimedia player when I’m watching videos at my Laptop.
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Figure 6.11 The realPlayer MultiMedia Player

Note:
The realPlayer multimedia player is very excellent when you want to play your videos (.avi) with it. This
multimedia player has a Windows Media Player and DivX multimedia player combined user-interface. At
the top of the multimedia player is colored with shining black (color of Windows media player), while at
the bottom navigation part is all silver (color of DivX multimedia player). One of the finest multimedia
players I had ever seen, so far.

Figure 6.12 The FLV Multimedia Player

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Note:
The FLV multimedia player is an excellent media player to most of the Internet-downloadable video files.
When your multimedia player doesn’t work for some video files you downloaded from the Internet, try
playing it with FLV Player.

Figure 6.13 The VLC Multimedia Player

Note:
The VLC Multimedia Player is an excellent media player to most of the Internet-downloadable video files.
Mostly, to the video files that are originated from Open Source Community or playable with Linux
Operating System Multimedia Player.

C.) Simple Input/Output Statement

(Formulate Your Own Equation Worded Problems)

In this case, we are presented with the worded problems without any formula
given. Using our background in basic mathematics, we can come up with our self-
constructed formulas. Some involves conversion or derivation of formulas we had
already encountered or learned before. For example, we are given a task to draw a
flowchart that computes the radius of a circle. This involves derivation of formula based
on the formula of the area of a circle. Let us try it now. Since the formula of the area of a
circle is A=πr2, therefore we have to solve the radius as our unknown, we came up with
these derivations:

A= πr2
r2 = A/π

r= A
√ π

The programming expression that is equivalent to this formula (which at first

seems complicated) is r = sqrt(A/Pi) where sqrt is a standard mathematical function that
can be found in most programming languages. You could observe that it is easy to
convert a mathematical expression into its equivalent programming expression, like this
one.
What you have to do is to research and practice. When this practice becomes a
habit, eventually perfection can be attained. As what the saying goes: “Practice makes
perfect.” In spite of what the realist believes and always advocates that there is no such
thing as perfect in reality. Well if not perfect, at least nearer to it.
 176

Let us have our example now, to test if we are capable of formulating our own
equations.

Example:

1.)Draw a flowchart that computes and prints the sum of two input numbers.

Solution : In Algorithm

Enter two numbers (n1,n2)

Compute the Sum (S=n1+n2)
Print S (for Sum)

Solution : In Flowchart

Begin

Enter n1,n2

S=n1+n2

Print S

End

2.) Draw a flowchart that converts the input inches into its equivalent centimeters.
One inch is equivalent to 2.54 cms. Then print the result.

Solution: In Algorithm

Enter I (for Inches)

Compute Centimeters (C=I*2.54)
Print C (for Centimeters)
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Solution: In Flowchart

Begin

Enter I

C = I * 2.54

Print C

End
 178

LEC ACTIVITY
TEST 5

1.) Draw a flowchart that computes and prints the difference of two input numbers.
2.) Draw a flowchart that computes and prints the product of two input numbers.
3.) Draw a flowchart that computes the average of three input quizzes. Then, print
the result.
4.) Draw a flowchart that converts the input value of dollars into its equivalent value
in peso. Assume that one dollar is equivalent to 44.50 (pesos). Then, display the
result.
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Chapter 7
Artificial Intelligence And Information Systems
“Try not to be a man of success,
but a man of value.”
-Albert Einstein

The computer scientists and engineers are devoting too much time and effort in
making computers to reason, perceive, and act like human beings. Inspite of its ambitious
and near to impossible goals, the study of Artificial Intelligence (AI) has produced
impressive results. This study resulted to the inventions of robots, electronic chess
players, expert systems and computers that can communicate in human language (though
limitedly).

AI Defined

Artificial Intelligence is the study of how to make computers do things what the
human beings can do. Other computer scientist defined AI as the study of the
computations that makes it possible to perceive, reason, and act like we do. There are two
approaches to AI. The first approach is an attempt to use computers to emulate human
mental processes. An example of this approach is about an expert who asks a group of
people to explain how they solve a problem. Their solutions are captured by the expert
and transform them into a software model. The end-product of this complete software is
called “expert system”.
The second approach involves on designing intelligent machines that are
independent from how the people think. This approach considers that human intelligence
is just one possible kind of intelligence. The methods or procedures on how the machine
solve the problems might be different from the methods used by human, but not less
intelligent.
AI is already applied in the word-processor application software when its
automatic grammar checking feature is trying to correct a language concept that most
users cannot fully explain themselves.

Computerized Language Translation

An AI project known as Automatic Translator was researched and designed as an

attempt to develop software that could translate a language into another language. A
parser (a parsing program) would analyze the structure of a sentence and identify each
word according to whether it was a verb, a subject, or other part of speech. Another
program would look up each word in a translation dictionary and substitute the
appropriate word.
After spending 15 years and millions of dollars in Research and Development
(R&D) fund, the team of computer scientists abandoned the project. Their conclusion is
that the machine translators could not compete with humans in speed or accuracy.
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Besides, translation without understanding will only produce an erroneous result. The
translator must know what the sentence means before it can translate it accurately.
The computers have so much trouble in understanding and translating natural-language
such as English language. Unlike in programming languages such as Pascal, C, and
BASIC, they have few keywords with exact and precise meaning. Part of the problem of
natural languages, is its massive vocabulary. It contains thousands of words. In computer
application, one word must have only one meaning, otherwise the computer becomes
confused and unable to follow the command or instruction correctly.
An expert system is a software program designed to emulate the decision-making
process of a human expert. The foundation of every expert system is a knowledge-base
representing ideas from a specific field of expertise. An expert is a person who has great
amount of knowledge and skills on a particular field of study or profession. By
confining his or her practice to that field, the expert achieves mastery. Obviously, expert
systems derive their knowledge and capabilities from the experts.
A knowledge-base represents knowledge in the form of if-then else rules. Along
with the knowledge-base, a complete expert system includes inference engine which
puts the user-input together with the knowledge-base, apply logical principles, and
produces the requested expert advice. Expert systems aid the user by providing fast
automated data analysis and informed second opinions. In other situation, expert systems
assist non-experts (users) by providing advice base on decisions and analysis of one or
more experts. Some of the first successful expert systems were researched and developed
in medical field. Medical knowledge is orderly and well-documented, that is why the
researchers believed it could be captured and modeled in knowledge-base expert systems.

Here are the few real-world examples of expert systems used by the companies today:

• Blue Cross Insurance company in the United States is using an expert system that
automates insurance claim processing. The expert system handles up to 200
routine claims each day. The software extracted diagnostic rules from watching
and observing human claim processor while they apply those rules. The
programmers (developers) analyzed and design the manual process and turned
into an expert system. The developers analyze how the claim processor (an
insurance agent) decides and act upon a particular insurance claim request.

• Boeing Corporation an airplane manufacturing company uses an expert system to

locate the right tools, parts, and methods for assembling electrical and electronic
connectors of an airplane. The workers are able to reduce the average search time
from 42 minutes to 5 minutes.

• The Microsoft Corporation uses an expert system to assist product managers to

conform to company guidelines on profitability and packaging. Since newly hired
managers are not familiar with all the techniques and procedures of putting
together a successful software product, this expert system will serve as an advisor
to them. Therefore new managers don’t need to continually seek advice from
senior experienced managers and engineers, because they can get it from using
the expert system software.
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The Advantages of Expert System

The expert system can reduce the number of human errors, provide expertise
when experts are not available and make knowledge available to more people. It can also
help train new employees, preserve knowledge of experts after those experts leave the
company and take care of routine-tasks so that the workers can concentrate on jobs that
need human interaction and understanding.

Pattern Recognition
Pattern recognition involves identifying recurring patterns in input data with the
goal of categorizing or understanding that data. The application of pattern recognition
includes face identification, hand writing recognition and fingerprint identification. Other
application includes weather forecasting, automatic voice recognition, surveillance,
satellite data analysis, robot vision, biological slide analysis, and other scientific data
analysis.
One of the best examples of pattern recognition is Partek’s Screener’s Solution.
This is a statistical analysis and visualization software that enables the chemical elements
researchers to easily, reliably, and quickly identify promising lead compounds from
plate-based high throughput screening. The researcher can simply import the chemical
and biological data into it, so that she or he can normalize, filter, and scale the present
data being analyzed.

Figure 7.1 Partek’s Screener’s Solution

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Image Analysis
The image analysis is the process of identifying shapes and objects in an image,
picture, drawing or video. This image analysis is applied in piloting cruise missiles, and
colorizing old motion pictures.
AI was successful in image analysis software invention for optical character
recognition (OCR). OCR is commonly used in shopping malls. Sales clerks and cashiers
are using wand readers to recognize numbers and words when they input purchases on
the Point of Sale (POS) terminals. Today’s POS terminals are hundred percent computer,
meaning they can be programmed like our PCs at home. Inside them are motherboards,
microprocessors, RAMs/SIMMS, ROMs, and many more. The difference between PC
and POS terminals are the case that housed them and some extra peripherals used by the
POS machines such as barcode scanner, a small customer display screen, and cash box.
The OCR scans the image of the page into the memory of the computer using
scanner, fax modem, or digital camera. The OCR software identifies and locates printed
characters in images or pictures.
Pattern recognition technology is widely used in fingerprint analysis. These
benefits had enabled law-enforcers to easily track and capture criminals and put them
behind bars. See, computers had made our life even better, and safer. What we have to do
is to consider its positive side, rather than to focus on its negative side.

Speech Recognition Software

Like OCR software, the speech recognition software applied pattern-recognition

technique. Many Macintosh (Apple) computers feature PlainTalk software that
recognizes speech or voice. We can simply command our computer such as: Open my e-
mail or read my e-mail. And the computer will follow our command through our voice.
However, it’s very difficult for the computer to understand our voice considering the
limitation and complexity of how we express it. Like the way we pronounce the words
we speak. The other way around is easier for the computer to speak in English than to
recognize it. Below is the example of a Voice and Speech Recognition software from e-
Speaking.com (http://www.e-Speaks.com).
 183

Figure 7.2 Voice and Speech Recognition Software.

Figure 7.3 The Apple Macintosh (Mac) Notebook (Laptop)

Neural Networks
The neural network is simply an artificial brain that emulates the actual human
brain. The human brain consists of billions of neurons. They are connected to each other
in massively distributed and parallel structure. The idea of parallel computing technology
was inspired by the human brain’s structure. A neural network is a distributed and
parallel computing system that uses a network of a few thousand simpler processors
called neurons.
A neural network learns patterns by trial and error like our brain learns, that is
why when patterns are often repeated, it develops a habit to recognize it. The neural
network can still function even if some of its neurons are destroyed, because it distributes
knowledge throughout the network.
The application of this technology is useful for recognizing patterns in scientific
research that analyze a large volume of numbers, stock market analysis and bank’s loan
processing. The neural network is applied in signature analysis in a bank with those
signatures that are stored in the database. It is also applied in investment analysis that
attempts to predict the movement of stock currencies from previous data. In the airline
 184

industry, the neural network is applied in monitoring the state of the aircraft engines,
vibration levels and sound, and early warnings of engine problems.

The Robotics Technology

The robots today are computer-controlled machines that are designed to perform
specific and routinary manual tasks. The microprocessor embedded in the robot’s body is
functionally identical to the central processing unit (CPU) we can find in a personal
computer (PC). We send our commands to a screen when we use our PC, which a robot
sends commands to its arms, joints and other moving parts.
The robots have sensing devices to modify or correct their actions based on
feedback from the outside world. The application of robots is useful in car manufacturing
and other companies that have routinary tasks to perform. The robots can be used to pick
up an integrated circuit (IC), to see infrared light, or draw pictures. Robots are ideal for
jobs that are dangerous for human to accomplish such as picking up hazardous waste,
cleaning rooms that are high in radiation. And even searching land mines. Hundreds of
robots today are doing welding, part fitting, guiding a herd of sheep, and perform skull
drilling for brain surgeons.
The images below are Robots designed and developed by different universities in the
United States. All of these robots are programmed using Java programming language.

Figure 7.4 Remote controlled LEGO Robot

 185

Figure 7.5 Music Playing Robot

Figure 7.6 Paper Sorting Robot

 186

Figure 7.7 Maze Solver Robot

Information Systems (IS) Defined

An Information System is simply defined as a mechanism that helps people

gather data, store and organize them to produce meaningful information. An information
system must be accurate, redundant entries must be eliminated, and keeping important
data safe from loss or disclosed to unauthorized people.

Different Types of Information Systems

Management Information System (MIS)

The MIS enables managers to decide effectively on how to manage the business
by knowing the company’s financial status through gathering, organizing, and evaluating
information that are important to the company’s survival and growth. This type of
information systems are based on the different needs of each level of management
hierarchy. Meaning, at the different levels, company managers have different types of
data that they need.
For a frontline manager, the daily sales reports are more important information he or
she needs every now and then. While a senior manager would like to have an information
system that deals with the quarterly summary reports of the financial performance of the
company. For an MIS to be effective and efficient to the organization, it must be able to
summarize vast amount of business data into meaningful information that is useful
specifically to any level of managers that need them.

Decision Support System (DSS)

Like MIS, DSS enables managers to become an effective decision makers on the
companies daily operation strategies and tactics. Mostly, managers in different levels, use
DSS to access and analyze data in the company’s transaction processing system to aid
them on how to formulate strategies in handling companies operation in the most
competitive ways. DSS is not only limited to the company’s transaction system, it also
involves with knowing competitors data or stock market reports that are vital to
companies competitive position in the market and aid the effectiveness of the manager’s
mission-critical decisions. One of the best examples of DSS is the e-Prescribing of the
 187

OpenClinical.org (http://www.openclinical.org). The main goal of this DSS is to reduce

medication errors such as incorrect dosages and drug allergy interactions.

Figure 7.8 e-Prescribing Homepage

The IS Department

The IS Department is a specialized department that is in-charge of designing and

developing the computerized or automated systems needed in the company. The
computer operators, encoders, programmers, systems analysts, database administrator,
system administrator, network administrator, network engineer, technical support staff,
computer technicians, systems developers and architects, are working on this department
to serve the needs of all computer users in the company. These breed of employees
commonly called an IS professionals are taking care of all the computer hardware and
software, maintaining and managing these very important resources to the operation of
the company.
Some organizations prefer to use the term MIS department or IT Department
instead of an IS department. No matter what term is used to refer to this computer
department, they share the same functions and responsibilities.

Managing Data Effectively

Data is the lifeblood of every organization. Therefore, managing them effectively

is of prime importance to each and every manager in the organization. Data
warehousing is the new approach of taking care of these voluminous data that are
potential to produce meaningful information for a corporation’s competitiveness in the
business world.
When the company have these huge collections of data, then the company needs how to
access these data and produce meaningful information. This is where data mining comes
in. Data mining is the process of sorting, searching, analyzing and finally producing
 188

useful information mined from a voluminous data stored in the enterprise database
system.

IS Storage System
Since Information Systems functions and responsibilities are gathering and
managing data, any loss of it is extremely damaging and costly to the company. Some
company would suffer a huge financial loses if their data is unavailable or their computer
systems operation is disrupted due to some system errors due to corrupted data.
Storage system plays an important role in preserving the integrity of the data and
as well as the effectiveness of recovering them from access failure. The Redundant Array
of Independent Disks (RAID) is a storage system that solves the probable problems of
data loss due to some unforeseen data access failure. The RAID links any number of disk
drives or disk arrays so that they act as a single disk. This is done for redundancy of disk
so that if one disk drive fails, the other array of disk will take over functioning since they
have the same content of data. This technique is called mirroring or stripping with parity.
Mirroring is a storage system technique that writes data to two or more disks
simultaneously, providing a complete copy of all the data on multiple drives in the event
one disk drive fails. This improves reliability and availability, because when one disk
fails, the mirrored disk continues to function as expected, therefore it maintains the
availability of data as well as its reliability.
The stripping storage system technique spreads the data over multiple disk drives which
provide the user with fast data access. This technique of storage system stores parity
information that can be used to reconstruct data when a disk drive fails. The stripping
with parity storage system technique also provides error-checking to ensure data
integrity.

Storage Area Network (SAN)

The storage devices are categorized into two categories. One is the direct
attached storage (DAS) and the other is network attached storage (NAS). Our PC and
Laptop are belong to the DAS category as well as some servers found in the company
that uses only RAID array disks.
The storage area network (SAN) composes of storage devices connected
directly to a high-speed computer network. These storage devices are free-standing disk
system which contain many disk drives, but shared by multiple network servers in the
organization. In a storage area network, all the network servers can devote their
processing power and resources to the task at hand, and let the microprocessors in the
storage area network system handles the storage services.
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Information System Development

All companies in the world rely their decisions heavily on the reports generated
by mission-critical applications and decision-support system (DSS). Business leaders and
managers can decide effectively if these reports are accurate and timely. The IS
professionals must ensure that the computerized system they developed, managed, and
maintained is accurate and delivers mission-critical reports in a fast and efficient manner.
With this, the IS professionals should analyze carefully the company and its internal
business processes, the needs of the employees and customers, as well as the needed
technologies to come up with the most dependable and reliable computerized system that
a company can count on.
When developing information systems, the system designer and developer use the
systems development life cycle (SDLC) to aid and guide them in constructing the
system effectively. SDLC is a series of five phases. These phases are usually in order
when accomplished. Here are the five phases of developing the information system:
analysis, design, development, implementation, and maintenance.

Data Warehouse and Data Mining

Data warehousing is a new method of storing and managing huge collections of

data. This massive collection of corporate information is often stored in terabytes of data.
There are two technologies used to control data warehousing. The first one is called
massive parallel processing (MPP), and the other one is symmetrical multiprocessing
(SMP). These two technologies employ the RAID backup strategy to rapidly collect
data, check for possible errors, and retrieve a backup copy of the data whenever a need
arises.
Usually, the data warehouse is capable of supplying the data requirements of the
tens of thousands users in a large corporation. It is also used to store and support
thousands or millions of transactions per day on active Web sites such as the eBay’s
online auction operation and Amazon.com online retail store transaction.

Application of Simple If-Else- Conditional Statements & Decision Symbols

Computer has the capability to make choices and decides logical decision based
on some conditions. Sometimes, this topic of flowcharting and programming is
referred as selection control structure, because it involves selection of two or more
choices and decide based on a given condition. In this conditional statement, there is a
conditional test to be performed by the computer to determine what course of action
to be taken. The conditional test produces either a true (yes) or false (no) value.
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Example:

1.)Draw a flowchart that determines if the input age is qualified to vote or not.
Qualifying age is 18. If qualified, print “Qualified to vote”, if not (else), print
“Too young!”.

Solution : In Algorithm

Enter A (for Age)

if (A>=18) then
Print “ Qualified to vote”
else
print “Too young!”

Solution: In Flowchart

Begin

Enter A

If Y Qualified to
A>=18 Vote A

Too
young!

End

2.) Draw a flowchart that determines if the input number is a magic number (143) which
is equivalent to the magic words : “I love you”. If it is equivalent, then display the
message: “Right”, otherwise, display the message: “Wrong”.
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Solution: In Algorithm

Enter a value of n (for number)

If n=143 then
Print “Right”
Else
Print “Wrong”

Solution : In Flowchart

Begin

Enter n

If Y
N=143 Right A

Wrong

End
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LEC ACTIVITY
TEST 6

1.) Draw a flowchart that determines if the employee has to be paid of overtime pay
(OT). They will be paid an OT if they exceed 40 hours work in a week, regular pay (RP)
if less than or equal to 40 hours only. Display “OT Pay” or “RP pay”, based on this
condition.

2.) Draw a flowchart that determines if the input grade is “Passed” or “Failed”. The
passing grade is 75 and above. Displays “Passed” or “Failed” based on this condition.

3.) Draw a flowchart that determines if the input number is ODD or EVEN. Odd numbers
are 1, 3, 5, 7…9391, and Even numbers are 2,4,6,8…10000.

4.) Draw a flowchart that determines if the input number is POSITIVE or NEGATIVE.
Consider 0 as positive number.
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Chapter 8
Computer Application at Work, School and Home

“I’m an optimist. I believe in progress.”

-Bill Gates

There is a profound effect of the computer revolution to our work, our school, our
home, and our society in general. Consider the following real-life examples of computer
application that we are directly or indirectly enjoying right now.

Computer Application In Airlines and Shipping Industry

Aircraft engineers, developers, and designers are using computer-aided design
(CAD) software to design, test, computer-controlled instruments to monitor aircraft
systems, and navigate their planes. Computerized air traffic control systems are being
used by air traffic controllers on the ground to keep track of incoming and outgoing
flights. Computerized reservation systems are used by all ticketing office around the
globe to prevent conflict of seat assignments and choices of plane’s flight schedules.
Freight companies need computers to manage the thousands of ships, planes,
trains, and trucks that are moving goods at any given time. Computers are used to track
vehicle locations and contents. The computers are also used for maintenance, invoices
and billings, and even driver schedules.

Figure 8.1 Cebu Pacific Home Page

Computer Application In Medicine

The computers are used to monitor patient’s vital signs in hospitals and in the
ambulance using portable units that analyze signals and transmit warnings to the medical
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specialist when problems arise. The doctors use computer – aided tomography (CAT)
scans to see cross-sectional slices of human bodies.
Today’s Health Care Providers are now using computer in health care procedures
such as ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging, and laser eye surgery to fetal
monitoring. Modern surgeons today are now using robotic surgical devices to perform
delicate operations, and even to conduct surgeries remotely. The new virtual-reality
technologies are being used to train new surgeons in cutting-edge techniques, without
cutting an actual patient.
Today’s hospitals and clinics are using computers to maintain patients records
and billings, and even managing schedules. Hospital information system stores medical
history and insurance records of the patients, to easily bill them.
In St. Luke Hospital at Quezon City (Manila), they are using Local Area Network (LAN)
– based Billing System where the patients are free to know the progress of their bills or
charges. With this system, you don’t need to go to the cashier’s office to ask about your
bills. Very convenient, isn’t it? Most especially if you were hospitalized due to some
vehicular accidents that caused you to have broken legs. Inspite of your misfortune, you
can still crawl to the nearby workstation (computer) to look for your bills.

Figure 8.2 Operating Room equipped with computer-assisted medical equipments

Computer Application In Banking Industry

The banks are using computers popularly known as Automated Teller Machine
(ATM) so that we can withdraw cash anytime, anywhere. An ATM machine is a
specialized terminal that is connected to a bank’s main computer located usually in the
main office or headquarters.
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We can send money to our loved-ones to their ATM accounts. In a matter of less
than a minute, our loved-ones can receive the money we sent. Imagine how convenient
our life is, with this kind of computer technology. We can even pay our phone, water and
electric bills automatically through the use of our ATM accounts. This financial
transaction is popularly known as electronic fund transfer (EFT), a process of transferring
money between banking accounts.

Figure 8.3 ATM Machine used for Online banking

Computer Application In TV and Movies

Computer technology is involve in the production of television programs and
movies at every stage of the process. Word-processing software is used by the
scriptwriters to write and revise scripts. Technicians and artists use graphics workstation
computers to design and produce special effects. These special effects range from scene
fadeouts and rolling credits to intergalactic battles and flying heroes in cartoon movies.
Computer-controlled mixers are used by sound editors to blend music with digital sound
effects and live-action sound. It’s like saying that all the highly sophisticated scenes we
watch and enjoy in television and movies are possible by the use of computer technology.
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Figure 8.4 Create your own animated movie at jibjab.com

Computer Application In Factory

Computers are part of the workplace. In factory work, robots are used for
welding, painting, and other repetitive tasks. Robots are computer-controlled machines
designed to perform specific manual jobs. Computers are also used in tracking inventory,
control the quality of the production, time the delivery of parts, and monitor the wear and
tear on machines and schedule its maintenance. Computerization in factory reduces waste
in facilities, raw materials, and labor. But, indirectly poses a threat to blue-collar workers
whose manual work can be done by robots.

Figure 8.5 Computer-assisted CD manufacturing

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Computer Application in Offices

Today computers are used to speed up the tasks in processing accounting and
payroll systems. The employees throughout business organizations use personal
computers to accomplish their respective tasks. Secretaries are using word-processing
software such as MS Word to type reports, and memos. Sales and marketing executives
are using presentation software such as MS PowerPoint to design sales presentation
slides and pamphlets, and the accounting people are using spreadsheet software such as
MS Excel to analyze monthly or annual budgets for the company.
In the case of multinational companies which have offices in different parts of the
world, the employees are communicating through e-mail. With groupware, a new class
of multi-user software, the users can share and work on the same documents
simultaneously. These users can be considered as workgroups. The workgroups that are
working in a particular design project don’t need to be in the same place or room to work.
This is possible by using the Microsoft Project software. They can coordinate changes
or modifications since all changes appear simultaneously with their respective
workstation (computer).
The paperless office is the office of the future in which magnetic and optical
archives will replace cabinets. Moreover, it will also replace reference books and
journals. Memos and letters will be replaced by electronic communication, such as
sending memo through e-mail. There is no need of papers since the employees are
reading through computer screens, not paper documents anymore. You can see now, the
possibility of a paperless office, because we are now ordinarily using eBooks to study
and learn, electronically. See, it has no paper-reading, anymore.

Figure 8.6 The office worker is working with her desktop computer
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Telecommuting: A New Way to Work At Home or at the Road

Telecommuting refers to a work that you can do while traveling using a

computer. Information workers such as programmers, analysts, encoders and IT
managers can do their job even at the comfort of their homes or while they are trapped in
a traffic jam. In telecommuting, an information worker can save more time with his or
her family. The hours he or she spend each day commuting could be spent working,
resting or relaxing with his or her family because he or she can do and finish his or her
job at home. He or she can simply download his or her work using a modem, and upload
it to the company’s server computer when he or she is finished.
Information workers can have a flexible schedule of work. They can work in the
early morning or late at night, whichever they prefer, as long as they can finish the job on
schedule. High-powered portable computers using wireless telecommunication
technology allow business executives, salespeople, consultants, engineers and scientists
to take their offices with them wherever they travel.

Figure 8.7 Telecommuter working at the plane

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Figure 8.8 Telecommuter working at the house

Computer Application in Business Management

Today, computers can be the most effective tool to aid the decision-making of the
managers. It can provide them information support and advices on how to run
departments, divisions or even the entire company. This software is commonly known as
decision- support system (DSS).
The managers are also using management information system (MIS) to help them
in planning, directing, organizing, and controlling the company’s different activities. The
MIS is commonly defined as a computerized system that includes database management
system for storing and retrieving data or information, and software tools for analyzing
data. They are used in producing different reports that suit to the needs of different level
of management.
Managers can use MIS to produce departmental reports and examine long-term
trends and relationships between departments. The other type of software that can help
project manager to make effective decisions is the project management software such as
the MS Project. This software helps schedule, coordinate, and track the progress of the
project.
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Figure 8.9a Business team meeting with Laptop

Figure 8.9b Cisco Systems Teleconferencing Event using LCD Projectors

 201

Computer Application at School

The Computer-Aided Instruction (CAI) software combines tutorial material

with drill and practice questions. The CAI software provides an individualized learning
for students. They can learn at their own pace. The students can learn in one-on-one basis
with the CAI-software and can turn exercises into an entertaining game. This kind of
instruction set-up can help timid student become comfortable with computers as well as
with the subject matter being taught. This software has an unending patience and
uncommon understanding that allows students to commit mistakes.
Since most CAI software contains simulation and games, the students learn to
explore artificial environments, imaginary or based on reality. With these features, the
students are challenged to learn through experimentation, exploration, and interaction
with other students. The students are in control of this kind of learning environment.
Simulations and games in CAI allow students to experience the consequences of their
actions without taking real-world risks. The trend today in school is clearly toward
teaching all students in all courses to use computer as tools.
One of the best examples of this type of high tech learning is the Cisco
Networking Academy Program (CNAP) - the world’s largest E-Lab.

Figure 8.10 Cisco Networking Academy Online Curriculum

Virtual School

Distance learning is the most important application of computers in the schools.

Using computer technology to extend the education process beyond the walls of the
school. Satellite video and TV transmissions, computers, modems, fax machines, and
Internet connection offers many promising possibilities for this kind of learning set-up.
Students can chat with the other students in other parts of the world, exchanging ideas
 202

and opinions, and sharing knowledge as well. Telecommunication technology is

particularly important for students in remote locations to learn without traveling to the
school. Many rural areas can use interactive television networks to keep remote schools
from keeping abreast with the new technology and trends that are applied in our present
educational system.
One of the best examples of this virtual school is the University of Phoenix , San
Francisco (USA). They launched an Online Computer Business School in 1990 as an
alternative to business correspondence courses. The students use computers with modems
to accomplish everything from taking quizzes, major exams, and ordering books and
manuals. This kind of educational system encourages a life-long learning for those older
students whose work prevents them from attending more traditional college set-up.
Another real-life example of Virtual School is the E-Learning (Electronic-Learning)
spearheaded by Hewlett-Packard company. The students can interact with their virtual
instructor anytime and anywhere in the world through the use of Internet technology.

Computer Application at Home

Some people all over the world use personal computer for searching information
and for educational purposes. They communicate and chat through Internet’s IRC
(Internet Relay Chat). They send messages or letters through Internet’s e-mail. There are
now CD-ROM versions of dictionaries, almanacs, encyclopedias, and medical references
with multimedia capabilities. Multimedia features of CD-ROM versions made it more
entertaining to researchers in using computer for research tasks.
Most of the children and youngsters at home are playing computer games for
entertainment. Computer games are mostly an emulation of card games, sporting events,
street fights, flight simulation games, car racing games, and puzzle solving games. Many
of today’s computer games are state-of-the-art software which include dazzling graphics,
sound and special effects. One of the best examples of online encyclopedia is the
Wikipedia. The research work is now going high-tech with Wikipedia!

Figure 8.11 The Wikipedia Home Page (An Online Encyclopedia)

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D.) Application of If / Else If Statements & Decision Symbols

In this conditional statement, there are more than two alternatives, options, or
choices to which the computer would make a choice. Again there are conditions to be
tested, whether True (Yes) or False (No) . When true, the computer would execute the
associated statement or statements, otherwise it would continue evaluating the remaining
conditional statements (alternatives) . Once it satisfies the condition (proven true or yes),
the computer executes the associated statement and will ignore all the remaining
conditional statements below (if there is any) it. In our flowcharting solutions, Y stands
for Yes, while N stands for No.

Example:

1.) Draw a flowchart that will display the corresponding color of the given input
letter. The corresponding letter of each color are given below:

Letters Colors

B or b Blue
R or r Red
G or g Green
Y or y Yellow
Other letters Unlisted color

Solution: In Algorithm
Enter a value for L (for letter)
If L=’B’ or L=’b’ then
Print “Blue”
Else if L=’R’ or L=’r’ then
Print “Red”
Else if L=’G’ or L=’g’ then
Print “Green”
Else if L=’Y’ or L=’y’ then
Print “Yellow”
Else
Print “Unlisted color”
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Begin

Enter L

Y
If L=’B’ or
L =’b’ “Blue” A

Y
Else If L=’R’ or
L =’r’ “Red” A

Y
ElseIf L=’G’
or L =’g’ “Green” A

Else If L=’Y’ Y
or L =’y’ “Yellow” A

“Unlisted
color “
A

End

Note:
Since we are required to come up with a solution that will accept either the uppercase (capital) letter or
lowercase (small) letter, it is necessary to use the logical OR statement.
 205

2.)Draw a flowchart that will display the corresponding remark of a given input grade.
The range of grades and its corresponding remark are given below:

Range of Grades Remarks

90 - 100 Excellent
80 - 89 Good
75 - 79 Fair
50 - 74 Poor
other grades Out-of-Range

Solution : In Algorithm

Enter the value of G (for Grade)

If G>=90 and G<=100 then
Print “Excellent”
Else if G>=80 and G<=89 then
Print “Good”
Else if G>=75 and G<=79 then
Print “Fair”
Else if G>=50 and G<=74 then
Print “Poor”
Else
Print “Out-Of-Range”

Solution: In Flowchart

Begin

Enter G

If G>=90 Y
And G<=100 “Excellent “ A

Else if G>=80
Y
and G<=89 “Good” A
 206

Else if G>=75 “Fair”

And G<=79 Y A

Y
Else if G>=50
And G<=74 “ Poor” A

“Out of N
Range”

End

Note:
In this particular example, we use the logical AND because we have to trap the range of grades,
since the output should correspond within it. In logical AND operator, all conditions must be evaluated to
true (Yes) in order for the computer to execute the associated statement(s), otherwise the computer will
continue testing the remaining conditional statements or symbols below. When all conditional statements
were not proven true (or Yes), the computer will execute the last statement which is associated with the
else conditional statement.
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LEC ACTIVITY
TEST 7

1. Draw a flowchart that will display the corresponding college level of a given input
year level. The year and college levels are given below:

Year Level College Level

1 Freshmen

2 Sophomore

3 Junior

4 Senior

Other years Unlisted level

2. Draw a flowchart that will display the corresponding day of the week when a day
number is being entered. The day number and its corresponding days are listed below:

Day Numbers Day of the Week

1 Monday
2 Tuesday
3 Wednesday
4 Thursday
5 Friday
6 Saturday
7 Sunday
Other nos. “Unknown day”

3. Draw a flowchart that will display the corresponding programming language of an

input letter. The languages are listed below:

Letters Languages

P or p Pascal
C or c COBOL
H or h HTML
J or j Java
Other letters “Unknown language”
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4. Draw a flowchart that will display the corresponding remark of a given score in 20
items quiz. The range of scores and its corresponding remarks are given below:

Range of Scores Remarks

16 - 20 Best
10 - 15 Better
5 9 Good
0 - 4 Poor
Other scores “Out-of-Range”
 209

Chapter 9
Understanding Basic Computer Security
“But if you took all the benefits
that people derive from computers,
mixed them together, and distilled them down
into a single element, what would you have?
The answer is simple: information.”
-Peter Norton

Awareness is the first step to good computer security. This is according to Peter
Norton, the author of the book where this book is mainly based and a principal developer
of Norton Anti-virus and Utilities. Safeguarding our PC and its valuable information is
very important to us and to our work. Imagine if a virus erases or destroys our documents
that must be submitted in a matter of few hours. Or attacked by a hacker who slows
down our connection to the network, thus put all our online-intensive work to crawl. We
should understand all the dangers that specifically threaten our computer system. We
need to know how each threat can affect our work and prioritize them accordingly.

Threats and Countermeasures

A threat is anything that can cause harm to our computer resources. In the
context of computer security, a threat can be a virus infection or an attack by a hacker.
Now if we don’t use any anti-virus software, our computer will become very vulnerable
to virus infections. If we don’t turn-on the Firewall capability of our operating system or
did not implement a Firewall to our computer network system, we are vulnerable to a
hacker’s attack.
How about applying countermeasure posed by a virus infection or a hacker
attack? We can apply regular backup process of our data. This will be our
countermeasure against the threat of data loss caused by virus infection. Putting a
firewall to our computer network system is our countermeasure against a possible attack
by a hacker. In other words, countermeasure is our step to ward off a threat, thus
protecting our data from harm.

Identity Theft
Identity theft is a technology term used when someone impersonates you. His or
her impersonation ranges from using your name, Identification Card, SSS number, or
your other personal information in order to get a document or credit in your behalf,
without you knowing it.
Now how the identity theft could stole your money in the bank? By shoulder
surfing! Shoulder surfing is simply watching someone who withdraws on the ATM
machine, and getting to know his or her PIN (Personal Identification Number) number.
An identity theft could also use wire-tapping (by using a telephone line extension)
so that he or she can listen to your conversation on the telephone as you give your credit
 210

card number or other pertinent personal information to a credit card agent. The
technology term for this one is snagging.
An identity theft could also use the dumpster diving technique where he or she
can go to garbage cans or trash bins to get your cancelled checks, bank deposit slips, or
credit card statements.
One of the most predominant sources of identity theft technique is called social
engineering where the theft tricks the unsuspecting victim into providing critical
information under the pretext of something legitimate such as pretending to be the one
who is in authority. Like for example, someone who claimed to be a webmaster and
would like to check if the victim’s online record such as SSS contribution is already
qualified to make a salary loan. Since the hapless victim has a plan to file a salary loan,
he or she would reveal his login-name and password to the decoy’s webmaster.

Computer Viruses
A computer virus is a program that works like a biological virus. It spreads from
software to software, from USB drive to hard disk or vice versa, and from one computer
to another (in the case of computers connected to a network). So what is a computer
virus?
It is simply a tiny and powerful program written and developed by an intelligent and
malicious programmer. This computer virus program has a destructive power,
unpredictable behavior and has a capability to reproduce itself. Depending on how it is
intentionally designed and programmed, a virus may destroy data files, corrupt software
integrity, gobble up computer’s main memory storage, or cause serious system failures
and errors.
Virus scanner and cleaner software is designed and programmed to search and
destroy computer viruses in the computer system. The computer subsystems that can be
scanned are hard disk, external hard disk, floppy disk, computer’s main memory
(SIMMs/RAM), CD/DVD ROM drive and USB drive. Once a virus or viruses are found,
the virus scanner and cleaner software will notify the users and remove the viruses from
an infected disks or quarantined them.
Most of the anti-virus software such as the Norton Anti-virus, AVG, and Mc-Afee
Anti-virus utilities have the capabilities or features to continually monitor system activity.
This software watches and reports any suspicious virus-like actions detected upon
monitoring the system.
The virus scanner and cleaner should be continually updated to be able to detect
the newly programmed computer viruses. This means that you have to have a newest
version of this software always. Remember that an old version anti-virus software won’t
be able to detect newer viruses. For example, your anti-virus software is copyrighted
2009, it means that those viruses created in the year 2010 can no longer be detected or
cleaned successfully by your anti-virus software.
Computer viruses have some brothers too. They are called Trojans (Trojan
horses), Worms, and Logic bombs. A trojan is a program that performs a useful task,
however it carries out some secret destructive motive and cruel intention. In other words,
Trojan horses introduce malicious software under the pretension of being a useful
 211

program. Usually these Trojan horses can be found in the Internet with filenames that
make them sound like utilities or games. When a user downloads and runs such program,
it might change data, erase files or folders, or cause some other kinds of trouble.
A worms are like viruses, they can reproduce themselves. There difference is that
a worm can travel independently over computer networks to search out uninfected
workstations to occupy. This worm program resides in a workstation’s memory, not on
the network disk. The worm can be eliminated by turning off all the workstations
connected on the network.
Logic bombs are program triggered to perform a task or mission when it
encounters some sequence of events or activities or after a certain amount of time elapses
or when a date came. Like for example, the Friday the 13th viruses , and April Fool’s day
virus. These viruses can be classified as logic bomb type, because of the nature of how
they are activated and when they will be activated, and what triggers them to activate.
Most of the textbooks treated all of these programs as viruses. Well, whatever these
programs are called, they are designed with the same purpose: to destroy or make
troubles to our computing tasks. We must try our best to avoid or eradicate them. And
denounce them as evil or bad.

Figure 9.1 The McAfee Antivirus Main Menu

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Figure 9.2 The AVG Antivirus Main Menu

Figure 9.3 The Norton Antivirus Main Menu

Online Spying Tools

The software developers have created a lot of tracking programs that continuously
monitor our online activities in accessing the Internet. Some of these are useful to
Webmasters who want to determine the kind of visitors who are surfing their websites,
but some tracking programs intrude our privacy and preference. Here are the online
spying tools - cookies, spyware, spam, and web bugs.
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Cookies

So what is a cookie? We heard this one many times over. Like for example, when
you study Java programming language, programming a cookie is always a prerequisite to
learn Java programming. A cookie is a small code that a Web server asks your Web
browser such as Internet Explorer or Mozilla Firefox to place on your computer. The
cookie contains pertinent information that identifies your workstation’s IP address, your
login name, e-mail address, and some information about your visit to the Web site. For
example, the cookie might list the last time you visited the Web site, which Web page
you downloaded, and how long you were at the web site before leaving from it.

Spyware

The spyware is also known as adware. Like the cookie, the spyware can track a
computer user’s activities and report them to someone else. The spyware collects and
record secretly your e-mail address, web usage, individual keystrokes, and even your
personal information. The spyware can land on your laptop from many sources: e-mail
messages, web pages, and pop-up adds (advertisements).

Spam

If we receive an e-mail or e-mails that is coming from different sources or people

that we do not know, then probably, we received a junk mail called spam. Usually, a
spam offers products or services that usually we don’t need or want. Almost all spam e-
mails are classified as commercial advertisements. Spam is completely defined as
unsolicited commercial e-mail.

Notes:
Malware is the term used to destructive software such a computer viruses, Trojan horses, and Worms, as
well as also some attack scripts that turned data into garbled or unusable.

Cybercrime

Any act of stealing hardware and software resources are classified as cybercrime.
But a cybercrime is more than just stealing the physical resources of the computer, it is
also about a fraudulent act. A fraud such as stealing account information from
unsuspecting customers, non-delivery of services or merchandise that are ordered online,
or an online auction of something that did not exist, or some ATM card debit fraud or an
international credit card debit fraud. Imagine if you are charge with a big amount in your
credit card of the things you didn’t purchased? Or losing a lot of money from your ATM
card, because someone is withdrawing from it.
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Hacking
Hacking is an illegal act of accessing the computer resources of some people
without their knowledge or permission, or unauthorized access into company’s network
system. Usually, a hacker uses a network or Internet connection to connect to some other
people’s computer or a particular company’s computer network, in order to corrupt,
change, or destroy data.
Hacker employs the sniffing technique where he or she tries to guess the
password of the hapless victim. Or in a more highly sophisticated way, he or she would
capture the password of the victim using some type of malware. This malware would
capture the password, then it will send the password to him or her.
The other technique used by a hacker is the IP spoofing. In this technique, the hacker
intercepts the data while it is transmitted or gain access to the computer network system
by posing as an authorized user. The hacker was able to gain entry because he or she
pretends to be using a legitimate computer or workstation connected to the network with
an IP address that is belong to the network where he or she was accessing.
Another technique used by the hacker is called phishing. In this technique, the hacker
may contact the unsuspecting victim by e-mail, and ask the victim to provide password
information for an apparent legitimate reason. Like for example, the hacker wanted to get
your name as well as the CD key of the software you purchased or it’s registration
number. In this way, the hacker can use the software you purchased since he or she would
be required by the software company to enter the name of the one who purchase the
software as well as the registration number, because only the legitimate purchaser of the
software can enjoy the free updates and technical support.

Cyberterrorism

Cyberterrorism is an act of attacking the mission-critical information technology

infrastructure and government network system of a particular country. One of the goals of
cyberterrorism is to gain control to key computer network systems that control and
monitor electric power grids, telecommunication system infrastructure, power plants, and
water treatment plants. Their plans could be to disrupt electric power grid operation or
shutting down telecommunication control system.

Firewalls
Putting firewalls in our computer system network is our best defense against the
possible attack of a hacker. This is the countermeasure that we can apply in our
computing task.
Firewalls can be both a hardware device with a software on it or purely a software
that runs in your Personal Computer (PC), Laptop, or in a company’s main computer
called Server, or in powerful Internet device called Router.
 215

The Microsoft Internet Connection Firewall, Norton Firewall, CheckPoint

Firewall are the type of software that we can use to set restrictions on the information that
is communicated between your PC at home or in a company’s server.
The “stateful” firewall like the Microsoft firewall, monitors and tracks all aspects of
communications that cross its path and examines the source and destination IP (Internet
Protocol) address of each packet or data that the firewall handles. The firewall keeps a
table of all communications that have originated from the computer that is running the
firewall, in order to prevent unsolicited or malicious traffic from the public side of the
connection from entering the private side of the connection. The firewall compares all
inbound traffic from the Internet to the entries in the table. The inbound Internet traffic is
permitted only to reach your PC or in the computer network of the company, if and only
if there is a matching entry in the table that shows that the data communication exchange
began in your PC or in a company’s private network such as the Intranet or Local Area
Networks (LANs).
The firewall automatically drops or discards any unsolicited data communications
it detected. In this process, the firewall will be able to stop common hacking attempts of
the hackers and intruders through port scanning technique.

Figure 9.4 Firewall Depiction

Did You Know That?

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The Millennium Bug (The Y2K Problem)
The Year-2000 (Y2K) problem which is popularly known as “Millennium Bug” existed because
majority of the computers have been designed and programmed to record, use, and manipulate dates with
only the last two digits of the year.
For example, the short-cut of year 1998 is represented as “98”. In our daily lives this is always a
practice, as though its already understood that “98” means 1998. Most of the computer systems are
designed with the same concept in mind, to accept the last two-digits of the year. Moreover, the computer
has been programmed that the number 19 is the default value that precedes the supplied last two digits of
the year, like the way we write the date in our normal manual system. The question here is what if we
input a number for year 2000? Surely, if we follow the same old procedure, we will type the last two digits,
which is 00. Now since the computer systems have been programmed that the number precedes the
supplied “00” is 19, thus, the resulting value is 1900. And we know that this is wrong, because what we
 216

mean for 00 is year 2000, not year 1900. Many of the common Year-2000 problems do involve incorrect
calculations within business-oriented computer systems.
The other reasons why there are only two digits to accept for the year date is to conserve storage
(memory) space. In early and late 60’s, memory storage conservation is a practice because of the high cost
of the memory storage device. Furthermore, most of the system developers (programmers) during that time
had not expected that their programs mostly in COBOL would last for 3 decades. They don’t worry about
the possibility when it comes to the year date 2000. In other words, they were not able to anticipate this
kind of problem. This lesson should served as “charge for experience” to all of us who would be
application developers in the near future. We have to be able to anticipate what might happen in the years
to come; though, this is a case of software engineering practice. Let us think like software engineers in
action, every time we design, develop and maintain our business application system.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

E.) Application of Looping Statement

The computer has a capability to perform a task repeatedly, based on a given

condition, limit, or range. In programming term, this is called a loop. Looping involves
repeating a particular portion or segment of the program. The repetition of the task
depends on a specified number of times or until a particular condition is met or has been
satisfied (evaluated or proven true).
To learn the topic of looping easily, we will consider only one looping statement
here in our discussion. This is the famous “while loop statement”. Majority, if not all,
programming languages are using this popular looping statement. Maybe because of
its elegant and well-defined structure.

Example:

1. Draw a flowchart that will generate and display the given sequence numbers:

Sequence numbers

1
2
3
4
5

Solution : In Algorithm

Initialize n=1 (For Sequence Number)

While n<=5
Begin
Print n
n = n + 1
End

Solution : In Flowchart
 217

Begin

n =1

Y
While n<=5
Print n

End
A
n = n+1

2. Draw flowchart that will compute the sum of the generated given sequence
numbers in example number 1. Then display the sequence numbers and the
computed sum.

Solution : In Algorithm

Initialize N = 1 (for Sequence Number)

Initialize S = 0 (for Sum)
While N<=5
Begin
Print N
N = N + 1
S = S + N
End
Print S

Begin

N=1
S =0

Y
While N<=5 Print N
 218

N
N = N +1

Print S

A
S=S+N

End

Note:
You could notice that we have our pairs of “begin and end” after our while loop
statement. The purpose of this technique is to group the associated (compound)
statements so that when the computer had evaluated (proved or tested) that the condition
is still True (Yes), then all the statements within the body of the loop (statements within
the pairs of these: begin and end) will be executed. The looping process only stop when
the condition becomes False (No).
These two examples illustrate the two common equations or formulas in
programming (the increment formula and accumulator formula). The increment formula
simply adds the N by 1 (in our example), or by 2s, by 3s and so on) while the computer
executes the looping statement, the incrementing variable will add 1 until the condition
is evaluated to false or the condition is being met(satisfied). This is the time the computer
stops performing the looping operation (iteration process).
In real-world programming tasks, the increment and its opposite the decrement
formula has many useful application ranging from animation, graphics propagation and
of course repetitive calculations. The accumulator formula is also popular in the
programming field because of its usefulness. Accumulator formula is oftenly use in
determining and calculating the item stocks inventories, employees’ salaries and
deductions, and many more.
You would find out its importance when you are already embarking to your
programming job in the near future. Believe me, it’s important to know and learn the
application of these simple yet useful formulas.
 219

LEC ACTIVITY
TEST 9

1. Draw a flowchart that will generate and display the given sequence numbers:

5
4
3
2
1

2. Draw a flowchart that will generate and display the given sequence numbers:

2
4
6
8
10

3. Draw a flowchart that will compute the sum of the generated given sequence
numbers in Test number 2. Then display the sequence numbers and its computed
sum.
4. Draw a flowchart that will compute the sum of the generated sequence numbers
in Test number 1. Then display the sequence numbers and its computed sum.

Bonus Question:

Draw a flowchart that will generate and print the given sequence numbers. (This is
about squaring a number).

1
4
9
16
25
 220

Chapter 10
The Future of Information Technology
“What we anticipate seldom occurs;
what we least expect generally happens.”
-Benjamin Disraeli

I should have dropped this chapter entirely, because I have a hard-time

researching about this topic called “the future of information technology”. Most
especially that I am not a frustrated “fortune-teller”. It is my attitude to always give
myself a chance whenever I encountered some difficulties such as researching about this
topic. So I said, “one more chance, to surf on the Internet, hoping to find something
interesting to put on this chapter.” And by luck, I got something to share with you these
high-tech predictions I found in the Internet, that deserves our attention. Here are the
technologies we will enjoy in the not so distant future.

A.)The Promise of a NanoComputers

The nanotechnology is about designing an ultra-tiny chips and electrical

conductors. One of the best applications of nanocomputer is the design and construction
of a nanorobot. A nanorobot can be program to serve as antibodies. This will help
humans and hospital patients to be protected against pathogenic bacteria and viruses that
keep mutating. The mutation of these bacteria and viruses will render many remedies
ineffective against new strains. Nanorobots are predicted to be part of the future in the
field of medical science.

B.)Optical Computers
In today’s computer, electrons travel between transistor switches on copper wires to store
and process information. In Optical computer, photons travel on optical fibers or thin
films to store and process data. This will make an optical computer to have faster speed
and processing capability and more compact, and with larger bandwidth compared to our
modern computers today. In the near future, optical computers will eliminate the
enormous copper wires used in the printed circuit board (PCB) of our computer.

C.)Holographic Storage
The holographic storage technology leverages the advances across a number of
technologies from micro-mirror arrays to new non-linear polymer recording media. This
storage technology offers high storage capacity and very high speed data access, because
the holographic access methods read an entire page of data in one access operation. Our
present storage technology today that uses the optical storage technology only reads and
writes data by altering an optical medium on a per bit basis, while holographic storage
technology records an entire interference patterns all at once.
 221

D.) Protonic Memory

The Protonic memory technology solves the usual dilemma of losing your hours’ of work
when accidentally the electrical power outage happens or in the event of a system crash.
The photonic memory technology retains electrical power even such unusual occurrence
happen while you work with your computer. The photonic memory device uses
embedded protons which remain where they are when the power turns off, thus
preserving the data.

F.)Next Generation Internet

The new generation Internet has a capability to split the spectrum of light traveling the
Internet’s optical networks, allowing high priority traffic to pass at the highest and least
uninterrupted frequency, while passing low priority traffic along at a lower frequency.
The new generation Internet employs ultra high speed switching and transmission
technologies and end to end network connectivity at more than 1 gigabit per
second(Gbps), approximately 1000 times faster than today’s Internet. This is not only
the goal of the new generation Internet, it will attempt to come up with 1 Terabyte per
second (Tbps) high speed network connection.

E.) The Orbiting Internet

The Teledesic was created to provide affordable access to an advanced Internet
connection to all parts of the world that will never get such advanced capabilities through
existing technologies. Basically, the Teledesic is an orbiting Internet that provides
advanced digital broadband connections to all those parts of the world that are not likely
to get those capabilities through wire-based telecommunication infrastructure.
The Teledesic uses the wireless technology to access advanced network connections and
will send signal vertically to solve the problems of rain attenuation and signal-blocking
by terrain, building, and foliage.

The Future Yesterday Becomes Our Present Technology

During the time when I write the draft of the first edition of this book, it was way
back 1990’s (late 1990’, specifically). Though eventually the first edition was published
in 2002 (due to the slow process of publishing a book, we cannot help it!), most of the
predictions outlined on this short chapter becomes actually our present technology today.
Take for example, the Xerox Corporation researcher’s prediction (first bulleted
discussion). It predicted that in the near future, we will be using 1000 x 800 pixel
computer monitors. The Compaq Presario Laptop I used to write this second edition is
configured with a Display (Monitor) setting at 1280 x 800 pixel. So Xerox Corporation’s
prediction is right. I enjoyed now the technology they predicted decades ago.
The second bulleted discussion was also now our present technology because it predicted
that we will be using an affordable low-power rewritable storage devices, instead of
using diskettes or CD/ROM to store our data or software. My main storage device that I
used to write this book this time is a Kingston USB Drive which I bought from CD-R
King. See? The prediction of a decade ago was so accurate.
Now let us go to the third bulleted discussion. The prediction is that we will use a
computer with more than one microprocessor (Parallel processing technology). It is also
 222

true today, because my Compaq Presario Laptop is a Dual Core microprocessor. The
Quad Core desktop computer is common today. See again? Parallel processing
technology is our present technology. A decade ago, it is but just a dream. Yesterday’s
dream is today’s reality.
The Wireless Telecommunications and Network prediction is exactly what we are
enjoying right now starting from Laptop computer with Centrino (wireless) technology
and Wireless Broadband technology. It is an anywhere, anytime network computing.
The remaining predictions are still yet to be realized. But we know for sure that these
predictions about the technology revolution will sooner become a reality. So wait and be
excited, for the future holds some great technology to offer for us, to enjoy life better and
easier.
For the sake of knowing and reviewing the first edition’s technology predictions, I
retained the following discussions (written in smaller font-size):

No one can stop the on-going revolution of computer technology. We are now growing into a
future shaped by this revolution. Here are some of the fearless predictions of computer scientists and
engineers who are now presently working with their ambitious inventions:

• Xerox (Corporation) PARC researchers predicted that by the early year 2000, we will be using
1000 x 800 – pixel computer monitors. They are thin enough and power-efficient to run on
batteries for days.
• Sooner, low-power rewritable storage devices will become affordable. This will make our
software to be stored on rewritable cards rather than on diskettes or CD/ROM.
• Parallel processing technology will make our computer to use more than one micro-processors
(CPUs) to work on several tasks at the same time. Pattern recognition, vision detection, and
speech recognition can be performed very well by this technology inspite of its high demand on
speed and voluminous data.
• Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) chips are ten times faster in moving impulses or signals than silicon
chips. Furthermore, it emits less heat. In the near future, our computers are made of this kind of
hybrid integrated circuit (IC). Optical computers transmits information in light waves rather than
electrical pulses. This kind of computer technology can process information hundred of times
faster than our present computer today.
• Fiber optic cables can transmit television signals, telephone calls, and data communication at the
same time. We can enjoy a true digital TV, clearer voice over the telephone, and high speed
Internet access.
• Wireless Telecommunications and network will allow mobile workers, to send and receive
computer data from cars, boats, and planes easily. Like the way we make it by cellular phone calls
today. Our laptop contains an internal modem with a little antenna to dial-up the office’s server or
through the company’s intranet system.
• Virtual Reality Computer Aided Design (CAD) software allows architects and engineers to
walk-through a buildings and mechanical assemblies before they are constructed. This technology
creates an illusion that we can be immersed in a fantasy world that never exist in reality.
• Intelligent software agent can ask questions, respond to commands, and pay attention to the
work patterns of its user. It can also serve as a guide and a coach and has reasoning capabilities.
An intelligent software agent can be instructed to deliver our morning paperless newspaper via
Internet, reset our alarm clock or turning our coffee maker.
• On-demand Online Automobiles; with this technology , you can design and order customized
car based on your personal taste through Internet. The ordering process requires manufacturers,
suppliers, distributors, and retailers to be connected in the Internet so that the user can reach them
out wherever they are in the world and whatever the customer would like to buy it.
• Embedded Intelligence; with this technology, computer capabilities are embedded in most of the
electronic gadgets which we are using now such as CD players, VCRs, microwave ovens, car
 223

electronic systems, and other household appliances and tools. Actually in reality and present
technology, we are already enjoying this benefits without knowing it. No wonder why our
appliances today seems so highly sophisticated and behaved as though they know how to do their
tasks. Well its because inside them is a computer embedded with intelligence (intelligent
program). In the near future, most of our home appliances will be these smart.
• Active badge is a clip-on computerized ID-badge which continually reports its location for
record-keeping purposes in the database server. When employees are equipped with active
badges, doors will open for them, rooms can greet people by name, receptionists and secretaries
will know the employees ‘ whereabouts and telephone calls can be forwarded to wherever the
recipient might be at the moment.
• Micromachines is a product of microtechnology. This machine is in a scale of a million of a
meter. Microscopic moving parts are etched in silicon chip. It has a microsensor, a tiny device that
can detect temperature and pressure. Microsensors are used in spacecrafts, planes, and cars.
According to the scientists speculation and brave prediction, someday this tiny machines may be
able to roam around our bodies to search and destroy cancer cells and other deadly bacteria. When
that time comes, computer will become our living hero. Who said computer is nothing?

And Lastly, My Final Suggestion

The computer will become more and more powerful as the years go by. We can use it
to empower or imprison, to create or destroy, or to explore or exploit. It’s up to us to
chose and decide how to use it, whether for evil or for good. I wish and pray that may
you use it for good and always for good, to make this world a better place to live in, again
and again. God bless.

F.) Application of Subroutines or Subprograms

In real-life programming practice, application programmers and business systems
developers alike, break down large program into smaller programs called “subroutines”
or subprograms. In this way, the programmers can tackle the task one at a time. Some IT
professionals call it modules, functions or procedures.
The flowcharting symbol for subroutine or subprogram is a rectangle with a bar across
the top. The name of the subroutine is placed inside the rectangle.

Example:

Draw a Flowchart and write its equivalent Algorithm in modular (subroutine) approach
that will compute the salary of an employee in a weekly basis. If the number of hours
worked by an employee exceeds 40 hours a week, the excess hours should be considered
as overtime, thus, its computation is 150 percent from its base salary of 100 pesos per
hour. An SSS contribution for every employee is 200 pesos ,while the withholding tax is
10 percent (%) of the employee’s gross salary.

Solution: In Algorithm

Enter HW (for Hour’s work)

If (HW>40) then
 224

Perform OPay Procedure

Else
Perform RPay Procedure

Procedure RPay
Initialize
RPH = 100, SSS = 200
Compute
RP = RPH * HW
T = RP * 0.10
S = RP – T – SSS
Print “You Salary”, S

Procedure OTPay
Initialize RPH = 100, SSS = 200, RH=40
Compute
RS = RPH * RH
OH = HW - 40
OPH = RPH * 1.50
OP = OH * OPH
S = OP + RS
T = S * 0.10
S = S – SSS - T
Print “Your Salary is:”, S

Where:
HW = Hour’s Work
OPay = Overtime Pay
RPay =Regular Pay
RPH =Rate Per Hour
HW = Hours Work

T = Tax
RP = Regular Pay
S = Salary
RS = Regular Salary
RH =Regular Hour
OH = Overtime Hour
OPH = Overtime Pay Hours
OP = Overtime Pay
 225

Begin

Enter HW

Y
While OPay A
HW>=40

RPay

End
 226

RPay

RPH= 100
S SS =200

RP = RPH * HW
T = RP * 0.10
S = RP - T - SSS

“Your Salary is”, S

Return
 227

OPay

RPH= 100
S SS =200
RH = 40

RS = RPH * RH
OH = HW - 40
OPH = RPH * 1.50
OP = OH * OPH
S = OP + RS
T = S * 0.10
S = S - SSS - T

“Your Salary is”, S

Return

Note:

You could notice that a subroutine will begin with its name, not with the word “Start”.
For example, the subroutine for Regular Pay starts with RPay written on its Terminal
Symbol:

RPay

It is also the same with the Overtime Pay where it starts with the word “OPay” instead of
the word “Start”. Now the Terminal Symbol for the ending part of our Flowchart has the
word “Return” on it, instead of the word “End”. This is because the subroutine should
return to the calling main program, or to return a value to the calling main program.
You will notice also that if the conditional expression:
 228

While HW>=40

is evaluated to True (Yes), then the subroutine: OPay will be executed, otherwise the
RPay subroutine will be executed. We can see it with the following flowchart depiction:

Y
While
OPay
HW>=40

RPay

Within the subroutine is another group of flowchart symbols with more equations and
calculations are being performed. With the use of subroutine, we can simplify our very
large flowchart or algorithm by breaking them into subroutines where each subroutine
performs a specific task. With this technique, we can easily concentrate in one subroutine
at a time. Like for example, we really have a hard time formulating the equations to
compute the overtime pay. So, we have to focus on it. Our flowchart and algorithm
reflects the complexity of our solution. As you could noticed , understanding alone on
how our equations calculate are for a moment, pose already a complexity in our solution.
One thing also to consider is that within our subprogram, we initialize the variables we
used within the subroutine. Remember that the values of these initialized variables are
local to the subroutine. Meaning, that their values will not conflict to other variables in
other subroutines. Therefore, it is very safe to use the same name of variables from one
subroutine to another.
Let us now dissect the initialization happened in the first subroutine that we have, the
Regular Pay subroutine. First, we initialize the Rate Per Hour (RPH) variable, then the
Social Security System (SSS) contribution.

RPay

RPH= 100
S SS =200
 229

After this, we construct the equations we need to calculate the Regular Pay. So, we come
up with the following equations inside our Process symbol.

RP = RPH * HW
T = RP * 0.10
S = RP - T - SSS

The equation:

RP = RPH * HW

is an equation that computes the gross regular pay. Now to get the net regular pay, we
need to deduct the gross pay from the withholding tax and SSS contribution of the
employee. In real life, there are more deductions to the employee salary than withholding
tax and SSS contribution. But this two is always present to any payroll system in any
private company or public offices.
For the sake of simplicity, in our simple payroll system, we assign a fix tax to each
employee to 10 percent. In reality again, this is not the case. Though, consultants and
authors have this kind of tax (only 10 percent deduction, based on my experience as an
author and training consultant. I think, other practicing professionals have this kind of tax
too. ). To compute for the Salary (S), we simply formulate this simple equation:

S = RP – T – SSS

In the Overtime Pay (OPay), the equations are more harder to formulate. Let us now have
our discussion about this one. First, we have to initialize the variables with constant
values. The values for these variables are for the moment, will not change. The Regular
Hour (RH) is a maximum of 40 hours. In excess of 40 hours work, it is already
considered as an overtime. So there must be an added income that an employee can get
from his or her salary.

RPH= 100
S SS =200
RH = 40

Next is the discussion on how to compute the overtime pay. Here is now the equations
that calculate it:
 230

RS = RPH * RH
OH = HW - 40
OPH = RPH * 1.50
OP = OH * OPH
S = OP + RS
T = S * 0.10
S = S - SSS - T

To compute for the Regular Salary (RS), we have the equation:

RS = RPH * RH

where:
RPH is the Rate Per Hour,
while RH is the Regular Hour

To compute for the Overtime Hour, we have to subtract the number of Hours Work (HW)
from 40 (the regular number of hour’s work). Let say an employee has rendered 47 hours
in a week, then his or her overtime hour is 7 (47 – 40). Here is the equation:

OH = HW - 40

Where:

OH is Overtime Hour
HW is Hour’s Work

This time, we need to get the rate of the overtime pay. Since an overtime pay per hour is
150 percent from the present regular pay, then we have to multiply the present regular
pay (RP) to 1.5 (for 150 %). Our equation is:

OPH = RPH * 1.50

Where:

OPH is the Overtime Pay Hours

RPH Rate Per Hour

This time, it is easy to compute the Overtime Pay. Here is our equation to get it:

OP = OH * OPH

Where:

OP is the Overtime Pay

OH is the Overtime Hours
 231

To compute for the gross salary, we have this equation:

S = OP + RS

Where:

S is the Salary (gross salary)

OP is the Overtime Pay
RS is the Regular Salary

And to compute finally the net salary, we need to deduct the gross salary from
withholding tax (T) and the SSS contribution. Here is now the last equation:

S = S - T - SSS

Where:

T is the Tax
S is the Salary (net salary)

Wow! This time we are through discussing. It is but a very long and winding discussion
on the Subroutine topic. But it’s worth the effort. Isn’t it?
 232

LEC ACTIVITY
TEST 10

1. Draw a Flowchart and write its equivalent Algorithm in modular (subroutine)

approach that will compute the salary of an employee in a monthly basis. If the number
of days worked by an employee exceeds 20 days a month, the excess days should be
considered as overtime, thus, its computation is 200 percent from its base salary of 1000
pesos per day. An SSS contribution for every employee is 500 pesos, while the
withholding tax is 20 percent (%) of the employee’s gross salary.
 233

Answer Key to Odd Nos. Problems

For Chapter 1
a.) Binary Nos. Conversion to Decimal Nos.
1.) 310
3.) 710
5.) 1110

b.) Decimal Nos. Conversion to Binary Nos.

1.) 10002
3.) 110102
5.) 11011102

For Chapter 2
Decimal Nos. Conversion to Octal Nos.
a.) Decimal Nos. Conversion to Octal Nos.

1.) 138
3.) 348
5.) 22318

b.) Octal Nos. Conversion to Decimal Nos.

1.) 5610
3.) 11710
5.) 167810

c.) Octal Nos. Conversion to Binary Nos.

1.) 1001112
3.) 0010110102
5.) 010011.1100012

d.) Binary Nos. Conversion to Octal Nos.

1.) 78
3.) 7.58
5.) 7478
 234

For Chapter 3
a.)Decimal Nos. Conversion to Hexadecimal Nos.

1.) 3E16
3.) EF16
5.) 2CF16

b.) Hexadecimal Nos. Conversion to Decimal Nos.

1.) 13810
3.) 24410
5.) 6390610

c.) Hexadecimal Nos. Conversion to Binary Nos.

1.) 100110102
3.) 1110 0011.0101 11012
5.) 0001 1100 11102

d.) Binary Nos. Conversion to Hexadecimal Nos.

1.) AC16
3.) CF16
5.) 7716

For Chapter 4
1.) Solution: In Algorithm

Enter the value of F (for Fahrenheit)

Compute Celcius (C=(5/9)*F-32)
Print the value of C (for Celcius)
 235

Solution : In Flowchart

Begin

Enter F

C=(5/9)*F-32

Print C

End

3.) Solution : In Algorithm

Enter the value of R (for Radius)

Compute the volume (V=(4/3) * 3.11416*r*r*r)
Print the value of V (for Volume)
 236

Solution : In Flowchart

Begin

Enter R

V=(4/3)*3.1416*r*r*r

Print V

End

For Chapter 5
1. ) 100/2 == 21 % 3
50 == 0
F

3.)(15>=15) && (7==7) | | (1001 != 1001)

T && T || F
T || F
T

5.(W*Z)<(X*W) | | (Z>W)
(10*40)<(20*10) | | (40>10)
400 < 200 || T
F || T
T
 237

For Chapter 6
1.)Solution: In Algorithm

Enter two nos. (n1,n2)

Compute the Difference (D=n1-n2)
Print D (for Difference)

Solution: In Flowchart

Begin

Enter n1, n2

D = n1-n2

Print D

End

3.)Solution: In Algorithm

Enter three quizzes (Q1,Q2,Q3)

Compute the Average (Ave=(Q1+Q2+Q3)/3)
Print A (for Average)
 238

Solution : In Flowchart
Begin

Enter Q1,Q2,Q3

Ave=(Q1+Q2+Q3)/3

Print Ave

End

For Chapter 7
1.)Solution: In Algorithm

Enter a value of g (for Grade)

If (g>=75) then
Print “ Passed”
Else
Print “Failed”
 239

Solution: In Flowchart

Begin

Enter g

Y
If (g>=75) Passed A

Failed

End

3.)Solution: In Algorithm

Enter a value of n (for Number)

Compute the remainder (r=n%2)
If (r=0) then
Print “Even nos.”
Else
Print “Odd nos.”
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Solution : In Flowchart

Begin

Enter n

R =n %2

If R= 0 Y
Even nos.
A

Odd nos.

End

For Chapter 8
1.)Solution: In Algorithm

Enter the value of L (for Level)

If (L=1) then
Print “Freshman”
Else if (L=2) then
Print “Sophomore”
Else if (L=3) then
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Print “Junior”
Else if (L=4) then
Print “Senior”
Else
Print “Unlisted-level”

Solution : In Flowchart

Begin

Enter L

Y
If L=1
Freshman A

Y
Else If
L=2 Sophomore A

Y
Else If
L=3 Junior A

Y
Else If
L=4 Senior A

Unlisted level

End
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3.)Solution : In Algorithm

Enter the value of L (for Letters)

If (L=’P’) or (L=’p’) then
Print “Pascal”
If (L=’C’) or (L=’c’) then
Print “COBOL”
If (L=’H’) or (L=’h’) then
Print “HTML”
If (L=’B’) or (L=’b’) then
Print “BASIC”
Else
Print “Unknown-Language”
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Solution : In Flowchart

Begin

Enter L

If L=’P’ Y “Pascal” A
Or L=’p’

Y
If L=’C’ “COBOL”
Or L=’c’ A

Y
If L=’H’ “HTML”
Or L=’h’ A

If L=’B’
Y “BASIC”
Or L=’b’ A

“Unknown
Language”

End
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For Chapter 9
1.) Solution : In Algorithm

Initialize N=5 (for sequence no.)

While N>=1
Begin
Print N
N=N-1
End

Solution : In Flowchart

Begin

N=5

Y
While Print N
N>=1

End N=N-1

A
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3.)Solution: In Algorithm

Initialize N=2 (for Sequence no.)

Initialize S=0 (for Sum)
While N<=10
Begin
Print N
N=N+2
S=S+2
End
Print S

Solution: In Flowchart

Begin

N=2
S=0

While
Y
N<=10 Print N

Print S
N=N+2

End
S = S+N

A
Note:
Chapter 10 has no answer, since it has only one Practice Test.
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ERRATA?
When I read my own book, especially the first edition of this book, I found
many errors, mostly in the way I spell the word such as “Celcius” when in
fact it should be written as “Celsius”. This is actually not a typographical
error, but my own error. I’d like you to know that I owe you an “apology”.
Whew!!! At least, I spell the word “apology”, correctly. Afterall, this is a
book not a cellular phone. Meaning, mispelled or erroneous words (worst
of all, wrong discussions) are unusual in book writing and communication.
Communicating knowledge with you – students, must be correct and
factual. With this, I am guilty of my own errors. Though, I have my
Technical Reviewers and English grammar editors who did their very best
to ensure the accuracy of this book, still, I am the one who wrote this
book, therefore an error or errors are mine alone (originally). This further
means, that my error or errors are originally mine, it cannot be faked by
someone else...joke. If you find errors in this book, please don’t hesitate to
communicate with me through my e-mail address:
[email protected]. But, I’d like to warn you, make no mistake in
your spelling when writing your e-mails (remember, you are writing an e-
mail not sending short text messages in a cellphone). Just kidding, buddy.
Good luck to all of you (…and to me too.)!
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