A Seminar Report On

SOLAR CELL
By yyyyyyyy

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING KALINGA INSTITUTE OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY, Bhubaneswar-751024

A Seminar Report On
SOLAR CELL
In partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Technology In Electrical Engineering

SUBMITTED BY:

Name of the student:yyyyyyyy Roll No:--------Semester:VI

Under the Guidance of xxxxxxxxxxxx

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING KALINGA INSTITUTE OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY Bhubaneswar -751024 2011

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Seminar entitled SOLAR CELL has beensubmitted byyyyyyyyybearing Roll No:----------under the guidance of xxxxxxxxxxxx for partial fulfillment of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical Engineering of Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technolgy,Bhubaneswar during the academic year 2011(Semester-VI) .

Date:15.03.2011 Place: Bhubaneswar

xxxxxxxxxxxxxx Guide Head (Name of Guide)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is my privilege to express my sincerest regards to our seminar coordinatorxxxxxxxxxxxxx , for his valuable inputs,ableguidance,encouragement,whole-hearted co-opeartion and constructive criticism throughout the duration of the project. I deeply express my thanks to the department for allowing me to present my seminar at our department premises for partial fulfillment of the requirements leading to the award of B.Tech degree. I take this oppurtuniuty to thank all others who have directly or indirectly helped me in this project.I pay my respects and love to my parents and all the family members and friends for their encouragement throughout my career.Last but not the least I express my thanks to my friends for their co-ordination and support.

What is a Solar Cell?

 It is also known as Photovoltaic cell (PV cell)  A device that converts light energy (solar energy) directly to electricity.  The term solar cell is designated to capture energy from sunlight, whereas PV cell is referred to an unspecified light source.  It is like a battery because it supplies DC power.  It is not like a battery because the voltage supplied by the cell changes with changes in the resistance of the load.

History
 The photovoltaic effect was first recognized in 1839 by French physicist Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel. However, it was not until 1883 that the first solar cell was built, by Charles Fritts, who coated the semiconductor selenium with an extremely thin layer of gold to form the junctions. The device was only around 1% efficient.

*Russell Ohl patented the modern solar cell in 1946 (U.S. Patent 2,402,662)

Physics of Solar Cells

Semiconductor material can be p-type (hole carriers) or n-type (electron carriers)

 N-type has impurities with an extra electron (phosphorus)  P-type has impurities with one fewer electron (boron)  Put them together: p-n junction  A solar cell is a very large p-n junction (or diode)

Basic Physics of Solar Cells

 The holes from the p-type side diffuse to the n-type side.  The electrons diffuse to the p-type side.  This leaves behind charged ions (missing electrons or holes).

Built-In Electric Field

 The charged atoms (ions) create an electric field.  This electric field makes it easy for current to flow in one direction, but hard to flow in the opposite direction.

Generating Charges From The Sun

 Light breaks silicon bonds and creates free electrons and holes missing electrons  Holes are positive charge  Built-in field separates electron  s and holes

Generating Charges From The Sun

 Connect diode to a circuit  Photocurrent goes through resistor  Causes a voltage drop

Generating Charges From The Sun

 Forward biases the diode  Causes a current in opposite direction

Generating Charges From The Sun

 If R is very large, V is very large

 If V is very large, IFB = IPC  I=0 Open Circuit condition

Generating Charges From The Sun

 If R is very small, V is very small  If V = 0, IFB = 0

I= IPC
 Short Circuit condition

Construction of Solar cells

 They are constructed by layering special materials called semiconductors into thin, flat sandwiches.  These are linked by electrical wires and arranged on a panel of a stiff, non-conducting material such as glass. The panel itself is called a module.

 Modules are then interconnected, in series or parallel, or both, to create an array with the desired peak DC voltage and current.

a. Encapsulate b. Contact Grid

c. Antireflective Coating d. N-type Silicon e. P-type Silicon f. Back Contact  Encapsulate - The encapsulate, made of glass or other clear material such clear plastic, seals the cell from the external environment.  Contact Grid- The contact grid is made of a good conductor, such as a metal, and it serves as a collector of electrons.  The Antireflective Coating (AR Coating)- Through a combination of a favorable refractive index, and thickness, this layer serves to guide light into the solar cell. Without this layer, much of the light would simply bounce off the surface.

N-Type Silicon - N-type silicon is created by doping (contaminating) the Si with compounds that contain one more valence electrons* than Si does, such as with either Phosphorus or Arsenic. Since only four electrons are required to bond with the four adjacent silicon atoms, the fifth valence electron is available for conduction

 P-Type Silicon- P-type silicon is created by doping with compounds containing one less valence electrons* than Si does, such as with Boron. When silicon (four valence electrons) is doped with atoms that have one less valence electrons (three valence electrons), only three electrons are available for bonding with four adjacent silicon atoms, therefore an incomplete bond (hole) exists which can attract an electron from a nearby atom. Filling one hole creates another hole in a different Si atom. This movement of holes is available for conduction.

 Back Contact - The back contact, made out of a metal, covers the entire back surface of the solar cell and acts as a conductor.

 How Solar cells work

 Function 1: Photogeneration of charge carriers (electrons and holes) in a light-absorbing material  Function 2: Separation of the charge carriers to a conductive medium such as a metal contact or a wire in order to transmit the electricity  It supplies a voltage and a current to a resistive load (light, battery, motor).  Power = Current x Voltage

1. A solar cell is a sandwich of n-type silicon (blue) and p-type silicon

(red). 2. When sunlight shines on the cell, photons (light particles) bombard the upper surface.

3. The photons (yellow dot) carry their energy down through the cell. 4. The photons give up their energy to electrons (green dot) in the lower, p-type layer. 5. The electrons use this energy to jump across the barrier into the upper, n-type layer and escape out into the circuit. Flowing around the circuit, the electrons make the lamp light up.

Solar Cell Properties

 Open circuit voltage (VOC)  Short circuit current (ISC)  Maximum power  Efficiency

Factors affecting Solar Cell Performance

 Light intensity (type of light)  Light wavelength (color of light)  Angle of incident light  Surface condition of solar cells (cleanness)  Temperature on solar cells

Peak Power Point (Maximum Power)

 A solar cell may operate over a wide range of voltages (V) and currents (I). By increasing the resistive load on an irradiated cell continuously from zero (a short circuit) to a very high value (an open circuit) one can determine the maximum-power point, the point that maximizes VI, that is, the load for which the cell can deliver maximum electrical power at that level of irradiation.  Dynamically adjust the load so the maximum power is always transferred, regardless of the variation in lighting.

Efficiency
 A solar cell's energy conversion efficiency ( , "eta"), is the percentage of power converted (from absorbed light to electrical energy) and collected, when a solar cell is connected to an electrical circuit. This term is calculated using the ratio of Pm, divided by the input light irradiance under "standard" test conditions (E, in W/m) and the surface area of the solar cell (Ac in m).

Pm L! E x Ac

Current Obstacles
Efficiency vs. cost Solar cell efficiencies vary from 6% for amorphous silicon-based solar cells to 42.8% with multiple-junction research lab cells. Solar cell energy conversion efficiencies for commercially available multicrystalline Si solar cells are around 14-16%. The highest efficiency cells have not always been the most economical for example a 30% efficient multijunction cell based on exotic materials such as gallium arsenide or indium selenide and produced in low volume might well cost one hundred times as much as an 8% efficient amorphous silicon cell in mass production, while only delivering about four times the electrical power.

Future Developments

 The first generation photovoltaic, consists of a large-area, single layer p-n junction diode, which is capable of generating usable electrical energy from light sources with the wavelengths of sunlight. These cells are typically made using a silicon wafer.  The second generation of photovoltaic materials is based on the use of thin-film deposits of semiconductors. These devices were initially designed to be high-efficiency, multiple junction photovoltaic cells.

 Third generationphotovoltaics are very different from the previous semiconductor devices as they do not rely on a traditional p-n junction to separate photogenerated charge carriers. These new devices include photoelectrochemical cells, polymer solar cells, and nanocrystal solar cells. Dye-sensitized solar cells are now in production. Examples include Amorphous silicon, Polycrystalline silicon, micro-crystalline silicon, Cadmium telluride, copper indium selenide/sulfide.  Fourth generation Composite photovoltaic technology with the use of polymers with nano particles can be mixed together to make a single multispectrum layer. Then the thin multi spectrum layers can be stacked to make multispectrum solar cells more efficient and cheaper based on polymer solar cell and multi junction technology used by NASA on Mars missions.

REFERANCES

 http://www.explainthatstuff.com/solarcells.html  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell  http://www.specmat.com/Overview%20of%20Solar%20Cells.htm