Detecting

Deception

By JOE NAVARRO, M.A.,

and JOHN R. SCHAFER, M.A.

T he young mother leaned

back and cleared her throat.
Her eyes teared and her
voice quivered as she explained
how her baby disappeared. Her
clasped hands trembled slightly and
her feet pointed toward the door.
Her demeanor appeared too sub­
dued. Reluctant to call the mother a
liar, the investigator asked her if she
had a reason to lie. She answered, “I
never lie. My mother taught me al­
ways to tell the truth.” The investi­
gator had seen and heard enough—
he asked the woman to take a
polygraph examination. During the
postpolygraph interview, the
woman confessed that she had
suffocated her baby. Both her ver­
bal and nonverbal behaviors had re­
vealed the gruesome truth.
From heated knife blades
across the tongue to electric prods,
people have sought ways through-
out history to test the truthfulness of
others. Fortunately, researchers in
criminology and psychology have
identified verbal and nonverbal be­
haviors that detect deception in a © Adobe Image Library
more humane manner. Nonetheless,
detecting deception remains a diffi­ by learning a few basic nonverbal often make every effort to ensure
cult task. In fact, multiple studies and verbal cues indicative of lying. that other people understand. In
have found that lie detection, like contrast, liars attempt to manage
a coin toss, represents a 50/50 The Fundamentals others’ perceptions.2 Consequently,
proposition, even for experienced Lying requires the deceiver to people unwittingly signal deception
investigators.1 Although detecting keep facts straight, make the story via nonverbal and verbal cues.3 Un­
deception remains difficult, investi­ believable, and withstand scrutiny. fortunately, no particular nonverbal
gators increase the odds for success When individuals tell the truth, they or verbal cue evinces deception.4

July 2001 / 9
 Investigators’ abilities to detect as tables or desks, block the that investigators often gauge
deceptive behavior depends largely interviewer’s full view of the veracity by strong eye contact.8
on their ability to observe, cata­ subject’s body. A large portion of Nevertheless, eye aversion during
logue, and differentiate human be­ nonverbal behaviors emanates from difficult questions, as opposed
havior. They must identify clusters the lower body, not just from the to benign questions, can depict
of behavior, which cumulatively re­ hands and face. Feet that fidget or distress.
inforce deceptive behaviors unique point to the door communicate dis- Eyes do not just see, they com­
to the person interviewed.5 Investi­ comfort.6 If subjects sit behind a municate when the brain conducts
gators also should learn to formu­ desk or table, officers should en- internal dialog, recalls past events,
late questions to facilitate behav­ courage them to relocate. Deceivers crafts answers, or processes infor­
ioral observations. The more often use soda cans, computer mation. Eyes also serve as a block­
observations investigators make, screens, and other objects, both ing mechanism, much the same way
the greater the probability of detect­ large and small, to form a barrier as folded hands across the chest or
ing deception. For the most part, between themselves and investiga- turning away in disagreement.
family members and close friends tors.7 Objects used in this manner When people hear or see something
display patterns of genuine open­ create distance, separation, and par­ they disagree with or do not fully
ness. For inexperienced investiga­ tial concealment—behaviors con­ support, their eyelids tend to close
tors, these behavioral patterns may sistent with dishonesty. longer than a normal blink. This au­
serve as a comparative reference for tomatic response occurs so quickly
contrast with deceptive behaviors. The Eyes that most extended eye closures go
Many investigators rely too unnoticed. By cataloging a person’s
The Interview Setting heavily on eye contact. Research baseline eye responses during
The ideal setting for an inter- indicates that people, especially nonstressful conversation, investi­
view places the interviewee in a frequent liars, actually increase gators can compare the eye re­
position where no obstacles, such eye contact because they learned sponses with those during critical
questions.
Hand or finger movement to the
eyes usually follows a prolonged
eye closure, further blocking out
auditory or visual stimuli. Addition-
ally, individuals who struggle with
an idea or concept often blink their
eyes rapidly. Rapid blinking or
“eyelid flutter” signals a sensitive
topic.9 Officers carefully should ob­
serve the speaker’s eyes, which can
alert to the possibility of deception.
Head and Body Movements
Head movements should com­
port with verbal denials or affirma­
Special Agent Navarro serves in Special Agent John R. Schafer is tions. For example, an inconsistent
the FBI’s Tampa, Florida, office assigned to the FBI’s Lancaster, head movement occurs when
and also serves as a member of California, resident office and also
the FBI’s National Security
individuals say, “I did not do it”
serves as a member of the FBI’s
Division’s Behavioral Analysis National Security Division’s while their head subtly nods affir­
Program. Behavioral Analysis Program. matively. Investigators often miss

10 / FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin

inconsistencies between the spoken low confidence, although these speakers’ knuckles turn white as
word and nonverbal behavior.10 characteristics do not guarantee they clutch the armrest.
When people feel comfortable, deception.
they tend to mirror the head move­ A liar rarely points a finger or Verbal Cues
ments of the person with whom emphasizes with hand gestures.16 Liars prefer concealing the
they converse. An unwillingness to Finger pointing or hand movements truth rather than fabricating an en­
mirror the investigator’s head exude confidence—qualities liars tirely fictitious story.19 With con­
movements or other gestures could usually lack. The finger-pointing cealment, the liar only needs to
indicate discomfort, reluctance to cue usually does not apply to actors avoid revealing untrue informa-
cooperate, or, possibly, deceit.11 or politicians because they train tion.20 In other words, the liar con­
Truthful people tend to lean themselves to appear confident dur­ veys the truth up to the event he
forward as they converse; liars tend ing public appearances. Also, liars wants to hide. At this point, the liar
to move away. 12 Therefore, if rarely display steepling—fingertips uses a “text bridge” to gloss over the
speakers lean backward when tell­ touching each other forming a tri­ concealed activity.21 After crossing
ing their version of events, the state­ angle with both hands, which, sym­ this sensitive area, the liar again
ment likely involves some decep­ bolically, represents assurance of relays the truth. The use of text
tion or reluctance to provide thought or position.17 bridges alerts the investigator to
information. a topic that may require closer
examination.
Mouth and Breathing

“
Text bridges enable the speaker
People who attempt to conceal to fast forward through time con­
information often breathe faster necting salient events without dis­
taking a series of short breaths fol­ The more cussing the included activities. For
lowed by one long deep breath.13 observations example, if a man says, “After I
This irregular breathing pattern can investigators make, took a shower, I ate breakfast.” The
tip investigators to speakers’ in- the greater the listener assumes that the man dis­
creased anxiety levels. Addition- probability of robed, turned on the water, got into
ally, stress often causes a dry the shower, washed his body with
mouth, resulting in repeated clear­
detecting deception. soap, rinsed the soap off his body,
ing of the throat, cracking of the shampooed his hair, rinsed his hair,

”
voice, or jumping of the Adam’s turned off the water, got out of the
apple (laryngeal cartilages).14 Like- shower, and dried himself with a
wise, a tense mouth with pursed lips towel. Someone reluctant to tell the
may represent extreme distress and Liars often slouch in chairs truth often uses this same technique
signify that speakers literally re- feigning comfort. Liars may even to gloss over sensitive topics. For
strain themselves emotionally, ver­ yawn repeatedly reinforcing the ap­ example, a person reports the fol­
bally, and physically. pearance of relaxation, even bore­ lowing: “I left the house to go to
dom. In addition, yawning during work, and when I returned home, I
Hands and Arms stressful situations or spreading out found my wife lying in a pool of
Confident people usually on a couch or chair when circum­ blood.” The text bridge “when I re-
spread out in an area. Less secure stances call for tension and discom­ turned home...” should alert investi­
people tend to occupy less space, fort portends deception.18 gators to missing information. In­
fold their arms, and interlock their Liars often keep their hands vestigators should examine, in
legs.15 Similarly, a person whose motionless and draw their arms detail, the man’s activities from the
lips, hands, or fingers tremble or close to their bodies into a position time he left the house until the time
who hides their hands may exhibit as if “flash frozen.” In many cases, he returned. The interview should

July 2001 / 11
not proceed until the speaker ad­ or “I was always taught to tell the response to questions but rather to
equately explains his activities. truth,” often intend to deceive. fill the silence.
Some commonly used text bridges Making a positive statement
include “I don’t remember...,” “the negative provides the liar with the Conclusion
next thing I knew...,” “later on...,” quickest, easiest answer to an accu­ Investigators who learn and
“shortly thereafter...,” “after- sation. For example, the investiga­ routinely employ basic nonverbal
wards...,” “after that...,” “while...,” tor asks, “Did you steal the and verbal skills during interviews
“even though...,” “when...,” money?” The person responds, gain valuable insights into the ve­
“then...,” “besides...,” “conse­ “No, I did not steal the money.” The racity of the person interviewed;
quently...,” “finally...,” “how- guilty person responds quickly to however, if unpracticed, these skills
ever...,” and “before....” avoid the impression of a delayed deteriorate over time. The more
Stalling tactics, such as asking answer.26 A variation of this tech­ skilled behavioral observations in­
the investigator to repeat the ques­ nique occurs when a person an­ vestigators make, the more accu­
tion, provides additional time for swers “yes” or “no” immediately, rately they can form an opinion as to
deceivers to think up an appropriate but the explanation comes more the truthfulness of the speaker.
answer. Liars typically ask investi­ slowly because the liar needs time However, no matter how skilled the
gators to repeat questions without to construct an answer.27 investigator, the fact remains that
realizing that honest conversations no particular nonverbal or verbal
do not require the restatement of behavior, in and of itself, indicates

“
questions.22 Other stalling phrases deception.
include “It depends on what you Investigators cannot prevent
mean by that,” “Where did you hear ...people have people from lying but, at least, they
that?” “Where’s this information sought ways can observe and catalog behaviors
coming from?” “Could you be more throughout history that indicate, but do not necessarily
specific?” or “How dare you ask me conclude, deception. The only cer­
to test the tain method of discerning the truth
something like that.”23 The phrases truthfulness of
“Well, it’s not so simple as yes or relies on the corroboration of the
no,” or “That’s an excellent ques­ others. known facts independent of the in-

”
tion,” also provides speakers with formation provided by the person
additional time. interviewed.30
Research shows that guilty Endnotes
people often avoid using contrac- Deceptive people rarely include 1
Paul Eckman, Telling Lies: Clues to
tions.24 Instead of saying, “It wasn’t negative details in their explanation Deceit in the Marketplace, Politics, and
me,” liars will say, “It was not me,” of events, unless, of course, the Marriage (New York: W. W. Horton and Co.,
to ensure the listener clearly hears story concerns delayed or canceled 1985), 287 citing M. O. Sullivan, P. Eckman,
and W. V. Friesen, Journal of Nonverbal
the denial. Additionally, liars plans.28 Truthful people reference Behavior 12 (1988): 203-15.
euphemize to avoid reality.25 Like- the negative as well as the positive 2
David J. Lieberman, Never Be Lied to
wise, responses such as, “I would events in their stories. Again (New York: St. Martin Press, 1988), 41.
3
never do that,” “Lying is below Silence makes many people un- Sigmund Freud, Fragments of an Analysis
of a Case of Hysteria-Collected Papers V. 3
me,” “I have never lied,” or “I comfortable.29 Liars usually con­ (New York: Basic Books, 1905), 94.
would never lie,” or, “I would never tinue speaking until they confirm 4
Supra note 1, 80.
do such a thing” should alert inves­ that the listener accepts their ver­ 5
Supra note 1, 80.
6
tigators to the possibility of decep­ sion as the truth. If investigators David Lewis, The Secret Language of
Success: Using Body Language to Get What
tion. Other statements such as: “to stare patiently in silence uncon­ You Want (New York: Galhad Books, 1955),
be perfectly frank...,” “to be hon­ vinced, the deceitful person likely 221.
est...,” “to be perfectly truthful...,” will reveal information, not in 7
Ibid., 169

12 / FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin

 8 12
R. E. Exline, J. Thibaut, C. B. Hickey, and Supra note 2, 23. Content Analysis (SCAN), (Phoenix, AZ,
13
P. Gumpert, Visual Interaction in Relation to Supra note 2, 54. Laboratory for Scientific Interrogation, 1992)
14
Machiavellianism and an Unethical Act, citing Supra note 2, 54 and note 9. ii.
15 22
R. Christie and F. L. Geis, eds., Studies in Supra note 2, 14. Supra note 2, 49.
16 23
Machiavellianism, (New York, NY: Academic Supra note 2, 24. Supra note 2, 46.
17 24
Press, 1970), 53-75. Supra note 2, 198. Supra note 2, 30.
9 18 25
David G. Givens, The Nonverbal Bella M. DePaulo, “Nonverbal Behavior Supra note 2, 28.
26
Dictionary of Gestures, Signs, and Body and Self-preservation,” Psychological Bulletin Supra note 2, 28.
27
Language Cues (Spokane, WA, Center for 111, no. 2 (1992): 214. Supra note 2, 35.
19 28
Nonverbal Studies, 2000), available from Supra note 1, 29. Supra note 2, 43.
20 29
http://members.aol.com/nonverbal2; accessed Supra note 1, 20. Supra note 2, 31.
21 30
November 17, 2000. The term “text bridges” was coined by the J. Reid Meloy, “The Psychology of
10
Supra note 1, 289. authors; however, the concept of “missing Wickedness: Psychopathy and Sadism,”
11
Gordon R. Wainwright, Teach Yourself information” was developed by Avinoam Sapir, Psychiatric Annals 27:9 (September 1997):
Body Language (London: Hodder Headline, The L.S.I. Advanced Workshop on Scientific 630-33.
1985), 37.

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July 2001 / 13