Module 4 SEMI CONDUCTORS DIODES 7 Licence By Post [Te apes ww tr book can ah fingers, No suitable fr srl children. Caze when hai B 4.1.1 ISSUE 134AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study /training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer’ handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments. NOTE It is policy to review our study material in the light of changing technology and syllabus requirements. This means that books are re-written and/or updated on a regular basis LBP 140 Narbeth Drive avlesbury Bucks P20 1QA UK Tel 44) 01296 433871 3] 01296 33005CONTENTS Atomic structure Semi conductors Rectifier action Diodes Clipping or limiting Clamping Diode testing Zener diode Thyristors LEDs Varister Photoconductive diode PAGE owes 17 22 30 31 33 37 39 40HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK Written to level 2 of the syllabus for the B2 person. The book also being suitable for the B1 person, although those subjects that are required are mostly to level 1 standard (some parts of the book are not required at all) There is no requirement for the A line mechanic to study this module. It is recommended that the B1 person contact his/her tutor for the level required and refer to the JAR66 syllabus. For most people the subject matter will have to be read through more than once to get it to “sink in”. But given careful study and a little time the material can be learnt and understoodSEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS ‘The molecular structure and properties of insulators and conductors and semiconductors has been dealt with in module 3. However, to revise your theory on semiconductors figure 1 shows the structure of the germanium and silicon atoms, two very important elements in the manufacture of diodes and transistors. GERMANIUM ATOM SILICON ATOM Fig. 1. ATOMIC STRUCTURE Bear in mind that the diagrams are only two-dimensional and that in reality the orbiting electrons do not rotate in perfect circles or rotate in a flat plane. From figure 1 it can be seen that each atom has four electrons in its outer shell, these electrons are called VALENCE ELECTRONS, they are farthest from the nucleus and therefore are least tightly bound (less ‘attractive force). It is the valence electrons that play the active part in electrical conduction. Silicon and germanium are crystalline substances and the valence Glectrons of the individual atom link up and arrange themselves with the valence electrons in adjacent atoms to form CO-VALENT BONDS. Every atom has a half-share in eight valence electrons. This gives a very stable arrangement of a regularly repeating three dimensional structure called a crystal lattice. Figure 2 shows the two dimensional effect of the covalent bonding. Pure silicon and germanium are therefore very good insulators. At room temperatures the atoms are vibrating sufficiently in the lattice for a few bonds to break, setting free some valence electrons, leaving a “hole” where the electron was. Free electrons are attracted to the hole as the atom, short of an electron is now positively charged.Each valence shell has effectively eight clectrons - four of these come from the ‘tom itself and four others come from four adjacent atoms Fig. 2 CO-VALENT BONDS Ifa battery is placed across a pure semiconductor, electrons are attracted to the positive terminal. These free electrons travel through the semiconductor ‘hopping’ from one hole to another, and it therefore appears that the positive holes are moving towards the negative terminal. This current flow is very small and is called INTRINSIC CONDUCTION, To understand the concept of electrons moving one way and holes moving the other is not easy but it can be likened to an empty seat at the end of a row in a cinema. Assume the vacant seat to be at the right hand end of the row. If the first person next to the seat moves into it, then he/she has moved to the right, but the vacant seat has moved one place to the left. If each person in the row does the same (ie moves to the empty seat to his/her right) as soon as it becomes empty, the vacancy (hole) appears to have moved along the row in one direction while the occupants (electrons) have move in the opposite direction If the temperature is raised more bonds break down and conduction increases ie, resistance decreases, this means more heat is generated, and more conduction occurs, resistance decreases further, more heat is generated - and so on. This is called thermal runaway and will eventually destroy the crystal structure Semiconductors have a negative temperature coefficient. In other words their resistance decreases with an increase in temperature. We need now to look at how we can change the basic insulator into a conductor. This is achieved by mixing (doping) a very small quantity of a selected impurity atom into the semiconductor material. (Typically 1 part in 10% The material now beco n extrinsic semiconductorThere are two types of extrinsic semiconductors: + N-Type semi-conductor material. + P-Type semi conductor material, N-Type Semi-conductor Material Doping impurities such as phosphorus or arsenic are used. These have five (pentavalent) electrons in the outermost orbit. When introduced into the basic material, four of the electrons join up with the co-valent bonding, whilst one electron is left ‘free’. (The number of free electrons can be strictly controlled by this doping) ‘The free electrons can migrate through the inter-atomic space and can therefore act as current carriers when a (very low) voltage is applied. Semiconductor material doped with Phosphorus or Arsenic. Fig. 3 N-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR Note: Although extra electrons have been inserted, it must be remembered that each impurity atom is itself neutral and so the whole of the N-type material is also neutral. MAJORITY CARRIER - ELECTRONS (NEGATIVE) [N = N-TYPE} MINORITY CARRIER - HOLES (due to intrinsic conduction)seme abd $¢ t+ one te emit QLOLOs [—Letscteel— ee et 7020202 yeexesx) tOz2020= ome be Fh HF rvs ative of mye seon acer etn Fig. 4 ELECTRON FLOW IN AN N-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR P-Type Semi-conductor Material In this material, impurities such as Indium or Aluminium are used These have three (trivalent) electrons in the outermost orbit. When introduced into the basic material, all three electrons link into the crystal structure but this leaves a ‘hole’ in the structure. This hole is looking for an electron to fill it and so it is a form of positive current carrier. Ifa {very small) voltage is applied, electrons will move to fill in the holes but this forms fresh holes and so there is a general drift of holes through the material from positive to negative (in the opposite sense to the electron flow in the N-type material). Again, the material is neutral. Semiconductor material doped with Indium or Aluminium Fig. 5 P-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR MAJORITY CARRIER - HOLES (POSITIVE) P = P-TYPE] MINORITY CARRIER - ELECTRONS (due to intrinsic conductfore ob b+ $¢ =, 2 =e 2020207 [Ee = econ ae ett non ctee or e | 2020202 case we _ ne coun EEE EY OF Fig. 6 ELECTRON FLOW IN A P-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR THE P-N JUNCTION Imagine a piece of N-type material being brought into contact with a piece of P-type material. Both pieces are, up to the instant of contact, neutral, Remembering that the holes are looking for electrons to complete the lattice network, it can be seen that electrons will migrate across the junction to fill in the holes as soon as the two materials are brought together. + + ahole - = afree electron Fig. 7 P-N JUNCTION BEFORE CONTACT As electrons leave the N-type material, it will become positively charged. ‘As electrons fill holes in the P-type material, it will become negatively charged. A BARRIER POTENTIAL is built up at the boundary, forming what is known as the Depletion Layer (figure 8). This build-up in potential will eventually be strong enough to stop further migration of electrons across the junction