Biology Syllabus

Effective for examinations from May/June 2008

STRUCTURE OF THE SYLLABUS

Unit 1: Biomolecules, Reproduction and Development

Module 1 - Cell and Molecular Biology

Module 2 - Genetics, Variation and Natural Selection
Module 3 - Reproductive Biology

Unit 2: Bioenergetics, Biosystems and Applications

Module 1 - Bioenergetics
Module 2 – Biosystems Maintenance
Module 3 - Applications of Biology

 UNIT 1: BIOMOLECULES, REPRODUCTION AND

DEVELOPMENT
MODULE 1: CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

1. Aspects of Biochemistry

1.1 discuss how the structure and Water as a most suitable solvent in
properties of water relate to the role relation to its essential roles in transport:
that water plays as a medium of cellular and systemic levels.
life;
1.2 explain the relationship between Exact molecular ring structure in full.
the structure and function of
glucose;
1.3 explain the relationship between Exact molecular ring structure in full.
the structure and function of
sucrose;
1.4 discuss how the molecular Molecular structure: types of bonds; chain
structure of starch, glycogen and and ring structure where appropriate; 3D
cellulose relate to their functions in nature; hydrolysis and condensation
living organisms; reactions; relate structure to properties.
1.5 describe the molecular structure of Without going into detail, the student
a triglyceride and its role as a should be made aware of the relationship
source of energy; between triglycerides and obesity.
1.6 describe the structure of Relate structure to properties and hence to
phospholipids and their role in function.
membrane structure and function;
1.7 describe the generalised structure
of an amino acid, and the
formation and breakage of a
 peptide bond;
1.8 explain the meaning of the terms: Describe the types of bonding (hydrogen,
primary, secondary, tertiary and ionic, disulphide) and hydrophobic
quaternary structures of interactions that hold the molecule in shape.
proteins;

1.9 outline the molecular structure of Ensure that the relationships between their
haemoglobin, as an example of a structures and functions are clearly
globular protein, and of collagen, established.
as an example of a fibrous protein;
1.10 carry out tests for reducing and Benedict’s test, KI/I2 test, emulsion test,
non-reducing sugars, starch, Biuret test.
lipids and proteins;
1.11 investigate and compare
quantitatively reducing sugars
and starch.

2. Cell Structure

2.1 make drawings of typical animal Clear drawings required.

and plant cells as seen under the Differences between electron and light
light microscope; microscope and between resolution and
magnification.
2.2 describe and interpret drawings Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum,
and electron micrographs of the Golgi body, mitochondria, ribosomes,
structure of membrane systems lysosomes, chloroplasts, cell membrane,
and organelles of typical animal nuclear envelope, centrioles, nucleus and
and plant cells; nucleolus.
2.3 outline the functions of membrane As specified in the Explanatory Notes of
systems and organelles; Specific Objective 2.2.
2.4 compare the structure of typical Stress similarities and differences.
animal and plant cells;
2.5 describe the structure of a
prokaryotic cell;
2.6 compare the structure of Outline the basis of the endosymbiotic
prokaryotic cells with that of development of eukaryotic cells.
eukaryotic cells;
2.7 explain the concepts of tissue and
organ using as an example the
dicotyledonous root;
2.8 make plan drawings to show the Use transverse section of a dicotyledonous
distribution of tissues within an root to illustrate tissues including
organ, such as the dicotyledonous parenchyma, xylemand phloem. The root is
root. used as an organ.

3. Membrane Structure and Function

3.1 explain the fluid mosaic model of Outline the roles of phospholipids,
membrane structure; cholesterol, glycolipids, protein and
glycoproteins. Diagrams are required.
 3.2 explain the processes of diffusion, Emphasise the distinction between
facilitated diffusion, osmosis, diffusion and osmosis; and active and
active transport, endocytosis and passive processes.
exocytosis; Diagrams are required.

3.3 investigate the effects on plant No calculations will be set on water

cells of immersion into solutions potential.
of different water potentials.

4. Enzymes

4.1 explain that enzymes are globular Definition of metabolism, anabolism,

proteins that catalyse metabolic catabolismrequired.
reactions;
4.2 explain the mode of action of Properties of enzymes. Induced-fit
enzymes in terms of an active site, hypothesis.
enzyme and/or substrate complex,
lowering of activation energy and
enzyme specificity;
4.3 explain the effects of pH, Construction and interpretation of
temperature, enzyme graphs.
concentration and substrate
concentration on enzyme action;
4.4 explain the effects of competitive Use succinic dehydrogenase, nicotine and
and non-competitive inhibitors on insecticides (pyrethroids) as examples of
enzyme activity; enzyme inhibitors.
4.5 investigate the effects of
temperature and substrate
concentration on enzymecatalysed
reactions, and explain
these effects.

UNIT 1 MODULE 2: GENETICS, VARIATION AND NATURAL SELECTION

1. Structure and Roles of Nucleic Acids

1.1 illustrate the structure of RNA and Draw a nucleotide using shapes;
DNA using simple labelled recognize (not draw) the structural
diagrams; formulae of nucleotides, ribose,
deoxyribose, pyrimidines, purines; nature
of hydrogen bonds.
1.2 explain the importance of Recognize (include) the significance of 5’
hydrogen bonds and base pairing and 3’; semiconservative replication;
in DNA replication; genetic code; initiation, transcription,
translation, termination.
1.3 explain the relationship between
the sequence of nucleotides and the
amino acid sequence in a
polypeptide;
 1.4 describe the roles of DNA and RNA Different types of RNA and their respective
in protein synthesis; roles.
1.5 explain the relationship between
the structure of DNA, protein
structure and the phenotype of an
organism;
1.6 describe the relationship between DNA
chromatin and
chromosomes.

2. Mitotic and Meiotic Cell Division

2.1 describe with the aid of diagrams, Include interphase.

the processes involved in mitotic
cell division;
2.2 make drawings from prepared
slides, and/or a freshly prepared
root tip squash to show the stages
of mitosis;
2.3 explain the importance of DNA
replication for maintaining
genetic stability;
2.4 discuss the role and importance of
mitosis in growth, repair and
asexual reproduction;
2.5 explain what is meant by
homologous pairs of
chromosomes, and the terms
haploid and diploid;
2.6 describe with the aid of diagrams, Include crossing over, alignment of
the processes involved in meiotic chromosomes at metaphase, random
cell division; segregation at anaphase. Names of the
intermediate stages ofmeiosis not required.
2.7 construct models to demonstrate Pipe cleaners, plastic wire, embroidery
chromosome behaviour in meiosis; thread. Bristol board may be used for
modelling chromosome behaviour in
meiosis – biodegradable materials not
recommended.
2.8 describe how meiosis contributes
to heritable variation.

3. Patterns of Inheritance

3.1 explain the terms: gene, allele, Use examples.

dominant, recessive, codominant,
homozygous and heterozygous;
3.2 use genetic diagrams to solve Include those involving sex linkages,
problems involving monohybrid codominance multiple alleles and dominant
and dihybrid crosses; epistasis. Candidates should understand the
ratios.
 3.3 analyse the results of a genetic Formulae will be given. Set out data in
cross by applying the Chi-square tabular form.
test;
3.4 determine whether the difference Include the concept of probability. Explain
between the observed and expected the use of 0.05 confidence limits and the
ratio is significant using the results null hypothesis.
of the Chi-square test.

4. Aspects of Genetic Engineering

4.1 outline the principles of restriction

enzyme use in removing sections of
the genome;
4.2 explain the steps involved in Include isolation of genes; cloning of genes;
recombinant DNA technology; vectors. Use examples including insulin
production.
4.3 discuss the possible benefits and Use examples including cystic fibrosis.
hazards of gene therapy;
4.4 discuss the implications of the use Medical, agricultural, ethical and social
of genetically modified organisms implications.
on humans and the environment.

5. Variation and Natural Selection

5.1 explain why sexually produced
organisms vary in characteristics;
5.2 describe gene and chromosome
mutations;
5.3 discuss the implications of changes
in DNA nucleotide sequence for cell
structure and function in sickle cell
anaemia;
5.4 explain how mutation brings about Consider sickle-cell anaemia, Down
genetic variation; Syndrome.
5.5 explain why heritable variation is
important to selection;
5.6 explain how environmental factors Include examples, such as resistance to
act as forces of natural selection; antibiotics, Biston betularia (peppered
moth).
5.7 explain how natural selection may Directional, disruptive and stabilising
be an agent of constancy or an selection; knowledge of appropriate graphs
agent of change; is required.
5.8 discuss how natural selection Darwin’s theory, its observations and
brings about evolution; conclusions.
5.9 discuss the biological species Discuss the limitations of this concept, for
concept; example, in breeding.
5.10 explain the process of speciation. Include isolating mechanisms –
reproductive, geographic, behavioural
and temporal, allopatric and sympatric
speciation with reference to two named
examples.
UNIT 1 MODULE 3: REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY

1. Asexual Reproduction and Vegetative Propagation

1.1 explain the term asexual Discuss binary fission, budding, asexual
reproduction; spore formation, fragmentation; one
example of asexual reproduction in plants,
for example, ginger, meristems, hormone
stimulation, details of the processes
involved in tissue culture and the
production of cuttings.
1.2 discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of asexual
reproduction;
1.3 explain the principles and the
importance of vegetative
propagation as exemplified by the
use of cuttings and tissue culture;
1.4 discuss the genetic consequences of
asexual reproduction.

2. Sexual Reproduction in the Flowering Plant

2.1 describe the structure of the anther Annotated diagrams required.

and the formation of pollen grains;
2.2 describe the structure of the ovule Annotated diagrams required.
and the formation of the embryo
sac;
2.3 make drawings of the anther and
embryo sac fromprepared slides;
2.4 explain how cross-fertilisation is Non-synchronous maturation of stamens
promoted; (Protogyny) and carpels (protandry),
separate sexes (dioecy), insect pollination,
self incompatibility and sterility.
2.5 discuss the genetic consequences of Include self fertilization and cross
sexual reproduction; fertilization.
2.6 explain the sequence of events from Annotated diagrams required.
pollination to fertilization;
2.7 explain the significance of double
fertilization in the embryo sac;
2.8 discuss the development of the seed Types of fruits not required.
and the fruit from the embryo sac
and its contents, the ovule and the
avary.

3. Sexual Reproduction inHumans

3.1 describe the structure and function Annotated diagrams required.

of the male and female
reproductive systems;
3.2 make drawings from prepared
slides of the mammalian ovary and
testis;
3.3 explain gametogenesis; Explain the difference between the
secondary oocyte and ovum.
3.4 compare the structure of the
ovum and the sperm;
3.5 discuss how the structure of the
ovum and the sperm suit their
functions;
3.6 explain how hormones regulate
gametogenesis;
3.7 discuss the importance of Emphasise the principle of negative
hormones in the control of the feedback mechanisms.
menstrual cycle;
3.8 describe how and where
fertilization and implantation
normally occur;
3.9 discuss how knowledge of human
reproductive anatomy and
physiology has been applied to the
development of contraceptive
methods;
3.10 explain the structure and functions
of the placenta;
3.11 discuss the functions of the
amnion;
3.12 discuss the possible effects of Include the role of nutrition, alcohol abuse,
maternal behaviour on foetal use of legal and illicit drugs and cigarette
development. smoking.
 UNIT 2: BIOENERGETICS, BIOSYSTEMS AND
APPLICATIONS
MODULE 1: BIOENERGETICS

1. Photosynthesis and ATP Synthesis

1.1 describe the structure of a Annotated diagrams required.

dicotyledonous leaf, a palisade cell
and a chloroplast relating these
structures to their roles in the
process of photosynthesis;
1.2 make drawings from prepared
slides of a transverse section of a
dicotyledonous leaf, and a palisade
cell;
1.3 explain the process of Include ATP’s functions as the universal
photophosphorylation; energy “currency” in all living organisms.
Include the role of pigments, and electron
carriers in the process. The conversion of
light energy into chemical energy of ATP,
the reduction of NADP and the evolution of
oxygen as a by-product should be noted.
No biochemical detail is required.
1.4 outline the essential stages of the Knowledge of C4 plants not required.
Calvin cycle involving the light Include the fixation of carbon dioxide by
independent fixation of carbon ribulose bisphosphate to yield
dioxide; phosphoglyceric acid (glycerate-3-P) and
the subsequent conversion to triose
phosphate and other carbohydrates.
Emphasize the roles of ATP and NADP.
1.5 discuss the concept of limiting
factors in photosynthesis;
1.6 investigate the effect of limiting Light intensity and carbon dioxide
factors on the rate of concentration.
photosynthesis;
1.7 discuss the extent to which
knowledge of limiting factors can
be used to improve plant
productivity.

2. Cellular Respiration and ATP Synthesis

2.1 outline the stepwise breakdown of Names of enzymes not required.

glucose in cellular respiration;
2.2 explain the sequence of steps in Include the initial phosphorylation of
glycolysis; glucose, lysis into two 3-carbon compounds
and the subsequent production of pyruvate,
a small yield of ATP and reduced NAD.
 Recognition of simplified structural
formulae intermediate.
2.3 describe the structure of a Diagram required.
mitochondrion, relating its
structure to its function;
2.4 state the fate of pyruvate in the Pyruvate enters thematrix and is converted
cytosol when oxygen is available; to acetyl CoA via oxidative
decarboxylation.
2.5 outline the Krebs cycle; Details of structures of intermediates
not required.
2.6 explain the significance of the Emphasise production of NADH and
Krebs cycle in ATP formation; FADH2; oxidation and
decarboxylation.
2.7 explain the process of oxidative Include the roles of hydrogen and
phosphorylation with reference electron carriers; the synthesis of ATP
to the electron transport chain; and the role of oxygen. No details of the
carriers are required. A summary of
ATP production should be known.
2.8 investigate the rate of oxygen Germinating seeds may be used. A
uptake during respiration using control is needed.
a simple respirometer;
2.9 compare the fate of pyruvate in Fermentation allows for the
the absence of oxygen in regeneration of NAD so that glycolysis
animals and yeast. can continue in the absence of oxygen.
Include the concept of oxygen debt in
mammals; and note that lactate can be
converted back (oxidized) to pyruvate
when oxygen is again available. Include
commercial uses of yeast.

3. Energy Flow and Nutrient Cycling

3.1 distinguish among the terms Use examples.

ecosystem, habitat, ecological
niche;
3.2 discuss the way in which energy Food chains and food webs. Emphasise
flows in an ecosystem; the advantages of the food web.
3.3 discuss the efficiency of energy
transfer between trophic levels;
3.4 discuss the concept of biological Include the limitations of the pyramids
pyramids; of numbers, biomass and energy.
3.5 describe how nitrogen is cycled Include the role of microorganisms.
within an ecosystem;
3.6 distinguish between energy flow
and nutrient cycling within an
ecosystem;
3.7 explain how energy flow and
nutrient cycling are important
for ecosystems to remain selfsustaining
units.
 4. Ecological Systems, Biodiversity and Conservations

4.1 discuss how ecosystems function Use a named example. Include

as dynamic systems; interactions between biotic and abiotic
factors.
4.2 explain the concept of biodiversity; Discuss genetic diversity, species
diversity and ecosystemdiversity.
4.3 discuss the importance of the Intrinsic, direct and indirect values,
maintenance of biodiversity; including medicine, natural products,
tourism.
4.4 discuss how species diversity is
related to the stability of an
ecosystem;
4.5 explain how in situ and ex situ Protected areas and or reserves, seed
conservation methods are used to banks, botanic gardens, zoos, sperm
maintain biodiversity. banks, embryo banks.

UNIT 2 MODULE 2: BIOSYSTEMS MAINTENANCE

1. The Uptake and Transport ofWater andMinerals

1.1 explain the uptake of ions by Emphasise the role of the endodermis.
active transport in roots;
1.2 describe the entry of water into
plant roots in terms of water
potential;
1.3 relate the structure of xylem Include transport and support roles.
vessels to their function;
1.4 make drawings from prepared
slides of xylem vessels;
1.5 outline the ascent of water in Root pressure, capillarity, cohesion,
plants; adhesion and transpiration pull. Include
the role of stomata in transpiration.
1.6 investigate the impact of Include light and air movements.
environmental factors on the rate
of transpiration.

2. Transport in the Phloem

2.1 relate the structure of sieve tubes

and companion cells to their
function;
2.2 make drawings of sieve tubes and
companion cells from prepared
microscope slides;
2.3 label pertinent features in an
electron micrograph of a sieve
tube and companion cell;
2.4 explain how phloem loading in
the leaves occurs against a
concentration gradient;
2.5 discuss mass (pressure) flow as a Experimental evidence for and against this
possible mechanism of hypothesis.
translocation.

3. The Circulatory System of Mammals

3.1 describe the structure of arteries,

veins and capillaries, relating
their structures to their functions;
3.2 make drawings of arteries and
veins from prepared microscope
slides;
3.3 describe the structure of the Annotated diagram of the heart and
heart; associated major blood vessels.
3.4 make drawings of a longitudinal Use fresh or preserved specimens to
section of the heart; emphasize the 3-D structure.
3.5 explain the cardiac cycle and its
initiation;
3.6 discuss the internal factors that
control heart action;
3.7 define the terms blood pressure
and pulse;
3.8 discuss factors affecting blood
pressure;
3.9 make drawings of erythrocytes
and leucocytes from prepared
slides;
3.10 explain the role of haemoglobin in Flow charts not required.
oxygen and carbon dioxide
transport;
3.11 describe oxygen dissociation Interpret data.
curves for adult haemoglobin;
3.12 explain the significance of the
effect of carbon dioxide on oxygen
dissociation curves (Bohr Effect).

4. Homeostasis and Hormonal Action

4.1 discuss the concept homeostasis; Receptors, effectors, set point, feedback
and homeostatic equilibrium. Emphasize
the dynamics of feedback mechanisms.
4.2 outline the general principles of Include ductless glands in animals; target
hormonal action in animals; cells and receptors.
4.3 explain how insulin and glucagon
regulate blood glucose
concentration;
4.4 explain the effect of the plant Mention the gaseous nature of ethylene
regular molecule, ethylene and its effect on respiration. Types of
(ethene), on fruit ripening; fruits not required.
4.5 discuss the commercial use made of
ethylene in supplying marketready
fruit.

5. The Kidney, Excretion and Osmoregulation

5.1 explain the need to remove Review the formation of urea.

nitrogenous and other excretory
products from the body;
5.2 describe the gross structure of the Annotated diagrams required.
kidney and the detailed structure of
the nephron and associated blood
vessels;
5.3 make drawings of sections of the
kidney from prepared sides;
5.4 explain the function of the kidney Include the role of ADH.
in terms of excretion and
osmoregulation;
5.5 discuss the clinical significance of
the presence of glucose and protein
in the urine.

6. Nervous Co-ordination

6.1 describe the structure of motor Annotated diagrams required.

and sensory neurones;
6.2 explain the role of nerve cell
membranes in establishing and
maintaining the resting potential;
6.3 describe the conduction of an Emphasise the value of myelinated
action potential along the nerve neurons in increasing the speed of
cell membrane; transmission.
6.4 explain synaptic transmission; Structure of cholinergic synapse.
Annotated diagrams required.
6.5 outline the role of synapses.

UNIT 2 MODULE 3: APPLICATIONS OF BIOLOGY

1. Health and Disease

1.1 discuss the meaning of the term Focus on the physical, mental and social
‘health’; aspects of health.
1.2 explain the categories of disease Include physical, mental, social, chronic,
or illness; infectious, degenerate, inherited, selfinflicted,
deficiency, with an example of
each. Diseases will fit into more than one
category.
1.3 discuss reasons for the regional AIDS: include the biology of the virus;
distribution of Acquired Immune length of incubation period; roles of
Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), lifestyle, ease of travel, cost of drugs and
diabetes and cancer; lack of education on the spread of the
virus.
Diabetes: include the effects of diet,
obesity and prenatal malnutrition.
Cancer: include roles of environmental
hazards, food additives, viruses, genetic
factors; implications of symptom
awareness and failure to seek treatment
in management of the disease.
1.4 analyze data involving incidence Explain the meanings of incidence and
and mortality rates of disease. mortality rates; students should interpret
and analyse data and draw conclusions
and or make predictions.

2. Immunology

2.1 describe the mode of action of Review phagocytosis; include role of mast
phagocytes; cells and histamine production;
complement; phagocytes as antigenpresenting
cells.
2.2 define the term, “immune
response”;
2.3 compare the origin and Include the types of T-cells and their
maturation of B- and Tlymphocytes; function (refer to HIV); B-cells and their
function.
2.4 distinguish between the humoral Details required.
and the cell-mediated immune
responses;
2.5 explain the role of memory cells in T- and B- memory cells.
long-term immunity;
2.6 relate the molecular structure of a Labelled diagram of typical antibody
typical antibody molecule to its showing its ‘Y-shaped’ structure; include
function; the function of the various parts;
specificity of antibody to antigen.
2.7 distinguish between active and Include examples.
passive immunity, natural and
artificial immunity;
2.8 explain the role of vaccination in
providing immunity;
2.9 state what is meant by a
monoclonal antibody;
2.10 describe the use of monoclonal The anticancer drug, MabThera; details
antibodies in diagnosis and required of the use of monoclonal
treatment. antibodies in pregnancy testing.
 3. Social and Preventative Medicine

3.1 discuss the causative relationship Review the concept of a balanced diet;
among diet, obesity and diabetes; Body Mass Index (BMI); Type 1 and Type
2 diabetes.
3.2 describe the effects of fats on the Atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease,
cardiovascular system; hypertension and stroke. Details of plaque
formation.
3.3 investigate the immediate effects
of exercise on the body;
3.4 discuss the consequences of Include long-term and short-term
exercise on the body and the consequences; relate benefits to the
benefits of maintaining a prevention of chronic diseases; refer to
physically fit body; VO2 max and cardiac efficiency.
3.5 describe the mechanisms of Include processes of infection; replication
infection for AIDS and dengue of the disease-causing organisms.
fever and their causitive agents;
3.6 explain how AIDS and dengue AIDS: mention lifestyle.
fever are transmitted; Dengue fever: the vector is Aedes aegypti.
3.7 assess the impacts of AIDS and Include social and economic issues.
dengue fever regionally;
3.8 discuss the roles of social,
economic and biological factors in
the prevention and control of
AIDS and dengue fever.

4. Substance Abuse

4.1 discuss the meaning of the term, Legal and illegal drugs.
“drug abuse”;
4.2 distinguish between psychological
and physical dependence;
4.3 describe the short-term and long term Short-term - fatty liver, hepatitis; longterm
consequences of alcohol - cirrhosis, cancer, impaired nervous
consumption on the nervous transmission, demyelination, dehydration
system and the liver; of the brain cells.
4.4 discuss the social consequences of Drinking and driving, aggressive
excessive alcohol use; behaviour, intra-family violence, family
breakdown and petty crime; Include a
definition of ‘a unit of alcohol’; Daily
Alcohol Limits (DAL) – safe limits (that is,
blood and breath limits)for driving.
4.5 describe the effects of the Passive smoking; effects of nicotine, tar
components of cigarette smoke on and carbon monoxide on cilia, oxygen
the respiratory and uptake, mucus secretion; development of
cardiovascular systems. hyperplasia, emphysema, chronic
bronchitis, cancers including lung cancer;
vasoconstriction, increase in number of
 erythrocytes, increase in blood viscosity,
formation of blood clots.
 OUTLINE OF ASSESSMENT
EXTERNAL ASSESSMENT
(80%)
Paper 01
(1 hour 30minutes)
Forty-five multiple-choice items, 15 from each
Module. Each itemis worth 1mark.
40%

Paper 02
(2 hours 30minutes)
Section A - Three compulsory structured
questions, one from each Module. Each question
is worth 15 marks.
Section B – Three compulsory essay questions one
from each Module. Each question is worth 15
marks.
40%

INTERNAL ASSESSMENT (20%)

The internal assessment will consist of selected practical laboratory exercises.