PHYSICS (861)

Aims:
1. To enable candidates to acquire knowledge and 4. To develop skills in -
to develop an understanding of the terms, facts,
(a) the practical aspects of handling apparatus,
concepts, definitions, fundamental laws,
recording observations and
principles and processes in the field of physics.
(b) drawing diagrams, graphs, etc.
2. To develop the ability to apply the knowledge
and understanding of physics to unfamiliar 5. To develop an appreciation of the contribution
situations. of physics towards scientific and technological
developments and towards human happiness.
3. To develop a scientific attitude through the study
of physical sciences. 6. To develop an interest in the world of physical
sciences.

CLASS XI

There will be two papers in the subject. SECTIO A

Paper I: Theory - 3 hour ... 70 marks 1. Role of Physics
Paper II: Practical - 3 hours ... 20 marks (i) Scope of Physics.
Project Work … 7 marks Applications of Physics to everyday life. Inter-
Practical File … 3 marks relation with other science disciplines.
Physics learning and phenomena of nature;
PAPER I -THEORY – 70 Marks development of spirit of inquiry, observation,
measurement, analysis of data, interpretation
Paper I shall be of 3 hours duration and be divided of data and scientific temper; appreciation for
into two parts. the beauty of scheme of nature.
(ii) Role of Physics in technology.
Part I (20 marks): This part will consist of
compulsory short answer questions, testing Physics as the foundation of all technical
knowledge, application and skills relating to advances - examples. Quantitative approach
elementary/fundamental aspects of the entire syllabus. of physics as the beginning of technology.
Technology as the extension of applied
Part II (50 marks): This part will be divided into
physics. Growth of technology made possible
three Sections A, B and C. There shall be six
by advances in physics. Fundamental laws of
questions in Section A (each carrying 7 marks) and
nature are from physics. Technology is built
candidates are required to answer four questions
on the basic laws of physics.
from this Section. There shall be three questions in
Section B (each carrying 6 marks) and candidates are (iii) Impact on society.
required to answer two questions from this Section.
Effect of discoveries of laws of nature on the
There shall be three questions in Section C (each
philosophy and culture of people. Effect of
carrying 5 marks) and candidates are required to
growth of physics on our understanding of
answer two questions from this Section. Therefore,
natural phenomenon like lighting and
candidates are expected to answer eight questions in
thunder, weather changes, rain, etc. Effect of
Part II.
study of quantum mechanics, dual nature of
ote: Unless otherwise specified, only S. I. Units are matter, nuclear physics and astronomy on the
to be used while teaching and learning, as well as for macroscopic and microscopic picture of our
answering questions. universe.

103
2. Units 3. Dimensions
(i) SI units. Fundamental and derived units (i) Dimensional formula of physical quantities
(correct symbols for units including and physical constants like g, h, etc. (from
Mechanics only).
conventions for symbols).
Dimensions of physical quantities;
Importance of measurement in scientific
dimensional formula; express derived units in
studies; physics is a science of measurement.
Unit as a reference standard of measurement; terms of base units (= = kg.ms-2); use symbol
essential properties. Systems of unit; CGS, [...] for dimension of or base unit of;
FPS, MKSA, and SI; the seven base units of SI ex: dimensional formula of force in terms of
selected by the General Conference of base units is written as [F]=[MLT –2].
Weights and Measures in 1971 and their Expressions in terms of SI base units may be
definitions; list of fundamental physical obtained for all physical quantities as and
quantities; their units and symbols, strictly as when new physical quantities are introduced.
per rule; subunits and multiple units using (ii) Dimensional equation and its use to check
prefixes for powers of 10 (from atto for 10-18 correctness of a formula, to find the relation
to tera for 1012); other common units such between physical quantities, to find the
as fermi, angstrom (now outdated), light year, dimension of a physical quantity or constant;
astronomical unit and parsec. A new unit of limitations of dimensional analysis.
mass used in atomic physics is unified atomic Use of dimensional analysis to (i) check the
mass unit with symbol u (not amu); rules for dimensional correctness of a formula/
writing the names of units and their symbols equation, (ii) to obtain the exact dependence
in SI (upper case/lower case, no period after of a physical quantity on other mechanical
symbols, etc.) variables, and (iii) to obtain the dimensional
Derived units (with correct symbols); special formula of any derived physical quantity
names wherever applicable; expression in including constants; limitations of
terms of base units (eg: == kgm/s2). dimensional analysis.
(ii) Accuracy and errors in measurement, least 4. Vectors, Scalar Quantities and Elementary
count of measuring instruments (and the Calculus
implications for errors in experimental (i) Vectors in one dimension, two dimensions and
measurements and calculations). three dimensions, equality of vectors and null
Accuracy of measurement, errors in vector.
measurement: instrumental errors, systematic Vectors explained using displacement as a
errors, random errors and gross errors. Least
prototype - along a straight line
count of an instrument and its implication for
errors in measurements; absolute error, (one dimension), on a plane surface
relative error and percentage error; (two dimension) and in open space not
combination of error in (a) sum and confined to a line or plane (three dimension);
difference, (b) product and quotient and (c) symbol and representation; a scalar quantity,
power of a measured quantity. its representation and unit, equality of
vectors. Unit vectors denoted by
(iii) Significant figures and order of accuracy with
reference to measuring instruments. Powers of î , ĵ , k̂ orthogonal unit vectors along x, y and
10 and order of magnitude. z axes respectively. Examples of one
r
What are significant figures? Their dimensional vector V 1 =a î or b ĵ or c k̂
significance; rules for counting the number of where a, b, c are scalar quantities or
significant figures; rules for (a) addition and r
subtraction, (b) multiplication/division; numbers; V 2 = a î + b ĵ is a two dimensional
r
‘rounding off’ the uncertain digits; order of vector, V 3 = a î + b ĵ + c k̂ is a three
magnitude as statement of magnitudes in
dimensional vector. Define and discuss the
powers of 10; examples from magnitudes of
need of a null vector. Concept of co-planar
common physical quantities - size, mass, time,
etc. vectors.
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 (ii) Vector operations (addition, subtraction and 5. Dynamics
multiplication of vectors including use of unit (i) Cases of uniform velocity, equations of
vectors î , ĵ , k̂ ); parallelogram and triangle uniformly accelerated motion and applications
law of vector addition. including motion under gravity (close to
Addition: use displacement as an example; surface of the earth) and motion along a
obtain triangle law of addition; graphical and smooth inclined plane.
analytical treatment; Discuss commutative and Review of rest and motion; distance and
associative properties of vector addition (Proof displacement, speed and velocity, average
not required). Parallelogram Law; sum and speed and average velocity, uniform velocity,
difference; derive expression for magnitude instantaneous speed and instantaneous
and directions from a parallelogram; special velocity, acceleration, instantaneous
cases; subtraction as special case of addition acceleration, s-t, v-t and a-t graphs for
uniform acceleration and discussion of useful
with direction reversed; use of Triangle Law information obtained from the graphs;
r r r r r r
for subtraction also; if a + b = c ; c - a = b ; kinematic equations of motion for objects in
In a parallelogram, if one diagonal is the sum, uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion
the other diagonal is the difference; addition derived using calculus or otherwise, motion of
an object under gravity, (one dimensional
and subtraction with vectors expressed in motion). Acceleration of an object moving up
terms of unit vectors î , ĵ , k̂ ; multiplication of and down a smooth inclined plane.
a vector by real numbers. (ii) Relative velocity, projectile motion.
(iii) Resolution and components of like vectors in a Start from simple examples on relative
plane (including rectangular components), velocity of one dimensional motion and then
scalar (dot) and vector (cross) products. two dimensional motion; consider
Use triangle law of addition to express a displacement first; relative displacement
r r r r
vector in terms of its components. If a + (use Triangle Law); S AB = S A -S B then
r r r r r r r r
b = c is an addition fact, c = a + b is a
r differentiating we get vAB = vA − vB ;
r r
resolution; a and b are components of c . projectile motion; Equation of trajectory;
Rectangular components, relation between obtain equations for max. height, velocity,
components, resultant and angle in between. range, time of flight, etc; relation between
Dot (or scalar) product of vectors or scalar horizontal range and vertical range
r r r r [projectile motion on an inclined plane not
product a . b =abcosθ; example W = F . S
included]. Examples and problems on
Special case of θ = 0, 90 and 1800. Vector (or
r r projectile motion.
cross) product a x b =[absinθ] n̂ ; example:
r r r (iii) Newton's laws of motion and simple
torque τ = r x F ; Special cases using unit applications. Elementary ideas on inertial and
r r r r
vectors iˆ , ĵ , k̂ for a . b and a x b . uniformly accelerated frames of reference.
[Elementary Calculus: differentiation and [Already done in Classes IX and X, so here
integration as required for physics topics in it can be treated at higher maths level using
Classes XI and XII. o direct question will be vectors and calculus].
asked from this subunit in the examination]. =ewton's first law: Statement and
Differentiation as rate of change; examples explanation; inertia, mass, force definitions;
from physics – speed, acceleration, etc. law of inertia; mathematically, if ∑F=0, a=0.
Formulae for differentiation of simple r
r r r dp
functions: xn, sinx, cosx, ex and ln x. Simple =ewton's second law: p =m v ; F α ;
ideas about integration – mainly. ∫xn.dx. Both
dt
r
r dp
definite and indefinite integral should be F =k . Define unit of force so that
explained. dt

105
 r
r dp also the potential energy stored in the
k=1; F = ; a vector equation. For stretched spring U=½ kx2 .
dt
classical physics with v not large and mass (v) Energy, conservation of energy, power,
r r conservation of linear momentum, impulse,
m remaining constant, obtain F =m a .
elastic and inelastic collisions in one and two
For v→ c, m is not constant. Then
dimensions.
m = mo . =ote that F= ma is the
1 - v2 c2 E=W. Units same as that of work W; law of
conservation of energy; oscillating spring.
special case for classical mechanics. It is a U+K = E = Kmax = Umax (for U = 0 and K = 0
r r
vector equation. a || F . Also, this can be respectively); different forms of energy
resolved into three scalar equations Fx=max E = mc2; no derivation. Power P=W/t; units;
rr
etc. Application to numerical problems; P = F .v ; conservation of linear momentum
introduce tension force, normal reaction (done under =ewton's 3rd law); impulse Ft or
force. If a = 0 (body in equilibrium), F= 0. F∆t. unit =.s and joule- done under 2nd law.
Impulse F∆t =∆p; unit; problems. Collision in one dimension; derivation of
=ewton's third law. Simple ideas with velocity equation for general case of m1 ≠ m2
examples of inertial and uniformly and u1 ≠ u2=0; Special cases for m1=m2=m;
accelerated frames of reference. Simple m1>>m2 or m1<<m2. Oblique collisions i.e.
applications of =ewton’s laws: tension, collision in two dimensions.
normal reaction; law of conservation of
momentum. Systematic solution of problems 6. Friction
in mechanics; isolate a part of a system, (i) Friction in solids: static; sliding; rolling.
identify all forces acting on it; draw a free
body diagram representing the part as a point Static friction, a self-adjusting force; limiting
and representing all forces by line segments, value; kinetic friction or sliding friction;
solve for resultant force which is equal to rolling friction, examples.
r
m a . Simple problems on “Connected bodies” (ii) Laws of friction. Co-efficient of friction.
(not involving two pulleys).
Laws of friction: Two laws of static friction;
(iv) Concurrent forces (reference should be made (similar) two laws of kinetic friction;
to force diagrams and to the point of coefficient of friction µs = fs(max)/= and
application of forces), work done by constant µk = fk/=; Friction as a non conservative
and variable force (Spring force). force; motion under friction, net force in
Force diagrams; resultant or net force from =ewton’s 2nd law is calculated including fk;
law of Triangle of Forces, parallelogram law numerical problems applying laws of friction
or resolution of forces. Apply net force and =ewton's second law of motion. Motion
r r
∑ F = m a . Again for equilibrium a=0 along a rough inclined plane – both up and
and ∑F=0. Conditions of equilibrium of down. Pulling and pushing of a roller. Angle
a rigid body under three coplanar of friction and angle of repose.
forces. Discuss ladder problem. Work
r r 7. Motion in Fluids
done W= F . S =FScosθ. If F is
r r r r (i) Equation of continuity of fluid flow and its
variable dW= F . dS and W=∫dw= ∫ F . dS , application, buoyancy, Bernoulli's principle,
r r r r (venturimeter, pitot tube, atomizer, dynamic
for F ║ dS F . dS =FdS therefore, W=∫FdS
is the area under the F-S graph or if F can be uplift). Pressure in a fluid, Pascal’s law.
expressed in terms of S, ∫FdS can be General characteristics of fluid flow; equation
evaluated. Example, work done in stretching a of continuity v1a1 = v2a2; conditions;
1 2 applications like use of nozzle at the end of a
∫
spring W = Fdx = kxdx =∫ 2
kx . This is hose; buoyancy; Bernoulli’s principle

106
 (theorem); assumptions - incompressible Definition of centripetal acceleration; derive
liquid, streamline (steady) flow, non-viscous expression for this acceleration using
r
and irrotational liquid - ideal liquid; Triangle Law to find ∆ v . Magnitude and
derivation of equation; applications of r
direction of a same as that of ∆ v ;
Bernoulli’s theorem as given in the syllabus. Centripetal acceleration; the cause of this
Discuss in brief: Pressure in a fluid, Pascal’s acceleration is a force - also called
law. centripetal force; the name only indicates its
(ii) Stream line and turbulent flow, Reynold's direction, it is not a new type of force, it could
number (derivation not required). be mechanical tension as in motion of a point
Streamline and turbulent flow - examples; mass at the end of a light inextensible string
trajectory of fluid particles; streamlines do moving in a circle, or electric as on an
not intersect (like electric and magnetic lines electron in Bohr model of atom, or magnetic
of force); tubes of flow; number of streamlines as on any charged particle moving in a
per unit area α velocity of flow (from magnetic field [may not introduce centrifugal
equation of continuity v1a1 = v2a2); critical force]; conical pendulum, formula for
velocity; Reynold’s number - no derivation, centripetal force and tension in the string;
but check dimensional correctness. motion in a vertical circle; banking of road
(Poisseulle’s formula excluded). and railway track.
(iii) Viscous drag; Newton's formula for viscosity, (ii) Centre of mass, moment of inertia:
co-efficient of viscosity and its units. rectangular rod; disc; ring; sphere.
Flow of fluids (liquids and gases), laminar Definition of centre of mass (cm) for a two
flow, internal friction between layers of fluid, particle system moving in one dimension
between fluid and the solid with which the m1x1+m2x2=Mxcm; differentiating, get the
fluid is in relative motion; examples; viscous
equation for vcm and acm; general equation for
drag is a force of friction; mobile and viscous
= particles- many particles system; [need not
liquids.
go into more details]; concept of a rigid body;
Velocity gradient dv/dx (space rate of change kinetic energy of a rigid body rotating about a
of velocity); viscous drag F = ηA dv/dx; fixed axis in terms of that of the particles of
coefficient of viscosity η = F/A(dv/dx) the body; hence define moment of inertia and
depends on the nature of the liquid and its radius of gyration; unit and dimensions;
temperature; units: =s/m2 and dyn.s/cm2= depend on mass and axis of rotation; it is
poise. 1 poise=0.1 =s/m2; value of η for a few rotational inertia; applications: derive
selected fluids. expression for the moment of inertia, I (about
(iv) Stoke's law, terminal velocity of a sphere the symmetry axis) of (i) a particle rotating in
falling through a fluid or a hollow rigid sphere a circle (e.g. electron in Bohr model of
rising to the surface of a fluid. H atom); (ii) a ring; also I of a thin rod, a
rectangular strip, a rectangular block, a solid
Motion of a sphere falling through a fluid, and hollow sphere, a ring, a disc and a hollow
hollow rigid sphere rising to the surface of a cylinder - only formulae (no derivation).
liquid, parachute, terminal velocity; forces
acting; buoyancy (Archimedes principle); (iii) Parallel axis theorem and perpendicular axis
viscous drag, a force proportional to velocity; theorem; radius of gyration.
Stoke’s law; ν-t graph. Statement of the theorems with illustrations
[derivation not required]. Simple applications
8. Circular Motion to the cases derived under 8(ii), with change
of axis.
(i) Centripetal acceleration and force, motion
round a banked track, point mass at the end of (iv) Torque and angular momentum, relation
a light inextensible string moving in between torque and moment of inertia and
(i) horizontal circle (ii) vertical circle and a between angular momentum and moment of
conical pendulum. inertia; conservation of angular momentum
and applications.
107
 r r r gravitational potential energy of a mass m in
Definition of torque (vector); τ = r x F and
r r r the earth's field; obtain expression for
angular momentum l = r x p for a gravitational potential energy U(r) = Wαp=
r r
particle; differentiate to obtain d l /dt= τ ; m.V(r) = -G M m/r; show that for a not so
similar to =ewton’s second law of motion large change in distance ∆U = mgh. Relation
between intensity and acceleration due to
(linear); angular velocity ω=v/r and angular gravity. Compare its range with those of
acceleration α=a/r , hence τ = I α and l = electric, magnetic and nuclear fields.
Iω; (only scalar equation); Law of
(iv) Escape velocity (with special reference to the
conservation of angular momentum; simple earth and the moon); orbital velocity and
applications. period of a satellite in circular orbit
(v) Two-dimensional rigid body motion, e.g. (particularly around the earth).
point mass on string wound on a cylinder Define and obtain expression for the escape
(horizontal axis rotation), cylinder rolling velocity from earth using energy
down inclined plane without sliding. consideration; ve depends on mass of the
In addition to the above, also cover: motion of earth; from moon ve is less as mass of moon is
a ring and a ball rolling down an inclined less; consequence - no atmosphere on the
plane; expression for linear and rotational moon; satellites (both natural (moon) and
acceleration (a, α) and tension (T) in the artificial satellite) in uniform circular motion
string in the first case (point mass on a string) around the earth; orbital velocity and time
and kinetic energy (K) for the second case period; note the centripetal acceleration is
(rolling down an inclined plane). caused (or centripetal force is provided) by
the force of gravity exerted by the earth on the
9. Gravitation satellite; the acceleration of the satellite is the
(i) Newton's law of universal gravitation; acceleration due to gravity [g’= g(R/R+h)2;
gravitational constant (G); gravitational F’G = mg’].
acceleration on surface of the earth (g). (v) Geostationary satellites - uses of
communication satellites.
Statement; unit and dimensional formula of
universal gravitational constant, G Conditions for satellite to be geostationary.
[Cavendish experiment not required]; weight Uses.
of a body W= mg from F=ma. (vi) Kepler's law of planetary motion.
(ii) Relation between G and g; variation of Explain the three laws using diagrams. Proof
gravitational acceleration above and below the of second and third law (circular orbits only);
surface of the earth. derive only T2 α R3 from 3rd law for circular
orbits.
From the =ewton’s Law of Gravitation and
Second Law of Motion g = Gm/R2 applied to SECTIO B
earth. Variation of g above and below the
surface of the earth; graph; mention variation 10. Properties of Matter - Temperature
of g with latitude and rotation, (without (i) Properties of matter: Solids: elasticity in
derivation). solids, Hooke’s law, Young modulus and its
(iii) Gravitational field, its range, potential, determination, bulk modulus and modulus of
potential energy and intensity. rigidity, work done in stretching a wire.
Liquids: surface tension (molecular theory),
Define gravitational field, intensity of
gravitational field and potential at a point in drops and bubbles, angle of contact, work
earth’s gravitational field. Vp = Wαp/mo. done in stretching a surface and surface
Derive the expression (by integration) for the energy, capillary rise, measurement of surface
gravitational potential difference ∆V = VB-VA tension by capillary rise methods. Gases:
= G.M(1/rA-1/rB); here Vp = V(r) = -GM/r; kinetic theory of gases: postulates, molecular
negative sign for attractive force field; define speeds and derivation of p= ⅓ ρ c 2 , equation
108
 of state of an ideal gas pV = nRT (numerical Review the concept of heat (Q) as the energy
problems not included from gas laws). that is transferred (due to temperature
For solids and liquids; the scope as given difference only) and not stored; the energy
that is stored in a body or system as potential
above is clear. For gases; derive p=1/3 ρ c 2 and kinetic energy is called internal energy
from the assumptions and applying =ewton’s
(U). Internal energy is a state property (only
laws of motion. The average thermal velocity
elementary ideas) whereas, heat is not; first
(rms value) crms=√3p/ρ; calculate for air, law is a statement of conservation of energy,
hydrogen and their comparison with common
when, in general, heat (Q) is transferred to a
speeds of transportation. Effect of
body (system), internal energy (U) of the
temperature and pressure on rms speed of gas
system changes and some work W is done by
molecules. [=ote that pV=nRT the ideal gas
the system; then Q=∆U+W; also W=∫pdV for
equation cannot be derived from kinetic
working substance an ideal gas; explain the
theory of ideal gas. Hence, neither can other
gas laws; pV=nRT is an experimental result. meaning of symbols (with examples) and sign
convention carefully (as used in physics: Q>0
Comparing this with p = ⅓ ρ c 2 , from kinetic when to a system, ∆U>0 when U increases or
theory of gas a kinetic interpretation of temperature rises, and W>0 when work is
temperature can be obtained as explained in done by the system). Special cases for Q=0
the next subunit]. (adiabatic), ∆U=0 (isothermal) and W=0
(ii) Temperature: kinetic interpretation of (isochoric).
temperature (relation between c2 and T); (ii) Isothermal and adiabatic changes in a perfect
absolute temperature. Law of equipartition of gas described in terms of curves for
energy (statement only). PV = constant and PVγ = constant; joule and
From kinetic theory for an ideal gas (obeying calorie relation (derivation for
γ
all the assumptions especially no PV = constant not included).
intermolecular attraction and negligibly small Self-explanatory. =ote that 1 cal = 4⋅186 J
size of molecules, we get p = (1/3)ρ c 2 or exactly and J (so-called mechanical
pV = (1/3)M c 2 . (=o further, as temperature equivalent of heat) should not be used in
is not a concept of kinetic theory). From equations. In equations, it is understood that
experimentally obtained gas laws we have the each term as well as the LHS and RHS are in
ideal gas equation (obeyed by some gases at the same units; it could be all joules or all
low pressure and high temperature) pV = RT calories.
for one mole. Combining these two results (iii) Work done in isothermal and adiabatic
(assuming they can be combined), expansion; principal molar heat capacities; Cp
RT=(1/3)M c 2 =(2/3).½M c 2 =(2/3)K; Hence, and Cv; relation between Cp and Cv
kinetic energy of 1 mole of an ideal gas (Cp - Cv = R). Cp and Cv for monatomic and
K=(3/2)RT. Average K for 1 molecule = K/= diatomic gasses.
= (3/2) RT/= = (3/2) kT where k is Self-explanatory. Derive the relations.
Boltzmann’s constant. So, temperature T can Work done as area bounded by PV graph.
be interpreted as a measure of the average
kinetic energy of the molecules of a gas. (iv) Second law of thermodynamics, Carnot's
Degrees of freedom, statement of the law of cycle. Some practical applications.
equipartition of energy. Scales of Only one statement each in terms of Kelvin’s
temperature - only Celsius, Fahrenheit and impossible steam engine and Clausius’
Kelvin scales. impossible refrigerator. Brief explanation of
law. Carnot’s cycle - describe realisation
11. Internal Energy from source and sink of infinite thermal
(i) First law of thermodynamics. capacity, thermal insulation, etc. Explain pV

109
 graph (isothermal and adiabatic of proper radiated in all directions L=4πr2.I from the
slope); obtain expression for efficiency η=1- solar radiant power received per unit area of
T2/T1. the surface of the earth (at noon), the distance
(vi) Thermal conductivity; co-efficient of thermal of the sun and the radius of the sun itself, one
conductivity, Use of good and poor can calculate the radiant intensity I of the sun
conductors, Searle’s experiment. [Lee’s Disc and hence the temperature T of its surface
method is not required]. comparison of using Stefan’s law. =umerical problems.
thermal and electrical conductivity. Cover =ewton’s law of cooling briefly,
Convection with examples. numerical problems to be covered.
[Deductions from Stefan’s law not necessary].
Define coefficient of thermal conductivity
from the equation for heat flow Q = KA dθ/dt; SECTIO C
temperature gradient; Comparison of thermal
and electrical conductivities (briefly). 12. Oscillations
Examples of convection.
(i) Simple harmonic motion.
(vii) Thermal radiation: nature and properties of
(ii) Expressions for displacement, velocity and
thermal radiation, qualitative effects of nature
acceleration.
of surface on energy absorbed or emitted by
it; black body and black body radiation, (iii) Characteristics of simple harmonic motion.
Stefan's law (using Stefan's law to determine (iv) Relation between linear simple harmonic
the surface temperature of the sun or a star by motion and uniform circular motion.
treating it as a black body); Newton's law of
(v) Kinetic and potential energy at a point in
cooling, Wien's displacement law, distribution
simple harmonic motion.
of energy in the spectrum of black body
radiation (only qualitative and graphical (vi) Derivation of time period of simple harmonic
treatment). motion of a simple pendulum, mass on a
spring (horizontal and vertical oscillations).
Black body is now called ideal or cavity
radiator and black body radiation is cavity Periodic motion, period T and frequency f,
radiation; Stefan’s law is now known as f=1/T; uniform circular motion and its
Stefan Boltzmann law as Boltzmann derived it projection on a diameter defines SHM;
theoretically. There is multiplicity of technical displacement, amplitude, phase and epoch
terms related to thermal radiation - radiant velocity, acceleration, time period;
intensity I (T) for total radiant power (energy characteristics of SHM; differential equation
radiated/second) per unit area of the surface, of SHM, d2y/dt2+ω2y=0 from the nature of
in W/m2, I (T) =σ T4; dimensions and SI unit force acting F=-k y; solution y=A sin (ωt+φ0)
of σ. For practical radiators I =∈. σ T4 where where ω2 = k/m; expression for time period T
∈ (dimension less) is called emmissivity of the and frequency f. Examples, simple pendulum,
surface material; ∈=1 for ideal radiators. a mass m attached to a spring of spring
The Spectral radiancy R(λ). I constant k. Total energy E = U+K (potential
α +kinetic) is conserved. Draw graphs of U, K
(T)= ∫ R (λ) dλ. Graph of R(λ) vs λ for and E Vs y.
0

different temperatures. Area under the graph (vii)Free, forced and damped oscillations
is I (T). The λ corresponding to maximum (qualitative treatment only). Resonance.
value of R is called λmax; decreases with Examples of damped oscillations (all
increase in temperature. oscillations are damped); graph of amplitude
λmax α 1/T; λm.T=2898µm.K - Wein’s vs time for undamped and damped
displacement law; application to determine oscillations; damping force (-bv) in addition
temperature of stars, numerical problems. to restoring force (-ky); forced oscillations,
From known temperature, we get I (T)= σT4. examples; action of an external periodic
The luminosity (L) of a star is the total power force, in addition to restoring force. Time
110
 period is changed to that of the external (iii) Superimposition of waves (interference, beats
applied force, amplitude (A) varies with and standing waves), progressive and
frequency of the applied force and it is stationary waves.
maximum when the f of the external applied
The principle of superposition; interference
force is equal to the natural frequency of the
(simple ideas only); dependence of combined
vibrating body. This is resonance; maximum
wave form, on the relative phase of the
energy transfer from one body to the other;
interfering waves; qualitative only - illustrate
bell graph of amplitude vs frequency of the
with wave representations. Beats (qualitative
applied force. Examples from mechanics,
explanation only); number of beats produced
electricity and electronics (radio).
per second = difference in the frequencies of
the interfering waves; numerical problems.
13. Waves
Standing waves or stationary waves;
(i) Transverse and longitudinal waves; relation formation by two traveling waves (of λ and
between speed, wavelength and frequency; f same) traveling in opposite directions
expression for displacement in wave motion; (ex: along a string, in an air column - incident
characteristics of a harmonic wave; graphical and reflected waves); obtain y= y1+y2=
representation of a harmonic wave; amplitude [2 ym sin kx] cos(ω t) using equations of the
and intensity. traveling waves; variation of the amplitude
Review wave motion covered in Class IX. A=2 ymsin kx with location (x) of the particle;
Distinction between transverse and nodes and antinodes; compare standing
longitudinal waves; examples; define waves with progressive waves.
displacement, amplitude, time period, (iv) Laws of vibrations of stretched strings.
frequency, wavelength and derive v=f λ;
graph of displacement with time/position, Equation for fundamental frequency
label time period/wavelength and amplitude, f0=(½l) T/m ; sonometer, experimental
equation of a progressive harmonic verification.
(sinusoidal) wave, y = A sin (kx-ω t); (v) Modes of vibration of strings and air columns;
amplitude and intensity. resonance.
(ii) Sound as a wave motion, Newton's formula Vibrations of strings and air column (closed
for the speed of sound and Laplace's and open pipe); standing waves with nodes
correction; variation in the speed of sound and antinodes; also in resonance with the
with changes in pressure, temperature and periodic force exerted usually by a tuning
humidity; speed of sound in liquids and solids fork; sketches of various nodes; fundamental
(descriptive treatment only). and overtones-harmonics; mutual relation.
Review of production and propagation of (vi) Doppler Effect for sound.
sound as wave motion; mechanical wave
requires a medium; general formula for speed Doppler effect for sound; general expression
of sound (no derivation). =ewton’s formula for the Doppler effect when both the source
for speed of sound in air; experimental value; and listener are moving can be given by
Laplace’s correction; calculation of value at  v ± vL 
STP; numerical problems; variation of speed f L = fr   which can be reduced to any
 v ± v 
v with changes in pressure, density, humidity r

and temperature. Speed of sound in liquids one of the four special cases, by applying
and solids - brief introduction only. Some proper sign convention.
values. Mention the unit Mach 1, 2, etc. OTE: =umerical problems are included from all
Concept of supersonic and ultrasonic. topics except where they are specifically excluded
or where only qualitative treatment is required.

111
 PAPER II 10. Boyle's Law: To study the variation in volume
with pressure for a sample of air at constant
PRACTICAL WORK- 20 Marks
temperature by plotting graphs between p and
The following experiments are recommended for 1 and between p and V.
V
practical work. In each experiment, students are
expected to record their observations in tabular form 11. Cooling curve: To study the fall in temperature of
with units at the column head. Students should plot an a body (like hot water or liquid in calorimeter)
appropriate graph, work out the necessary calculations with time. Find the slope of curve at four
and arrive at the result. The teacher may alter or add. different temperatures of hot body and hence
deduce Newton's law of cooling.
1. Measurement by Vernier callipers. Measure the
diameter of a spherical body. Calculate the 12. Determine Young's modulus of elasticity using
volume with appropriate significant figures. Searle's apparatus.
Measure the volume using a graduated cylinder 13. To study the variation in frequency of air column
and compare it with calculated value. with length using resonance column apparatus or
2. Find the diameter of a wire using a micrometer a long cylinder and set of tuning forks. Hence
screw gauge and determine percentage error in determine velocity of sound in air at room
cross sectional area. temperature.
3. Determine radius of curvature of a spherical 14. To determine frequency of a tuning fork using a
surface like watch glass by a spherometer. sonometer.
4. Equilibrium of three concurrent coplanar forces. 15. To verify laws of vibration of strings using a
To verify the parallelogram law of forces and to sonometer.
determine weight of a body.
5. Inclined plane: To find the downward force acting
PROJECT WORK A D PRACTICAL FILE –
along the inclined plane on a roller due to
gravitational pull of earth and to study its 10 Marks
relationship with angle of inclination by plotting Project Work – 7 Marks
graph between force and sin θ.
All candidates will do project work involving some
6. Friction: To find the force of kinetic friction for a Physics related topics, under the guidance and regular
wooden block placed on horizontal surface and to
supervision of the Physics teacher. Candidates are to
study its relationship with normal reaction.
To determine the coefficient of friction. prepare a technical report formally written including
an abstract, some theoretical discussion, experimental
7. To find the acceleration due to gravity by
setup, observations with tables of data collected,
measuring the variation in time period (T) with
effective length (L) of simple pendulum; plot analysis and discussion of results, deductions,
graph of T νs √L and T2 νs L. conclusion, etc. (after the draft has been approved by
the teacher). The report should be kept simple, but
8. To find the force constant of a spring and to study
neat and elegant. No extra credit shall be given for
variation in time period of oscillation of a body
suspended by the spring. To find acceleration due type-written material/decorative cover, etc. Teachers
to gravity by plotting graph of T against √m. may assign or students may choose any one project of
their choice.
9. Oscillation of a simple meter rule used as bar
pendulum. To study variation in time period (T)
Practical File – 3 Marks
with distance of centre of gravity from axis of
suspension and to find radius of gyration and Teachers are required to assess students on the basis
moment of inertia about an axis through the centre of the Physics practical file maintained by them
of gravity. during the academic year.

112
 CLASS XII

There will be two papers in the subject. (ii) Concept of electric field E = F/qo; Gauss'
Paper I: Theory - 3 hour ... 70 marks theorem and its applications.
Paper II: Practical - 3 hours ... 20 marks Action at a distance versus field concept;
examples of different fields; temperature and
Project Work ... 7 marks pressure (scalar); gravitational, electric and
Practical File ... 3 marks
r r
magnetic (vector field); definition E = F / qo .
r
PAPER I -THEORY- 70 Marks Electric field due to a point charge; E for
Paper I shall be of 3 hours duration and be divided a
into two parts. group of charges (superposition); A point
r
Part I (20 marks): This part will consist of charge q in an electric field E experiences an
r r
compulsory short answer questions, testing electric force FE = qE .
knowledge, application and skills relating to
elementary/fundamental aspects of the entire syllabus. Gauss’ theorem: the flux of a vector field;
r r
Q=VA for velocity vector V A, the area
Part II (50 marks): This part will be divided into
three Sections A, B and C. There shall be three vector, for uniform flow of a liquid. Similarly
questions in Section A (each carrying 9 marks) and
r
for electric field E , electric flux φE = EA
candidates are required to answer two questions from r r r r r
this Section. There shall be three questions in Section for E A and φE = E ⋅ A for uniform E . For
B (each carrying 8 marks) and candidates are r r
non-uniform field φE = ∫dφ = ∫ E.dA . Special
required to answer two questions from this Section.
cases for θ = 0°, 90° and 180°. Examples,
There shall be three questions in Section C (each
calculations. Gauss’ law, statement: φE =q/∈0
carrying 8 marks) and candidates are required to r r
answer two questions from this Section. Therefore, or φE = ∫ E ⋅ dA =
q where φE is for a
candidates are expected to answer six questions in ∈0
Part 2. closed surface; q is the net charge enclosed,
∈o is the permittivity of free space. Essential
ote: Unless otherwise specified, only S. I. units are properties of a Gaussian surface.
to be used while teaching and learning, as well as for
answering questions. Applications: 1. Deduce Coulomb's law from
the Gauss’ law and certain symmetry
SECTIO A considerations (=o proof required); 2 (a). An
excess charge placed on an isolated
1. Electrostatics conductor resides on the outer surface; (b)
r
(i) Coulomb's law, S.I. unit of charge; E =0 inside a cavity in an isolated conductor;
permittivity of free space. r
(c) E = σ/∈0 for a point outside; 3. E due to
Review of electrostatics covered in Class X. an infinite line of charge, sheet of charge,
Frictional electricity, electric charge spherical shell of charge (inside and outside);
(two types); repulsion and attraction; simple hollow spherical conductor. [Experimental
atomic structure - electrons and protons as test of coulomb’s law not included].
electric charge carriers; conductors, (iii) Electric dipole; electric field at a point on the
insulators; quantisation of electric charge; axis and perpendicular bisector of a dipole;
conservation of charge; Coulomb's law electric dipole moment; torque on a dipole in
(in free space only); vector form; (position a uniform electric field.
coordinates r1, r2 not necessary); SI unit of
charge; Superposition principle; simple Electric dipole and dipole moment; with unit;
r
numerical problems. derivation of the E at any point, (a) on the
113
 axis (b) on the perpendicular bisector of the Van de Graff Generator. Potential inside a
r
dipole, for r>> 2l. [ E due to continuous charged spherical shell is uniform. A small
distribution of charge, ring of charge, disc of conducting sphere of radius r and carrying
charge etc not included]; dipole in uniform charge q is located inside a large shell of
r radius R that carries charge Q. The potential
E electric field; net force zero, torque difference between the spheres, V(R) – V(r) =
r r r
τ = p× E . (q/4πεo) (1/R – 1/r) is independent of Q. If the
two are connected, charge always flows from
(iv) Electric lines of force. the inner sphere to the outer sphere, raising
its potential. Sketch of a very simple Van de
A convenient way to visualize the electric Graff Generator, its working and use.
field; properties of lines of force; examples of
(vi) Capacitance of a conductor C = Q/V, the
the lines of force due to an isolated point
farad; capacitance of a parallel-plate
charge (+ve and - ve); dipole, two similar capacitor; C = K∈0A/d capacitors in series
charges at a small distance; uniform field and parallel combinations; energy U = 1/2CV2
between two oppositely charged parallel
1 1 Q2
plates. = QV = .
2 2 C
(v) Electric potential and potential energy; Self-explanatory.
potential due to a point charge and due to a Combinations of capacitors in series and
dipole; potential energy of an electric dipole parallel; effective capacitance and charge
in an electric field. Van de Graff generator. distribution.
Brief review of conservative forces of which (vii) Dielectrics (elementary ideas only);
gravitational force and electric forces are permittivity and relative permittivity of a
examples; potential, pd and potential energy dielectric (∈r = ∈/∈o). Effects on pd, charge
are defined only in a conservative field; and capacitance.
electric potential at a point; definition Dielectric constant Ke = C'/C; this is also
VP=W/q0; hence VA -VB = WBA/ q0 (taking q0 called relative permittivity Ke = ∈r = ∈/∈o;
from B to A) = (q/4πε0)(1/rA - 1/rB); derive this elementary ideas of polarization of matter in a
equation; also VA = q/4πε0 .1/rA ; for q>0, uniform electric field qualitative discussion;
VA>0 and for q<0, VA < 0. For a collection of induced surface charges weaken the original
charges V = sum of the potential due to each r
field; results in reduction in E and hence, in
charge; potential due to a dipole on its axial pd, (V); for charge remaining the same
line and equatorial line; also at any point for Q = CV = C' V' = Ke . CV' ; V' = V/Ke;
r>>d. Potential energy of a point charge (q)
r E
in an electric field E , placed at a point P and E ′ = ; if the C is kept connected with
where potential is V, is given by U =qV and
Ke
∆U =q (VA-VB) . The electrostatic potential the source of emf, V is kept constant V = Q/C
energy of a system of two charges = work = Q'/C' ; Q'=C'V = Ke . CV= Ke . Q
done W21=W12 in assembling the system; increases; For a parallel plate capacitor with
U12 or U21 = (1/4πε0 ) q1q2/r12. For a system of a dielectric in between C' = KeC = Ke .∈o .
3 charges U123 = U12 + U13 + U23 ∈0 A
A/d = ∈r .∈o .A/d. Then, C ′′ = ;
1 q1 q 2 q1 q3 q 2 q3 d 
= ( + +
) . For a dipole  ∈ 
4πε 0 r12 r13 r23  r 

in a uniform electric field, the electric extending this to a partially filled capacitor
r r C' =∈oA/(d-t + t/∈r). Spherical and cylindrical
potential energy UE = - p . E , special case for capacitors (qualitative only).
φ =0, 900 and 1800.

114
2. Current Electricity The source of energy of a seat of emf (such as
a cell) may be electrical, mechanical, thermal
(i) Steady currents; sources of current, simple
or radiant energy. The emf of a source is
cells, secondary cells. defined as the work done per unit charge to
Sources of emf: Mention: Standard cell, solar force them to go to the higher point of
cell, thermo-couple and battery, etc. simple potential (from -ve terminal to +ve terminal
cells, acid/alkali cells - qualitative inside the cell) so, ε = dW /dq; but dq = Idt ;
dW = εdq = εIdt . Equating total work done
description.
to the work done across the external resistor
(ii) Potential difference as the power supplied R plus the work done across the internal
divided by the current; Ohm's law and its resistance r; εIdt=I2R dt + I2rdt; ε =I (R + r);
limitations; Combinations of resistors in series I=ε/( R + r ); also IR +Ir = ε or V=ε- Ir
and parallel; Electric energy and power. where Ir is called the back emf as it acts
against the emf ε; V is the terminal pd.
Definition of pd, V = P/ I; P = V I; Derivation of formula for combination of cells
electrical energy consumed in time in series, parallel and mixed grouping.
t is E=Pt= VIt; using ohm’s law
V2 (v) Kirchhoff's laws and their simple applications
2
E = VIt = t = I Rt. Electric power to circuits with resistors and sources of emf;
R
Wheatstone bridge, metre-bridge and
consumed P = VI = V2 /R = I2 R ; SI units;
potentiometer; use for comparison of emf and
commercial units; electricity consumption and
determination of internal resistance of sources
billing. Ohm's law, current density σ = I/A;
of current; use of resistors (shunts and
experimental verification, graphs and slope,
multipliers) in ammeters and voltmeters.
ohmic resistors; examples; deviations.
Derivation of formulae for combination of Statement and explanation with simple
resistors in series and parallel; special case examples. The first is a conservation law for
of n identical resistors; Rp = R/n. charge and the 2nd is law of conservation of
energy. =ote change in potential across a
(iii) Mechanism of flow of current in metals, drift resistor ∆V=IR<0 when we go ‘down’ with
velocity of charges. Resistance and resistivity the current (compare with flow of water down
and their relation to drift velocity of electrons; a river), and ∆V=IR>0 if we go up against the
description of resistivity and conductivity current across the resistor. When we go
based on electron theory; effect of through a cell, the -ve terminal is at a lower
temperature on resistance, colour coding of level and the +ve terminal at a higher level,
resistance. so going from -ve to +ve through the cell, we
are going up and ∆V=+ε and going from +ve
Electric current I = Q/t; atomic view of to -ve terminal through the cell we are going
flow of electric current in metals; I=vdena. down, so ∆V = -ε. Application to simple
Electron theory of conductivity; acceleration circuits. Wheatstone bridge; right in the
of electrons, relaxation time τ; beginning take Ig=0 as we consider a
2 2
derive σ = ne τ/m and ρ = m/ne τ ; effect of balanced bridge, derivation of R1/R2 = R3/R4
temperature on resistance. Resistance R= V/I is simpler [Kirchhoff’s law not necessary].
for ohmic substances; resistivity ρ, given by R Metre bridge is a modified form of
Wheatstone bridge. Here R2 = l1p and R4 =l2
= ρ.l/A; unit of ρ is Ω.m; conductivity
r r p; R1/R3 = l1/l2 . Potentiometer: fall in
σ=1/ρ ; Ohm’s law as J = σ E ; colour potential ∆V α ∆l - conditions; auxiliary emf
coding of resistance. ε1 is balanced against the fall in potential V1
across length l1 . ε1 = V1 =Kl1 ; ε1/ε2 = l1/l2;
(iv) Electromotive force in a cell; internal
potentiometer as a voltmeter. Potential
resistance and back emf. Combination of cells gradient; comparison of emfs; determination
in series and parallel. of internal resistance of a cell. Conversion of

115
 galvanometer to ammeter and voltmeter and start from +ve charge and end on -ve charge.
their resistances. Magnetic field lines due to a magnetic dipole
(vi) Heating effect of a current (Joule's law). (bar magnet). Magnetic field in end-on and
broadside-on positions (=o derivations).
Flow of electric charge (current) in a r r
Magnetic flux φB = B . A = BA for B uniform
conductor causes transfer of energy from the r r
source of electricity (may be a cell or and B A ; i.e. area held perpendicular to
dynamo), to the conductor (resistor), as r r r
B . For φ = BA( B A ); B=φ/A is the flux
internal energy associated with the vibration
of atoms and observed as increase in density [SI unit of flux is weber (Wb)]; but
temperature. From the definition of pd, note that this is not correct as a defining
r
V=W/q; W = ∆U = qV = VIt. The rate of equation as B is vector and φ and φ/A are
energy transfer ∆U/t = VI or power scalars, unit of B is tesla (T) equal to
r
P = VI = I2R=V2/R using Ohm's law. This is 10-4 gauss. For non-uniform B field,
Joule,s law. This energy transfer is called r r r
Joule heating. SI unit of power. Experimental
φ = ∫dφ=∫ B . dA . Earth's magnetic field B E
verification of Joule’s law. is uniform over a limited area like that of a
lab; the component of this field in the
(vii)Thermoelectricity; Seebeck effect; horizontal directions BH is the one effectively
measurement of thermo emf; its variation with acting on a magnet suspended or pivoted
temperature. Peltier effect. horizontally. An artificial magnetic field is
Discovery of Seebeck effect. Seebeck series; produced by a current carrying loop (see 4.2)
r r
Examples with different pairs of metals (for B c, or a bar magnet B m in the horizontal
easy recall remember - hot cofe and ABC - plane with its direction adjusted
from copper to iron at the hot junction and perpendicular to the magnetic meridian; this
from antimony to bismuth at the cold junction r
is superposed over the earth's fields B H
for current directions in thermocouple);
which is always present along the magnetic
variation of thermo emf with temperature
differences, graph; neutral temperature, meridian. The two are then perpendicular to
temperature of inversion; slope: each other; a compass needle experiences a
thermoelectric power ε = α φ + 1/2β φ 2 (no torque exerted by these fields and comes to an
derivation), S = dε/d φ = α+β φ . The equilibrium position along the resultant field
comparison of Peltier effect and Joule effect. making an angle with ø with BH. Then Bc -
or Bm =BH tan ø. This is called tangent law.
3. Magnetism Deflection Magnetometer, description, setting
r and its working.
(i) Magnetic field B , definition from magnetic
force on a moving charge; magnetic field (ii) Properties of dia, para and ferromagnetic
lines. Superposition of magnetic fields; substances; susceptibility and relative
magnetic field and magnetic flux density; the permeability
earth's magnetic field; Magnetic field of a It is better to explain the main distinction, the
magnetic dipole; tangent law. cause of magnetization (M) is due to magnetic
dipole moment (m) of atoms, ions or
Magnetic field represented by the symbol B is
r r r molecules being 0 for dia, >0 but very small
now defined by the equation F = qoV x B for para and > 0 and large for ferromagnetic
r
(which comes later under subunit 4.2; B is materials; few examples; placed in external
r
not to be defined in terms of force acting on a
r B , very small (induced) magnetization in a
r
unit pole, etc; note the distinction of B from direction opposite to B in dia, small
r r r
E is that B forms closed loops as there are magnetization parallel to B for para, and
r r
no magnetic monopoles, whereas E lines large magnetization parallel to B for

116
 ferromagnetic materials; this leads to lines current carrying wires. Cyclotron (simple
r
of B becoming less dense, more dense and idea).
much more dense in dia, para and ferro, r r r
respectively; hence, a weak repulsion for dia, Lorentz force equation FB = q.v × B ;
weak attraction for para and strong attraction special cases, modify this equation
for ferro - - - - - also a small bar suspended in substituting dl / dt for v and I for q/dt to yield
the horizontal plane becomes perpendicular r r r
r r F = I dl × B for the force acting on a
to the B field for dia and parallel to B for r
current carrying conductor placed in a B
para and ferro. Defining equation H = (B/µ0)-
field. Derive the expression for force between
M; the magnetic properties, susceptibility
two long parallel wires carrying current,
χm = (M/H) < 0 for dia (as M is opposite H) r r r
and >0 for para, both very small, but very using Biot-Savart law and F = I dl × B ;
large for ferro; hence relative permeability define ampere the base unit of SI and hence,
µr =1+ χm < 1 for dia, > 1 for para and coulomb from Q = It. Simple ideas about
>>1(very large) for ferro; further, χm∝1/T working of a cyclotron, its principle, and
(Curie’s law) for para, independent of limitations.
temperature (T) for dia and depends on T in (iii) A current loop as a magnetic dipole; magnetic
a complicated manner for ferro; on heating dipole moment; torque on a current loop;
ferro becomes para at Curie temperature. moving coil galvanometer.

4. Electromagnetism Derive the expression for torque on a current

r
carrying loop placed in a uniform B , using
(i) Oersted's experiment; Biot-Savart law, the
F = IlB and τ = r × F = =IAB sin φ for =
tesla; magnetic field near a long straight wire,
at the centre of a circular loop, and at a point turns τ = m x B , where the dipole moment
on the axis of a circular coil carrying current m = NIA unit: A.m2. A current carrying loop
and a solenoid. Amperes circuital law and its is a magnetic dipole; directions of current
application to obtain magnetic field due to a r r
and B and m using right hand rule only; no
long straight wire; tangent galvanometer.
other rule necessary. Mention orbital magnetic
Only historical introduction through moment of electrons in Bohr model of H atom.
Oersted’s experiment. [Ampere’s swimming Moving coil galvanometer; construction,
rule not included]. Biot-Savart law in vector principle, working, theory I= k φ ,advantages
form; application; derive the expression for B over tangent galvanometer.
(i) near a very long wire carrying current;
r (iv) Electromagnetic induction, magnetic flux and
direction of B using right hand (clasp) rule- induced emf; Faraday's law and Lenz's law;
no other rule necessary; (ii) at the centre of a transformers; eddy currents.
circular loop carrying current; (iii) at any
point on its axis. Current carrying loop as a Magnetic flux, change in flux, rate of change
magnetic dipole. Ampere’s Circuital law: of flux and induced emf; Faraday’s law
statement and brief explanation. Apply it to ε = -dφ/dt, [only one law represented by this
r equation]. Lenz's law, conservation of energy;
obtain B near a long wire carrying current. motional emf ε = Blv, and power
Tangent galvanometer- theory, working, use, P = (Blv)2/R; eddy currents (qualitative);
advantages and disadvantages. transformer (ideal coupling), principle,
working and uses; step up and step down;
(ii) Force on a moving charge in a magnetic field;
energy losses.
force on a current carrying conductor kept in a
magnetic field; force between two parallel (v) Mutual and self inductance: the henry.
current carrying wires; definition of the Growth and decay of current in LR circuit
(dc) (graphical approach), time constant.
ampere based on the force between two

117
 Mutual inductance, illustrations of a pair of phase lag or lead; resistance R, inductive
coils, flux linked φ2 = MI1; induced emf reactance XL, XL=ωL and capacitative
d φ2 dI reactance XC, XC = 1/ωC and their mutual
ε2 = =M 1 . Definition of M as
dt dt relations. Graph of XL and XC vs f.
M =
ε2 or M = φ 2 . SI unit henry.
dI 1 (iii) The LCR series circuit: phasor diagram,
I1
expression for V or I; phase lag/lead;
dt
impedance of a series LCR circuit (arrived at
Similar treatment for L= ε ;
dI dt by phasor diagram); Special cases for RL and
henry = volt. second/ampere [expressions for RC circuits.
coefficient of self inductance L and mutual
inductance M, of solenoid/coils and RLC circuit in single loop, note the pd across
experiments, not included]. R-L circuit; R, L and C; [the more able students may use
induced emf opposes changes, back emf is set Kirchhoff’s law and obtain the differential
up, delays starting and closing, graphical equation]. Use phasor diagram method to
representation of growth and decay of current
in an R-L circuit [no derivation]; define and obtain expression for I or V and the net phase
explain time constant from the graph; τ =L/R lag/lead; use the results of 5(ii), V lags I by
(result only). Unit of τ = unit of time = π/2 in a capacitor, V leads I by π/2 in an
second. Hence, this name ‘Time Constant’. inductor, V and I are in phase in a resistor, I
(vi) Simple a.c. generators. is the same in all three; hence draw phase
Principle, description, theory and use. diagram, combine VL and Vc (in opposite
phase; phasors add like vectors) to give
(v) Comparison of a.c. with d.c.
V=VR+VL+VC (phasor addition) and the max.
Variation in current and voltage with time for
values are related by V2m=V2RM+(VLm-VCm)2 .
a.c. and d.c.
Substituting pd=current x resistance or
5. Alternating Current Circuits reactance, we get Z2 = R2+(XL-Xc) 2 and tanφ
(i) Change of voltage and current with time, the = (VL m -VCm)/VRm = (XL-Xc)/R giving I = I m
phase difference; peak and rms values of sin (wt-φ) where I m =Vm/Z etc. Special cases
voltage and current; their relation in for RL and RC circuits. Graph of Z vs f.
sinusoidal case.
(iv) Power P associated with LCR circuit
Sinusoidal variation of V and I with time, for
= 1/2VoIo cosφ =VrmsIrms cosφ; power absorbed
the output from an ac generator; time period,
frequency and phase changes; rms value of V and power dissipated; choke coil (choke and
and I in sinusoidal cases only. starter); electrical resonance; oscillations in an
(ii) Variation of voltage and current in a.c. LC circuit (ω = 1/ √LC).
circuits consisting of only resistors, only Average power consumed averaged over a
inductors and only capacitors (phasor
full cycle P =(1/2) εm. I m cosφ. Power factor
representation), phase lag and phase lead.
cosφ = R/Z. Special case for pure R , L, C;
May apply Kirchhoff’s law and obtain simple choke coil:- XL controls current but cosφ = 0,
differential equation (SHM type), V = Vo sin hence P =0; LC circuit; at resonance with
ωt, solution I = I0 sin ωt, I0sin (ωt + π/2) and XL=Xc , Z=Zmin= R, power delivered to circuit
I0 sin (ωt - π/2) for pure R, C and L circuits, by the source, is maximum; ω2 = 1/LC;
respectively. Draw phase (or phasor) ω
f= .
diagrams showing voltage and current and 2π
118
 SECTIO B (qualitative only). Measurement of β using a
βd
6. Wave Optics telescope; determination of λ, using λ = .
D
(i) Complete electromagnetic spectrum from
(iii) Single slit Fraunhoffer diffraction (elementary
radio waves to gamma rays; transverse nature
explanation).
of electromagnetic waves, Huygen's principle;
laws of reflection and refraction from Diffraction at a single slit experimental setup,
Huygen's principle. Speed of light. diagram, diffraction pattern, position of
secondary maxima, conditions for secondary
Qualitative descriptions only, but some wave
length range values may be noted; common maxima, a sinθn =(2n+1)λ/2, for secondary
features of all regions of em spectrum minima a sinθn= nλ, where n = 1,2,3 …;
r r distribution of intensity with angular distance;
including transverse nature ( E and B angular width of central bright fringe.
r
perpendicular to C ); special features of the Mention diffraction by a grating and its use in
common classification (gamma rays, X rays, determining wave length of light (Details not
UV rays, visible spectrum, IR, microwaves, required).
radio and TV waves) in their production (iv) Plane polarised electromagnetic wave
(source), propagation, modulation and (elementary idea), polarisation of light by
demodulation (qualitative only) – AM and reflection. Brewster's law; polaroids.
FM, interaction with matter, detection and
other properties; uses; approximate range of Review description of an electromagnetic
λ or f or at least proper order of increasing f wave as transmission of energy by periodic
r r
or λ. Huygen’s principle: wavefronts - changes in E and B along the path;
r r
different types/shapes, rays: Huygen’s transverse nature as E and B are
construction and Huygen’s principle; proof of r
perpendicular to C (velocity). These three
laws of reflection and refraction using this.
vectors form a right handed system, so that
[Refraction through a prism and lens on the r r r
basis of Huygen’s theory: =ot required]. E x B is along C , they are mutually
Michelson’s method to determine the speed of perpendicular to each other. For ordinary
r r
light. light, E and B are in all directions in a
r
(ii) Conditions for interference of light, plane perpendicular to the C vector-
interference of monochromatic light by r r
unpolarised waves. If E and (hence B also)
double slit; measurement of wave length. r
Fresnel’s biprism. is confined to a single line only (⊥ C , we have
linearly polarized light. The plane containing
Phase of wave motion; superposition of r r r
identical waves at a point, path difference and E (or B ) and C remains fixed. Hence, a
phase difference; coherent and incoherent linearly polarised light is also called plane
light waves; interference- constructive and polarised light. Plane of polarisation;
destructive, conditions for sustained polarisation by reflection; Brewster’s law:
interference of light waves [mathematical tan ip=n; refracted ray is perpendicular to
deduction of interference from the equations reflected ray for i = ip; ip+rp = 90° ;
of two progressive waves with a phase polaroids; use in production and
difference is not to be done]. Young's double detection/analysis of polarised light., other
slit experiment, set up, diagram, geometrical uses.
deduction of path difference ∆ = d sin Ø,
between waves (rays) from the two slits; using 7. Ray Optics and Optical Instruments for
∆=nλ for bright fringe and (n+½)λ for dark (i) Refraction of light at a plane interface (Snell's
fringe and sin Ø = tan Ø =yn /D as y and Ø law); total internal reflection and critical
are small, obtain yn=(D/d)nλ and fringe width angle; total reflecting prisms and optical
β=(D/d)λ etc. Experiment of Fresnel biprism fibres.
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 Self-explanatory. Simple applications; derivations, condition for achromatic
numerical problems included. combination of two lenses in contact.
(ii) Refraction through a prism, minimum (v) Simple microscope; Compound microscope
deviation and derivation of relation between and their magnifying power.
n, A and δmin. For microscope - magnifying power for image
Include explanation of i-δ graph, i1 = i2 = i at least distance of distinct vision and at
(say) for δm; from symmetry r1 = r2; refracted infinity; ray diagrams, numerical problems
ray inside the prism is parallel to the base of included.
the prism; application to triangular prisms (vi) Simple astronomical telescope (refracting and
with angle of the prism 300, 450, 600 and 900 reflecting), magnifying power and resolving
respectively; ray diagrams. power of a simple astronomical telescope.
(iii) Refraction at a single spherical surface Ray diagrams of reflecting as well as
(relation between n1, n2, u, v and R); refracting telescope with image at infinity
refraction through thin lens (lens maker's only; simple explanation; magnifying power;
formula and formula relating u, v, f, n, R1 and resolving power, advantages, disadvantages
R2); combined focal length of two thin lenses and uses.
in contact. Combination of lenses [Silvering
of lens excluded]. SECTIO C
Self-explanatory.
Limit detailed discussion to one case only- 8. Electrons and Photons
convex towards rarer medium, for spherical (i) Cathode rays: measurement of e/m for
surface and real image. For lens, derivation electrons. Millikan’s oil drop experiment.
only for biconvex lens with R1= R2; extend the
results to biconcave lens, plano convex lens Production of cathode rays – only brief and
and lens immersed in a liquid; do also power qualitative [historical details not included].
of a lens P=1/f with SI unit dioptre. For Thomson’s experiment to measure e/m of
lenses in contact 1/F= 1/f1+1/f2 and P=P1+P2. electrons: e/m=(½V) (E/B)2.
Formation of image and determination of Thermionic emission, deflection of charged
focal length with combination of thin lenses. r r
particle by E and B , and fluorescence
(iv) Dispersion; dispersive power; production of produced by electron. Millikan’s oil drop
pure spectrum; spectrometer and its setting experiment - quantization of charge.
(experimental uses and procedures included);
(ii) Photo electric effect, quantization of
absorption and emission spectra; spherical and
radiation; Einstein's equation; threshold
chromatic aberration; derivation of condition
frequency; work function; energy and
for achromatic combination of two thin lenses
momentum of photon. Determination of
in contact and not of prism.
Planck’s Constant.
Angular dispersion; dispersive power,
conditions for pure spectrum; spectrometer Experimental facts; do topics as given; note
with experiments for A and δ. Hence, δm Einstein used Planck’s ideas and extended it
and n; rainbow - ray diagram (no derivation). to apply for radiation (light); photoelectric
Simple explanation. Spectra: emission effect can be explained only assuming
spectra; line; band and continuous spectra- quantum (particle) nature of radiation.
their source and qualitative explanation; Theory and experiment for determination of
absorption spectra - condition; solar spectrum Planck’s constant (from the graph of stopping
and Fraunhoffer lines, spherical aberration in potential V versus frequency f of the incident
a convex lens (qualitative only), how to reduce light). Momentum of photon p=E/c=hf/c=h/λ.
linear or axial chromatic aberration,

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 (iii) Wave particle duality, De Broglie equation, A simple modern X-ray tube – main parts: hot
phenomenon of electron diffraction cathode, heavy element target kept cool and
(informative only). anode, all enclosed in a vacuum tube;
elementary theory of X-ray production; effect
Dual nature of radiation already discussed; of increasing filament current- temperature
wave nature in interference, diffraction
increases rate of emission of electrons (from
and polarization; particle nature in
the cathode), rate of production of X rays and
photoelectric effect and Compton effect. Dual
nature of matter: particle nature common in hence, intensity of X rays increases (not its
that it possess momentum p=mv and kinetic frequency); increase in anode potential
energy K=½mv2. The wave nature of matter increases energy of each electron, each X-ray
was proposed by Louis de Broglie λ=h/p= photon and hence, X-ray frequency (E=hf);
h/mv. Davisson and Germer experiment; maximum frequency hfmax=eV; continuous
qualitative description and discussion of the spectrum of X rays has minimum wavelength
experiment, polar graph. =o numerical λ min= c/fmax. Mosley’s law. Characteristic
problem. and continuous X-rays; origin.

9. Atoms 10. uclei

(i) Charge and size of nuclei (α-particle (i) Atomic masses; unified atomic mass unit u
scattering); atomic structure; Bohr's and its value in MeV; the neutron;
postulates, Bohr's quantization condition; radii composition and size of nucleus; mass defect
of Bohr orbits for hydrogen atom; energy of and binding energy.
the hydrogen atom in the nth state; line
spectra of hydrogen and calculation of E and f Atomic masses; unified atomic mass unit,
for different lines. symbol u, 1u=1/12 of the mass of C12 atom =
1.66x10-27kg). Composition of nucleus; mass
Rutherford’s nuclear model of atom defect and binding energy BE=(∆m)c2.
(mathematical theory of scattering excluded), Graph of BE/nucleon versus mass number A,
based on Geiger - Marsden experiment on special features - low for light as well as
α-scattering; nuclear radius r in terms of heavy elements. Middle order more stable
closest approach of α particle to the nucleus,
[see fission and fusion in 11.(ii), 11.(iii)].
obtained by equating ∆K=½ mv2 of the α
particle to the change in electrostatic (ii) Radioactivity: nature and radioactive decay
potential energy ∆U of the system law, half-life, mean life and decay constant.
[(1/4πε0(2e)(Ze)/r0]; r0∼10-15m =1 fm or 1 Nuclear reactions.
fermi; atomic structure; only general
qualitative ideas, including, atomic number Z, Discovery; spontaneous disintegration of an
=eutron number = and mass number A. A atomic nucleus with the emission of α or β
brief account of historical background particles and γ radiation, unaffected by
leading to Bohr’s theory of hydrogen spectra; ordinary chemical changes. Radioactive
empirical formula for Lyman, Balmer and decay law; derivation of = = =oe-λt ; half life
Paschen series. Bohr’s model of H atom, period T; graph of = versus t, with T marked
postulates (Z=1); expressions for orbital on the X axis. Relation between T and λ;
velocity, kinetic energy, potential energy, mean life τ and λ. Value of T of some common
radius of orbit and total energy of electron. radioactive elements. Examples of few
Energy level diagram for n=1,2,3… nuclear reactions with conservation of
calculation of ∆E, frequency and wavelength
nucleon number and charge. (neutrino to be
of different lines of emission spectra;
included.
agreement with experimentally observed
values. [Use nm and not Å for unit of λ].
[Mathematical theory of α and β decay not
(ii) Production of X-rays; maximum frequency included]. Changes taking place within the
for a given tube potential. Characteristic and nucleus included.
continuous X -rays. Mosley’s law.

121
11. uclear Energy ‘bands’ of energy levels, as we consider solid
copper made up of a large number of isolated
(i) Energy - mass equivalence.
atoms, brought together to form a lattice;
Einstein’s equation E=mc2. Some definition of energy bands - groups of closely
calculations. (already done under 10.(i)); spaced energy levels separated by band gaps
mass defect/binding energy, mutual called forbidden bands. An idealized
annihilation and pair production as examples. representation of the energy bands for a
(ii) Nuclear fission; chain reaction; principle of conductor, insulator and semiconductor;
operation of a nuclear reactor. characteristics, differences; distinction
between conductors, insulators and
(iii) Nuclear fusion; thermonuclear fusion as the semiconductors on the basis of energy bands,
source of the sun's energy. with examples; qualitative discussion only;
Theoretical (qualitative) prediction of energy gaps (eV) in typical substances
exothermic (with release of energy) nuclear (carbon, Ge, Si); some electrical properties of
reaction, in fusing together two light nuclei to semiconductors. Majority and minority
form a heavier nucleus and in splitting heavy charge carriers - electrons and holes;
nucleus to form middle order (lower mass intrinsic and extrinsic, doping, p-type, n-type;
number) nucleus, is evident from the shape of donor and acceptor impurities. [=o numerical
BE per nucleon versus mass number graph. problems from this topic].
Also calculate the disintegration energy Q for (ii) Junction diode; depletion region; forward and
a heavy nucleus (A=240) with BE/A ∼ 7.6 reverse biasing current - voltage
MeV per nucleon split into two equal halves characteristics; pn diode as a half wave and a
with A=120 each and BE/A ∼ 8.5 full wave rectifier; solar cell, LED and
MeV/nucleon; Q ∼ 200 MeV. Discovery of photodiode. Zener diode and voltage
fission. Any one equation of fission reaction.
regulation.
Chain reaction- controlled and uncontrolled;
nuclear reactor and nuclear bomb. Main Junction diode; symbol, simple qualitative
parts of a nuclear reactor including a simple description only [details of different types of
diagram and their functions - fuel elements, formation not included]. The topics are self
moderator, control rods, coolant, casing;
explanatory. [Bridge rectifier of 4 diodes not
criticality; utilization of energy output - all
included]. Simple circuit diagram and graphs,
qualitative only. Fusion, simple example of
4 1H→4He and its nuclear reaction equation; function of each component - in the electric
requires very high temperature ∼ 106 circuits, qualitative only. Elementary ideas on
degrees; difficult to achieve; hydrogen bomb; solar cell, photodiode and light emitting diode
thermonuclear energy production in the sun (LED) as semi conducting diodes. Self
and stars. [Details of chain reaction not explanatory.
required].
(iii) The junction transistor; npn and pnp
12. Semiconductor Devices transistors; current gain in a transistor;
transistor (common emitter) amplifier (only
(i) Energy bands in solids; energy band diagrams circuit diagram and qualitative treatment) and
for distinction between conductors, insulators
oscillator.
and semi-conductors - intrinsic and extrinsic;
electrons and holes in semiconductors. Simple qualitative description of construction
- emitter, base and collector; npn and pnp
Elementary ideas about electrical conduction
type; symbol showing directions of current in
in metals [crystal structure not included].
emitter-base region (one arrow only)- base is
Energy levels (as for hydrogen atom), 1s, 2s,
narrow; current gain in transistor; common
2p, 3s , etc. of an isolated atom such as that of
emitter configuration only, characteristics;
copper; these split, eventually forming
IB vs VBE and IC vs VCE with circuit
122
 diagram; no numerical problem; common best fit line should be found out using two distant
emitter transistor amplifier - correct points, one of which should be unplotted point, using
diagram; qualitative explanation including y2 − y1
amplification, wave form and phase reversal. m= .
x2 − x1
[relation between α, β not included, no
numerical problems]. Circuit diagram and OTE:
qualitative explanation of a simple oscillator. Short answer questions may be set from each
(iv) Elementary idea of discreet and integrated experiment to test understanding of theory and logic
of steps involved.
circuits, analogue and digital circuits. Logic
gates (symbols; working with truth tables; The list of experiments given below is only a general
applications and uses) - NOT, OR, AND, recommendation. Teachers may add, alter or modify
this list, keeping in mind the general pattern of
NOR, NAND.
questions asked in the annual examinations.
Self explanatory. Advantages of IC.
1. Draw the following set of graphs using data from
Introduction to elementary digital electronics. lens experiments -
Logic gates as given; symbols, input and
output, Boolean equations (Y=A+B etc), truth i) ν against u. It will be a curve.
table, qualitative explanation. [=o numerical
problems. Realisation not included].  v
ii) Magnification  m =  against ν and to find
 u
focal length by intercept.
PAPER II
iii) y = 100/v against x = 100/u and to find f
PRACTICAL WORK- 20 Marks
by intercepts.
The experiments for laboratory work and practical 2. To find f of a convex lens by using u-v method.
examinations are mostly from two groups;
3. To find f of a convex lens by displacement
(i) experiments based on ray optics and
method.
(ii) experiments based on current electricity.
The main skill required in group (i) is to remove 4. Coaxial combination of two convex lenses not in
parallax between a needle and the real image of contact.
another needle. In group (ii), understanding circuit
5. Using a convex lens, optical bench and two pins,
diagram and making connections strictly following the
obtain the positions of the images for various
given diagram is very important. Take care of
positions of the object; f<u<2f, u~2f, and u>2f.
polarity of cells and meters, their range, zero error,
Plot a graph of y=100/v versus x=100/u. Obtain
least count, etc. A graph is a convenient and effective
the focal length of the lens from the intercepts,
way of representing results of measurement.
read from the graph.
Therefore, it is an important part of the experiment.
Usually, there are two graphs in all question papers. 6. Determine the focal length of a concave lens,
Students should learn to draw graphs correctly noting using an auxiliary convex lens, not in contact and
all important steps such as title, selection of origin, plotting appropriate graph.
labelling of axes (not x and y), proper scale and the 7. Refractive index of material of lens by Boys'
units given along each axis. Use maximum area of method.
graph paper, plot points with great care, mark the
points plotted with or ⊗ and draw the best fit 8. Refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens
straight line (not necessarily passing through all the and plane mirror.
plotted points), keeping all experimental points 9. Using a spectrometer, measure the angle of the
symmetrically placed (on the line and on the left and given prism and the angle of minimum deviation.
right side of the line) with respect to the best fit thin Calculate the refractive index of the material.
straight line. Read intercepts carefully. Y intercept [A dark room is not necessary].
i.e. y0 is that value of y when x = 0. Slope ‘m’ of the
123
10. Set up a deflection magnetometer in Tan-A 18. To determine the internal resistance of a cell by
position, and use it to compare the dipole potentiometer device.
moments of the given bar magnets, using
19. Given the figure of merit and resistance of a
(a) deflection method, neglecting the length of the
galvanometer, convert it to (a) an ammeter of
magnets and (b) null method.
range, say 2A and (b) a voltmeter of range 4V.
11. Set up a vibration magnetometer and use it to Also calculate the resistance of the new ammeter
compare the magnetic moments of the given bar and voltmeter.
magnets of equal size, but different strengths.
20. To draw I-V characteristics of a semi-conductor
12. Determine the galvanometer constant of a tangent diode in forward and reverse bias.
galvanometer measuring the current (using an
21. To draw characteristics of a Zener diode and to
ammeter) and galvanometer deflection, varying
determine its reverse breakdown voltage.
the current using a rheostat. Also, determine the
magnetic field at the centre of the galvanometer 22. To study the characteristics of pnp/npn transistor
coil for different values of current and for in common emitter configuration.
different number of turns of the coil.
PROJECT WORK A D PRACTICAL FILE –
13. Using a metre bridge, determine the resistance of
10 Marks
about 100 cm of constantan wire, measure its
length and radius and hence, calculate the specific Project Work – 7 Marks
resistance of the material. The Project work is to be assessed by a Visiting
14. Verify Ohm’s law for the given unknown Examiner appointed locally and approved by the
resistance (a 60 cm constantan wire), plotting a Council.
graph of potential difference versus current. From All candidates will do project work involving some
the slope of the graph and the length of the wire, physics related topics, under the guidance and regular
calculate the resistance per cm of the wire. supervision of the Physics teacher.
15. From a potentiometer set up, measure the fall in Candidates are to prepare a technical report formally
potential for increasing lengths of a constantan written including an abstract, some theoretical
wire, through which a steady current is flowing; discussion, experimental setup, observations with
plot a graph of pd V versus length l. Calculate the tables of data collected, analysis and discussion of
potential gradient of the wire. Q (i) Why is the results, deductions, conclusion, etc. (after the draft has
current kept constant in this experiment? Q (ii) been approved by the teacher). The report should be
How can you increase the sensitivity of the kept simple, but neat and elegant. No extra credit shall
potentiometer? Q (iii) How can you use the above be given for typewritten material/decorative cover,
results and measure the emf of a cell? etc. Teachers may assign or students may choose any
one project of their choice.
16. Compare the emf of two cells using a
potentiometer. Practical File – 3 Marks
17. To study the variation in potential drop with The Visiting Examiner is required to assess students
length of slide wire for constant current, hence to on the basis of the Physics practical file maintained by
determine specific resistance. them during the academic year.

124