Understanding Power Splitters

How they work, what parameters are critical, and how to select the best value for
your application.

Basically, a 0° splitter is a passive device which accepts an input signal and delivers multiple
output signals with specific phase and amplitude characteristics. The output signals theoretically
possess the following characteristics:

• equal amplitude
• 0° phase relationship between any two output signals
• high isolation between each output signal
• insertion loss as follows:
Number of Theoretical
Output Ports Insertion Loss (dB)
2 3.0
3 4.8
4 6.0
5 7.0
6 7.8
8 9.0
10 10.0
12 10.8
16 12.0
24 13.8
48 16.8

Since the 0° power splitter is a reciprocal passive device it may be used as a power combiner
simply by applying each signal singularly into each of the splitter output ports. The vector sum
of the signals will appear as a single output at the splitter input port.

The power combiner will exhibit an insertion loss that varies depending upon the phase and
amplitude relationship of the signals being combined. For example, in a 2 way 0° power
splitter/combiner, Fig. 1 if the two input signals are equal in amplitude and are in-phase then the
insertion loss is zero. However, if the signals are 180° out-of-phase the insertion loss is infinite.
And, if the two signals are at different frequencies, the insertion loss will equal the theoretical
insertion loss shown above.

The power combiner will also exhibit isolation between the input ports. The amount of isolation
will depend upon the impedance termination at the combiner output or sum port. For example,
in the 2 way 0° power splitter/combiner of Fig. 1 if port S is open then the isolation between
ports A and B would be 6dB. And, if port S is terminated by a matched impedance (for
maximum power transfer) then the isolation between ports A and B would be infinite.

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Fig. 1. When used as a 0° power splitter, the input is applied to port S and equal outputs appear
at ports A and B. When used as a power combiner, both inputs are applied to ports A and B and
the sum taken from port S.

The following signal processing functions can be accomplished by power splitter/combiners:

1. Add or subtract signals vectorially.

2. Obtain multi in-phase output signals proportional to the level of a common input signal.
3. Split an input signal into multi-outputs.
4. Combine signals from different sources to obtain a single port output.
5. Provide a capability to obtain RF logic arrangements.

Let's analyze a basic power slitter.

Fig. 2. Basic 2 way 0° power splitter, simple "T".

The most basic form of a power splitter is a simple "T" connection, which has one input and two
outputs as shown in Fig. 2. If the "T" is mechanically symmetrical, a signal applied to the input
will be divided into two output signals, equal in amplitude and phase. The arrangement is simple
and it works, with limitations.

The two obvious limitations are poor isolation and impedance mismatch. First, let’s consider
isolation.

Suppose, for example, that two antennas were fed to a receiver input using a simple "T" as a
combiner. If one antenna appears as a short at its resonant frequency, it would load down the
other antenna and, in effect, wipe out the receiver input. However, a properly designed power
combiner would provide high isolation between inputs so that the antenna "short condition" at
one input would have little influence on the other input and would cause approximately a 3:1
VSWR mismatch at the output port, in this case, the receiver input.

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In a simple "T" circuit power combiner the isolation between input ports will depend upon the
impedance termination at the output port. If the output port is open then the input ports would
have zero isolation between them. And, if the output port is terminated by a matched impedance
the isolation would be 3dB.

Improving upon the simple "T" circuit, consider the basic lumped element power
splitter/combiner circuit of Fig. 3. The transformer has an equal number of turns from the center
tap to each end. Therefore, as an auto transformer (2 to 1 turns. ratio) the impedance across the
output ends is 4 times larger than the impedance across the center tap to one end.

Fig. 3. In a two-way splitter/combiner, equal and opposite currents flow through the internal
resistor and transformer, cancel each other, and provide high isolation between ports A and B.

Now, consider the second serious limitation of a simple "T", which still exists with the circuit in
Fig. 3: impedance mismatch at the input.

In a 50-ohm system, each output would be connected to a 50-ohm impedance, thus offering a 25-
ohm impedance to the input port. Thus, the impedance looking into the common or input port
would present a mismatch in a 50-ohm system. To correct this mismatch, a 25 to 50-ohm
matching transformer would be necessary as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. T1 is a 2:1 impedance matching transformer in the input circuit of the power
splitter/combiner.

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Let's examine how this circuit enables high isolation between ports A and B. As a power
combiner, an input signal applied to port A will cause a current to flow through the transformer
and experience a 180° phase shift by the time it arrives at port B. Similarly, a current will also
flow through the resistor, R int and will not experience a phase shift by the time it arrives at port
B. When R int equals the impedance value across the transformer ends then, the currents
appearing at port B will be equal in amplitude but opposite in phase and cancel. The net result is
that no voltage appears at port B from the input signal applied at port A. Thus, there is
theoretically infinite isolation between the ports. Further examining the circuit of Fig. 4, let's
determine the theoretical insertion loss between port S and ports A and B. As a power splitter, a
signal applied at port S will be split so that identical signals appear at ports A and B, due to the
circuit symmetry. If the impedance values are matched then maximum power transfer will take
place and half the input power would appear at each port resulting in a 3dB theoretical loss at
each port. Furthermore, under the conditions described the circuit is lossless since the voltage
across R int is zero.

Let's take an example to illustrate the concepts described. Suppose we have a 50 ohm system so
that ports A and B are each terminated in 50 ohms. They appear across the transformer in series
so that a 100 ohm transformer impedance is required for optimum power match. Since the
transformer has a 4 to 1 impedance ratio, the impedance at port S is 25 ohms. In this example we
must add a 2 to 1 (50 to 25 ohm) transformer at port S so that the S port impedance is matched to
the 50 ohm system. The connection of 2 to 1 transformer “T1” is shown on Figure 4.

Remembering the value of R int equals the transformer impedance (to obtain maximum
isolation), R int equals 100 ohms. We have now completely specified the circuit values of the
50-ohm 2 way 0° power splitter/combiner.

Mismatch effect on isolation

Consider the ideal situation in a two-way power combiner where there is infinite isolation
between the two input ports. A signal applied to port A will be routed to port S, minus a 3dB
loss in the internal resistor; since isolation is perfect, none of the input signal will reach the other
input port. Now, if port S is properly terminated, the sum signals will be absorbed and nothing
will be reflected back to the input ports. Fine, as long as port S is properly terminated and thus
no mismatch. Now, let's consider two examples of mismatch at port S, one slight and another
large. Assume a + 20dBm signal is applied to port A; with perfect isolation, none of this signal
reaches port B. Since there is a 3dB loss between input A and port S due to the loss in the
internal resistor, + 17dBm arrives at port S ignoring any slight transformer loss. If a slight
impedance mismatch exists at port S, which causes a -20dB signal reflection, then a signal of -
3dBm (+ 17dBm attenuated by 20dB) is sent back to ports A and B. This -3dBm signal
experiences a 3dB loss as it is fed to port B, and the mismatch has now resulted in a -6dB signal
at input B from port A. Now isolation between both input ports is not infinite; there is a
+20dBm signal at port A and a -6dBm signal at port B for an isolation of 26dB. Reason? Slight
impedance mismatch at port S.

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What about a more serious mismatch? Suppose the + 17dBm signal arrives at port S and a
mismatch produces a -10dB signal reflection. Now +7dBm is fed back to port B (+17dBm with
10dB loss); add the additional return 3dB loss, and a +4dBm signal appears at port B. Now
isolation is only 16dB, the difference between port A's 20dBm and the 4dBm signal at port B due
to the mismatch. Important point: make sure port S is properly matched to eliminate reflections
and thus maintain high isolation. Mismatch at either port A or B is not critical if port S of a
power combiner is properly matched. If cancellation through the transformer and internal
resistor is taking place, there will not be any voltage drop across port A and B and thus no effect
on isolation.

Let's take it one step further and assume port S and port A are properly terminated but port B is
shorted. As a power combiner, port A would still be isolated from port B and "would not see the
short at port B. "However, the impedance looking into the S port of the power combiner would
be lower. As an example, for a 50 ohm power combiner the impedance at the S port would
change from 25 ohms to 8 1/3 ohms as the termination impedance at port B changes from 50
ohms to a short.

Mismatch effect on insertion loss

For the power splitter of Fig. 4, consider the situation where one output port, B, is shorted. A
signal applied to port S would result in half the power appearing at each port, A and B. Since
port B is shorted, all the power appearing there would be reflected back into the power splitter.
Half of this power reflected would be dissipated in the internal resistor and the other half would
appear at port S. The power loss within the power splitter would therefore be 1/4 or 6dB below
the signal power originally applied to port S. In a practical power splitter/combiner where R int
does not exactly equal the impedance across the transformer, there would be less than a 3dB loss
at port A because part of the reflected power from port B would appear at port A.

What limits the power rating?

The power handling capability of a power splitter/combiner is basically determined by the

internal resistor across the transformer and the transformer's core and wire size. When used as
power splitter, the core of the transformer may saturate at the lower frequency end of the
operating band if the designated power rating is exceeded; signal distortion and reduction in
isolation may result. At high RF frequencies, usually small diameter wire is used thus limiting
the safe current level that can flow before failure. In a power combiner application, the power
loss across the internal resistor must also be considered in addition to the transformer core
effects. For example, in a 2 way power combiner, the internal resistor must be able to dissipate
half the power applied to each port. The specifications for the internal load dissipation rating for
each power combiner N way group is given on the individual specification pages.

If an application demands an internal resistor power rating larger than available as a standard
catalog item, Mini-Circuits can supply a unit without an internal resistor. And a higher power
rating resistor can be out-boarded. Of course, the performance of the final combination will
depend on the external resistor's characteristics, the way it is wired, and its capacitance to the
board on which it is mounted.

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How to measure isolation

The isolation of the two-way splitter/combiner is obtained by measuring the attenuation between
ports A and B when the common port is terminated in the correct value of impedance, generally
50 ohms. An RF generator signal is applied to port A and an RF voltmeter reading is taken at
port B. The difference in dB represents the isolation between the two ports.
When high isolations are encountered, in the range of 50dB, the accuracy of the measurement
can be improved by replacing the RF voltmeter with a spectrum analyzer and/or by inserting a
filter between the port A (or B) and the RF voltmeter. The filter reduces the effects of harmonics
from the RF generator. This is especially significant when the isolation of the power
splitter/combiner differs by more than 10dB over the frequency range covering the RF generator
frequency and its harmonics.

The technique for measuring isolation of more than a two-way splitter/combiner is exactly the
same as that just described; just make sure all unused ports are terminated with the appropriate
impedance. However, the accuracy of this termination impedance is not very critical since there
is usually high isolation between ports.

It is quite important, however, that the terminating impedance at the common or S-port be very
accurate. Deviations from the correct impedance value will cause significant errors. Typically, a
termination impedance with a VSWR of 1.05 to 1 is used at Mini-Circuits for isolation testing.

How to measure insertion loss

To measure insertion loss, first terminate all ports properly with 50 (or 75) ohm pads and then set
the RF generator to the test frequency. An RF voltmeter reading is taken at port A and then at
port S. The difference between the two levels, in dB, represents the insertion loss of the splitter.
Repeat for ports B and S.

Fig. 5. To improve insertion loss measurement, first a 3dB standard attenuation is placed
between points A and S, and an RF voltmeter reading is taken. Then the attenuator is removed
and the power splitter/combiner is connected to A, B, and S.

Although the above procedure is simple, the accuracy of the measurement is limited by the
accuracy of the RF voltmeter. An improved technique requires a standard 3dB attenuator placed
between test points A and S (see Fig. 5) with the two-way power splitter disconnected from the
test set-up. The RF generator level is set so that the RF voltmeter reading is near the top of the
scale, its most accurate region. Then, the 3dB standard attenuator is removed and the power

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splitter is connected to test points A, B and S. The difference between the first and the new RF
voltmeter reading represents the additional power splitter loss over the 3dB theoretical value.
Thus, the insertion loss is 3dB plus this incremental RF voltmeter reading. Repeat for port B.
The procedure for measuring insertion loss for more than a two-way splitter is essentially the
same as previously described. The difference is that the standard attenuator value should be
close to the theoretical minimum insertion loss for the power splitter under test. Remember that
all ports should be terminated in the correct value of impedance. Practically speaking, the
terminations do not have to be perfectly matched but will influence measurement accuracy.

Get tight specs at lower cost

Generally, engineering designs exist in a world of tradeoffs. Mixers, for example, can be
designed so that isolation can be improved at the expense of conversion loss; similarly, an
amplifier's noise figure can be improved if a reduction in dynamic range can be accepted in
exchange.

Not so, fortunately with power splitters. The key parameters are influenced in the same direction
during the design stage. A well-designed power splitter/combiner will offer high isolation, low
insertion loss and good VSWR. You just don't encounter a power splitter/combiner with high
isolation and poor VSWR, nor high isolation with a poor insertion loss spec. Why? Because
poor insertion loss specs generally result from an improper matching transformer (winding not
exactly symmetrical) or slight variations in stray capacitances at each end of the transformer;
these effects, however, adversely affect insertion loss as well as isolation.

This raises a significant point. There is no need to specify a number of tight spec parameters
when you need a power splitter/combiner for a particularly stringent requirement. Simply specify
a tight improved spec on the key parameter most critical to the task and you'll find the remaining
specs will also be upgraded. If you insist on writing tight specs on a number of parameters, you
may be paying extra money for a device you would have received anyway. Of course, you can
specify one tight parameter, as suggested, and request support data on the other parameters to
monitor their characteristics.

In some applications, it is possible for several parameters to be important. In other applications,

only one parameter may be considerably significant while others are not. For example, in a
power combiner used to add the outputs of two amplifiers, insertion loss is a critical factor while
isolation may not be deemed essential. On the other hand, consider a test setup for two-tone,
third-order IM measurement. Here it is common to operate two RF generators that are close to
each other in frequency, resulting in one generator "talking to the other" or "pulling". To avoid
this measurement pitfall, a power combiner is placed between both RF generators; here the
isolation spec is very significant while other parameters, such as phase or amplitude unbalance,
have no importance at all. You can lower your demands, and your cost, by analyzing what
parameters must be met while understanding others that can be ignored.

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