FLUENT 6.

3 User’s Guide

September 2006
 Copyright c 2006 by Fluent Inc.
All Rights Reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced or otherwise used in
any form without express written permission from Fluent Inc.

Airpak, FIDAP, FLUENT, FLUENT for CATIA V5, FloWizard, GAMBIT, Icemax, Icepak,
Icepro, Icewave, Icechip, MixSim, and POLYFLOW are registered trademarks of Fluent
Inc. All other products or name brands are trademarks of their respective holders.

CHEMKIN is a registered trademark of Reaction Design Inc.

Portions of this program include material copyrighted by PathScale Corporation

2003-2004.

Fluent Inc.
Centerra Resource Park
10 Cavendish Court
Lebanon, NH 03766
Contents

Preface UTM-1

1 Starting and Executing FLUENT 1-1

1.1 Starting FLUENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
1.1.1 Single-Precision and Double-Precision Solvers . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
1.1.2 Starting FLUENT on a UNIX System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
1.1.3 Starting FLUENT on a Windows System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
1.1.4 Remote Simulation Facility (RSF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
1.1.5 Startup Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
1.2 Executing FLUENT Remotely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13
1.2.1 Overview and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13
1.2.2 Running FLUENT on a Remote Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-14
1.2.3 Starting the Solver Manually on the Remote Machine . . . . . . 1-15
1.2.4 Executing Remotely by Reading a Case File . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15
1.3 Running FLUENT in Batch Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16
1.3.1 Background Execution on UNIX Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16
1.3.2 Background Execution on Windows Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 1-18
1.3.3 Batch Execution Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-19
1.4 Checkpointing a FLUENT Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-20
1.5 Cleaning Up Processes From a FLUENT Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-21
1.6 Exiting the Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-22

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2 Graphical User Interface (GUI) 2-1

2.1 GUI Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
2.1.1 Console . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
2.1.2 Dialog Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
2.1.3 Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
2.1.4 Graphics Display Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
2.2 Customizing the Graphical User Interface (UNIX Systems Only) . . . . . 2-20
2.3 Using the GUI Help System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-22
2.3.1 Panel Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-22
2.3.2 Context-Sensitive Help (UNIX Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-23
2.3.3 Opening the User’s Guide Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . 2-23
2.3.4 Opening the User’s Guide Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-23
2.3.5 Opening the Reference Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-23
2.3.6 Help on Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-26
2.3.7 Help for Text Interface Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-26
2.3.8 Accessing the Other Manuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-26
2.3.9 Accessing the User Services Center Web Site . . . . . . . . . . . 2-28
2.3.10 Accessing the Fluent Online Technical Support Web Site . . . . . 2-28
2.3.11 Obtaining a Listing of Other FLUENT License Users . . . . . . . 2-28
2.3.12 Version and Release Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-28

3 Text User Interface (TUI) 3-1

3.1 Text Menu System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.1.1 Command Abbreviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
3.1.2 Command Line History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
3.1.3 Scheme Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
3.1.4 Aliases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5

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3.2 Text Prompt System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5

3.2.1 Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
3.2.2 Booleans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
3.2.3 Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
3.2.4 Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
3.2.5 Filenames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
3.2.6 Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
3.2.7 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
3.2.8 Default Value Binding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
3.3 Interrupts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
3.4 System Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
3.4.1 System Commands for UNIX-based Operating Systems . . . . . 3-9
3.4.2 System Commands for Windows Operating Systems . . . . . . . 3-10
3.5 Text Menu Input from Character Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11
3.6 Using the Text Interface Help System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12

4 Reading and Writing Files 4-1

4.1 Shortcuts for Reading and Writing Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
4.1.1 Default File Suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
4.1.2 Binary Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
4.1.3 Detecting File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
4.1.4 Recent File List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
4.1.5 Reading and Writing Compressed Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
4.1.6 Tilde Expansion (UNIX Systems Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6
4.1.7 Automatic Numbering of Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6
4.1.8 Disabling the Overwrite Confirmation Prompt . . . . . . . . . . 4-7

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4.2 Reading Mesh Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7

4.2.1 Reading TGrid Mesh Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
4.2.2 Reading Surface Meshes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
4.2.3 Reading GAMBIT and GeoMesh Mesh Files . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
4.2.4 Reading PreBFC Unstructured Mesh Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
4.3 Reading and Writing Case and Data Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
4.3.1 Reading and Writing Case Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
4.3.2 Reading and Writing Data Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10
4.3.3 Reading and Writing Case and Data Files Together . . . . . . . 4-10
4.3.4 Automatic Saving of Case and Data Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
4.4 Reading FLUENT/UNS and RAMPANT Case and Data Files . . . . . . . 4-13
4.5 Reading and Writing Profile Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14
4.6 Reading and Writing Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
4.7 Writing a Boundary Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16
4.8 Reading Scheme Source Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-17
4.9 Creating and Reading Journal Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-17
4.9.1 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18
4.10 Creating Transcript Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19
4.11 Importing Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-20
4.11.1 ABAQUS Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-22
4.11.2 ANSYS Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-22
4.11.3 Meshes and Data in CGNS Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-23
4.11.4 EnSight Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-23
4.11.5 FIDAP Neutral Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24
4.11.6 GAMBIT and GeoMesh Mesh Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24
4.11.7 HYPERMESH ASCII Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24
4.11.8 I-deas Universal Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24
4.11.9 LSTC Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-25
4.11.10 Marc POST Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-25

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4.11.11 NASTRAN Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-26

4.11.12 PATRAN Neutral Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-26
4.11.13 PLOT3D Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-27
4.11.14 PTC Mechanica Design Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-27
4.11.15 FLUENT 4 Case Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-27
4.11.16 PreBFC Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-28
4.11.17 Partition Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-28
4.11.18 CHEMKIN Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-28
4.12 Exporting Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-29
4.12.1 Using the Export Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-31
4.12.2 ABAQUS Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-32
4.12.3 ANSYS Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-33
4.12.4 ANSYS Input Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-34
4.12.5 ASCII Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-34
4.12.6 AVS Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-35
4.12.7 CGNS Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-35
4.12.8 Data Explorer Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-36
4.12.9 EnSight Case Gold Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-36
4.12.10 FAST Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-38
4.12.11 FAST Solution Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-38
4.12.12 Fieldview Unstructured Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-38
4.12.13 I-deas Universal Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-39
4.12.14 NASTRAN Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-40
4.12.15 PATRAN Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-41
4.12.16 RadTherm Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-41
4.12.17 Tecplot Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-42
4.12.18 Defining Transient Export Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-43

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4.13 Grid-to-Grid Solution Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-44

4.13.1 Performing Grid-to-Grid Solution Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . 4-44
4.13.2 Format of the Interpolation File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-46
4.14 Saving Hardcopy Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-46
4.14.1 Using the Graphics Hardcopy Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-47
4.15 Saving the Panel Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-52
4.16 The .fluent File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-52

5 Unit Systems 5-1

5.1 Restrictions on Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
5.2 Units in Grid Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
5.3 Built-In Unit Systems in FLUENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
5.4 Customizing Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4

6 Reading and Manipulating Grids 6-1

6.1 Grid Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
6.1.1 Examples of Acceptable Grid Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
6.1.2 Face-Node Connectivity in FLUENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
6.1.3 Choosing the Appropriate Grid Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17
6.2 Grid Requirements and Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-19
6.2.1 Geometry/Grid Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-19
6.2.2 Mesh Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-20
6.3 Grid Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-24
6.3.1 GAMBIT Grid Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-24
6.3.2 GeoMesh Grid Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-24
6.3.3 TGrid Grid Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-24
6.3.4 PreBFC Grid Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-25
6.3.5 ICEMCFD Grid Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-26
6.3.6 Grid Files from Third-Party CAD Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-26
6.3.7 FLUENT/UNS and RAMPANT Case Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-32

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6.3.8 FLUENT 4 Case Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-32

6.3.9 FIDAP Neutral Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-32
6.3.10 Reading Multiple Mesh/Case/Data Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-33
6.3.11 Reading Surface Mesh Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-37
6.4 Non-Conformal Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-37
6.4.1 Non-Conformal Grid Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-37
6.4.2 Requirements and Limitations of Non-Conformal Grids . . . . . 6-41
6.4.3 Using a Non-Conformal Grid in FLUENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-43
6.4.4 Starting From a FLUENT/UNS or RAMPANT Case . . . . . . . . 6-45
6.5 Checking the Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-46
6.5.1 Grid Check Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-46
6.5.2 Repairing Duplicate Shadow Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-48
6.6 Reporting Grid Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-48
6.6.1 Grid Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-48
6.6.2 Memory Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-49
6.6.3 Grid Zone Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-51
6.6.4 Partition Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-51
6.7 Converting the Grid to a Polyhedral Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-52
6.7.1 Converting the Domain to a Polyhedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-52
6.7.2 Converting Skewed Cells to Polyhedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-58
6.7.3 Steps in Converting Skewed Cells to Polyhedral Cells . . . . . . . 6-59
6.8 Modifying the Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-60
6.8.1 Merging Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-61
6.8.2 Separating Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-62
6.8.3 Fusing Face Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-69
6.8.4 Creating Periodic Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-71
6.8.5 Slitting Periodic Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-72
6.8.6 Slitting Face Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-73
6.8.7 Extruding Face Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-74

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6.8.8 Replacing, Deleting, Deactivating, and Activating Zones . . . . . 6-75

6.8.9 Reordering the Domain and Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-79
6.8.10 Scaling the Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-80
6.8.11 Translating the Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-83
6.8.12 Rotating the Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-84

7 Boundary Conditions 7-1

7.1 Overview of Defining Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
7.1.1 Available Boundary Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
7.1.2 The Boundary Conditions Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4
7.1.3 Changing Boundary Zone Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
7.1.4 Setting Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6
7.1.5 Copying Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7
7.1.6 Selecting Boundary Zones in the Graphics Display . . . . . . . . 7-8
7.1.7 Changing Boundary Zone Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
7.1.8 Defining Non-Uniform Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9
7.1.9 Defining Transient Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9
7.1.10 Saving and Reusing Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12
7.2 Flow Inlet and Exit Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12
7.2.1 Using Flow Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-13
7.2.2 Determining Turbulence Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-14
7.3 Pressure Inlet Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-21
7.3.1 Inputs at Pressure Inlet Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-21
7.3.2 Default Settings at Pressure Inlet Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . 7-27
7.3.3 Calculation Procedure at Pressure Inlet Boundaries . . . . . . . 7-27
7.4 Velocity Inlet Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-29
7.4.1 Inputs at Velocity Inlet Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-30
7.4.2 Default Settings at Velocity Inlet Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . 7-36
7.4.3 Calculation Procedure at Velocity Inlet Boundaries . . . . . . . . 7-36

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7.5 Mass Flow Inlet Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-38

7.5.1 Inputs at Mass Flow Inlet Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-39
7.5.2 Default Settings at Mass Flow Inlet Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . 7-44
7.5.3 Calculation Procedure at Mass Flow Inlet Boundaries . . . . . . 7-45
7.6 Inlet Vent Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-47
7.6.1 Inputs at Inlet Vent Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-47
7.7 Intake Fan Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-49
7.7.1 Inputs at Intake Fan Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-49
7.8 Pressure Outlet Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-51
7.8.1 Inputs at Pressure Outlet Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-52
7.8.2 Default Settings at Pressure Outlet Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . 7-56
7.8.3 Calculation Procedure at Pressure Outlet Boundaries . . . . . . 7-57
7.8.4 Other Optional Inputs at Pressure Outlet Boundaries . . . . . . 7-59
7.9 Pressure Far-Field Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-61
7.9.1 Inputs at Pressure Far-Field Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-62
7.9.2 Default Settings at Pressure Far-Field Boundaries . . . . . . . . 7-64
7.9.3 Calculation Procedure at Pressure Far-Field Boundaries . . . . . 7-64
7.10 Outflow Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-65
7.10.1 FLUENT’s Treatment at Outflow Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . 7-66
7.10.2 Using Outflow Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-66
7.10.3 Mass Flow Split Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-68
7.10.4 Other Inputs at Outflow Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-69
7.11 Outlet Vent Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-70
7.11.1 Inputs at Outlet Vent Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-70
7.12 Exhaust Fan Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-73
7.12.1 Inputs at Exhaust Fan Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-73

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7.13 Wall Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-75

7.13.1 Inputs at Wall Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-75
7.13.2 Default Settings at Wall Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-93
7.13.3 Shear-Stress Calculation Procedure at Wall Boundaries . . . . . 7-94
7.13.4 Heat Transfer Calculations at Wall Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . 7-95
7.14 Symmetry Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-97
7.14.1 Examples of Symmetry Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-98
7.14.2 Calculation Procedure at Symmetry Boundaries . . . . . . . . . 7-100
7.15 Periodic Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-100
7.15.1 Examples of Periodic Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-101
7.15.2 Inputs for Periodic Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-101
7.15.3 Default Settings at Periodic Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-104
7.15.4 Calculation Procedure at Periodic Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . 7-104
7.16 Axis Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-105
7.17 Fluid Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-106
7.17.1 Inputs for Fluid Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-106
7.18 Solid Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-109
7.18.1 Inputs for Solid Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-110
7.19 Porous Media Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-112
7.19.1 Limitations and Assumptions of the Porous Media Model . . . . 7-113
7.19.2 Momentum Equations for Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-113
7.19.3 Treatment of the Energy Equation in Porous Media . . . . . . . 7-116
7.19.4 Treatment of Turbulence in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-117
7.19.5 Effect of Porosity on Transient Scalar Equations . . . . . . . . . 7-117
7.19.6 User Inputs for Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-117
7.19.7 Modeling Porous Media Based on Physical Velocity . . . . . . . . 7-131
7.19.8 Solution Strategies for Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-132
7.19.9 Postprocessing for Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-133

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7.20 Fan Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-134

7.20.1 Fan Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-134
7.20.2 User Inputs for Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-135
7.20.3 Postprocessing for Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-143
7.21 Radiator Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-144
7.21.1 Radiator Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-144
7.21.2 User Inputs for Radiators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-146
7.21.3 Postprocessing for Radiators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-151
7.22 Porous Jump Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-153
7.23 Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-155
7.23.1 Turbo-Specific Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . 7-156
7.23.2 General Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . 7-168
7.24 User-Defined Fan Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-176
7.24.1 Steps for Using the User-Defined Fan Model . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-176
7.24.2 Example of a User-Defined Fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-177
7.25 Heat Exchanger Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-186
7.25.1 Overview and Restrictions of the Heat Exchanger Models . . . . 7-186
7.25.2 Heat Exchanger Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-189
7.25.3 Using the Heat Exchanger Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-196
7.25.4 Using the Heat Exchanger Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-208
7.25.5 Postprocessing for the Heat Exchanger Model . . . . . . . . . . . 7-211
7.26 Boundary Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-216
7.26.1 Boundary Profile Specification Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-216
7.26.2 Boundary Profile File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-217
7.26.3 Using Boundary Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-220
7.26.4 Reorienting Boundary Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-223
7.27 Fixing the Values of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-228
7.27.1 Overview of Fixing the Value of a Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-228
7.27.2 Procedure for Fixing Values of Variables in a Zone . . . . . . . . 7-230

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7.28 Defining Mass, Momentum, Energy, and Other Sources . . . . . . . . . . 7-233

7.28.1 Procedure for Defining Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-234
7.29 Coupling Boundary Conditions with GT-Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-238
7.29.1 Requirements and Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-238
7.29.2 User Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-239
7.30 Coupling Boundary Conditions with WAVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-241
7.30.1 Requirements and Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-241
7.30.2 User Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-242

8 Physical Properties 8-1

8.1 Defining Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2
8.1.1 Material Types and Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
8.1.2 Using the Materials Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4
8.1.3 Using a User-Defined Materials Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10
8.2 Defining Properties Using Temperature-Dependent Functions . . . . . . 8-19
8.2.1 Inputs for Polynomial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20
8.2.2 Inputs for Piecewise-Linear Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21
8.2.3 Inputs for Piecewise-Polynomial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22
8.2.4 Checking and Modifying Existing Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23
8.3 Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24
8.3.1 Defining Density for Various Flow Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24
8.3.2 Input of Constant Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25
8.3.3 Inputs for the Boussinesq Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25
8.3.4 Density as a Profile Function of Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26
8.3.5 Incompressible Ideal Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26
8.3.6 Ideal Gas Law for Compressible Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27
8.3.7 Composition-Dependent Density for Multicomponent Mixtures . 8-28

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8.4 Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-30

8.4.1 Input of Constant Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-30
8.4.2 Viscosity as a Function of Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-31
8.4.3 Defining the Viscosity Using Kinetic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . 8-34
8.4.4 Composition-Dependent Viscosity for Multicomponent Mixtures 8-34
8.4.5 Viscosity for Non-Newtonian Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-35
8.5 Thermal Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-41
8.5.1 Constant Thermal Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-42
8.5.2 Thermal Conductivity as a Function of Temperature . . . . . . . 8-43
8.5.3 Thermal Conductivity Using Kinetic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . 8-43
8.5.4 Composition-Dependent Thermal Conductivity for
Multicomponent Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-44
8.5.5 Anisotropic Thermal Conductivity for Solids . . . . . . . . . . . 8-45
8.6 User-Defined Scalar (UDS) Diffusivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-50
8.6.1 Isotropic Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-51
8.6.2 Anisotropic Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-54
8.6.3 User-Defined Anisotropic Diffusivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-58
8.7 Specific Heat Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-59
8.7.1 Input of Constant Specific Heat Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-59
8.7.2 Specific Heat Capacity as a Function of Temperature . . . . . . . 8-60
8.7.3 Defining Specific Heat Capacity Using Kinetic Theory . . . . . . 8-60
8.7.4 Specific Heat Capacity as a Function of Composition . . . . . . . 8-61
8.8 Radiation Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-61
8.8.1 Absorption Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-62
8.8.2 Scattering Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-64
8.8.3 Refractive Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-65
8.8.4 Reporting the Radiation Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-65

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8.9 Mass Diffusion Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-65

8.9.1 Fickian Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-65
8.9.2 Full Multicomponent Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-67
8.9.3 Thermal Diffusion Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-68
8.9.4 Mass Diffusion Coefficient Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-69
8.9.5 Mass Diffusion Coefficient Inputs for Turbulent Flow . . . . . . . 8-75
8.10 Standard State Enthalpies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-76
8.11 Standard State Entropies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-76
8.12 Molecular Heat Transfer Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-76
8.13 Kinetic Theory Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-77
8.14 Operating Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-78
8.14.1 The Effect of Numerical Roundoff on Pressure Calculation
in Low-Mach-Number Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-78
8.14.2 Operating Pressure, Gauge Pressure, and Absolute Pressure . . . 8-79
8.14.3 Setting the Operating Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-79
8.15 Reference Pressure Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-80
8.15.1 Actual Reference Pressure Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-81
8.16 Real Gas Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-81
8.16.1 The NIST Real Gas Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-84
8.16.2 The User-Defined Real Gas Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-88

9 Modeling Basic Fluid Flow 9-1

9.1 Overview of Physical Models in FLUENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2
9.2 Continuity and Momentum Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3
9.3 User-Defined Scalar (UDS) Transport Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5
9.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5
9.3.2 UDS Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5
9.3.3 Setting Up UDS Equations in FLUENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-7

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9.4 Periodic Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-15

9.4.1 Overview and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-15
9.4.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-17
9.4.3 User Inputs for the Pressure-Based Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-18
9.4.4 User Inputs for the Density-Based Solvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-20
9.4.5 Monitoring the Value of the Pressure Gradient . . . . . . . . . . 9-20
9.4.6 Postprocessing for Streamwise-Periodic Flows . . . . . . . . . . . 9-21
9.5 Swirling and Rotating Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-22
9.5.1 Overview of Swirling and Rotating Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-23
9.5.2 Physics of Swirling and Rotating Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-24
9.5.3 Turbulence Modeling in Swirling Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-26
9.5.4 Grid Setup for Swirling and Rotating Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-27
9.5.5 Modeling Axisymmetric Flows with Swirl or Rotation . . . . . . 9-27
9.6 Compressible Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-32
9.6.1 When to Use the Compressible Flow Model . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-34
9.6.2 Physics of Compressible Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-35
9.6.3 Modeling Inputs for Compressible Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-36
9.6.4 Floating Operating Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-38
9.6.5 Solution Strategies for Compressible Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-40
9.6.6 Reporting of Results for Compressible Flows . . . . . . . . . . . 9-41
9.7 Inviscid Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-41
9.7.1 Euler Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-42
9.7.2 Setting Up an Inviscid Flow Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-43
9.7.3 Solution Strategies for Inviscid Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-44
9.7.4 Postprocessing for Inviscid Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-44

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10 Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames 10-1

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2
10.2 Flow in a Rotating Reference Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4
10.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4
10.2.2 Equations for a Rotating Reference Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4
10.2.3 Single Rotating Reference Frame (SRF) Modeling . . . . . . . . 10-7
10.3 Flow in Multiple Rotating Reference Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-9
10.3.1 The Multiple Reference Frame Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-9
10.3.2 The Mixing Plane Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-15
10.4 Grid Setup for a Single Rotating Reference Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-21
10.5 Grid Setup for a Multiple Rotating Reference Frame . . . . . . . . . . . 10-22
10.6 Steps in Using Rotating Reference Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-22
10.7 Setting Up a Single Rotating Reference Frame Problem . . . . . . . . . . 10-25
10.7.1 Choosing the Relative or Absolute Velocity Formulation . . . . . 10-27
10.8 Solution Strategies for a Single Rotating Reference Frame . . . . . . . . 10-29
10.8.1 Gradual Increase of the Rotational Speed to Improve
Solution Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-30
10.9 Postprocessing for a Single Rotating Reference Frame . . . . . . . . . . . 10-30
10.10 Setting Up a Multiple Rotating Reference Frame Problem . . . . . . . . 10-32
10.10.1 Setting Up Multiple Reference Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-32
10.10.2 Setting Up the Mixing Plane Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-35
10.11 Solution Strategies for MRF and Mixing Plane Problems . . . . . . . . . 10-40
10.11.1 MRF Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-40
10.11.2 Mixing Plane Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-40
10.12 Postprocessing for MRF and Mixing Plane Problems . . . . . . . . . . . 10-40

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11 Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes 11-1

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1
11.1.1 Conservation Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3
11.2 Sliding Mesh Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4
11.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4
11.2.2 Sliding Mesh Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-10
11.3 Dynamic Mesh Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-12
11.3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-12
11.3.2 Dynamic Mesh Update Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-12
11.3.3 Volume Mesh Update Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-34
11.3.4 Solid-Body Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-35
11.3.5 Steady-State Dynamic Mesh Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-39
11.4 Steps in Using Sliding Meshes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-42
11.4.1 Grid Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-42
11.4.2 Setting Up the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-43
11.5 Solution Strategies for Sliding Meshes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-45
11.6 Postprocessing for Sliding Meshes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-49
11.7 Steps in Using Dynamic Meshes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-50
11.7.1 Setting Dynamic Mesh Modeling Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . 11-51
11.7.2 Specifying the Motion of Dynamic Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-60
11.7.3 Previewing the Dynamic Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-70
11.7.4 Defining Dynamic Mesh Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-73
11.7.5 Using the In-Cylinder Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-83
11.7.6 Using the 2.5D Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-99
11.7.7 Using the Six DOF Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-101

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12 Modeling Turbulence 12-1

12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2
12.2 Choosing a Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3
12.2.1 Reynolds-Averaged Approach of the DES Model vs. LES . . . . 12-3
12.2.2 Reynolds (Ensemble) Averaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4
12.2.3 Boussinesq Approach vs. Reynolds Stress Transport Models . . . 12-5
12.2.4 Computational Effort: CPU Time and Solution Behavior . . . . 12-6
12.3 Spalart-Allmaras Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7
12.3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7
12.3.2 Transport Equation for the Spalart-Allmaras Model . . . . . . . 12-7
12.3.3 Modeling the Turbulent Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8
12.3.4 Modeling the Turbulent Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8
12.3.5 Modeling the Turbulent Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-10
12.3.6 Model Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-10
12.3.7 Wall Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-10
12.3.8 Convective Heat and Mass Transfer Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . 12-11
12.4 Standard, RNG, and Realizable k- Models Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-12
12.4.1 Standard k- Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-12
12.4.2 RNG k- Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-14
12.4.3 Realizable k- Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-18
12.4.4 Modeling Turbulent Production in the k- Models . . . . . . . . 12-22
12.4.5 Effects of Buoyancy on Turbulence in the k- Models . . . . . . . 12-23
12.4.6 Effects of Compressibility on Turbulence in the k- Models . . . 12-24
12.4.7 Convective Heat and Mass Transfer Modeling in the k- Models . 12-25
12.5 Standard and SST k-ω Models Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-26
12.5.1 Standard k-ω Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-26
12.5.2 Shear-Stress Transport (SST) k-ω Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-31
12.5.3 Wall Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-35
12.6 The v 2 -f Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-36

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12.7 Reynolds Stress Model (RSM) Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-37

12.7.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-37
12.7.2 Reynolds Stress Transport Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-38
12.7.3 Modeling Turbulent Diffusive Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-38
12.7.4 Modeling the Pressure-Strain Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-39
12.7.5 Effects of Buoyancy on Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-44
12.7.6 Modeling the Turbulence Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-44
12.7.7 Modeling the Dissipation Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-45
12.7.8 Modeling the Turbulent Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-45
12.7.9 Wall Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-46
12.7.10 Convective Heat and Mass Transfer Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . 12-47
12.8 Detached Eddy Simulation (DES) Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-47
12.8.1 Spalart-Allmaras RANS Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-48
12.8.2 Realizable k- RANS Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-48
12.8.3 SST k-ω RANS Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-49
12.9 Large Eddy Simulation (LES) Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-49
12.9.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-49
12.9.2 Filtered Navier-Stokes Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-50
12.9.3 Subgrid-Scale Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-52
12.9.4 Inlet Boundary Conditions for the LES Model . . . . . . . . . . 12-56
12.10 Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows . . . . . . . . 12-58
12.10.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-58
12.10.2 Standard Wall Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-61
12.10.3 Non-Equilibrium Wall Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-65
12.10.4 Enhanced Wall Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-68
12.10.5 User-Defined Wall Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-74
12.10.6 LES Near-Wall Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-74
12.11 Grid Considerations for Turbulent Flow Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . 12-75
12.11.1 Near-Wall Mesh Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-75

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12.12 Steps in Using a Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-77

12.13 Setting Up the Spalart-Allmaras Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-80
12.14 Setting Up the k- Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-81
12.14.1 Setting Up the Standard or Realizable k- Model . . . . . . . . . 12-81
12.14.2 Setting Up the RNG k- Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-82
12.15 Setting Up the k-ω Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-84
12.15.1 Setting Up the Standard k-ω Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-84
12.15.2 Setting Up the Shear-Stress Transport k-ω Model . . . . . . . . . 12-85
12.16 Setting Up the Reynolds Stress Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-86
12.17 Setting Up the Detached Eddy Simulation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-89
12.18 Setting Up the Large Eddy Simulation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-90
12.19 Setup Options for all Turbulence Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-92
12.19.1 Including the Viscous Heating Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-92
12.19.2 Including Turbulence Generation Due to Buoyancy . . . . . . . . 12-92
12.19.3 Vorticity- and Strain/Vorticity-Based Production . . . . . . . . . 12-92
12.19.4 Detached Eddy Simulation (DES) Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-92
12.19.5 Differential Viscosity Modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-93
12.19.6 Swirl Modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-93
12.19.7 Transitional Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-93
12.19.8 Shear Flow Corrections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-93
12.19.9 Including Pressure Gradient Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-93
12.19.10 Including Thermal Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-94
12.19.11 Including the Wall Reflection Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-94
12.19.12 Solving the k Equation to Obtain Wall Boundary Conditions . . 12-94
12.19.13 Quadratic Pressure-Strain Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-94
12.19.14 Low-Re Stress-Omega Pressure-Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-95
12.19.15 Subgrid-Scale Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-95

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12.19.16 Customizing the Turbulent Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-95

12.19.17 Customizing the Turbulent Prandtl Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . 12-96
12.19.18 Modeling Turbulence with Non-Newtonian Fluids . . . . . . . . 12-96
12.20 Defining Turbulence Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-96
12.20.1 The Spalart-Allmaras Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-96
12.20.2 k- Models and k-ω Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-97
12.20.3 Reynolds Stress Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-98
12.20.4 Large Eddy Simulation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-100
12.21 Providing an Initial Guess for k and  (or k and ω) . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-100
12.22 Solution Strategies for Turbulent Flow Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-101
12.22.1 Mesh Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-101
12.22.2 Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-101
12.22.3 Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-102
12.22.4 RSM-Specific Solution Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-102
12.22.5 LES-Specific Solution Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-103
12.23 Postprocessing for Turbulent Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-105
12.23.1 Custom Field Functions for Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-109
12.23.2 Postprocessing Turbulent Flow Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-109
12.23.3 Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-111

13 Modeling Heat Transfer 13-1

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1
13.2 Modeling Conductive and Convective Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-2
13.2.1 Heat Transfer Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-2
13.2.2 Steps in Solving Heat Transfer Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-7
13.2.3 Solution Strategies for Heat Transfer Modeling . . . . . . . . . . 13-10
13.2.4 Postprocessing Heat Transfer Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-12
13.2.5 Natural Convection and Buoyancy-Driven Flows . . . . . . . . . 13-14
13.2.6 Shell Conduction Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-21

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13.3 Modeling Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-24

13.3.1 Overview and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-25
13.3.2 Radiative Transfer Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-29
13.3.3 P-1 Radiation Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-30
13.3.4 Rosseland Radiation Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-34
13.3.5 Discrete Transfer Radiation Model (DTRM) Theory . . . . . . . 13-36
13.3.6 Discrete Ordinates (DO) Radiation Model Theory . . . . . . . . 13-40
13.3.7 Surface-to-Surface (S2S) Radiation Model Theory . . . . . . . . 13-61
13.3.8 Radiation in Combusting Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-64
13.3.9 Choosing a Radiation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-68
13.3.10 Steps in Using the Radiation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-69
13.3.11 Setting Up the DTRM Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-71
13.3.12 Setting Up the S2S Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-74
13.3.13 Setting Up the DO Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-84
13.3.14 Defining Material Properties for Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-88
13.3.15 Defining Boundary Conditions for Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . 13-89
13.3.16 Solution Strategies for Radiation Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-99
13.3.17 Postprocessing Radiation Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-104
13.3.18 Solar Load Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-109
13.4 Modeling Periodic Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-137
13.4.1 Overview and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-137
13.4.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-138
13.4.3 Steps in Using Periodic Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-140
13.4.4 Solution Strategies for Periodic Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . 13-142
13.4.5 Monitoring Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-142
13.4.6 Postprocessing for Periodic Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-143

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14 Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry 14-1

14.1 Volumetric Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2
14.1.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-3
14.1.2 Overview of User Inputs for Modeling Species
Transport and Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-12
14.1.3 Enabling Species Transport and Reactions and
Choosing the Mixture Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-15
14.1.4 Defining Properties for the Mixture and Its Constituent Species . 14-17
14.1.5 Defining Boundary Conditions for Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-34
14.1.6 Defining Other Sources of Chemical Species . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-35
14.1.7 Solution Procedures for Chemical Mixing and
Finite-Rate Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-35
14.1.8 Postprocessing for Species Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-40
14.1.9 Importing a Volumetric Kinetic Mechanism in
CHEMKIN Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-41
14.2 Wall Surface Reactions and Chemical Vapor Deposition . . . . . . . . . 14-44
14.2.1 Overview of Surface Species and Wall Surface Reactions . . . . . 14-44
14.2.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-44
14.2.3 User Inputs for Wall Surface Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-49
14.2.4 Solution Procedures for Wall Surface Reactions . . . . . . . . . . 14-51
14.2.5 Postprocessing for Surface Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-51
14.2.6 Importing a Surface Kinetic Mechanism in CHEMKIN Format . 14-52
14.3 Particle Surface Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-56
14.3.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-56
14.3.2 User Inputs for Particle Surface Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-61
14.3.3 Using the Multiple Surface Reactions Model for
Discrete-Phase Particle Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-62
14.4 Species Transport Without Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-63

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15 Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion 15-1

15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-2
15.1.1 Overview of the Non-Premixed Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-2
15.2 Non-Premixed Combustion and Mixture Fraction Theory . . . . . . . . . 15-2
15.2.1 Mixture Fraction Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3
15.2.2 Modeling of Turbulence-Chemistry Interaction . . . . . . . . . . 15-8
15.2.3 Non-Adiabatic Extensions of the Non-Premixed Model . . . . . . 15-12
15.2.4 Chemistry Tabulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-15
15.2.5 Restrictions and Special Cases for Using the
Non-Premixed Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-18
15.3 The Laminar Flamelet Models Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-24
15.3.1 Restrictions and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-24
15.3.2 The Flamelet Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-24
15.3.3 Flamelet Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-28
15.3.4 Flamelet Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-28
15.4 The Steady Laminar Flamelet Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-30
15.4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-31
15.4.2 Multiple Steady Flamelet Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-31
15.4.3 Non-Adiabatic Steady Laminar Flamelets . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-32
15.5 The Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-32
15.5.1 The Generalized Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Model . . . . . . . 15-33
15.5.2 The Diesel Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Model . . . . . . . . . . 15-36
15.6 Steps in Using the Non-Premixed Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-37
15.6.1 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-37
15.6.2 Defining the Problem Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-38
15.6.3 Overview of the Problem Setup Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-38

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15.7 Setting Up the Equilibrium Chemistry Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-42

15.7.1 Choosing Adiabatic or Non-Adiabatic Options . . . . . . . . . . 15-43
15.7.2 Specifying the Operating Pressure for the System . . . . . . . . . 15-43
15.7.3 Enabling a Secondary Inlet Stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-44
15.7.4 Choosing to Define the Fuel Stream(s) Empirically . . . . . . . . 15-45
15.7.5 Enabling the Rich Flammability Limit (RFL) Option . . . . . . 15-46
15.8 Setting Up the Steady and Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Models . . . . . 15-46
15.8.1 Choosing Adiabatic or Non-Adiabatic Options . . . . . . . . . . 15-47
15.8.2 Specifying the Operating Pressure for the System . . . . . . . . . 15-47
15.8.3 Specifying a Chemical Mechanism File for Flamelet Generation . 15-48
15.8.4 Importing a Flamelet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-49
15.8.5 Using the Diesel Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Model . . . . . . . 15-49
15.9 Defining the Stream Compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-51
15.9.1 Setting Boundary Stream Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-54
15.9.2 Modifying the Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-54
15.9.3 Composition Inputs for Empirically-Defined Fuel Streams . . . . 15-55
15.9.4 Modeling Liquid Fuel Combustion Using the
Non-Premixed Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-55
15.9.5 Modeling Coal Combustion Using the Non-Premixed Model . . . 15-56
15.10 Setting Up Control Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-60
15.10.1 Forcing the Exclusion and Inclusion of Equilibrium Species . . . 15-60
15.10.2 Defining the Flamelet Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-62
15.10.3 Zeroing Species in the Initial Unsteady Flamelet . . . . . . . . . 15-63
15.11 Calculating the Flamelets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-65
15.11.1 Steady Flamelet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-65
15.11.2 Unsteady Flamelet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-67
15.11.3 Saving the Flamelet Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-70
15.11.4 Postprocessing the Flamelet Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-70

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15.12 Calculating the Look-Up Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-74

15.12.1 Stability Issues in Calculating Look-Up Tables . . . . . . . . . . 15-77
15.12.2 Saving the Look-Up Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-77
15.12.3 Postprocessing the Look-Up Table Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-78
15.13 Defining Non-Premixed Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-85
15.13.1 Input of Mixture Fraction Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . 15-85
15.13.2 Diffusion at Inlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-86
15.13.3 Input of Thermal Boundary Conditions and Fuel
Inlet Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-86
15.14 Defining Non-Premixed Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-87
15.15 Coal Modeling Inputs in FLUENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-88
15.16 Solution Strategies for Non-Premixed Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-89
15.16.1 Single-Mixture-Fraction Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-89
15.16.2 Two-Mixture-Fraction Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-90
15.16.3 Starting a Non-Premixed Calculation From a Previous
Case File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-90
15.16.4 Solving the Flow Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-92
15.17 Postprocessing the Non-Premixed Model Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-94

16 Modeling Premixed Combustion 16-1

16.1 Overview and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1
16.1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1
16.1.2 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-2
16.2 Premixed Combustion Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-3
16.2.1 Propagation of the Flame Front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-3
16.2.2 Turbulent Flame Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-4
16.2.3 Premixed Combustion Model Formulation in FLUENT . . . . . . 16-9
16.2.4 Calculation of Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-9
16.2.5 Calculation of Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-10

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16.3 Using the Premixed Combustion Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-11

16.3.1 Enabling the Premixed Combustion Model . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-12
16.3.2 Choosing an Adiabatic or Non-Adiabatic Model . . . . . . . . . 16-12
16.3.3 Modifying the Constants for the Premixed Combustion Model . . 16-13
16.3.4 Defining Physical Properties for the Unburnt Mixture . . . . . . 16-13
16.3.5 Setting Boundary Conditions for the Progress Variable . . . . . . 16-14
16.3.6 Initializing the Progress Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-14
16.3.7 Postprocessing for Premixed Combustion Calculations . . . . . . 16-15

17 Modeling Partially Premixed Combustion 17-1

17.1 Overview and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1
17.1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1
17.1.2 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1
17.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2
17.2.1 Calculation of Scalar Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2
17.2.2 Laminar Flame Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3
17.3 Using the Partially Premixed Combustion Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3
17.3.1 Setup and Solution Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4
17.3.2 Modifying the Unburnt Mixture Property Polynomials . . . . . . 17-6

18 Modeling a Composition PDF Transport Problem 18-1

18.1 Overview and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1
18.2 Composition PDF Transport Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1
18.2.1 Solution of the PDF Transport Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3
18.2.2 Particle Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3
18.2.3 Particle Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-4
18.2.4 Particle Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-6
18.2.5 The ISAT Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-7

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18.3 Steps for Using the Composition PDF Transport Model . . . . . . . . . 18-9
18.3.1 Enabling the Composition PDF Transport Model . . . . . . . . . 18-10
18.3.2 Setting Integration Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-11
18.3.3 Enabling KINetics from Reaction Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-12
18.3.4 Enabling Liquid Micro-Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-13
18.3.5 Selecting the Particle Mixing Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-13
18.3.6 Defining the Solution Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-13
18.3.7 Monitoring the Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-15
18.3.8 Monitoring ISAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-16
18.3.9 Using ISAT Efficiently . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-17
18.3.10 Reading and Writing ISAT Tables in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . 18-18
18.3.11 Running Unsteady Composition PDF Transport Simulations . . 18-19
18.3.12 Running Compressible Composition PDF Transport
Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-19
18.3.13 Running Composition PDF Transport Simulations
with Conjugate Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-19
18.3.14 Postprocessing for Composition PDF Transport Calculations . . 18-19

19 Modeling Engine Ignition 19-1

19.1 Spark Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1
19.1.1 Overview and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1
19.1.2 Spark Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-2
19.1.3 Using the Spark Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-3
19.2 Autoignition Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-5
19.2.1 Overview and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-6
19.2.2 Ignition Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-7
19.2.3 Using the Autoignition Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-11

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19.3 Crevice Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-14

19.3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-14
19.3.2 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-17
19.3.3 Crevice Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-17
19.3.4 Using the Crevice Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-19
19.3.5 Crevice Model Solution Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-21
19.3.6 Postprocessing for the Crevice Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-21

20 Modeling Pollutant Formation 20-1

20.1 NOx Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-1
20.1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-2
20.1.2 Governing Equations for NOx Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-3
20.1.3 Thermal NOx Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-4
20.1.4 Prompt NOx Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-8
20.1.5 Fuel NOx Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-12
20.1.6 NOx Formation from Intermediate N2 O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-24
20.1.7 NOx Reduction by Reburning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-26
20.1.8 NOx Reduction by SNCR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-30
20.1.9 NOx Formation in Turbulent Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-36
20.1.10 Using the NOx Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-39
20.1.11 Solution Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-51
20.1.12 Postprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-52
20.2 SOx Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-53
20.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-54
20.2.2 Governing Equations for SOx Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-55
20.2.3 Reaction Mechanisms for Sulfur Oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-56
20.2.4 SO2 and H 2 S Production in a Gaseous Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-58
20.2.5 SO2 and H 2 S Production in a Liquid Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-59
20.2.6 SO2 and H 2 S Production from Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-59

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20.2.7 SOx Formation in Turbulent Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-60

20.2.8 Using the SOx Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-61
20.2.9 Solution Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-71
20.2.10 Postprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-72
20.3 Soot Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-73
20.3.1 Overview and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-73
20.3.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-74
20.3.3 Using the Soot Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-78

21 Predicting Aerodynamically Generated Noise 21-1

21.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-1
21.1.1 Direct Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-2
21.1.2 Integral Method Based on Acoustic Analogy . . . . . . . . . . . 21-2
21.1.3 Broadband Noise Source Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-3
21.2 Acoustics Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-4
21.2.1 The Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings Model . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-4
21.2.2 Broadband Noise Source Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-7
21.3 Using the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings Acoustics Model . . . . . . . . 21-12
21.3.1 Enabling the FW-H Acoustics Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-13
21.3.2 Specifying Source Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-17
21.3.3 Specifying Acoustic Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-20
21.3.4 Postprocessing the FW-H Acoustics Model Data . . . . . . . . . 21-21
21.4 Using the Broadband Noise Source Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-25
21.4.1 Enabling the Broadband Noise Source Models . . . . . . . . . . . 21-26
21.4.2 Postprocessing the Broadband Noise Source Model Data . . . . . 21-27

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22 Modeling Discrete Phase 22-1

22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-2
22.1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-2
22.1.2 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-3
22.2 Particle Motion Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-5
22.2.1 Equations of Motion for Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-5
22.2.2 Turbulent Dispersion of Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-10
22.3 Multicomponent Particle Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-17
22.4 Wall-Film Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-19
22.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-19
22.4.2 Interaction During Impact with a Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-20
22.4.3 Splashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-22
22.4.4 Separation Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-26
22.4.5 Conservation Equations for Wall-Film Particles . . . . . . . . . . 22-26
22.5 Particle Erosion and Accretion Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-31
22.6 Dynamic Drag Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-32
22.7 Spray Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-33
22.7.1 Droplet Collision Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-34
22.7.2 Droplet Breakup Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-37
22.8 Atomizer Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-46
22.8.1 The Plain-Orifice Atomizer Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-47
22.8.2 The Pressure-Swirl Atomizer Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-55
22.8.3 The Air-Blast/Air-Assist Atomizer Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-60
22.8.4 The Flat-Fan Atomizer Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-61
22.8.5 The Effervescent Atomizer Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-62
22.9 One-Way and Two-Way Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-63
22.9.1 Coupling Between the Discrete and Continuous Phases . . . . . . 22-64
22.9.2 Particle Types in FLUENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-67
22.10 Discrete Phase Model (DPM) Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-91

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22.11 Steps for Using the Discrete Phase Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-91

22.11.1 Options for Interaction with the Continuous Phase . . . . . . . . 22-93
22.11.2 Steady/Transient Treatment of Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-93
22.11.3 Parameter Tracking for the Discrete Phase Model . . . . . . . . 22-96
22.11.4 Alternate Drag Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-99
22.11.5 Physical Models for the Discrete Phase Model . . . . . . . . . . . 22-100
22.11.6 Options for Spray Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-102
22.11.7 Numerics of the Discrete Phase Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-103
22.11.8 User-Defined Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-106
22.11.9 Parallel Processing for the Discrete Phase Model . . . . . . . . . 22-106
22.12 Setting Initial Conditions for the Discrete Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-109
22.12.1 Injection Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-110
22.12.2 Particle Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-126
22.12.3 Creating, Modifying, Copying, Deleting, and Listing Injections . 22-127
22.12.4 Defining Injection Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-129
22.12.5 Modeling Turbulent Dispersion of Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-134
22.12.6 Custom Particle Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-137
22.12.7 Defining Properties Common to More than One Injection . . . . 22-138
22.13 Setting Boundary Conditions for the Discrete Phase . . . . . . . . . . . 22-140
22.13.1 Discrete Phase Boundary Condition Types . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-141
22.13.2 Setting Particle Erosion and Accretion Parameters . . . . . . . . 22-146
22.14 Setting Material Properties for the Discrete Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-146
22.14.1 Summary of Property Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-146
22.14.2 Setting Discrete-Phase Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-150
22.15 Solution Strategies for the Discrete Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-156
22.15.1 Integration of Particle Equation of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-157
22.15.2 Performing Trajectory Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-159
22.15.3 Resetting the Interphase Exchange Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-163

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22.16 Postprocessing for the Discrete Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-163

22.16.1 Displaying of Trajectories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-164
22.16.2 Reporting of Trajectory Fates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-167
22.16.3 Step-by-Step Reporting of Trajectories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-172
22.16.4 Reporting of Current Positions for Unsteady Tracking . . . . . . 22-174
22.16.5 Reporting of Interphase Exchange Terms and
Discrete Phase Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-175
22.16.6 Sampling of Trajectories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-176
22.16.7 Histogram Reporting of Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-178
22.16.8 Summary Reporting of Current Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-179
22.16.9 Postprocessing of Erosion/Accretion Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-181

23 Modeling Multiphase Flows 23-1

23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-2
23.1.1 Multiphase Flow Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-2
23.1.2 Examples of Multiphase Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-5
23.2 Choosing a General Multiphase Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-5
23.2.1 Approaches to Multiphase Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-6
23.2.2 Model Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-7
23.2.3 Time Schemes in Multiphase Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-11
23.2.4 Stability and Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-12
23.3 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-12
23.3.1 Overview and Limitations of the VOF Model . . . . . . . . . . . 23-12
23.3.2 Volume Fraction Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-14
23.3.3 Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-19
23.3.4 Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-19
23.3.5 Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-20
23.3.6 Additional Scalar Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-20

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23.3.7 Time Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-20

23.3.8 Surface Tension and Wall Adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-21
23.3.9 Open Channel Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-26
23.4 Mixture Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-29
23.4.1 Overview and Limitations of the Mixture Model . . . . . . . . . 23-29
23.4.2 Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-31
23.4.3 Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-32
23.4.4 Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-32
23.4.5 Relative (Slip) Velocity and the Drift Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . 23-33
23.4.6 Volume Fraction Equation for the Secondary Phases . . . . . . . 23-34
23.4.7 Granular Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-35
23.4.8 Granular Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-36
23.4.9 Solids Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-36
23.5 Eulerian Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-37
23.5.1 Overview and Limitations of the Eulerian Model . . . . . . . . . 23-37
23.5.2 Volume Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-39
23.5.3 Conservation Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-40
23.5.4 Interphase Exchange Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-44
23.5.5 Solids Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-50
23.5.6 Maximum Packing Limit in Binary Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . 23-53
23.5.7 Solids Shear Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-54
23.5.8 Granular Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-57
23.5.9 Description of Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-58
23.5.10 Turbulence Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-60
23.5.11 Solution Method in FLUENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-70

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23.6 Wet Steam Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-71

23.6.1 Overview and Limitations of the Wet Steam Model . . . . . . . . 23-71
23.6.2 Wet Steam Flow Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-72
23.6.3 Phase Change Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-74
23.6.4 Built-in Thermodynamic Wet Steam Properties . . . . . . . . . . 23-75
23.7 Modeling Mass Transfer in Multiphase Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-78
23.7.1 Source Terms due to Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-78
23.7.2 Unidirectional Constant Rate Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-80
23.7.3 UDF-Prescribed Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-80
23.7.4 Cavitation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-81
23.8 Modeling Species Transport in Multiphase Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-89
23.8.1 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-90
23.8.2 Mass and Momentum Transfer with Multiphase Species Transport23-91
23.9 Steps for Using a Multiphase Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-94
23.9.1 Enabling the Multiphase Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-96
23.9.2 Solving a Homogeneous Multiphase Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-97
23.9.3 Defining the Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-98
23.9.4 Including Body Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-99
23.9.5 Modeling Multiphase Species Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-100
23.9.6 Specifying Heterogeneous Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-102
23.9.7 Including Mass Transfer Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-103
23.9.8 Defining Multiphase Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-106
23.10 Setting Up the VOF Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-121
23.10.1 Choosing a VOF Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-121
23.10.2 Modeling Open Channel Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-124
23.10.3 Defining the Phases for the VOF Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-131
23.10.4 Setting Time-Dependent Parameters for the VOF Model . . . . . 23-135
23.10.5 Modeling Compressible Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-137
23.10.6 Modeling Solidification/Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-138

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23.11 Setting Up the Mixture Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-138

23.11.1 Defining the Phases for the Mixture Model . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-138
23.11.2 Including Cavitation Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-144
23.11.3 Modeling Compressible Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-146
23.12 Setting Up the Eulerian Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-147
23.12.1 Additional Guidelines for Eulerian Multiphase Simulations . . . . 23-147
23.12.2 Defining the Phases for the Eulerian Model . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-147
23.12.3 Modeling Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-156
23.12.4 Including Heat Transfer Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-158
23.12.5 Modeling Compressible Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-159
23.13 Setting Up the Wet Steam Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-160
23.13.1 Using User-Defined Thermodynamic Wet Steam Properties . . . 23-160
23.13.2 Writing the User-Defined Wet Steam Property Functions
(UDWSPF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-161
23.13.3 Compiling Your UDWSPF and Building a Shared Library File . 23-164
23.13.4 Loading the UDWSPF Shared Library File . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-166
23.13.5 UDWSPF Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-167
23.14 Solution Strategies for Multiphase Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-175
23.14.1 Setting Initial Volume Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-175
23.14.2 VOF Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-175
23.14.3 Mixture Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-177
23.14.4 Eulerian Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-178
23.14.5 Wet Steam Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-179
23.15 Postprocessing for Multiphase Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-181
23.15.1 Model-Specific Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-181
23.15.2 Displaying Velocity Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-185
23.15.3 Reporting Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-185
23.15.4 Reporting Forces on Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-185
23.15.5 Reporting Flow Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-186

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24 Modeling Solidification and Melting 24-1

24.1 Overview and Limitations of the Solidification/Melting Model . . . . . . 24-1
24.1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-1
24.1.2 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-2
24.2 Theory for the Solidification/Melting Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-2
24.2.1 Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-3
24.2.2 Momentum Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-4
24.2.3 Turbulence Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-5
24.2.4 Species Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-5
24.2.5 Pull Velocity for Continuous Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-6
24.2.6 Contact Resistance at Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-7
24.3 Using the Solidification/Melting Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-9
24.3.1 Setup Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-9
24.3.2 Procedures for Modeling Continuous Casting . . . . . . . . . . . 24-11
24.3.3 Solution Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-12
24.3.4 Postprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-12

25 Using the Solver 25-1

25.1 Overview of Flow Solvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-2
25.1.1 Pressure-Based Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-3
25.1.2 Density-Based Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-5
25.2 General Scalar Transport Equation: Discretization and Solution . . . . . 25-8
25.2.1 Solving the Linear System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-9
25.3 Discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-10
25.3.1 Spatial Discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-10
25.3.2 Temporal Discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-17
25.3.3 Evaluation of Gradients and Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-19

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25.4 Pressure-Based Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-22

25.4.1 Discretization of the Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-23
25.4.2 Discretization of the Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-25
25.4.3 Pressure-Velocity Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-26
25.4.4 Steady-State Iterative Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-32
25.4.5 Time-Advancement Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-33
25.5 Density-Based Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-37
25.5.1 Governing Equations in Vector Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-37
25.5.2 Preconditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-38
25.5.3 Convective Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-41
25.5.4 Steady-State Flow Solution Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-43
25.5.5 Unsteady Flows Solution Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-45
25.6 Multigrid Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-48
25.6.1 Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-48
25.6.2 Multigrid Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-50
25.6.3 Algebraic Multigrid (AMG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-54
25.6.4 Full-Approximation Storage (FAS) Multigrid . . . . . . . . . . . 25-61
25.7 How To Use the Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-63
25.7.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-63
25.8 Choosing the Discretization Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-67
25.8.1 First-Order Accuracy vs. Second-Order Accuracy . . . . . . . . . 25-67
25.8.2 Other Discretization Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-68
25.8.3 Choosing the Pressure Interpolation Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-68
25.8.4 Choosing the Density Interpolation Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-69
25.8.5 User Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-70
25.9 Pressure-Based Solver Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-71
25.9.1 Choosing the Pressure-Velocity Coupling Method . . . . . . . . . 25-71
25.9.2 Setting Under-Relaxation Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-74
25.9.3 Setting Solution Controls for the Non-Iterative Solver . . . . . . 25-76

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25.10 Density-Based Solver Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-80

25.10.1 Changing the Courant Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-80
25.10.2 Convective Flux Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-82
25.10.3 Turning On FAS Multigrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-82
25.11 Setting Algebraic Multigrid Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-84
25.11.1 Additional Algebraic Multigrid Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-87
25.11.2 Setting FAS Multigrid Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-91
25.12 Setting Solution Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-94
25.13 Setting Multi-Stage Time-Stepping Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-97
25.14 Initializing the Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-98
25.14.1 Initializing the Entire Flow Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-99
25.14.2 Patching Values in Selected Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-101
25.15 Using Full Multigrid (FMG) Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-103
25.15.1 Overview of FMG Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-103
25.15.2 Steps in Using FMG Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-105
25.15.3 Convergence Strategies for FMG Initialization . . . . . . . . . . 25-106
25.16 Performing Steady-State Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-106
25.17 Performing Time-Dependent Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-108
25.17.1 User Inputs for Time-Dependent Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-110
25.17.2 Adaptive Time Stepping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-116
25.17.3 Variable Time Stepping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-119
25.17.4 Postprocessing for Time-Dependent Problems . . . . . . . . . . . 25-121
25.18 Monitoring Solution Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-122
25.18.1 Monitoring Residuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-122
25.18.2 Monitoring Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-133
25.18.3 Monitoring Forces and Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-134
25.18.4 Monitoring Surface Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-138
25.18.5 Monitoring Volume Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-142

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25.19 Executing Commands During the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-146

25.19.1 Specifying the Commands to be Executed . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-146
25.19.2 Defining Macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-148
25.19.3 Saving Files During the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-149
25.20 Additional Options in the Solver Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-149
25.20.1 Animating the Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-149
25.20.2 Importing and Exporting Particle History Data . . . . . . . . . . 25-159
25.20.3 Managing Acoustic Signal Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-163
25.21 Checking Your Case Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-163
25.21.1 Checking the Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-166
25.21.2 Checking Model Selections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-168
25.21.3 Checking Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-170
25.21.4 Checking Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-173
25.21.5 Checking the Solver Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-175
25.22 Convergence and Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-178
25.22.1 Judging Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-178
25.22.2 Step-by-Step Solution Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-180
25.22.3 Modifying Algebraic Multigrid Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-181
25.22.4 Modifying the Multi-Stage Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-182

26 Adapting the Grid 26-1

26.1 Using Adaption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-2
26.1.1 Adaption Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-2
26.1.2 Adaption Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-5
26.2 Static Adaption Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-6
26.2.1 Hanging Node Adaption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-7
26.2.2 Conformal Adaption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-9
26.2.3 Conformal vs. Hanging Node Adaption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-12

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26.3 Boundary Adaption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-13

26.3.1 Performing Boundary Adaption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-15
26.4 Gradient Adaption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-19
26.4.1 Gradient Adaption Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-19
26.4.2 Performing Gradient Adaption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-23
26.5 Dynamic Gradient Adaption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-26
26.5.1 Dynamic Gradient Adaption Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-26
26.6 Isovalue Adaption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-28
26.6.1 Performing Isovalue Adaption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-30
26.7 Region Adaption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-31
26.7.1 Defining a Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-31
26.7.2 Region Adaption Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-32
26.7.3 Performing Region Adaption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-34
26.8 Volume Adaption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-36
26.8.1 Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-36
26.8.2 Volume Adaption Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-36
26.8.3 Performing Volume Adaption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-38
26.9 Yplus/Ystar Adaption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-39
26.9.1 Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-39
26.9.2 Performing Yplus or Ystar Adaption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-41
26.10 Geometry-Based Adaption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-42
26.10.1 Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-42
26.10.2 Performing Geometry-Based Adaption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-47
26.11 Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-49
26.11.1 Manipulating Adaption Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-52
26.11.2 Modifying Adaption Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-56
26.11.3 Displaying Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-57
26.11.4 Adapting to Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-59
26.12 Grid Adaption Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-59

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26.13 Improving the Grid by Smoothing and Swapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-63

26.13.1 Smoothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-64
26.13.2 Face Swapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-68
26.13.3 Combining Skewness-Based Smoothing and Face Swapping . . . 26-69

27 Creating Surfaces for Displaying and Reporting Data 27-1

27.1 Using Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2
27.2 Zone Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-3
27.3 Partition Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-4
27.4 Point Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-6
27.4.1 Using the Point Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-7
27.5 Line and Rake Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-9
27.5.1 Using the Line Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-11
27.6 Plane Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-13
27.6.1 Using the Plane Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-16
27.7 Quadric Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-18
27.8 Isosurfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-20
27.9 Clipping Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-23
27.10 Transforming Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-26
27.11 Grouping, Renaming, and Deleting Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-28

28 Displaying Graphics 28-1

28.1 Basic Graphics Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-2
28.1.1 Displaying the Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-2
28.1.2 Displaying Contours and Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-10
28.1.3 Displaying Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-19
28.1.4 Displaying Pathlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-29
28.1.5 Displaying Results on a Sweep Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-41
28.1.6 Hiding the Graphics Window Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-43

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28.2 Customizing the Graphics Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-44

28.2.1 Overlay of Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-44
28.2.2 Opening Multiple Graphics Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-46
28.2.3 Changing the Legend Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-47
28.2.4 Adding Text to the Graphics Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-48
28.2.5 Changing the Colormap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-52
28.2.6 Adding Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-59
28.2.7 Modifying the Rendering Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-62
28.3 Controlling the Mouse Button Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-63
28.4 Modifying the View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-65
28.4.1 Scaling, Centering, Rotating, Translating, and Zooming the Display28-66
28.4.2 Controlling Perspective and Camera Parameters . . . . . . . . . 28-70
28.4.3 Saving and Restoring Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-71
28.4.4 Mirroring and Periodic Repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-73
28.5 Composing a Scene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-78
28.5.1 Selecting the Object(s) to be Manipulated . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-79
28.5.2 Changing an Object’s Display Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-80
28.5.3 Transforming Geometric Objects in a Scene . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-83
28.5.4 Modifying Iso-Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-85
28.5.5 Modifying Pathline Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-87
28.5.6 Deleting an Object from the Scene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-88
28.5.7 Adding a Bounding Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-88
28.6 Animating Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-91
28.6.1 Creating an Animation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-92
28.6.2 Playing an Animation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-93
28.6.3 Saving an Animation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-94
28.6.4 Reading an Animation File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-96
28.6.5 Notes on Animation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-96

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28.7 Creating Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-96

28.7.1 Recording Animations To Video . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-97
28.7.2 Equipment Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-98
28.7.3 Recording an Animation with FLUENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-99
28.8 Histogram and XY Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-108
28.8.1 Plot Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-108
28.8.2 XY Plots of Solution Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-110
28.8.3 XY Plots of File Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-115
28.8.4 XY Plots of Circumferential Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-117
28.8.5 XY Plot File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-120
28.8.6 Residual Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-121
28.8.7 Histograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-121
28.8.8 Modifying Axis Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-123
28.8.9 Modifying Curve Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-126
28.9 Turbomachinery Postprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-128
28.9.1 Defining the Turbomachinery Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-128
28.9.2 Generating Reports of Turbomachinery Data . . . . . . . . . . . 28-132
28.9.3 Displaying Turbomachinery Averaged Contours . . . . . . . . . . 28-141
28.9.4 Displaying Turbomachinery 2D Contours . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-143
28.9.5 Generating Averaged XY Plots of Turbomachinery Solution Data 28-145
28.9.6 Globally Setting the Turbomachinery Topology . . . . . . . . . . 28-147
28.9.7 Turbomachinery-Specific Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-147
28.10 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) Postprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-148
28.10.1 Limitations of the FFT Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-148
28.10.2 Windowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-149
28.10.3 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-150
28.10.4 Using the FFT Utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-151

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29 Reporting Alphanumeric Data 29-1

29.1 Reporting Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-2
29.2 Fluxes Through Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-2
29.2.1 Generating a Flux Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-3
29.3 Forces on Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-5
29.3.1 Computing Forces, Moments, and the Center of Pressure . . . . 29-5
29.3.2 Generating a Force, Moment, or Center of Pressure Report . . . 29-8
29.4 Projected Surface Area Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-11
29.5 Surface Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-12
29.5.1 Computing Surface Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-13
29.5.2 Generating a Surface Integral Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-16
29.6 Volume Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-18
29.6.1 Computing Volume Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-19
29.6.2 Generating a Volume Integral Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-20
29.7 Histogram Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-21
29.8 Discrete Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-22
29.9 S2S Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-22
29.10 Reference Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-22
29.10.1 Setting Reference Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-23
29.10.2 Setting the Reference Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-24
29.11 Summary Reports of Case Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-25
29.11.1 Generating a Summary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-25

30 Field Function Definitions 30-1

30.1 Node, Cell, and Facet Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-1
30.1.1 Cell Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-1
30.1.2 Node Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-2
30.1.3 Facet Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-3
30.2 Velocity Reporting Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-4

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30.3 Field Variables Listed by Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-6

30.4 Alphabetical Listing of Field Variables and Their Definitions . . . . . . . 30-20
30.5 Custom Field Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-52
30.5.1 Creating a Custom Field Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-52
30.5.2 Manipulating, Saving, and Loading Custom Field Functions . . . 30-55
30.5.3 Sample Custom Field Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-57

31 Parallel Processing 31-1

31.1 Introduction to Parallel Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-1
31.2 Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Windows System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-4
31.2.1 Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Windows System
Using Command Line Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-4
31.2.2 Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Windows System
Using the Graphical User Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-7
31.2.3 Starting Parallel FLUENT with the Fluent Launcher . . . . . . . . 31-9
31.2.4 Starting Parallel FLUENT with the Microsoft Job
Scheduler (win64 Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-14
31.3 Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX System . . . . . . . . . . . 31-15
31.3.1 Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX System
Using Command Line Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-15
31.3.2 Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX System
Using the Graphical User Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-20
31.3.3 Setting Up Your Remote Shell and Secure Shell Clients . . . . . 31-21
31.4 Checking Network Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-23
31.5 Partitioning the Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-24
31.5.1 Overview of Grid Partitioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-24
31.5.2 Preparing Hexcore Meshes for Partitioning . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-26
31.5.3 Partitioning the Grid Automatically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-27
31.5.4 Partitioning the Grid Manually . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-28
31.5.5 Grid Partitioning Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-38

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31.5.6 Checking the Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-46

31.5.7 Load Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-48
31.6 Checking and Improving Parallel Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-49
31.6.1 Checking Parallel Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-49
31.6.2 Optimizing the Parallel Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-53

A FLUENT Model Compatibility A-1

A.1 FLUENT Model Compatibility Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1

B Case and Data File Formats B-1

B.1 Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1
B.2 Formatting Conventions in Binary and Formatted Files . . . . . . . . . . B-2
B.3 Grid Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-2
B.3.1 Comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-3
B.3.2 Header . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-3
B.3.3 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-4
B.3.4 Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-4
B.3.5 Periodic Shadow Faces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-5
B.3.6 Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-6
B.3.7 Faces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-8
B.3.8 Face Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-10
B.3.9 Cell Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-11
B.3.10 Interface Face Parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-12
B.4 Other (Non-Grid) Case Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-19
B.4.1 Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-19
B.4.2 Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-22
B.5 Data Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-22
B.5.1 Grid Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-22
B.5.2 Data Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-23
B.5.3 Residuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-24

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The Contents of This Manual

The FLUENT User’s Guide tells you what you need to know to use FLUENT. At the end
of the User’s Guide, you will find a Reference Guide, a nomenclature list, a bibliography,
and an index.

i Under U.S. and international copyright law, Fluent is unable to distribute

copies of the papers listed in the bibliography, other than those published
internally by Fluent. Please use your library or a document delivery service
to obtain copies of copyrighted papers.
A brief description of what is in each chapter follows:

• Chapter 1: Starting and Executing FLUENT, describes options and alternatives to

starting, running, and exiting FLUENT. It also provides instructions for remote
execution, batch execution, and using the Remote Simulation Facility (RSF).
• Chapter 2: Graphical User Interface (GUI), describes the mechanics of using the
graphical user interface and the GUI on-line help.
• Chapter 3: Text User Interface (TUI), describes the mechanics of using the text
interface and the TUI on-line help. (See the separate Text Command List for
information about specific text interface commands.)
• Chapter 4: Reading and Writing Files, describes the files that FLUENT can read
and write, including hardcopy files.
• Chapter 5: Unit Systems, describes how to use the standard and custom unit sys-
tems available in FLUENT.
• Chapter 6: Reading and Manipulating Grids, describes the various sources of com-
putational grids and explains how to obtain diagnostic information about the grid
and how to modify it by scaling, translating, and other methods. This chapter also
contains information about the use of non-conformal grids.
• Chapter 7: Boundary Conditions, describes the different types of boundary con-
ditions available in FLUENT, when to use them, how to define them, and how to
define boundary profiles and volumetric sources and fix the value of a variable in
a particular region. It also contains information about porous media and lumped
parameter models.

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• Chapter 8: Physical Properties, describes the physical properties of materials and

the equations that FLUENT uses to compute the properties from the information
that you input.

• Chapter 9: Modeling Basic Fluid Flow, describes the governing equations and phys-
ical models used by FLUENT to compute fluid flow (including periodic flow, swirling
and rotating flows, compressible flows, and inviscid flows), as well as the inputs you
need to provide to use these models.

• Chapter 10: Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames, describes the use
of single rotating reference frames, multiple moving reference frames, and mixing
planes in FLUENT.

• Chapter 11: Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes, describes the
use of sliding and deforming meshes in FLUENT.

• Chapter 12: Modeling Turbulence, describes FLUENT’s models for turbulent flow
and when and how to use them.

• Chapter 13: Modeling Heat Transfer, describes the physical models used by FLU-
ENT to compute heat transfer (including convective and conductive heat transfer,
natural convection, radiative heat transfer, and periodic heat transfer), as well as
the inputs you need to provide to use these models.

• Chapter 14: Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry, describes the
finite-rate chemistry models in FLUENT and how to use them. This chapter also
provides information about modeling species transport in non-reacting flows.

• Chapter 15: Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion, describes the non-premixed com-

bustion model and how to use it. This chapter includes details about using prePDF.

• Chapter 16: Modeling Premixed Combustion, describes the premixed combustion

model and how to use it.

• Chapter 17: Modeling Partially Premixed Combustion, describes the partially pre-
mixed combustion model and how to use it.

• Chapter 18: Modeling a Composition PDF Transport Problem, describes the com-
position PDF transport model and how to use it.

• Chapter 19: Modeling Engine Ignition, describes the engine ignition models avail-
able in FLUENT.

• Chapter 20: Modeling Pollutant Formation, describes the models for the formation
of NOx , SOx , and soot and how to use them.

• Chapter 21: Predicting Aerodynamically Generated Noise, describes the acoustics

model and how to use it.

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• Chapter 22: Modeling Discrete Phase, describes the discrete phase models available
in FLUENT and how to use them.

• Chapter 23: Modeling Multiphase Flows, describes the general multiphase models
available in FLUENT (VOF, mixture, and Eulerian) and how to use them.

• Chapter 24: Modeling Solidification and Melting, describes FLUENT’s model for
solidification and melting and how to use it.

• Chapter 25: Using the Solver, describes the FLUENT solvers and how to use them.

• Chapter 26: Adapting the Grid, describes the solution-adaptive mesh refinement
feature in FLUENT and how to use it.

• Chapter 27: Creating Surfaces for Displaying and Reporting Data, describes how
to create surfaces in the domain on which you can examine FLUENT solution data.

• Chapter 28: Displaying Graphics, describes the graphics tools that you can use to
examine your FLUENT solution.

• Chapter 29: Reporting Alphanumeric Data, describes how to obtain reports of

fluxes, forces, surface integrals, and other solution data.

• Chapter 30: Field Function Definitions, describes the flow variables that appear
in the variable selection drop-down lists in FLUENT panels, and tells you how to
create your own custom field functions.

• Chapter 31: Parallel Processing, describes the parallel processing features in FLU-
ENT and how to use them. This chapter also provides information about partition-
ing your grid for parallel processing.

• Appendix A: FLUENT Model Compatibility, presents a chart outlining the com-

patibility of several FLUENT model categories.

• Appendix B: Case and Data File Formats, presents information about the contents
and formats of FLUENT case and data files.

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Using This Manual

The Contents of the Other Manuals

In addition to this User’s Guide, there are several other manuals available to help you
use FLUENT and its associated programs:

• The Getting Started Guide describes the capabilities of FLUENT, provides an

overview of the problem setup steps, and presents helpful tips in order for you to
create a successfull CFD simulation. The manual also includes information about
accessing the FLUENT manuals on CD-ROM or in the installation area, and briefly
describes the user interface.

• The Tutorial Guide contains a number of example problems with detailed instruc-
tions, commentary, and postprocessing of results.

• The UDF Manual contains information about writing and using user-defined func-
tions (UDFs).

• The Text Command List provides a brief description of each of the commands in
FLUENT’s text interface.

• The GAMBIT manuals teach you how to use the GAMBIT preprocessor for geometry
creation and mesh generation.

Typographical Conventions
Several typographical conventions are used in this manual’s text to facilitate your learning
process.

• An informational icon ( i ) marks an important note.

• Different type styles are used to indicate graphical user interface menu items and
text interface menu items (e.g., Iso-Surface panel, surface/iso-surface com-
mand).

• The text interface type style is also used when illustrating exactly what appears on
the screen or exactly what you need to type into a field in a panel. The information
displayed on the screen is enclosed in a large box to distinguish it from the narrative
text, and user inputs are often enclosed in smaller boxes.

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• A mini flow chart is used to indicate the menu selections that lead you to a specific
command or panel. For example,
Define −→Boundary Conditions...
indicates that the Boundary Conditions... menu item can be selected from the Define
pull-down menu, and
display −→grid
indicates that the grid command is available in the display text menu.
The words before the arrows invoke menus (or submenus) and the arrows point
from a specific menu toward the item you should select from that menu. In this
manual, mini flow charts usually precede a description of a panel or command, or
a screen illustration showing how to use the panel or command. They allow you
to look up information about a command or panel and quickly determine how to
access it without having to search the preceding material.

• The menu selections that will lead you to a particular panel are also indicated
(usually within a paragraph) using a “/”. For example, Define/Materials... tells
you to choose the Materials... menu item from the Define pull-down menu.

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Mathematical Conventions
~
• Where possible, vector quantities are displayed with a raised arrow (e.g., ~a, A).
Boldfaced characters are reserved for vectors and matrices as they apply to linear
algebra (e.g., the identity matrix, I).

• The operator ∇, referred to as grad, nabla, or del, represents the partial derivative
of a quantity with respect to all directions in the chosen coordinate system. In
Cartesian coordinates, ∇ is defined to be

∂ ∂ ∂
~ı + ~ + ~k
∂x ∂y ∂z
∇ appears in several ways:
– The gradient of a scalar quantity is the vector whose components are the
partial derivatives; for example,

∂p ∂p ∂p
∇p = ~ı + ~ + ~k
∂x ∂y ∂z
– The gradient of a vector quantity is a second-order tensor; for example, in
Cartesian coordinates,
!
∂ ∂ ∂  
∇(~v ) = ~ı + ~ + ~k vx~ı + vy~ + vz~k
∂x ∂y ∂z

This tensor is usually written as

 
∂vx ∂vx ∂vx
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 
 
 ∂vy ∂vy ∂vy 

 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

 
 
∂vz ∂vz ∂vz
∂x ∂y ∂z

– The divergence of a vector quantity, which is the inner product between ∇

and a vector; for example,

∂vx ∂vy ∂vz

∇ · ~v = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
– The operator ∇ · ∇, which is usually written as ∇2 and is known as the
Laplacian; for example,

∂2T ∂2T ∂2T

∇2 T = + +
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

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∇2 T is different from the expression (∇T )2 , which is defined as

!2 !2 !2
2 ∂T ∂T ∂T
(∇T ) = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

• An exception to the use of ∇ is found in the discussion of Reynolds stresses in

Chapter 12: Modeling Turbulence, where convention dictates the use of Cartesian
tensor notation. In this chapter, you will also find that some velocity vector com-
ponents are written as u, v, and w instead of the conventional v with directional
subscripts.

Technical Support
If you encounter difficulties while using FLUENT, please first refer to the section(s) of
the manual containing information on the commands you are trying to use or the type
of problem you are trying to solve. The product documentation is available from the
on-line help on the documentation CD, or from the Fluent Inc. User Services Center
(www.fluentusers.com).
If you encounter an error, please write down the exact error message that appeared
and note as much information as you can about what you were doing in FLUENT.
Then refer to the following resources available on the Fluent Inc. User Services Cen-
ter (www.fluentusers.com):

• Installation and System FAQs—a link available from the main page on the User
Services Center. The FAQs can be searched by word or phrase, and are available
for general installation questions as well as for product questions.

• Known Defects for FLUENT—a link available from the product page. The defects
can be searched by word or phrase, and are listed by categories.

• Online Technical Support—a link available from the main page on the User Services
Center. From the Online Technical Support Portal page, there is a link to the Search
Solutions & Request Support page, where the solutions can be searched by word
or phrase.

The User Services Center also provides on-line forums, where you can discuss topics of
mutual interest and share ideas and information with other Fluent users, and provides
the ability to sign up for e-mail notifications on our latest product releases.

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Contacting Technical Support

If none of the resources available on the User Services Center help in resolving the prob-
lem, or you have complex modeling projects, we invite you to call your support engineer
for assistance. However, there are a few things that we encourage you to do before calling:

• Note what you are trying to accomplish with FLUENT.

• Note what you were doing when the problem or error occurred.

• Save a journal or transcript file of the FLUENT session in which the problem oc-
curred. This is the best source that we can use to reproduce the problem and
thereby help to identify the cause.

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Chapter 1. Starting and Executing FLUENT

This chapter provides instructions for starting and executing FLUENT.

• Section 1.1: Starting FLUENT

• Section 1.2: Executing FLUENT Remotely
• Section 1.3: Running FLUENT in Batch Mode
• Section 1.4: Checkpointing a FLUENT Simulation
• Section 1.5: Cleaning Up Processes From a FLUENT Simulation
• Section 1.6: Exiting the Program

1.1 Starting FLUENT

The way you start FLUENT will be different for Linux/UNIX and Windows systems, as
described below in Sections 1.1.2 and 1.1.3. The installation process (described in the
separate installation instructions for your computer type) is designed to ensure that the
FLUENT program is launched when you follow the appropriate instructions. If it is not,
consult your computer systems manager or your Fluent support engineer.

1.1.1 Single-Precision and Double-Precision Solvers

Both single-precision and double-precision versions of FLUENT are available on all com-
puter platforms. For most cases, the single-precision solver will be sufficiently accurate,
but certain types of problems may benefit from the use of a double-precision version.
Several examples are listed below:

• If your geometry has features of very disparate length scales (e.g., a very long,
thin pipe), single-precision calculations may not be adequate to represent the node
coordinates.
• If your geometry involves multiple enclosures connected via small-diameter pipes
(e.g., automotive manifolds), mean pressure levels in all but one of the zones can be
quite large (since you can set only one global reference pressure location). Double-
precision calculations may therefore be necessary to resolve the pressure differences
that drive the flow, since these will typically be much smaller than the pressure
levels.

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Starting and Executing FLUENT

• For conjugate problems involving high thermal-conductivity ratios and/or high-

aspect-ratio grids, convergence and/or accuracy may be impaired with the single-
precision solver, due to inefficient transfer of boundary information.

1.1.2 Starting FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX System

There are several ways to start FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX system:

• Start the appropriate version from the command line.

• Start the solver from the command line without specifying a version, and then use
the Select Solver panel to choose the appropriate version.

• Start the solver from the command line without specifying a version, and then read
in a case file (or a case file and data file) to start the appropriate version.

Specifying the Solver Version from the Command Line

When you start FLUENT from the command line, you can specify the dimensionality of
the problem (2D or 3D), as well as whether you want a single-precision or double-precision
calculation:
fluent 2d
runs the two-dimensional, single-precision solver,
fluent 3d
runs the three-dimensional, single-precision solver,
fluent 2ddp
runs the two-dimensional, double-precision solver, and
fluent 3ddp
runs the three-dimensional, double-precision solver.
See Section 31.3: Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX System for information
about starting the parallel solvers.

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Launching the 32-Bit Version of FLUENT from the Command Line

On operating systems that contain both 32-bit and 64-bit ports (including IRIX, Solaris,
AIX, and HP-UX (PA-RISC)), typing fluent on the command line will start the 64-
bit version of FLUENT by default. To launch the 32-bit version of FLUENT, type the
following on the command line:
fluent -32
The option of launching the 32-bit version is useful when running small cases that do not
require a lot of memory.

Specifying the Solver Version in the Select Solver Panel

If you type fluent on the command line with no arguments, the startup console window
(the text window and the main menu bar) will appear as shown in Figure 1.1.1.

Figure 1.1.1: Console Window at Startup

You can start a single-precision version of FLUENT by typing 2d or 3d at the version>

prompt. For a double-precision version, type 2ddp or 3ddp.

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If you would rather use the GUI to start the correct version, select the Run... menu item
in the File menu.
File −→Run...
The Select Solver panel will appear as shown in Figure 1.1.2, and you can pick the
appropriate version. (You can also start FLUENT on a remote machine or start the
parallel version from this panel, as described in Sections 1.2 and 31.3.)

Figure 1.1.2: The FLUENT Version Is Selected Using the Select Solver Panel

You will normally follow the steps below to start a solver from the panel:

1. Specify a 2D or 3D solver by turning the 3D option on or off under Versions.

2. Specify the precision by turning the Double Precision option on or off under Versions.

3. Click the Run button.

If the program executable is not in your search path, you can specify a complete pathname
to the executable in the Program text entry box before clicking Run.

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Specifying the Solver Version by Reading a Case File

As discussed above, if you type fluent on the command line without specifying a version
argument, the console window will appear as shown in Figure 1.1.1. You can then auto-
matically execute the appropriate solver by selecting a case file or case and data files using
the File/Read/Case... or File/Read/Case & Data... menu item (see Section 4.3: Reading
and Writing Case and Data Files) or using the read-case or read-case-data command
in the version text menu.
File −→ Read −→Case...
File/Read/Case... or read-case starts the solver that is appropriate for the specified case
file and then reads in the file.
File −→ Read −→Case & Data...
File/Read/Case & Data... or read-case-data starts the solver that is appropriate for the
specified case file and then reads in the specified case and data files (where the case and
data files have the same name with .cas and .dat extensions, respectively).

1.1.3 Starting FLUENT on a Windows System

There are two ways to start FLUENT on a Windows system:

• Click the Start button, select the Programs menu, select the Fluent.Inc menu,
and then select the FLUENT 6 program item. (Note that if the default “Fluent.Inc”
program group name was changed when FLUENT was installed, you will find the
FLUENT 6 menu item in the program group with the new name that was assigned,
rather than in the Fluent.Inc program group.)

• Start from a Command Prompt window by typing fluent 2d (for the 2D single-
precision solver), fluent 3d (for the 3D single-precision solver), fluent 2ddp
(for the 2D double-precision solver), or fluent 3ddp (for the 3D double-precision
solver) at the prompt. Before doing so, however, you must first modify your user
environment so that the Command utility will find fluent. You can do this by se-
lecting the program item “Set Environment”, which is also found in the Fluent.Inc
program group. This program will add the Fluent.Inc directory to your command
search path.
From the Command Prompt window, you can also start the parallel version of
FLUENT. To start the parallel version on x processors, type fluent version -tx
at the prompt, replacing version with the desired solver version (2d, 3d, 2ddp, or
3ddp) and x with the number of processors (e.g., fluent 3d -t3 to run the 3D
version on 3 processors). For information about the parallel version of FLUENT,
see Chapter 31: Parallel Processing.

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Specifying the Solver Version from the FLUENT Version Panel

When you start FLUENT from the Programs menu the FLUENT Version panel will
appear, where you can specify the dimensionality of the problem (2D or 3D), as
well as whether you want a single-precision or double-precision calculation:

Figure 1.1.3: The FLUENT Version Panel for Full and Postprocessing Simu-
lations

2d
runs the two-dimensional, single-precision solver,
2ddp
runs the two-dimensional, double-precision solver,
3d
runs the three-dimensional, single-precision solver, and
3ddp
runs the three-dimensional, double-precision solver.
Furthermore, you can choose to start the full FLUENT simulation or only postpro-
cessing capabilities by selecting either Full Simulation or Post Only from the Mode
drop-down list. The full FLUENT simulation allows you to set up, solve and post-
process a problem, while Post Only allows you to set up or postprocess a problem,
but will not allow you to perform calculations.
For starting the parallel version of FLUENT, refer to Section 31.2: Starting Parallel
FLUENT on a Windows System.

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Launching the 32-Bit Version of FLUENT on a 64-Bit Windows Machine

If you have a 32-bit Windows system, then by default the 32-bit version will be
launched when starting FLUENT.
If you have a 64-bit Windows system, then by default the 64-bit version will be
launched when FLUENT is started. You can launch the 32-bit version of FLUENT
on the 64-bit Windows machine by typing the following in a Command Prompt
window:
fluent -antx86

Specifying the Solver Version in the Select Solver Panel

If you type fluent on the command line, as described in Section 1.1.3: Starting FLUENT
on a Windows System, the startup console window (the text window and the main menu
bar) will appear. You can start the appropriate version by selecting the Run... menu
item in the File menu.
File −→Run...
The Select Solver panel will appear as shown in Figure 1.1.4. (You can also start FLU-
ENT on a remote machine or start the parallel version from this panel, as described in
Sections 1.2 and 31.2.)

Figure 1.1.4: The FLUENT Version Is Selected Using the Select Solver Panel

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Starting and Executing FLUENT

You will normally follow the steps below to start a solver from the panel:

1. Specify a 2D or 3D solver by turning the 3D option on or off under Versions.

2. Specify the precision by turning the Double Precision option on or off under Versions.
3. Click the Run button.

If the program executable is not in your search path, you can specify a complete pathname
to the executable in the Program text entry box before clicking Run.

1.1.4 Remote Simulation Facility (RSF)

FLUENT’s Remote Simulation Facility (RSF) is a highly secure mechanism for executing
large, complex simulations at a remote data center. You can use FLUENT to access the
RSF using the File menu.
File −→RSF...
When you select this option, FLUENT displays the Remote Simulation Facility panel (Fig-
ure 1.1.5).

Figure 1.1.5: The Remote Simulation Facility Panel

If a case and data file are already loaded into FLUENT, the Write Case & Data button
will be active, which will allow you to write out the case and data files for the current
session. You must save your case and data files in order to use them on the RSF. Once
you save the case and data files and launch the RSF, you can exit from FLUENT.
To start an RSF session, click Start RSF to open your web browser and load the page for
the FLUENT Remote Simulation Facility (RSF).
For more information about the RSF, see
http://www.fluent.com/software/rsolve/index.htm.

i To link to the RSF on Linux/UNIX platforms, you must first have installed
the contents of the FLUENT 6.x Documentation CD, which contains the
files necessary to launch your browser so you can automatically view the
appropriate web pages.

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1.1.5 Startup Options

To obtain information about available startup options, you can type fluent -help before
starting up the solver. Typing fluent -env will list all environment variables before
running FLUENT. All available options are listed below:

Usage: fluent [version] [-help] [options]

options:
-cl following argument passed to fluent,
-checknetwork check the network connections before spawning compute nodes,
-cxarg following argument passed to cortex,
-cx host:p1:p2 connect to the specified cortex process,
-driver [ opengl | x11 | null ],
sets the graphics driver (available drivers vary by platform),
-env show environment variables,
-g run without gui or graphics,
-gr run without graphics,
-gu run without gui,
-hcl following argument passed to fluent host,
-help this listing,
-i journal read the specified journal file,
-loadx load mpp from host x,
-lsf run fluent under LSF,
-manspa manually spawn compute nodes,
-n no execute,
-ncl following argument passed to fluent node,
-nocheck disable checks for valid license file and server,
-pathx specify root path x to Fluent.Inc,
-post run a post-processing-only executable,
-project x write project x start and end times to license log,
-px specify communicator x,
-r list all releases,
-rx specify release x,
-sge run fluent under Sun Grid Engine,
-sgeq queue name of queue for a given computing grid,
-sgeckpt ckpt_obj,
set Checkpointing object to ckpt_obj for SGE,
-sgepe fluent_pe min_n-max_n,
set parallel environment for SGE to fluent_pe,
min_n and max_n are number of min and max nodes requested,
-v list all versions,
-vx specify version x,
-tx specify number of processors x,
-cnf=x specify the host file

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Windows Startup Options

On Windows systems, -env, -help, -i journal, -g, -hidden, -post, -driver, -r, -rx,
-v, -vx, -e, and -ex are available. The parallel startup options that are available are
-tx, -px, -pathx, and -cnf=x.
Most of the Windows startup options are common to Linux/UNIX startup options and
are described in the proceeding sections. Options that are unique to Windows include
-hidden, -e, and -ex.
fluent -hidden allows you to run in batch mode.
fluent -e allows you to list all executable revisions, while typing fluent -ex will specify
executable revision x.

Cortex Options
-cl, -cxarg, and -cx host:p1:p2 are for specifying arguments for FLUENT and Cor-
tex. Cortex is a process that provides the user interface and graphics for FLUENT. The
option -cx host:p1:p2 is used only when you are starting the solver manually (see
Section 1.1.2: Specifying the Solver Version in the Select Solver Panel).

Graphics Options
If you type fluent -driver, you can specify the graphics driver to be used in the
solver session. For example, on Linux/UNIX you can specify fluent -driver opengl,
fluent -driver x11, and fluent -driver null. These options are described in detail
in Section 28.1.6: Hiding the Graphics Window Display.
On Windows you can specify fluent -driver opengl and fluent -driver msw to en-
able graphics display. Using msw in stead of opengl instructs FLUENT to use the Oper-
ating Systems Windows rather than the hardware OpenGL driver.
fluent -g will run Cortex without graphics and without the graphical user interface.
This option is useful if you are not on an X Window display or if you want to submit a
batch job.
fluent -gu will run Cortex without the graphical user interface. (On Windows systems,
fluent -gu will run FLUENT, keeping it in a minimized window; if you maximize the
window, the GUI will be available.)
fluent -gr will run Cortex without graphics. This option can be used in conjunction
with the -i journal option to run a job in “background” mode.
To start the solver and immediately read a journal file, type fluent -i journal, re-
placing journal with the name of the journal file you want to read.

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License Options
The -project x option allows you to record CPU time for individual “projects” sep-
arately. If a job is started by typing fluent -project x (where x is replaced by the
name of the project), extra information related to CPU time will be written to the license
manager log file (usually license.log in the license subdirectory of your FLUENT in-
stallation directory). To determine the CPU time for the project, add the USER CPU
and SYSTEM CPU values that appear in license.log. See the installation notes for more
information about the license manager.
The -nocheck option speeds up the solver startup by not checking to see if the license
server is running. This is useful if you know that the license daemon is running or you
would rather not try to start it if it is not running (e.g., if you do not have privileges to
do so).
You can type fluent -n or use the -n option in conjunction with any of the others to
see where the (specified) executable is without actually running it.

LSF Options
The -lsf option allows you to run FLUENT under Platform Computing Corporation’s
LSF software, and thereby take advantage of the checkpointing features of that load man-
agement tool. For further details about using the -lsf option, go to the documentation
page on the Fluent Inc. User Services Center (www.fluentusers.com).

Parallel Options
These options are used in association with the parallel solver.
-hcl is used to pass an argument to the FLUENT host process.
-ncl is used to pass an argument to the FLUENT compute node process(es).
-loadx is used to start the parallel compute node processes on a dedicated parallel
machine from its remote front-end machine (x). -manspa is used to disable the default
automatic spawning of compute node processes.
-px specifies the use of parallel communicator x, where x can be any of the communica-
tors listed in Section 31.3.1: Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX System Using
Command Line Options.
-pathx specifies the root path (path) to the Fluent.Inc installation directory.
-tx specifies that x processors are to be used. For more information about starting the
parallel version of FLUENT, see Section 31.3: Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX
System.

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-cnf=x (where x is the name of a hosts file) spawns a compute node on each machine
listed in the hosts file. Otherwise, you can spawn the processes as described in Sec-
tion 31.3.1: Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX System Using Command Line
Options.
The -checknetwork allows you to check the configuration of the machines you are using
for parallel spawning. This option has to be used with the -cnf=x command. This option
is only valid when running the parallel version of FLUENT. The command you will invoke
to check if your machines are configured properly is
fluent version -t0 -pnet -cnf=x -checknetwork
If your hosts file specifies more machines than you want to use, it will check only those
machines which it needs for the current run and will not go over the complete list. To
learn more about hosts files, refer to Sections 31.2.1 and 31.3.1.
An alternative to using the -checknetwork command line option is to set your environ-
ment such that FLUENT_CHECK_NETWORK is set to 1. With this specified, FLUENT will
always check the network without the -checknetwork command being invoked.

Postprocessing Option
fluent -post will run a version of the solver that allows you to set up a problem
or perform postprocessing, but will not allow you to perform calculations. Running
FLUENT for pre- and postprocessing requires you to use the -post flag on startup. To use
this option on Linux/UNIX, launch FLUENT by adding the -post flag after the version
number, for example,
fluent 3d -post
To use this option on Windows, you will use the Version panel, as described in Sec-
tion 1.1.3: Specifying the Solver Version from the FLUENT Version Panel.

SGE options
The -sge option runs FLUENT under Sun Grid Engine (SGE) software, and allows
you to use the features of this software to manage your distributed computing re-
sources. Other options that can be employed in conjunction with -sge are -sgeq queue,
-sgeckpt ckpt obj, and -sgepe fluent pe min n-max n. For a detailed explanation
of these options, go to the documentation page on the Fluent Inc. User Services Center
(www.fluentusers.com).

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Version and Release Options

Typing fluent version -r, replacing version with the desired version, will list all
releases of the specified version.
fluent -rx will run release x of FLUENT. You may specify a version as well, or you can
wait and specify the version when prompted by the solver.
fluent -v will list the available versions.
fluent -vx will run version x of FLUENT.

Other Startup Options

There are other startup options that are not listed when you type the fluent -help
command. These options can be used to customize your graphical user interface. For
example, to change the FLUENT window size and position you can either modify the
.Xdefaults file described in Section 2.2: Customizing the Graphical User Interface (UNIX
Systems Only), or you can simply type the following command at startup:

fluent [version] [-geometry] [XXxYY+00-50]

where XX and YY are the width and height in pixels, respectively, and +00-50 is the
position of the window.
Therefore, typing fluent 3d -geometry 700x500+20-400 will start the 3D version of
FLUENT, sizing the FLUENT console to 700x500 pixels and positioning it on your monitor
screen at +20-400.

1.2 Executing FLUENT Remotely

There may be situations when you want to view FLUENT on one machine, but run it on
a different (remote) machine. This section explains how to do this.

1.2.1 Overview and Limitations

If FLUENT has been started without a version argument (e.g., 3d), you can select the
solver after startup. Starting the solver in this manner allows you to run it on a remote
processor. By default, when you type the command to start FLUENT and include the
version, you actually start Cortex (a process that provides the user interface and graphics
for FLUENT) and Cortex then starts FLUENT on the same processor on which Cortex is
running. When you type the startup command without specifying a version, you just
start Cortex. This gives you the opportunity to specify a different processor on which to
run the solver.

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Note the following limitations when you run FLUENT on a remote Linux/UNIX machine
from a local Windows machine:

• You will not be able to read or write files using the items in the File pull-down menu;
use the text commands for reading and writing files instead. See the separate Text
Command List for details.

• You will not be able to use user-defined functions.

1.2.2 Running FLUENT on a Remote Machine

To run FLUENT on a remote processor, you will normally follow the procedure listed
below.

1. Start FLUENT by typing the following:

• On a Linux/UNIX machine, type
fluent
• On a Windows machine (in a Command Prompt window), type
fluent -serv -a

2. Open the Select Solver panel.

File −→Run...

3. In the Select Solver panel, under Remote Execution, set the internet name of the
remote machine (Hostname), your username at that machine (Username), and your
password at that machine (Password).

4. Specify the appropriate solver version under Versions and Options in the Select
Solver panel. (More information about these items is available in Sections 1.1 and
31.2.)

5. Click the Run button.

If the remote processor refuses to start the solver, you may need to try the procedure
described in Section 1.2.3: Starting the Solver Manually on the Remote Machine.

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1.2.3 Starting the Solver Manually on the Remote Machine

If the remote process fails when you click the Run button in the Select Solver panel
(as described in Section 1.2.2: Running FLUENT on a Remote Machine), you can use
the “listen” option to work around network security devices that prevent Cortex from
creating a remote process directly. The procedure is as follows:

1. Click the Listen button in the Select Solver panel or type listen at the version>
prompt (and press <Enter> to accept the default “time out”).
FLUENT will print a message telling you what arguments you should use to start
the solver on a remote machine. The arguments will be in this format:

-cx host:p1:p2

where host is the name of the host Cortex is running on, and :p1:p2 are two
colon-separated integers indicating the port numbers being used.

2. Open a telnet or xterm window and log onto the remote machine where you want
to launch the solver.

3. In the telnet or xterm window, type the following to start the desired version of
FLUENT:

fluent version -cx host:p1:p2

replacing version by the version that you wish to run (e.g., 3d), and the host and
port numbers by the values displayed above when you clicked Listen in the Select
Solver panel or typed listen in the FLUENT console window.

1.2.4 Executing Remotely by Reading a Case File

If you plan to start the appropriate version of FLUENT by reading in a case file (as
described in Section 1.1.2: Specifying the Solver Version by Reading a Case File), but
you wish to run the solver on a remote machine, you can specify the remote machine
in the Select Solver panel as described in Section 1.2.2: Running FLUENT on a Remote
Machine, and then click Apply instead of Run. This will save the settings for remote
execution. When you start the solver by specifying a case file, the solver will be run on
the specified remote machine.

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1.3 Running FLUENT in Batch Mode

FLUENT can be used interactively, with input from and display to your computer screen,
or it can be used in a batch or background mode in which inputs are obtained from and
outputs are stored in files. Generally you will perform problem setup, initial calculations,
and postprocessing of results in an interactive mode. However, when you are ready to
perform a large number of iterative calculations, you may want to run FLUENT in batch
or background mode. This allows the computer resources to be prioritized, enables you
to control the process from a file (eliminating the need for you to be present during the
calculation), and also provides a record of the calculation history (residuals) in an output
file. While the procedures for running FLUENT in a batch mode differ depending on
your computer operating system, Section 1.3.1: Background Execution on Linux/UNIX
Systems provides guidance for running in batch/background on Linux/UNIX systems,
and Section 1.3.2: Background Execution on Windows Systems provides guidance for
running in batch/background on Windows systems.

1.3.1 Background Execution on Linux/UNIX Systems

To run FLUENT in the background in a C-shell (csh) on a Linux/UNIX system, type a
command of the following form at the system-level prompt:

fluent 2d -g < inputfile >& outputfile &

or in a Bourne/Korn-shell, type:

fluent 2d -g < inputfile > outputfile 2>&1 &

In these examples,

• fluent is the command you type to execute FLUENT interactively.

• -g indicates that the program is to be run without the GUI or graphics (see Sec-
tion 1.1: Starting FLUENT).

• inputfile is a file of FLUENT commands that are identical to those that you would
type interactively.

• outputfile is a file that the background job will create and which will contain the
output that FLUENT would normally print to the screen (e.g., the menu prompts
and residual reports).

• & tells the Linux/UNIX system to perform this task in background and to send all
standard system errors (if any) to outputfile.

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The file inputfile can be a journal file created in an earlier FLUENT session, or it can
be a file that you have created using a text editor. In either case, the file must consist
only of text interface commands (since the GUI is disabled during batch execution). A
typical inputfile is shown below:

; Read case file

rc example.cas
; Initialize the solution
/solve/initialize/initialize-flow
; Calculate 50 iterations
it 50
; Write data file
wd example50.dat
; Calculate another 50 iterations
it 50
; Write another data file
wd example100.dat
; Exit FLUENT
exit
yes

This example file reads a case file example.cas, initializes the solution, and performs
100 iterations in two groups of 50, saving a new data file after each 50 iterations. The
final line of the file terminates the session. Note that the example input file makes use
of the standard aliases for reading and writing case and data files and for iterating. (it
is the alias for /solve/iterate, rc is the alias for /file/read-case, wd is the alias for
/file/write-data, etc.) These predefined aliases allow you to execute commonly-used
commands without entering the text menu in which they are found. In general, FLUENT
assumes that input beginning with a / starts in the top-level text menu, so if you use any
text commands for which aliases do not exist, you must be sure to type in the complete
name of the command (e.g., /solve/initialize/initialize-flow). Note also that
you can include comments in the file. As in the example above, comment lines must
begin with a ; (semicolon).
An alternate strategy for submitting your batch run, as follows, has the advantage that
the outputfile will contain a record of the commands in the inputfile. In this ap-
proach, you would submit the batch job in a C-shell using:

fluent 2d -g -i inputfile >& outputfile &

or in a Bourne/Korn-shell using:

fluent 2d -g -i inputfile > outputfile 2>&1 &

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1.3.2 Background Execution on Windows Systems

To run FLUENT in the background on a Windows system, the following commands can
be used:

fluent 3d -g -i journal

fluent 3d -g -wait -i journal

fluent 3d -g -hidden -i journal

In these examples,

• fluent is the command you type to execute FLUENT interactively.

• -g indicates that the program is to be run minimized in the taskbar.

• -i journal reads the specified journal file.

• -wait is the command you type in a DOS batch file or some other script in a
situation where the script needs to wait until FLUENT has completed its run.

• -hidden is similar to the -wait command, but also executes FLUENT completely
hidden and noninteractively.

To get an output (or transcript) file while running FLUENT in the background on a Win-
dows system, the journal file must contain the following command to write a transcript
file:

; start transcript file

/file/start-transcript outputfile.trn

where the outputfile is a file that the background job will create and which will contain
the output that FLUENT would normally print to the screen (e.g., the menu prompts
and residual reports).
See Section 4.9: Creating and Reading Journal Files for details about journal files. See
Section 4.10: Creating Transcript Files for details about transcript files.

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 1.3 Running FLUENT in Batch Mode

1.3.3 Batch Execution Options

During a typical session, FLUENT may require feedback from you in the event of a
problem it encounters. FLUENT usually communicates problems or questions through
the use of Error dialog boxes, Warning dialog boxes, or Question dialog boxes. While
executing FLUENT in batch mode, you may want to suppress this type of interaction in
order to, for example, create journal files more easily.
There are three common batch configuration options available to you when running
FLUENT in batch mode. You can access these options using the Batch Options panel.
File −→Batch Options...

Figure 1.3.1: The Batch Options Panel

The Batch Options panel contains the following items:

Confirm File Overwrite determines whether FLUENT confirms a file overwrite. This
option is turned on by default.

Hide Questions allows you to hide Question dialog boxes. This option is turned off by
default.

Exit on Error allows you to automatically exit from batch mode when an error occurs.
This option is turned off by default.

Note that these options are also available in the file/set-batch-options command in
the text interface.
file −→set-batch-options
Any combination of these options can be turned on or off at any given time prior to
running in batch mode.

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i Batch option settings are not saved with case files. They are meant to
apply for the duration of the current FLUENT session only. If you read in
additional mesh or case files during this session, the batch option settings
will not be altered. As batch options are not saved with case files, journal
files developed for use in batch mode should begin by enabling the desired
batch option settings (if different from the default settings).

1.4 Checkpointing a FLUENT Simulation

The checkpointing feature of FLUENT allows you to save case and data files while
your simulation is running. While similar to the autosave feature of FLUENT (Sec-
tion 4.3.4: Automatic Saving of Case and Data Files), which allows you to save files
throughout a simulation, checkpointing allows you slightly more control in that you can
save a FLUENT job even after you have started the job and did not set the autosave
option. Checkpointing also allows you to save case and data files and then exit out of
FLUENT. This feature is especially useful when you need to stop a FLUENT job abruptly
and save its data.
There are two different ways to checkpoint a FLUENT simulation, depending upon how
the simulation has been started.

1. FLUENT running under LSF or SGE

FLUENT is integrated with load management tools like LSF and SGE. These two
tools allow you to checkpoint any job running under them. You can use the stan-
dard method provided by these tools to checkpoint the FLUENT job. For more
information on using FLUENT and SGE or LSF, go to the documentation page on
the Fluent Inc. User Services Center (www.fluentusers.com).

2. Independently running FLUENT

When not using tools such as LSF or SGE, a different checkpointing mechanism
can be used when running a FLUENT simulation. You can checkpoint a FLUENT
simulation while iterating/time-stepping, so that FLUENT saves the case and data
files and then continues the calculation, or so that FLUENT saves the case and data
files and then exits.
• Saving case and data files and continuing the calculation:
On Linux/UNIX, create a file called check-fluent, i.e.,
/tmp/check-fluent
On Windows, create a file called check-fluent.txt, i.e.,
c:\\temp\check-fluent.txt

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• Saving case and data files and exiting FLUENT:

On Linux/UNIX, create a file called exit-fluent, i.e.,
/tmp/exit-fluent
On Windows, create a file called exit-fluent.txt, i.e.,
c:\\temp\exit-fluent.txt
The saved case and data files will have the current iteration number appended to
their file names.
FLUENT offers an alternate way to checkpoint an unsteady simulation. While the
default behavior is to checkpoint the simulation at the end of the current iteration,
for unsteady simulations you have the option of completing all of the iterations
in the current time-step before checkpointing. This can be set by entering the
following Scheme command prior to running the unsteady simulation:

(ckpt/time-step?#t)

Now when you save the checkpoint file (as described previously), the case and
data file will be saved at the end of the current time-step and named accordingly.
To switch back to the default checkpointing mechanism at the end of the current
iteration, use the following Scheme command:

(ckpt/time-step?#f)

i Note that the (ckpt/time-step?#t) command will have the effect only in
the case of an unsteady simulation.
To change the default location of the saved case and data files, you can use the
following Scheme commands:

(set! checkpoint/check-filename pathname)

and

(set! checkpoint/exit-filename pathname)

where pathname is the path you wish to set as the new default location of the saved
case and data files.

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1.5 Cleaning Up Processes From a FLUENT Simulation

FLUENT lets you easily remove extraneous processes in the event that a FLUENT simu-
lation needs to be stopped.
When a session is started, FLUENT creates a kill-fluent script file. The script can be
used to cleanly kill all FLUENT-related processes. FLUENT creates the kill-script file in
the current working directory with a file name that includes the machine name and the
process identification number (PID) (e.g., kill-fluent-mymachine-1234).
On UNIX and Linux platforms, if the current directory does not possess the proper write
permissions, then FLUENT will write the kill-script file to your home directory.
On Windows, if the current directory does not possess the proper write permissions,
FLUENT will save the kill-script file to a different directory (i.e., %APPDATA%/Fluent.Inc
where it is assumed that the APPDATA environment variable is already defined). The
Fluent.Inc directory will be created if it is not already present.
If, for example, FLUENT is started on a machine called thor and the process identification
number is 32895, FLUENT will create a kill-script called kill-fluent-thor-32895 in
the current directory. To run the kill-script, and kill all FLUENT processes related to
your session, on Linux or UNIX platforms, type the following command in the console
window:

sh kill-fluent-thor-32895

Or, if the shell script already has executable permissions, simply type:

kill-fluent-thor-32895

To clean up extraneous FLUENT processes on Windows, double-click the corresponding

batch file (e.g., kill-fluent-thor-32895.bat) that FLUENT generates at the beginning
of each session.

i Once a FLUENT session has been closed, you can safely delete any left over
kill scripts from your working directory.

1.6 Exiting the Program

You can exit FLUENT by selecting Exit in the File pull-down menu. If the present state
of the program has not been written to a file, you will receive a warning message. You
can cancel the exit and write the appropriate file(s) or you can continue to exit without
saving the case or data.

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Chapter 2. Graphical User Interface (GUI)

The user interface to FLUENT consists of a graphical interface with pull-down menus,
panels, and dialog boxes, as well as a textual command line interface (described in Chap-
ter 3: Text User Interface (TUI)).

• Section 2.1: GUI Components

• Section 2.2: Customizing the Graphical User Interface (UNIX Systems Only)

• Section 2.3: Using the GUI Help System

2.1 GUI Components

The graphical user interface (GUI) is made up of four main components: a console,
control panels, dialog boxes, and graphics windows. When you use the GUI, you will be
interacting with one of these components at all times. Figure 2.1.1 is a sample screen
shot showing all of the GUI components. The four GUI components are described in
detail in subsequent section.
On UNIX systems, the attributes of the GUI (including colors and text fonts) can be cus-
tomized to better match your platform environment. This is described in Section 2.2: Cus-
tomizing the Graphical User Interface (UNIX Systems Only).

2.1.1 Console
The FLUENT Console is the main window that controls the execution of the program.
When using the Console to interact with FLUENT, you have a choice between a text user
interface (TUI) and a graphical user interface (GUI). The Console contains a terminal
emulator for the TUI and a menu bar for the GUI.

Terminal Emulator

The terminal emulator is similar in behavior to “xterm” or other UNIX command shell
tools, or to the MS-DOS Command Prompt window on Windows systems. It allows
you to interact with the TUI menu. More information on the TUI can be found in
Chapter 3: Text User Interface (TUI).

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Console
Graphics Window

Dialog Box

Panel

Figure 2.1.1: Screen Shot Showing GUI Components

Figure 2.1.2: The Console

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All textual output from the program (e.g., error messages) is printed in the terminal
emulator, and all typing is displayed on the bottom line. As the number of text lines
grows, the lines will be scrolled off the top of the window. The scroll bar on the right
allows you to go back and look at the preceding text.
The terminal emulator accepts <Ctrl-C> to let you interrupt the program while it is
working. It also lets you perform text copy and paste operations between the Console
and other X Window (or Windows) applications that support copy and paste. The
following steps show you how to perform a copy and paste operation on a UNIX system:

1. Move the pointer to the beginning of the text to be copied.

2. Press and hold down the left mouse button.

3. Move the pointer to the end of the text (text should be highlighted).

4. Release the left mouse button.

5. Move the pointer to the target window.

6. Press the middle mouse button to “paste” the text.

On a Windows system, you will follow the steps below to copy text to the clipboard:

1. Move the pointer to the beginning of the text to be copied.

2. Press and hold down the left mouse button.

3. Move the pointer to the end of the text (text should be highlighted).

4. Release the left mouse button.

5. Press the <Ctrl> and <Insert> keys together.

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Menu Bar

The menu bar organizes the GUI menu hierarchy using a set of pull-down menus. A
pull-down menu contains items that perform commonly executed actions. Figure 2.1.3
shows the FLUENT menu bar. Menu items are arranged to correspond to the typical
sequence of actions that you perform in FLUENT (i.e., from left to right and from top to
bottom).

Figure 2.1.3: The FLUENT Menu Bar

To select a pull-down menu item with the mouse, follow the procedure outlined below:

1. Move the pointer to the name of the pull-down menu.

2. Click the left mouse button to display the pull-down menu.

3. Move the pointer to the item you wish to select and click it.

4. Release the left mouse button.

In addition to using the mouse, you can also select a pull-down menu item using the
keyboard. Each pull-down menu label or menu item contains one underlined character,
known as the mnemonic. Pressing the <Alt> key plus the mnemonic character of a pull-
down menu will display the menu. Once the pull-down menu is selected and displayed,
you can type a mnemonic character associated with an item to select that item. If at
any time you wish to cancel a menu selection while a pull-down menu is posted, you can
press the <Esc> key. For example, to display the Help menu and select the Using Help...
option, press <Alt> h, then h.
A pull-down menu item may also have an accelerator key associated with it. An accel-
erator key can be used to select a menu item without displaying the pull-down menu. If
a menu item has an associated accelerator key, the key will be shown to the right of the
item. For example, if a pull-down menu contains the item Iterate... Ctrl+I, you can select
this item by holding down the <Ctrl> key and pressing the “I” key.

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2.1.2 Dialog Boxes

Dialog boxes are used to perform simple input/output tasks, such as issuing warning and
error messages, or asking a question requiring a yes or no answer.
A dialog box is a separate “temporary” window that appears when FLUENT needs to
communicate with you. When a dialog box appears on your screen, you should take care
of it before moving on to other tasks. Once you have tended to the dialog box, it will be
closed, and then you can continue.
The following sections describe each type of dialog box.

Information Dialog Box

The Information dialog box is used to report some information that FLUENT thinks you
should know. Once you have read the information, you can click the OK button to close
the dialog box.

Warning Dialog Box

The Warning dialog box is used to warn you of a potential problem and ask you whether
or not you want to proceed with the current operation. If you click the OK button, the
operation will proceed. If you click the Cancel button, the operation will be canceled.

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Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Error Dialog Box

The Error dialog box is used to alert you of an error that has occurred. Once you have
read the error information, you can click the OK button to close the dialog box.

Working Dialog Box

The Working dialog box is displayed when FLUENT is busy performing a task. This is a
special dialog box, because it requires no action by you. It is there to let you know that
you must wait. When the program is finished, it will close the dialog box automatically.
You can, however, abort the task that is being performed by clicking the Cancel button.

Question Dialog Box

The Question dialog box is used to ask you a question that requires a yes or no answer.
You can click the appropriate button to answer the question.

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Select File Dialog Box (Windows)

File selection on Windows systems is accomplished using the standard Windows Select
File dialog box.

Figure 2.1.4: The Select File Dialog Box for Windows

See documentation regarding your Windows system for further instructions on file selec-
tion.

Select File Dialog Box (UNIX or Linux)

For UNIX or Linux systems, note that the appearance of the Select File dialog box will
not always be the same.
The version shown in Figure 2.1.5 will appear in almost all cases, but it will be different if
you are loading external data files for use in an XY plot (see the Section 28.8.2: Including
External Data in the Solution XY Plot for more information). In such cases, the dialog
box will look like Figure 2.1.6.

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Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Figure 2.1.5: The Select File Dialog Box for UNIX or Linux Platforms

The steps for file selection are as follows:

1. Go to the appropriate directory. You can do this in two different ways:

• Enter the path to the desired directory in the Filter text entry box and then
press the <Enter> key or click the Filter button. Be sure to include the final
/ character in the pathname, before the optional search pattern (described
below).
• Double-click a directory, and then a subdirectory, etc. in the Directories list
until you reach the directory you want. You can also click once on a directory
and then click the Filter button, instead of double-clicking. Note that the “.”
item represents the current directory and the “..” item represents the parent
directory.

2. Specify the file name by selecting it in the Files list or entering it in the File text
entry box (if available) at the bottom of the dialog box. The name of this text
entry box will change depending on the type of file you are selecting (Case File,
Journal File, etc.).

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Figure 2.1.6: Another Version Select File Dialog Box for UNIX or Linux Plat-
forms

i Note that if you are searching for an existing file with a nonstandard ex-
tension, you may need to modify the “search pattern” at the end of the
path in the Filter text entry box. For example, if you are reading a data
file, the default extension in the search path will be *.dat*, and only those
files that have a .dat extension will appear in the Files list. If you want
files with a .DAT extension to appear in the Files list, you can change the
search pattern to *.DAT*. If you want all files in the directory to be listed
in the Files list, enter just * as the search pattern.
3. If you are reading multiple XY-plot data files, the selected file will be added to the
list of XY File(s). You can choose another file, following the instructions above, and
it will also be added to this list. (If you accidentally select the wrong file, you can
choose it in the XY File(s) list and click the Remove button to remove it from the
list of files to be read.) Repeat until all of the desired files are in the XY File(s) list.

4. If you are writing a case, data, or radiation file, use the Write Binary Files check
box to specify whether the file should be written as a text or binary file. You can
read and edit a text file, but it will require more storage space than the same file
in binary format. Binary files take up less space and can be read and written by
FLUENT more quickly.

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Graphical User Interface (GUI)

5. Click the OK button to read or write the specified file. Shortcuts for this step are
as follows:
• If your file appears in the Files list and you are not reading an XY file, double-
click it instead of just selecting it. This will automatically activate the OK
button. (If you are reading an XY file, you will always have to click OK
yourself. Clicking or double-clicking will just add the selected file to the XY
File(s) list.)
• If you entered the name of the file in the File text entry box, you can press
the <Enter> key instead of clicking the OK button.

2.1.3 Panels
Panels are used to perform more complicated input tasks. Similar to a dialog box, a
panel is displayed in a separate window, but working with a panel is more akin to filling
out a form. Each panel is unique and employs various types of input controls that make
up the form. The types of controls you will see are described further in this section.
When you have finished entering data in a panel’s controls, you will need to apply the
changes you have made, or cancel the changes, if desired. For this task, each panel falls
into one of two behavioral categories, depending on how it was designed.
The first category of panels is used in situations where it is desirable to apply the changes
and immediately close the panel. This type of panel includes two button controls as
described below:

OK applies any changes you have made to the panel, then closes the panel.

Cancel closes the panel, ignoring any changes you have made.

An example of this type of panel is shown in the following figure:

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 2.1 GUI Components

The other category of panels is used in situations where it is desirable to keep the panel
displayed on the screen after changes have been applied. This makes it easy to quickly
go back to that panel and make more changes. Panels used for postprocessing and grid
adaption often fall into this category. This type of panel includes two button controls as
described below:

Apply applies any changes you have made to the panel, but does not close the panel.
The name of this button is often changed to something more descriptive. For
example, many of the postprocessing panels use the name Display for this button,
and the adaption panels use the name Adapt.

Close closes the panel.

An example of this type of panel is shown in the following figure:

All panels include the following button used to access on-line help:

Help displays information about the controls in the panel. The help information will
appear in your web browser.

Each type of input control utilized by the panels is described below. Note that the
examples shown here are for a UNIX system; if you are working on a Windows system,
your panel controls may look slightly different, but they will work exactly as described
here.

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Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Tab

Much like the tabs on a notebook divider, tabs in panels are used to mark the different
sections into which a panel is divided. A panel that contains many controls may be
divided into different sections to reduce the amount of screen space it occupies. You can
access each section of the panel by “clicking” the left mouse button on the corresponding
tab. A click is one press and release of the mouse button.

Button

A button, also referred to as a push button, is used to perform a function indicated by

the button label. To activate a button, place the pointer over the button and click the
left mouse button.

Check Box

A check box, also referred to as a check button, is used to turn on/off an item or action
indicated by the check box label. Click the left mouse button on the check box to toggle
the state.

Radio Buttons

Radio buttons are a set of check boxes with the condition that only one can be set in the
“on” position at a time. When you click the left mouse button on a radio button, it will
be turned on, and all others will be turned off. Radio buttons appear either as diamonds
(as shown above) or as circles.

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Text Entry

A text entry lets you type text input. It will often have a label associated with it to
indicate the purpose of the entry.

Integer Number Entry

An integer number entry is similar to a text entry except it allows only integer numbers
to be entered (e.g., 10, -10, 50000 and 5E4). You may find it easier to enter large integer
numbers using scientific notation. For example, you could enter 350000 or 3.5E5.
The integer number entry also has arrow buttons that allow you to easily increase or
decrease its value. For most integer number entry controls, the value will be increased
(or decreased) by one when you click an arrow button. You can increase the size of the
increment by holding down a keyboard key while clicking the arrow button. The keys
used are shown below:

Key Factor of Increase

Shift 10
Ctrl 100

Real Number Entry

A real number entry is similar to a text entry, except it allows only real numbers to be
entered (e.g., 10, -10.538, 50000.45 and 5.72E-4). In most cases, the label will show the
units associated with the real number entry.

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Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Single-Selection List

A single-selection list contains zero or more items. Each item is printed on a separate line
in the list. You can select an item by placing the pointer over the item line and clicking
with the left mouse button. The selected item will become highlighted. Selecting another
item will deselect the previously selected item in the list.
Many panels will also accept a double-click in order to invoke the panel action that
is associated with the list selection (see information on the panel of interest for more
details).

Multiple-Selection List

A multiple-selection list is similar to a single-selection list, except it allows for more

than one selected item at a time. When you click the left mouse button on an item, its
selection state will toggle. Clicking on an unselected item will select it. Clicking on a
selected item will deselect it.
To select a range of items in a multiple-selection list, you can select the first desired item,
and then select the last desired item while holding down the <Shift> key. The first and
last items, and all the items between them, will be selected. You can also click and drag
the left mouse button to select multiple items.
There are two small buttons in the upper right corner of the multiple selection list that
accelerate the task of selecting or deselecting all the items in the list. Clicking on the
first button will select all items. Clicking on the second button will deselect all items.

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Drop-Down List

A drop-down list is a hidden single-selection list that shows only the current selection to
save space.
When you want to change the selection, follow the steps below:

1. Click the arrow button to display the list.

2. Place the pointer over the new list item.

3. Click the left mouse button on the item to make the selection and close the list.

If you wish to abort the selection operation while the list is displayed, you can move the
pointer anywhere outside the list and click the left mouse button.

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Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Scale

The scale is used to select a value from a predefined range by moving a slider. The number
shows the current value. To change the value, follow one of the procedures below:

1. Place the pointer over the slider.

2. Press and hold down the left mouse button.

3. Move the pointer along the slider bar to change the value.

4. Release the left mouse button.

or

1. Place the pointer over the slider and click the left mouse button.

2. Using the arrow keys on the keyboard, move the slider bar left or right to change
the value.

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2.1.4 Graphics Display Windows

Graphics display windows (e.g., Figure 2.1.7) are separate windows that display the
program’s graphical output.

4.18e+02
3.08e+02
1.98e+02
8.80e+01
-2.22e+01
-1.32e+02
-2.43e+02
-3.53e+02
-4.63e+02
-5.73e+02
-6.83e+02
-7.93e+02
-9.04e+02
-1.01e+03
-1.12e+03
-1.23e+03
-1.34e+03
-1.45e+03
-1.56e+03
-1.67e+03
-1.78e+03

Contours of Static Pressure (pascal)

Figure 2.1.7: Sample Graphics Display Window

The Display Options panel can be used to change the attributes of the graphics display or
to open another display window. The Mouse Buttons panel can be used to set the action
taken when a mouse button is pressed in the display window.

i To cancel a display operation, press <Ctrl-C> while the data is being pro-
cessed in preparation for graphical display. You cannot cancel the operation
after the program begins to draw in the graphics window.
For Windows systems, there are special features for printing the contents of the graphics
window directly. These features are not available on UNIX systems.

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Printing the Contents of the Graphics Display Window (Windows Systems Only)

If you are using the Windows version of FLUENT, you can display the graphics window’s
system menu by clicking in the upper-left corner of the graphics window. This menu
contains the usual system commands, such as move, size, and close. Along with the
system commands, FLUENT adds three more commands to the menu for printer and
clipboard support. These commands are described below:

Copy to Clipboard places a copy of the current picture into the Microsoft Windows
clipboard. Some attributes of the copied picture can be changed using the Page
Setup panel. The size of your graphics window affects the size of the text fonts
used in the picture. For best results, experiment with the graphics window size
and examine the resulting clipboard picture using the Windows clipboard viewer.

Print... displays the Microsoft Windows Print dialog box, which enables you to send
a copy of the picture to a printer. Some attributes of the copied picture can be
changed using the Page Setup panel. Still more attributes of the final print can
be specified within the Microsoft Windows Print and Print Setup dialog boxes (see
documentation for Microsoft Windows and your printer for details).

Page Setup... displays the Page Setup panel, which allows you to change attributes of
the picture copied to the clipboard, or to a printer. Further details about this panel
are included in the following section.

Page Setup Panel (Windows Systems Only)

To open the Page Setup panel, select the Page Setup... menu item in the graphics display
window’s system menu.

Controls
Color allows you to specify a color or non-color picture.
Color selects a color picture.
Gray Scale selects a gray-scale picture.
Monochrome selects a black-and-white picture.

Color Quality allows you to specify the color mode used for the picture.
True Color creates a picture defined by RGB values. This assumes that your
printer or display has at least 65536 colors, or “unlimited colors”.
Mapped Color creates a picture that uses a colormap. This is the right choice
for devices that have 256 colors.

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Figure 2.1.8: The Page Setup Panel (Windows Systems Only)

Clipboard Formats allows you to choose the desired format copied to the clipboard.
The size of your graphics window can affect the size of the clipboard picture. For
best results, experiment with the graphics window size and examine the resulting
clipboard picture using the Windows clipboard viewer.
Bitmap is a bitmap copy of the graphics window.
DIB Bitmap is a device-independent bitmap copy of the graphics window.
Metafile is a Windows Metafile.
Enhanced Metafile is a Windows Enhanced Metafile.

Picture Format allows you to specify a raster or a vector picture.

Vector creates a vector picture. This format will have a higher resolution when
printed, but some large 3D pictures may take a long time to print.
Raster creates a raster picture. This format will have a lower resolution when
printed, but some large 3D pictures may take much less time to print.

Printer Scale % controls the amount of the page that the printed picture will cover.
Decreasing the scaling will effectively increase the margin between the picture and
the edge of the paper.

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Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Options contains options that control other attributes of the picture.

Landscape Orientation (Printer) specifies the orientation of the picture. If se-
lected, the picture is made in landscape mode; otherwise, it is made in portrait
mode. This option is applicable only when printing.
Reverse Foreground/Background specifies that the foreground and background
colors of the picture will be swapped. This feature allows you to make a copy
of the picture with a white background and a black foreground, while the
graphics window is displayed with a black background and white foreground.

2.2 Customizing the Graphical User Interface (UNIX Systems Only)

On UNIX systems, you may wish to customize the graphical user interface by changing
attributes such as text color, background color, and text fonts. The program will try to
provide default text fonts that are satisfactory for your platform’s display size, but in
some cases customization may be necessary if the default text fonts make the GUI too
small or too large on your display, or if the default colors are undesirable.
The GUI in FLUENT is based on the X Window System Toolkit and OSF/Motif. The
attributes of the GUI are represented by X Window “resources”. If you are unfamiliar
with the X Window System Resource Database, please refer to any documentation you
may have that describes how to use the X Window System or OSF/Motif applications.
The default X Window resource values for a medium resolution display are shown below:

!
! General resources
!
Fluent*geometry: +0-0
Fluent*fontList: *-helvetica-bold-r-normal--12-*
Fluent*MenuBar*fontList: *-helvetica-bold-r-normal--12-*
Fluent*XmText*fontList: *-fixed-medium-r-normal--13-*
Fluent*XmTextField*fontList: *-fixed-medium-r-normal--13-*
Fluent*foreground: black
Fluent*background: gray75
Fluent*activeForeground: black
Fluent*activeBackground: gray85
Fluent*disabledTextColor: gray55
Fluent*XmToggleButton.selectColor: green
Fluent*XmToggleButtonGadget.selectColor: green
Fluent*XmText.translations:\
#override<Key>Delete: delete-previous-character()
Fluent*XmTextField.translations:\
#override<Key>Delete: delete-previous-character()

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 2.2 Customizing the Graphical User Interface (UNIX Systems Only)

!
! Console resources
!
Fluent*ConsoleText.rows: 24
Fluent*ConsoleText.columns: 80
Fluent*ConsoleText.background: linen
!
! Help Viewer resources
!
Fluent*Hyper.foreground: black
Fluent*Hyper.background: linen
Fluent*Hyper.hyperColor: SlateBlue3
Fluent*Hyper*normalFont:\
*-new century schoolbook-medium-r-normal--12-*
Fluent*Hyper*hyperFont:\
*-new century schoolbook-bold-r-normal--12-*
Fluent*Hyper*texLargeFont:\
*-new century schoolbook-bold-r-normal--14-*
Fluent*Hyper*texBoldFont:\
*-new century schoolbook-bold-r-normal--12-*
Fluent*Hyper*texFixedFont:\
*-courier-bold-r-normal--12-*
Fluent*Hyper*texItalicFont:\
*-new century schoolbook-medium-i-normal--12-*
Fluent*Hyper*texMathFont:\
*-symbol-medium-r-normal--14-*
Fluent*Hyper*texSansFont:\
*-helvetica-bold-r-normal--12-*

To customize one or more of the resources for a particular user, place appropriate resource
specification lines in that user’s file $HOME/.Xdefaults or whatever resource file is loaded
by the X Window System on the user’s platform.
To customize one or more of the resources for several users at a site, place the resource
specification lines in an application defaults resource file called Fluent. This file should
then be installed in a directory such as /usr/lib/X11/app-defaults, or on SUN work-
stations, the directory may be /usr/openwin/lib/app-defaults. See documentation
regarding your platform for more information.

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Graphical User Interface (GUI)

2.3 Using the GUI Help System

FLUENT includes an intergrated HTML-based on-line help system that provides easy
access to the program documentation. Through the graphical user interface, you have
the entire User’s Guide and other documentation available to you with the click of a
mouse button. The User’s Guide and other manuals are displayed in your web browser,
and you can use the hypertext links and the browser’s search and navigation tools (as
well as the additional navigation tools described in the separate Getting Started Guide)
to find the information you need.
There are many ways to access the information contained in the on-line help. You can
get reference information from within a panel or (on UNIX machines) request context-
sensitive help for a particular menu item or panel. You can also go to the User’s Guide
contents page or index, and use the hypertext links there to find the information you
are looking for. In addition to the User’s Guide, you can also access the other FLUENT
documentation (e.g., the Tutorial Guide or UDF Manual).
Note that the Reference Guide, which is the last chapter of the User’s Guide in the on-line
help, contains a description of each menu item and panel.

i FLUENT’s help system is HTML-based, so you need to have access to

a web browser. You also need to have installed the HTML files from
the documentation CD-ROM. See the separate installation instructions
for your platform type for information about installing the files from the
documentation CD-ROM.
This section focuses on the Help menu in FLUENT, and how you can use it (and the Help
button in each panel) to access the HTML-based on-line help from within FLUENT. See
the separate Getting Started Guide for more information about accessing the documenta-
tion outside of FLUENT. The Getting Started Guide also provides additional information
about navigating and finding information in the User’s Guide (and other manuals), as
well as guidelines for modifying the appearance of the HTML versions of the manuals.

2.3.1 Panel Help

To get help about a panel that you are currently using, click the Help button in the
panel. The web browser will open to the section of the Reference Guide that explains the
function of each item in the panel. In this section you will also find hypertext links to
the section(s) of the User’s Guide that discuss how to use the panel and provide related
information.

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 2.3 Using the GUI Help System

2.3.2 Context-Sensitive Help (UNIX Only)

If you want to find out how or when a particular menu item or panel is used, you can
use the context-sensitive help feature. Select the Context-Sensitive Help item in the Help
pull-down menu.
Help −→Context-Sensitive Help
With the resulting question-mark cursor, select an item from a pull-down menu. The
web browser will open to the section of the User’s Guide that discusses the selected item.

2.3.3 Opening the User’s Guide Table of Contents

To see a list of the chapters in the User’s Guide, select the User’s Guide Contents... menu
item in the Help pull-down menu.
Help −→User’s Guide Contents...
Selecting this item will open the web browser to the contents page of the User’s Guide
(Figure 2.3.1). Each chapter in the list is a hypertext link that you can click to view that
chapter. There is also an Expanded Contents link, which will display a list of contents
including all section titles in addition to the chapter titles. Each of these is a link to the
corresponding chapter or section of the manual.

2.3.4 Opening the User’s Guide Index

To see the index for the User’s Guide, select the User’s Guide Index... menu item in the
Help pull-down menu.
Help −→User’s Guide Index...
Selecting this menu item will open the web browser to the “A” page of the index (Fig-
ure 2.3.2). You can use the links at the top and bottom of the page to access the index
pages for other letters of the alphabet. Next to each entry in the index you will find one
or more numbers, which are links. Clicking on one of these links will bring you to the
corresponding place in the User’s Guide where the index entry topic is discussed.

2.3.5 Opening the Reference Guide

To open the web browser to the first page of the Reference Guide, which contains infor-
mation about each panel or menu item, arranged by pull-down menu, click the Reference
Guide hypertext link near the bottom of the User’s Guide Contents page.

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Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Figure 2.3.1: The FLUENT User’s Guide Contents Page

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 2.3 Using the GUI Help System

Figure 2.3.2: The FLUENT User’s Guide Index

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Graphical User Interface (GUI)

2.3.6 Help on Help

You can obtain information about using on-line help by selecting the Using Help... menu
item in the Help pull-down menu.
Help −→Using Help...
When you select this item, the web browser will open to the beginning of this section.

2.3.7 Help for Text Interface Commands

There are two ways to find information about text interface commands. You can either
go to the Text Command List (which can be accessed using the Help/More Documenta-
tion... menu item, as described below), or use the text interface help system described in
Section 3.6: Using the Text Interface Help System.

2.3.8 Accessing the Other Manuals

As noted above, you can access other manuals through the on-line help, in addition to
the User’s Guide. (You can also access the User’s Guide in formats other than HTML—
namely, Adobe Acrobat PDF—which is recommended if you want to print out an entire
chapter or a long section.) To see what other FLUENT manuals are available, select the
More Documentation... menu item in the Help pull-down menu.
Help −→More Documentation...
When you select this item, the web browser will open to the FLUENT documentation
“home” page (Figure 2.3.3).
See the separate Getting Started Guide for more information.

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 2.3 Using the GUI Help System

Figure 2.3.3: The FLUENT Documentation Home Page

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Graphical User Interface (GUI)

2.3.9 Accessing the User Services Center Web Site

You can access the Fluent User Services Center web site by selecting the User Services
Center... menu item in the Help pull-down menu.
Help −→User Services Center...
FLUENT will direct your web browser to the appropriate web address.

i To link to the User Services Center on UNIX platforms, you must first have
installed the contents of the FLUENT Documentation CD, which contains
the files necessary to launch your browser so you can automatically view
the appropriate web pages.

2.3.10 Accessing the Fluent Online Technical Support Web Site

You can access the Fluent Online Technical Support web site by selecting the Online
Technical Support... menu item in the Help pull-down menu.
Help −→Online Technical Support...
FLUENT will direct your web browser to the appropriate web address.

2.3.11 Obtaining a Listing of Other FLUENT License Users

You can obtain a listing of current FLUENT users when you select the License Usage...
menu item in the Help pull-down menu.
Help −→License Usage...
FLUENT will display a list the current users of the FLUENT license feature in the console.

2.3.12 Version and Release Information

You can obtain information about the version and release of FLUENT you are running
by selecting the Version... menu item in the Help pull-down menu.
Help −→Version...

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Chapter 3. Text User Interface (TUI)

In addition to the graphical user interface described in Chapter 2: Graphical User Inter-
face (GUI), the user interface to FLUENT includes a textual command line interface.

• Section 3.1: Text Menu System

• Section 3.2: Text Prompt System

• Section 3.3: Interrupts

• Section 3.4: System Commands

• Section 3.5: Text Menu Input from Character Strings

• Section 3.6: Using the Text Interface Help System

The text interface (TUI) uses, and is written in, a dialect of Lisp called Scheme. Users
familiar with Scheme will be able to use the interpretive capabilities of the interface to
create customized commands.

3.1 Text Menu System

The text menu system provides a hierarchical interface to the program’s underlying
procedural interface. Because it is text based, you can easily manipulate its operation
with standard text-based tools: input can be saved in files, modified with text editors, and
read back in to be executed. Because the text menu system is tightly integrated with the
Scheme extension language, it can easily be programmed to provide sophisticated control
and customized functionality.
The menu system structure is similar to the directory tree structure of UNIX operating
systems. When you first start FLUENT, you are in the “root” menu and the menu prompt
is simply a caret.

>

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Text User Interface (TUI)

To generate a listing of the submenus and commands in the current menu, simply press
<Enter>.

> <Enter>
adapt/ file/ report/
define/ grid/ solve/
display/ parallel/ surface/
exit plot/ view/

By convention, submenu names end with a / to differentiate them from menu commands.
To execute a command, just type its name (or an abbreviation). Similarly, to move down
into a submenu, enter its name or an abbreviation. When you move into the submenu,
the prompt will change to reflect the current menu name.

> display

/display> set

/display/set>

To move back to the previously occupied menu, type q or quit at the prompt.

/display/set> q

/display>

You can move directly to a menu by giving its full pathname.

/display> /file

/display//file>

In the above example, control was passed from /display to /file without stopping in
the root menu. Therefore, when you quit from the /file menu, control will be passed
directly back to /display.

/display//file> q

/display>

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 3.1 Text Menu System

Furthermore, if you execute a command without stopping in any of the menus along the
way, control will again be returned to the menu from which you invoked the command.

/display> /file start-journal jrnl

Opening input journal to file "jrnl".

/display>

The text menu system provides on-line help for menu commands. The text menu on-line
help system is described in Section 3.6: Using the Text Interface Help System.
To edit the current command, you can position the cursor with the left and right arrow
keys, delete with the <Backspace> key, and insert text simply by typing.

i Only the <Backspace> key is available for editing when FLUENT is started
with -g options.

3.1.1 Command Abbreviation

To select a menu command, you do not need to type the entire name; you can type
an abbreviation that matches the command. The rules for matching a command are as
follows: A command name consists of phrases separated by hyphens. A command is
matched by matching an initial sequence of its phrases. Matching of hyphens is optional.
A phrase is matched by matching an initial sequence of its characters. A character is
matched by typing that character.
If an abbreviation matches more than one command, then the command with the greatest
number of matched phrases is chosen. If more than one command has the same number
of matched phrases, then the first command to appear in the menu is chosen.
For example, each of the following will match the command set-ambientcolor: set-
ambient-color, s-a-c, sac, and sa. When abbreviating commands, sometimes your
abbreviation will match more than one command. In such cases, the first command
is selected. Occasionally, there is an anomaly such as lint not matching lighting-
interpolation because the li gets absorbed in lights-on? and then the nt does not
match interpolation. This can be resolved by choosing a different abbreviation, such
as liin, or l-int.

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Text User Interface (TUI)

3.1.2 Command Line History

You can use the up and down arrow keys on your keyboard to go through recently used
commands that are stored in history. By default, command-history will store only the
last ten commands. This can be changed (for example to 15) by using the following
command:

> (set! *cmd-history-length* 15)

i Command-history is not available if the FLUENT application is started

with -g options (see Section 1.1.5: Startup Options).

i The user inputs supplied as the arguments of the TUI command or alias
will not be saved in history. By way of illustration, consider the following
entry in the TUI:

> rc new_file.cas

i In history, only rc (an alias for read-case) will be saved, since

new file.cas is a user input to the alias-function.
Commands recalled from history can be edited or corrected using the <Backspace> key
and the left and right arrow keys.

3.1.3 Scheme Evaluation

If you enter an open parenthesis, (, at the menu prompt, then that parenthesis and all
characters up to and including the matching closing parenthesis are passed to Scheme to
be evaluated, and the result of evaluating the expression is displayed.

> (define a 1)
a

> (+ a 2 3 4)
10

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 3.2 Text Prompt System

3.1.4 Aliases
Command aliases can be defined within the menu system. As with the UNIX csh shell,
aliases take precedence over command execution. The following aliases are predefined in
Cortex: error, pwd, chdir, ls, ., and alias.

error displays the Scheme object that was the “irritant” in the most recent Scheme
error interrupt.

pwd prints the working directory in which all file operations will take place.

chdir will change the working directory.

ls lists the files in the working directory.

alias displays the list of symbols currently aliased.

3.2 Text Prompt System

Commands require various arguments, including numbers, filenames, yes/no responses,
character strings, and lists. A uniform interface to this input is provided by the text
prompt system. A prompt consists of a prompt string, followed by an optional units
string enclosed in parentheses, followed by a default value enclosed in square brackets.
The following shows some examples of prompts:

filled grids? [no] <Enter>

shrink-factor [0.1] <Enter>

line-weight [1] <Enter>

title [""] <Enter>

The default value for a prompt is accepted by typing a <Enter> or a , (comma).

i Note that a comma is not a separator. It is a separate token that indicates

a default value. The sequence “1,2” results in three values; the number
1 for the first prompt, the default value for the second prompt, and the
number 2 for the third prompt.
A short help message can be displayed at any prompt by entering a ?. (See Section 3.6: Us-
ing the Text Interface Help System.)
To abort a prompt sequence, simply press <Ctrl-C>.

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Text User Interface (TUI)

3.2.1 Numbers
The most common prompt type is a number. Numbers can be either integers or reals.
Valid numbers are, for example, 16, -2.4, .9E5, and +1E-5. Integers can also be specified
in binary, octal, and hexadecimal form. The decimal integer 31 can be entered as 31,
#b11111, #o37, or #x1f. In Scheme, integers are a subset of reals, so you do not need a
decimal point to indicate that a number is real; 2 is just as much a real as 2.0. If you
enter a real at an integer prompt, any fractional part will simply be truncated; 1.9 will
become 1.

3.2.2 Booleans
Some prompts require a yes-or-no response. A yes/no prompt will accept either yes or
y for a positive response, and no or n for a negative response. yes/no prompts are used
for confirming potentially dangerous actions such as overwriting an existing file, exiting
without saving case, data, mesh, etc.
Some prompts require actual Scheme boolean values (true or false). These are entered
with the Scheme symbols for true and false, #t and #f.

3.2.3 Strings
Character strings are entered in double quotes, e.g., "red". Plot titles and plot legend
titles are examples of character strings. Character strings can include any characters,
including blank spaces and punctuation.

3.2.4 Symbols
Symbols are entered without quotes. Zone names, surface names, and material names are
examples of symbols. Symbols must start with an alphabetical character (i.e., a letter),
and cannot include any blank spaces or commas.

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3.2.5 Filenames
Filenames are actually just character strings. For convenience, filename prompts do not
require the string to be surrounded with double quotes. If, for some exceptional reason,
a filename contains an embedded space character, then the name must be surrounded
with double quotes.
One consequence of this convenience is that filename prompts do not evaluate the re-
sponse. For example, the sequence

> (define fn "valve.ps")

fn

> hc fn

will end up writing a hardcopy file with the name fn, not valve.ps. Since the filename
prompt did not evaluate the response, fn did not get a chance to evaluate "valve.ps"
as it would for most other prompts.

3.2.6 Lists
Some functions in FLUENT require a “list” of objects such as numbers, strings, booleans,
etc. A list is a Scheme object that is simply a sequence of objects terminated by the
empty list, ’(). Lists are prompted for an element at a time, and the end of the list is
signaled by entering an empty list. This terminating list forms the tail of the prompted
list, and can either be empty or can contain values. For convenience, the empty list
can be entered as () as well as the standard form ’(). Normally, list prompts save the
previous argument list as the default. To modify the list, overwrite the desired elements
and terminate the process with an empty list. For example,

element(1) [()] 1
element(2) [()] 10
element(3) [()] 100
element(4) [()] <Enter>

creates a list of three numbers: 1, 10, and 100. Subsequently,

element(1) [1] <Enter>

element(2) [10] <Enter>
element(3) [100] <Enter>
element(4) [()] 1000
element(5) [()] <Enter>

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Text User Interface (TUI)

adds a fourth element. Then

element(1) [1] <Enter>

element(2) [10] <Enter>
element(3) [100] ()

leaves only 1 and 10 in the list. Subsequently entering

element(1) [1] ,,’(11 12 13)

creates a five element list: 1, 10, 11, 12, and 13. Finally, a single empty list removes all
elements

element(1) [1] ()

3.2.7 Evaluation
All responses to prompts (except filenames, see above) are evaluated by the Scheme
interpreter before they are used. You can therefore enter any valid Scheme expression as
the response to a prompt. For example, to enter a unit vector with one component equal
to 1/3 (without using your calculator),

/foo> set-xy
x-component [1.0] (/ 1 3)
y-component [0.0] (sqrt (/ 8 9))

or, you could first define a utility function to compute the second component of a unit
vector,

> (define (unit-y x) (sqrt (- 1.0 (* x x))))

unit-y
/foo> set-xy
x-component [1.0] (/ 1 3)
y-component [0.0] (unit-y (/ 1 3))

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 3.3 Interrupts

3.2.8 Default Value Binding

The default value at any prompt is bound to the Scheme symbol “_” (underscore) so
that the default value can form part of a Scheme expression. For example, if you want
to decrease a default value so that it is one-third of the original value, you could enter

shrink-factor [0.8] (/ _ 3)

3.3 Interrupts
The execution of the code can be halted using <Ctrl-C>, at which time the present
operation stops at the next recoverable location.

3.4 System Commands

The way you execute system commands with the ! (bang) shell escape character will be
slightly different for UNIX and Windows systems.

3.4.1 System Commands for UNIX-based Operating Systems

If you are running FLUENT under a UNIX-based operating system, all characters follow-
ing the ! up to the next newline character will be executed in a subshell. Any further
input related to these system commands must be entered in the window in which you
started the program, and any screen output will also appear in that window. (Note that
if you started FLUENT remotely, this input and output will be in the window in which
you started Cortex.)

> !rm junk.*

> !vi script.rp

!pwd and !ls will execute the UNIX commands in the directory in which Cortex was
started. The screen output will appear in the window in which you started FLUENT,
unless you started it remotely, in which case the output will appear in the window in
which you started Cortex. (Note that !cd executes in a subshell, so it will not change the
working directory either for FLUENT or for Cortex, and is therefore not useful.) Typing
cd with no arguments will move you to your home directory in the console.

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Text User Interface (TUI)

FLUENT includes three system command aliases (pwd, ls, and chdir) that will be exe-
cuted in your working directory with output displayed in the FLUENT console. Note that
these aliases will invoke the corresponding UNIX commands with respect to the parent
directory of the case file. For example, pwd prints the parent directory of the case file in
the FLUENT console, while !pwd prints the directory from which you started FLUENT in
the UNIX shell window where you started FLUENT.
Several examples of system commands entered in the console are shown below. The
screen output that will appear in the window in which FLUENT was started (or, if you
started the program remotely, in the window in which Cortex was started) follows the
examples.
Example input (in the FLUENT console):

> !pwd

> !ls valve*.*

Example output (in the window in which FLUENT—or Cortex, if you started the program
remotely—was started):

/home/cfd/run/valve
valve1.cas valve1.msh valve2.cas valve2.msh

3.4.2 System Commands for Windows Operating Systems

If you are running FLUENT under a Windows operating system, all characters following
the ! up to the next newline character will be executed. The results of a command
will appear in the FLUENT console, or in a separate window if the command starts an
external program, such as Notepad.

> !del junk.*

> !notepad script.rp

!cd and !dir will execute the DOS commands and the screen output will appear in the
FLUENT console. The !cd command with no argument will display the current working
directory in the FLUENT console.

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 3.5 Text Menu Input from Character Strings

Several examples of system commands entered in the console are shown below.
Example input (in boxes) and output (in the FLUENT console):

> !cd
p:/cfd/run/valve
> !dir valve*.*/w
Volume in drive P is users
Volume Serial Number is 1234-5678
Directory of p:/cfd/run/valve
valve1.cas valve1.msh valve2.cas valve2.msh
4 File(s) 621,183 bytes
0 Dir(s) 1,830,088,704 bytes free

3.5 Text Menu Input from Character Strings

Often, when writing a Scheme extension function for FLUENT, it is convenient to be able
to include menu commands in the function. This can be done with ti-menu-load-string.
For example, to open graphics window 1, use

(ti-menu-load-string "di ow 1")

A Scheme loop that will open windows 0 and 1 and display the front view of the grid in
window 0 and the back view in window 1 is given by

(for-each
(lambda (window view)
(ti-menu-load-string (format #f "di ow ~a gr view rv ~a"
window view)))
’(0 1)
’(front back))

This loop makes use of the format function to construct the string used by
menu-load-string. This simple loop could also be written without using menu com-
mands at all, but you need to know the Scheme functions that get executed by the menu
commands to do it:

(for-each
(lambda (window view)
(cx-open-window window)
(display-grid)
(cx-restore-view view))
’(0 1) ’(front back))

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Text User Interface (TUI)

String input can also provide an easy way to create aliases within FLUENT. For example,
to create an alias that will display the grid, you could type the following:

(alias ’dg (lambda () (ti-menu-load-string "/di gr")))

Then any time you enter dg from anywhere in the menu hierarchy, the grid will be drawn
in the active window.

i ti-menu-load-string evaluates the string argument in the top level menu.

It ignores any menu you may be in when you invoke ti-menu-load-string.
As a result, the command

(ti-menu-load-string "open-window 1 gr") ; incorrect usage

will not work even if you type it from within the display/ menu—the string itself must
cause control to enter the display/ menu, as in

(ti-menu-load-string "display open-window 1 grid")

3.6 Using the Text Interface Help System

The text user interface provides context-sensitive on-line help. Within the text menu
system, you can obtain a brief description of each of the commands by entering a ?
followed by the command in question.
Example:

> ?dis
display/: Enter the display menu.

You can also enter a lone ? to enter “help mode.” In this mode, you need only enter the
command or menu name to display the help message. To exit the help mode type q or
quit as for a normal menu.

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 3.6 Using the Text Interface Help System

Example:

> ?

[help-mode]> di
display/: Enter the display menu.

[help-mode]> pwd
pwd: #[alias]
(LAMBDA ()
(BEGIN
(SET! pwd-cmd ((LAMBDA n
n) ’system (IF (cx-send ’(unix?))
"pwd"
"cd")))
(cx-send pwd-cmd)))

[help-mode]> q

To access the help, type a ? at the prompt when you are prompted for information.
Example:

> display/annotate
Annotation text [""] ?
Enter the text to annotate the plot with.
Annotation text [""]

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Text User Interface (TUI)

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Chapter 4. Reading and Writing Files

During a FLUENT session you may need to import and export several kinds of files. Files
that are read include mesh, case, data, profile, Scheme, and journal files. Files that are
written include case, data, profile, journal, and transcript files. FLUENT also has features
that allow you to save panel layouts and hardcopies of graphics windows. You can also
export data for use with various visualization and postprocessing tools. These operations
are described in the following sections.

• Section 4.1: Shortcuts for Reading and Writing Files

• Section 4.2: Reading Mesh Files

• Section 4.3: Reading and Writing Case and Data Files

• Section 4.4: Reading FLUENT/UNS and RAMPANT Case and Data Files

• Section 4.5: Reading and Writing Profile Files

• Section 4.6: Reading and Writing Boundary Conditions

• Section 4.7: Writing a Boundary Grid

• Section 4.8: Reading Scheme Source Files

• Section 4.9: Creating and Reading Journal Files

• Section 4.10: Creating Transcript Files

• Section 4.11: Importing Files

• Section 4.12: Exporting Files

• Section 4.13: Grid-to-Grid Solution Interpolation

• Section 4.14: Saving Hardcopy Files

• Section 4.15: Saving the Panel Layout

• Section 4.16: The .fluent File

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Reading and Writing Files

4.1 Shortcuts for Reading and Writing Files

The following features in FLUENT make reading and writing files convenient:

• Automatic appending or detection of default filename suffixes.

• Binary file reading and writing.

• Automatic detection of file format (text/binary).

• Recent file list.

• Reading and writing of compressed files.

• Tilde expansion.

• Automatic numbering of files.

• Ability to disable the overwrite confirmation prompt.

4.1.1 Default File Suffixes

Each type of file read or written in FLUENT has a default file suffix associated with
it. When you specify the first part of the filename (the prefix) for the commonly used
files, the solver automatically appends or detects the appropriate suffix. For example,
to write a case file named myfile.cas, just specify the prefix myfile in the Select File
dialog box (Figure 4.1.1) and .cas is automatically appended. Similarly, to read the
case file named myfile.cas into the solver, you can just specify myfile and FLUENT
automatically searches for a file of that name with the suffix .cas.
The default file suffix for case and data files, PDF (Probability Density Function) files,
DTRM ray files, profiles, scheme files, journal files, etc., are automatically detected and
appended. The appropriate default file suffix appears in the Select File dialog box for
each type of file.

4.1.2 Binary Files

When you write a case, data, or ray file, a binary file is saved by default. Binary files take
up less memory than text files and can be read and written by FLUENT more quickly.

Note: You cannot read and edit a binary file, as you can do for a text file.

To save a text file, turn off the Write Binary Files option in the Select File dialog box when
you are writing the file.

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 4.1 Shortcuts for Reading and Writing Files

Figure 4.1.1: The Select File Dialog Box

4.1.3 Detecting File Format

When you read a case, data, mesh, PDF, or ray file, the solver automatically determines
whether it is a text (formatted) file or binary file.

4.1.4 Recent File List

At the bottom of the File/Read submenu there is a list of four FLUENT case files that
you most recently read or wrote. To read one of these files into FLUENT, select it in the
list. This allows you to read a recently used file without selecting it in the Select File
dialog box.
Note that the files listed in this submenu may not be appropriate for your current session
(e.g., a 3D case file can be listed even if you are running a 2D version of FLUENT). Also,
if you read a case file using this shortcut, the corresponding data file is read only if it
has the same base name as the case file (e.g., file1.cas and file1.dat) and it was
read/written with the case file the last time the case file was read/written.

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Reading and Writing Files

4.1.5 Reading and Writing Compressed Files

Reading Compressed Files
You can use the Select File dialog box to read files compressed using compress or gzip.
If you select a compressed file with a .Z extension, FLUENT automatically invokes zcat
to import the file. If you select a compressed file with a .gz extension, the solver invokes
gunzip to import the file.
For example, if you select a file named flow.msh.gz, the solver reports the following mes-
sage indicating that the result of the gunzip is imported into FLUENT via an operating
system pipe.

Reading "| gunzip -c flow.msh.gz"...

You can also type in the filename without any suffix (e.g., if you are not sure whether or
not the file is compressed). First, the solver attempts to open a file with the input name.
If it cannot find a file with that name, it attempts to locate files with default suffixes and
extensions appended to the name.
For example, if you enter the name file-name, the solver traverses the following list
until it finds an existing file:

• file-name

• file-name.gz

• file-name.Z

• file-name.suffix

• file-name.suffix.gz

• file-name.suffix.Z

where suffix is a common extension to the file, such as .cas or .msh. The solver reports
an error if it fails to find an existing file with one of these names.

i For Windows systems, only files that were compressed with gzip (i.e.,
files with a .gz extension) can be read. Files that were compressed with
compress cannot be read into FLUENT on a Windows machine.

i Do not read a compressed ray file; FLUENT cannot access the ray tracing
information properly from a compressed ray file.

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 4.1 Shortcuts for Reading and Writing Files

Writing Compressed Files

You can use the Select File dialog box to write a compressed file by appending a .Z or
.gz extension onto the file name.
For example, if you enter flow.gz as the name for a case file, the solver reports the
following message:

Writing "| gzip -cfv > flow.cas.gz"...

The status message indicates that the case file information is being piped into the gzip
command, and that the output of the compression command is being redirected to the
file with the specified name. In this particular example, the .cas extension is added
automatically.

i For Windows systems, compression can be performed only with gzip. That
is, you can write a compressed file by appending .gz to the name, but
appending .Z does not compress the file.

i Do not write a compressed ray file; FLUENT cannot access the ray tracing
information properly from a compressed ray file.

4.1.6 Tilde Expansion (UNIX Systems Only)

On UNIX systems, if you specify ~/ as the first two characters of a filename, the ~ is
expanded as your home directory. Similarly, you can start a filename with ~username/,
and the ~username is expanded to the home directory of “username”. If you specify
~/file as the case file to be written, FLUENT saves the file file.cas in your home
directory. You can specify a subdirectory of your home directory as well: if you enter
~/cases/file.cas, FLUENT saves the file file.cas in the cases subdirectory.

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Reading and Writing Files

4.1.7 Automatic Numbering of Files

There are several special characters that you can include in a filename. Using one of
these character strings in your filename provides a shortcut for numbering the files based
on various parameters (i.e., iteration number, time step, or total number of files saved
so far), because you need not enter a new filename each time you save a file. (See also
Section 4.3.4: Automatic Saving of Case and Data Files for information about saving and
numbering case and data files automatically.)

• For unsteady-state calculations, you can save files with names that reflect the time
step at which they are saved by including the character string %t in the file name.
For example, you can specify contours-%t.ps for the file name, and the solver
saves a file with the appropriate name (e.g., contours-0001.ps if the solution is
at the first time step).
This automatic saving of files with the time step should not be used for steady-state
cases, since the time step will always remain zero.

• For unsteady-state calculations, you can save files with names that reflect the
flow-time at which they are saved by including the character string %f in the file
name. The usage is similar to %t. For example, when you specify filename-%f.ps
for the file name, the solver will save a file with the appropriate name (e.g.,
filename-005.000000.ps for a solution at a flow-time of 5 seconds). By default,
the flow-time that is included in the file name will have a field width of 10 and
6 decimal places. To modify this format, use the character string %x.yf, where
x and y are the preferred field width and number of decimal places, respectively.
FLUENT will automatically add zeros to the beginning of the flow-time to achieve
the prescribed field width. To eliminate these zeros and left align the flow-time,
use the character string %-x.yf instead.
This automatic saving of files with flow-time should not be used for steady-state
cases, since the flow-time will always remain zero.

• To save a file with a name that reflects the iteration at which it is saved, use the
character string %i in the file name. For example, you can specify contours-%i.ps
for the file name, and the solver saves a file with the appropriate name (e.g.,
contours-0010.ps if the solution is at the 10th iteration).

• To save a hardcopy file with a name that reflects the total number of hardcopy
files saved so far in the current solver session, use the character string %n in the file
name.
This option can be used only for hardcopy files.

The default field width for %i, %t, and %n formats is 4. You can change the field width
by using %xi, %xt, and %xn in the filename, where x is the preferred field width.

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 4.2 Reading Mesh Files

4.1.8 Disabling the Overwrite Confirmation Prompt

By default, if you ask FLUENT to write a file with the same name as an existing file in
that directory, it will ask you to confirm that it is “OK to overwrite” the existing file.
If you do not want the solver to ask you for confirmation before it overwrites existing
files, you can choose the file/confirm-overwrite? text command and answer no. See
Chapter 3: Text User Interface (TUI) for the text user interface commands.

4.2 Reading Mesh Files

Mesh files are created using the grid generators (GAMBIT, TGrid, GeoMesh, and PreBFC),
or by several third-party CAD packages. From FLUENT’s point of view, a mesh file is a
subset of a case file (described in Section 4.3.1: Reading and Writing Case Files). The
mesh file contains the coordinates of all the nodes, connectivity information that tells
how the nodes are connected to one another to form faces and cells, and the zone types
and numbers of all the faces (e.g., wall-1, pressure-inlet-5, symmetry-2).
The mesh file does not contain any information on boundary conditions, flow parame-
ters, or solution parameters. For information about grids, see Chapter 6: Reading and
Manipulating Grids.
To read a native-format mesh file (i.e., a mesh file that is saved in FLUENT format) into
the solver, use the File/Read/Case... menu item, as described in Section 4.3.1: Reading
and Writing Case Files. GAMBIT, TGrid, GeoMesh, and PreBFC can all write a native-
format mesh file. For information about reading these files, see Sections 6.3.1, 6.3.2,
6.3.3, and 6.3.4.
For information on importing an unpartitioned mesh file into the parallel solver using
the partition filter, see Section 31.5.5: Using the Partition Filter.

4.2.1 Reading TGrid Mesh Files

TGrid has the same file format as FLUENT. Hence you can read a TGrid mesh into the
solver using the File/Read/Case... menu item.
File −→ Read −→Case...
For information about reading TGrid mesh files, see Section 6.3.3: TGrid Grid Files.

4.2.2 Reading Surface Meshes

To read the surface mesh file into FLUENT, use the Grid/Surface Mesh... menu item.
Grid −→Surface Mesh...
For information about reading surface mesh files, see Section 6.3.16: Reading Surface
Mesh Files.

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Reading and Writing Files

4.2.3 Reading GAMBIT and GeoMesh Mesh Files

If you create a FLUENT 5/6, FLUENT/UNS, or RAMPANT grid in GAMBIT or GeoMesh,
you can read it into FLUENT using the File/Read/Case... menu item.
File −→ Read −→Case...
Select the Case... menu item to open the Select File dialog box. Specify the name of the
file to be read.

4.2.4 Reading PreBFC Unstructured Mesh Files

Since PreBFC’s unstructured triangular grids have the same file format as FLUENT, you
can read a PreBFC triangular mesh into the solver using the File/Read/Case... menu item.
File −→ Read −→Case...

i Save the file using the MESH-RAMPANT/TGRID command.

For information about reading PreBFC mesh files, see Section 6.3.4: PreBFC Grid Files.

4.3 Reading and Writing Case and Data Files

Information related to the FLUENT simulation is stored in both, the case file and the
data file. The commands for reading and writing these files are described in the following
sections, along with commands for the automatic saving of case and data at specified
intervals.
FLUENT can read and write either text or binary case and data files. Binary files require
less storage space and are faster to read and write. By default, FLUENT writes files in
binary format. To write a text file, disable the Write Binary Files check button in the
Select File dialog box. In addition, you can read and write either text or binary files in
compressed formats (see Section 4.1.5: Reading and Writing Compressed Files). FLUENT
automatically detects the file type when reading.

i If you adapt the grid, you must save a new case file as well as a data
file. Otherwise the new data file will not correspond to the case file (for
example, they will have different numbers of cells). If you have not saved
the latest case or data file, FLUENT will warn you when you try to exit
the program.

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 4.3 Reading and Writing Case and Data Files

4.3.1 Reading and Writing Case Files

Case files contain the grid, boundary conditions, and solution parameters for a problem.
It also contains the information about the user interface and graphics environment. For
information about the format of case files see Appendix B: Case and Data File Formats.
The commands used for reading case files can also be used to read native-format grid
files (as described in Section 4.2: Reading Mesh Files) because the grid information is
a subset of the case information. Select the File/Read/Case... menu item to invoke the
Select File dialog box.
File −→ Read −→Case...
Read a case file using the Select File dialog box.
Select the File/Write/Case... menu item to invoke the Select File dialog box.
File −→ Write −→Case...
Write a case file using the Select File dialog box.
See Section 1.1.2: Specifying the Solver Version by Reading a Case File for information
about executing the appropriate version automatically, based on the case file that is read.
When FLUENT reads a case file, it first looks for a file with the exact name you typed. If
a file with that name is not found, it searches for the same file with different extensions
(Section 4.1.5: Reading and Writing Compressed Files). When FLUENT writes a case
file, .cas is added to the name you type unless the name already ends with .cas.

4.3.2 Reading and Writing Data Files

Data files contain the values of the flow field in each grid element and the convergence
history (residuals) for that flow field. For information about the format of data files see
Appendix B: Case and Data File Formats.
Select the File/Read/Data... menu item to invoke the Select File dialog box.
File −→ Read −→Data...
Read a data file using the Select File dialog box.
Select the File/Write/Data... menu item to invoke the Select File dialog box.
File −→ Write −→Data...
Write a Data file using the Select File dialog box.
When FLUENT reads a data file, it first looks for a file with the exact name you typed. If
a file with that name is not found, it searches for the same file with different extensions
(Section 4.1.5: Reading and Writing Compressed Files). When FLUENT writes a data
file, .dat is added to the name you type unless the name already ends with .dat.

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Reading and Writing Files

4.3.3 Reading and Writing Case and Data Files Together

A case file and a data file together contain all the information required to restart a
solution. Case files contain the grid, boundary conditions, and solution parameters.
Data files contain the values of the flow field in each grid element and the convergence
history (residuals) for that flow field.
You can read a case file and a data file together by using the Select File dialog box
invoked by selecting the File/Read/Case & Data... menu item. To read both files, select
the appropriate case file, and the corresponding data file (same name with .dat suffix) is
also read. To write a case file and a data file, select the File/Write/Case & Data... menu
item.
File −→ Read −→Case & Data...
File −→ Write −→Case & Data...
See Section 1.1.2: Specifying the Solver Version by Reading a Case File for information
about executing the appropriate version automatically based on the case file that is read.

4.3.4 Automatic Saving of Case and Data Files

You can request FLUENT to automatically save case and data files at specified intervals
during a calculation. This is especially useful for time-dependent calculations, since it
allows you to save the results at different time steps or flow times without stopping the
calculation and performing the save manually.
You can also use the autosave feature for steady-state problems, to examine the solu-
tion at different stages in the iteration history. Automatic saving is specified using the
Autosave Case/Data panel (Figure 4.3.1).
File −→ Write −→Autosave...
You must set the frequency of saves for case and/or data files, and the root file name.
Enter the case-saving frequency in the Autosave Case File Frequency field, and the data-
saving frequency in the Autosave Data File Frequency field. Both values are set to zero
by default, indicating that no automatic saving is performed.
For steady flows, you can specify the frequency in iterations, and for unsteady flows, you
can specify it in time steps or flow time (unless you are using the explicit time stepping
formulation, in which case you specify the frequency in iterations). If you define an
Autosave Case File Frequency of 10, for example, a case file is saved every 10 iterations or
time steps.
If you have limited disk space, restrict the number of files saved by FLUENT using the
Overwrite Existing Files option. Enable the Overwrite Existing Files option and set the
value of the Maximum Number of Each File Type field. The case and data files are treated
separately. For example, if the value of Maximum Number of Each File Type is set to five,

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 4.3 Reading and Writing Case and Data Files

Figure 4.3.1: The Autosave Case/Data Panel

FLUENT saves a maximum of five case and five data files, irrespective of the frequency.
After saving the specified number of files, FLUENT overwrites the earliest existing file.
For steady-state calculations, the saved file name that you enter in the File Name field
will have an iteration appended to it.
For unsteady-state calculations, you can autosave files such that your file name has a
flow time or time step appended to it. You can select time-step or flow-time from the
Append File Name with drop-down list (see Figure 4.3.2).
Enter the file name for the autosave files in the File Name field. The iteration or time-step
number and an appropriate suffix (.cas or .dat) is added to the specified root name. If
the specified File Name ends in .gz or .Z, appropriate file compression is performed. See
Section 4.1.5: Reading and Writing Compressed Files for details about file compression.
Consider an unsteady-state case for which you want to save your case and/or data files
at known time steps. The procedure you would follow is to first set a frequency for the
Autosave Case/Data File Frequency field. Select time-step from the Append File Name with
drop-down list. The resulting files saved would be

myfile-0005.cas
myfile-0005.dat

indicating that this file was saved at the fifth time step.

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Reading and Writing Files

If you want to save your case and/or data files at known flow times, select flow-time from
the Append File Name with drop-down list. The default No. of Decimal Digits in File Name
will be six, however, you can modify this number to reduce or increase the width of your
file name. Enter a file name (myfile) in the File Name field. The resulting files saved are

myfile-0.500000.cas
myfile-0.500000.dat

indicating a flow time of 0.5 seconds.

Figure 4.3.2: The Autosave Case/Data Panel when Appending flow-time

For steady-state and unsteady-state cases, you have the option to specify the format in
which you want to save your case and/or data files. For example, you may want to save
your solutions at certain flow times with their corresponding time steps (transient cases
only). Select time-step from the Append File Name with and enter the File Name followed
by a -%f, indicating the flow time as described in Section 4.1.7: Automatic Numbering
of Files.

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 4.4 Reading FLUENT/UNS and RAMPANT Case and Data Files

For example, entering filename-%f will result in the saved file name having the for-
mat filename-000.500000-0010.cas. The naming convention used in the example
(filename-000.500000-0010.cas) can be explained as follows:

• filename- is the file name you chose when autosaving your solution.

• 000.500000 is the flow time (%f) and has a field width of ten characters, allowing
for six decimal places, as discussed in Section 4.1.7: Automatic Numbering of Files.

• 0010 is the appended time-step, selected from the Append File Name with drop-down
list.

• .cas or .dat is your file extension when using the autosave option.

All of the autosave inputs are stored in the case file.

i The automatic numbering of files can be applied when using the autosave
function. Section 4.1.7: Automatic Numbering of Files has information on
automatic numbering of files.

4.4 Reading FLUENT/UNS and RAMPANT Case and Data Files

Case files created by FLUENT/UNS 3 or 4 or RAMPANT 2, 3, or 4 can be read into
FLUENT in the same way that current case files are read (see Section 4.3: Reading and
Writing Case and Data Files). If you read a case file created by FLUENT/UNS, FLUENT
selects the Pressure-Based solver in the Solver panel. If you read a case file created by
RAMPANT, FLUENT selects the Density-Based Explicit solver formulation in the Solver
panel.
Data files created by FLUENT/UNS 4 or RAMPANT 4 can be read into FLUENT in the
same way that current data files are read (see Section 4.3: Reading and Writing Case
and Data Files).

4.5 Reading and Writing Profile Files

Boundary profiles are used to specify flow conditions on a boundary zone of the solution
domain. For example, they can be used to prescribe a velocity field on an inlet plane.
For information on boundary profiles, see Section 7.26: Boundary Profiles.

Reading Profile Files

To read the boundary profile files, invoke the Select File dialog box by selecting the
File/Read/Profile... menu item.
File −→ Read −→Profile...

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Reading and Writing Files

Writing Profile Files

You can also create a profile file from the conditions on a specified boundary or surface.
For example, you can create a profile file from the outlet conditions of one case. Then
you can read that profile into another case and use the outlet profile data as the inlet
conditions for the new case.
To write a profile file, use the Write Profile panel (Figure 4.5.1).
File −→ Write −→Profile...

Figure 4.5.1: The Write Profile Panel

1. Retain the default option of Define New Profiles.

2. Select the surface(s) from which you want to extract data for the profile(s) in the
Surfaces list.
3. Choose the variable(s) for which you want to create profiles in the Values list.
4. Click Write... and specify the profile file name in the resulting Select File dialog
box.
FLUENT saves the grid coordinates of the data points in the selected surface(s) and
the values of the selected variables at those positions. When you read the profile

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 4.6 Reading and Writing Boundary Conditions

file back into the solver, the surface name is the profile name and the value name
is the field name that appears in the drop-down lists in the boundary condition
panels.
5. Select the Write Currently Defined Profiles option:
• If you have made any modifications to the boundary profiles since you read
them in (e.g., if you reoriented an existing profile to create a new one).
• If you wish to store all the profiles used in a case file in a separate file.
6. Click Write... and specify the file name in the resulting Select File dialog box. All
currently defined profiles are saved in this file. This file can be read back into the
solver whenever you wish to use these profiles again.

4.6 Reading and Writing Boundary Conditions

To save all currently defined boundary conditions to a file, enter the write-bc text
command and specify a name for the file.
file −→write-bc
FLUENT writes the boundary conditions, the solver, and model settings to a file using
the same format as the “zone” section of the case file. See Appendix B: Case and Data
File Formats for details about the case file format.
To read boundary conditions from a file and to apply them to the corresponding zones
in your model, enter the read-bc text command.
file −→read-bc
FLUENT sets the boundary conditions in the current model by comparing the zone name
associated with each set of conditions in the file with the zone names in the model. If the
model does not contain a matching zone name for a set of boundary conditions, those
conditions are ignored.
If you read boundary conditions into a model that contains a different mesh topology
(e.g., a cell zone has been removed), check the conditions at boundaries within and
adjacent to the region of the topological change. This is important for wall zones.

Note: If the boundary conditions are not checked and some remain uninitialized, the
case will not run successfully.

When the read-bc feature is not used, all boundary conditions get the default settings
when a mesh file is imported, allowing the case to run with the default values.
If you want FLUENT to apply a set of conditions to multiple zones with similar names, or
to a single zone with a name you are not sure of in advance, you can edit the boundary-
condition file saved with the write-bc command to include wildcards (*) within the

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Reading and Writing Files

zone names. For example, if you want to apply a particular set of conditions to wall-12,
wall-15, and wall-17 in your current model, edit the boundary-condition file so that
the zone name associated with the desired conditions is wall-*.

4.7 Writing a Boundary Grid

You can write the boundary zones (surface grid) to a file. This file can be read and
used by TGrid to produce a volume mesh. You may find this feature useful if you are
unsatisfied with a mesh obtained from another grid generation program.
A boundary grid can be written using the Select File dialog box invoked by selecting the
File/Write/Boundary Grid... menu item.
File −→ Write −→Boundary Grid...

4.8 Reading Scheme Source Files

A Scheme source file can be loaded in three ways: through the menu system as a scheme
file, through the menu system as a journal file, or through Scheme itself.
For large source files, use the Select File dialog box invoked by selecting the File/Read/Scheme...
menu item
File −→ Read −→Scheme...
or the Scheme load function.

> (load "file.scm")

Shorter files can also be loaded with the File/Read/Journal... menu item or the file/
read-journal command in the text interface (or its . or source alias).

> . file.scm

> source file.scm

In this case, each character of the file is echoed to the console as it is read in the same
way as if you were typing in the contents of the file.

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 4.9 Creating and Reading Journal Files

4.9 Creating and Reading Journal Files

A journal file contains a sequence of FLUENT commands, arranged as they would be
typed interactively into the program or entered through the GUI. The GUI commands
are recorded as Scheme code lines in journal files. FLUENT creates a journal file by
recording everything you type on the command line or enter through the GUI. You can
also create journal files manually with a text editor. If you want to include comments
in your file, be sure to put a semicolon (;) at the beginning of each comment line. See
Section 1.3.1: Background Execution on Linux/UNIX Systems for an example.
The purpose of a journal file is to automate a series of commands instead of entering
them repeatedly on the command line. Another use is to produce a record of the input
to a program session for later reference, although transcript files are often more useful
for this purpose (see Section 4.10: Creating Transcript Files).
Command input is taken from the specified journal file until its end is reached, at which
time control is returned to the standard input (usually the keyboard). Each line from
the journal file is echoed to the standard output (usually the screen) as it is read and
processed.

i A journal file is, by design, just a simple record and playback facility. It
contains no information about the state in which it was recorded or the
state in which it is being played back.

• Be careful not to change the directory while recording a journal file. Also, try to
re-create the state in which the journal was written before you read it into the
program. For example, if your journal file includes an instruction to save a new
file with a specified name, you should check that if a file with that name exists in
your directory before you read in your journal file. If a file with that name exists
and you read in your journal file, when the program reaches the write instruction,
it will prompt for a confirmation if it is OK to overwrite the old file.
Since the journal file does not contain any response to the confirmation request,
FLUENT cannot continue to follow the instructions of the journal file.

• Other conditions that may affect the program’s ability to perform the instructions
contained in a journal file can be created by modifications or manipulations that
you make within the program.
For example, if your journal file creates several surfaces and displays data on those
surfaces, you must be sure to read in appropriate case and data files before reading
the journal file.

i At a point of time, only one journal file can be open for recording, but you
can write a journal and a transcript file simultaneously. You can also read
a journal file at any time.

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4.9.1 Procedure
To start the journaling process, select the File/Write/Start Journal... menu item.
File −→ Write −→Start Journal...
After you enter a name for the file in the Select File dialog box, journal recording begins.
The Start Journal... menu item becomes the Stop Journal menu item. You can end journal
recording by selecting Stop Journal, or by exiting the program.
File −→ Write −→Stop Journal
You can read a journal file into the program using the Select File dialog box invoked by
selecting the File/Read/Journal... menu item.
File −→ Read −→Journal...
Journal files are always loaded in the main (i.e., top-level) text menu, regardless of where
you are in the text menu hierarchy when you invoke the read command.

4.10 Creating Transcript Files

A transcript file contains a complete record of all standard input to and output from
FLUENT (usually all keyboard and GUI input and all screen output). GUI commands
are recorded as Scheme code lines in transcript files. FLUENT creates a transcript file by
recording everything typed as input or entered through the GUI, and everything printed
as output in the text window.
The purpose of a transcript file is to produce a record of the program session for later ref-
erence. Because they contain messages and other output, transcript files (unlike journal
files), cannot be read back into the program.

i Only one transcript file can be open for recording at a time, but you can
write a transcript and a journal file simultaneously. You can also read a
journal file while a transcript recording is in progress.
To start the transcripting process, select the File/Write/Start Transcript... menu item.
File −→ Write −→Start Transcript...
After you enter a name for the file in the Select File dialog box, transcript recording
begins and the Start Transcript... menu item becomes the Stop Transcript menu item.
You can end transcript recording by selecting Stop Transcript, or by exiting the program.
File −→ Write −→Stop Transcript

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4.11 Importing Files

FLUENT allows you to import the following file formats:

• ABAQUS .inp and .fil files.

• ANSYS .inp, .cdb, .rst, .rmg, and .rfl files.

• CFX .def and .res files.

• CGNS files.

• EnSight files.

• FIDAP Neutral files.

• GAMBIT files.

• HYPERMESH ASCII files.

• I-deas Universal files.

• LSTC/DYNA keyword input files and state databases.

• Marc POST files.

• NASTRAN Bulk Data files.

• PATRAN Neutral files.

• PLOT3D grid and result files.

• PTC Mechanica Design studies.

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Reading and Writing Files

Figure 4.11.1: The Import Menu

4.11.1 ABAQUS Files

To import an ABAQUS input file, use the File/Import/ABAQUS/Input File... menu item.
File −→ Import −→ ABAQUS −→Input File...
Select this menu item to open the Select File dialog box. Specify the name of the ABAQUS
Input File to be read. The ABAQUS input file (.inp) is a text file which contains the input
description of a finite element model for the ABAQUS finite element program. The
interface only produces datasets associated with the finite element model, no results of
datasets are produced. Element types commonly associated with structural analysis are
supported by this file format. There is a list of input keywords that are recognized in
the ABAQUS Input File [4].
To import an ABAQUS filbin file use the File/Import/ABAQUS/Filbin File... menu item.
File −→ Import −→ ABAQUS −→Filbin File...
Select this menu item to open the Select File dialog box. Specify the name of the ABAQUS
Filbin File to be read.
This output file has a .fil extension and consists of finite element model and results
data.

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4.11.2 ANSYS Files

To import an ANSYS input file, use the File/Import/ANSYS/Input File... menu item.
File −→ Import −→ ANSYS −→Input File...
Select this menu item to invoke the Select File dialog box. Specify the name of the ANSYS
Prep7 File to be read. The solver reads grid information from the ANSYS file with .ans,
.neu, .cdb, and .prep7 extensions. For information about importing ANSYS files, see
Section 6.3.9: ANSYS Files.
To import an ANSYS result file, use the File/Import/ANSYS/Result File... menu item.
File −→ Import −→ ANSYS −→Result File...
In the Select File dialog box. Specify the name of the ANSYS Result File to be read.
Those imported files will have .rfl, .rst, .rth, and .rmg extensions.

4.11.3 CFX Files

To import a CFX definition file, use the File/Import/CFX/Definition File... menu item.
File −→ Import −→ CFX −→Definition File...
Select this menu item to invoke the Select File dialog box. Specify the name of the CFX
Definition File to be read. The solver reads grid information from the CFX file with .def
extensions. For information about importing CFX files, see Section 6.3.10: CFX Files.
To import a CFX result file, use the File/Import/CFX/Result File... menu item.
File −→ Import −→ CFX −→Result File...
In the Select File dialog box, specify the name of the CFX Result File to be read. Those
imported files will have .res extensions.

i CFX file import is available for 3D cases only.

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4.11.4 Meshes and Data in CGNS Format

To import meshes in CFD general notation system (CGNS) format (.cgns) into FLUENT,
use the File/Import/CGNS/Mesh... menu item.
File −→ Import −→ CGNS −→Mesh...
To import a mesh and the corresponding CGNS data, use the File/Import/CGNS/Mesh
& Data... menu item.
File −→ Import −→ CGNS −→Mesh & Data...
To import only the CGNS data, use the File/Import/CGNS/Data... menu item.
File −→ Import −→ CGNS −→Data...

i To import data correctly, first import the mesh using the mesh only option
(Mesh...), set up the boundary conditions, and read the data using the data
only option (Data...). For example, if a boundary zone is of type pressure-
outlet and is read as outlet, it should be changed to pressure-outlet before
importing the data.

i The new and original grids should have the same zones, numbered in the
same order. A warning is issued if they do not, because inconsistencies can
create problems with the boundary conditions.

4.11.5 EnSight Files

You can import an EnSight file using the File/Import/EnSight... menu item.
File −→ Import −→EnSight...
This file format is applied to both unstructured and structured data, where each part
contains its own local coordinate array. The EnSight Gold software package, which uses
this file format, allows you to analyze, visualize, and communicate engineering datasets.
It allows the user to take full advantage of parallel processing and rendering and supports
a range of virtual reality devices. Furthermore, it enables real-time collaboration.
When selecting this option, the Select File dialog box will appear, where you will specify
a filename. This file will have an .encas or .case extension.

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4.11.6 FIDAP Neutral Files

You can read a FIDAP neutral file using the File/Import/FIDAP... menu item.
File −→ Import −→FIDAP...
In the Select File dialog box, specify the name of the FIDAP Neutral File to be read.
This file will have an .FDNEUT or .unv file extension. FLUENT reads grid information
and zone types from the FIDAP file. You must specify boundary conditions and other
information after reading this file. For information about importing FIDAP Neutral files,
see Section 6.3.14: FIDAP Neutral Files.

4.11.7 GAMBIT and GeoMesh Mesh Files

If you have saved a neutral file from GAMBIT, rather than a FLUENT grid file, you can
import it into FLUENT using the File/Import/GAMBIT... menu item.
File −→ Import −→GAMBIT...
For information about importing files from GAMBIT and GeoMesh, see Sections 6.3.1 and
6.3.2.

4.11.8 HYPERMESH ASCII Files

You can read a HYPERMESH ASCII file using the File/Import/HYPERMESH ASCII... menu
item.
File −→ Import −→HYPERMESH ASCII...
HYPERMESH is a high-performance finite element pre- and postprocessor for popular
finite element solvers, allowing engineers to analyze product design performance in a
highly interactive and visual environment.
When selecting this option, the Select File dialog box will appear, where you will specify
a filename. This file should have an .hm, .hma, or .hmascii extension.

4.11.9 I-deas Universal Files

I-deas Universal files can be read into FLUENT with the File/Import/I-deas Universal...
menu item.
File −→ Import −→I-deas Universal...
Select the I-deas Universal... menu item to invoke the Select File dialog box.
Specify the name of the I-deas Universal file to be read. The solver reads grid information
and zone types from the I-deas Universal file. For information about importing I-deas
Universal files, see Section 6.3.6: I-deas Universal Files.

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4.11.10 LSTC Files

To import an LSTC input file use the File/Import/LSTC/Input File... menu item.
File −→ Import −→ LSTC −→Input File...
The LSTC input file is a text file which contains the input description of a finite element
model for the LS-DYNA finite element program. This interface only produces datasets
associated with the grid, no results datasets are produced. The element types commonly
associated with structural analysis are supported.
LSTC input files have the following file extensions: .k, .key, and .dyn
To import an LSTC state file use the File/Import/LSTC/State File... menu item.
File −→ Import −→ LSTC −→State File...
The state file consists of three major sections: control data, geometry data, and state
data. Each dataset in the state data section corresponds to the time and global data
items associated with each state on the database. Dataset attributes include such things
as time, energy, and momentum.
An LSTC state file has a .d3plot file extension.

4.11.11 Marc POST Files

Marc POST files can be read into FLUENT using the File/Import/Marc POST... menu
item.
File −→ Import −→Marc POST...
Select the Marc POST... menu item and in the Select File dialog box, specify the name
of the file to be read.
These files are generated using MSC Marc, a nonlinear finite element program. MSC Marc
allows you to study deformations that exceed the linear elastic range of some materials,
enabling you to assess the structural integrity and performance of the material. It also
allows you to simulate deformations that are part-to-part or part-to-self contact under a
range of conditions.

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4.11.12 NASTRAN Files

You can read NASTRAN Bulkdata files into FLUENT with the File/Import/NASTRAN/Bulkdata
File... menu item.
File −→ Import −→ NASTRAN −→Bulkdata File...
When you select the Bulkdata File... menu item, the Select File dialog box will appear
and you will specify the name of the NASTRAN File to be read. This file will have .nas,
.dat, .bdf file extensions. The solver reads grid information from the NASTRAN file.
For information about importing NASTRAN files, see Section 6.3.7: NASTRAN Files.
To import NASTRAN Op2 files into FLUENT use the File/Import/NASTRAN/Op2 File...
menu item.
File −→ Import −→ NASTRAN −→Op2 File...
In the Select File dialog box, specify the name of the NASTRAN Output2 File to be read.
This file is an output binary data file that contains data used in the NASTRAN finite
element program. This file will have .op2 file extension.

4.11.13 PATRAN Neutral Files

To read a PATRAN Neutral file zoned by named components (that is, a file in which you
have grouped nodes with the same specified group name), use the File/Import/PATRAN/Neutral
File... menu item.
File −→ Import −→ PATRAN −→Neutral File...
Selecting this menu item invokes the Select File dialog box. Specify the name of the .neu,
.out, or .pat PATRAN Neutral file to be read. The solver reads grid information from
the PATRAN Neutral file. For information about importing PATRAN Neutral files, see
Section 6.3.8: PATRAN Neutral Files.
To read a PATRAN Result File, use the File/Import/PATRAN/Result File... menu item.
File −→ Import −→ PATRAN −→Result File...
In the Select File dialog box, specify the name of the PATRAN Result File to be read.

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4.11.14 PLOT3D Files

To import a PLOT3D grid file use the File/Import/PLOT3D/Grid File... menu item.
File −→ Import −→ PLOT3D −→Grid File...
To import a PLOT3D result file, use the File/Import/PLOT3D/Result File... menu item.
File −→ Import −→ PLOT3D −→Result File...
The PLOT3D grid and result files have .g, .x, .xyz, or .grd file extensions.
These file formats may be formatted, unformatted or binary.

4.11.15 PTC Mechanica Design Files

To import a PTC Mechanica Design file use the File/Import/PTC Mechanica Design...
menu item.
File −→ Import −→PTC Mechanica Design...
This will open the Select File dialog box. Specify the name of the neutral file to be read.
The PTC Mechanica Design file contains analysis, model and results data. Only the
binary form of the results data files is supported.
The form of the file must have the .neu extension.

i Mechanica results consists of an entire directory structure of files, called a

“study” in Mechanica terminology, which must be used in exactly the form
that Mechanica originally generates it. FLUENT’s VKI interface keys on
the .neu file and can traverse the directory structure from there to access
the other files that it needs.

4.11.16 FLUENT 4 Case Files

You can read a FLUENT 4 case file using the File/Import/FLUENT 4 Case File... menu
item.
File −→ Import −→FLUENT 4 Case File...
Select the FLUENT 4 Case File... menu item to invoke the Select File dialog box. Specify
the name of the FLUENT 4 case file to be read. FLUENT reads only grid information
and zone types from the FLUENT 4 case file. You must specify boundary conditions,
model parameters, material properties, and other information after reading this file. For
information about importing FLUENT 4 case files, see Section 6.3.13: FLUENT 4 Case
Files.

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4.11.17 PreBFC Files

You can read a PreBFC structured mesh file into FLUENT using the File/Import/PreBFC
File... menu item.
File −→ Import −→PreBFC File...
Select the PreBFC File... menu item to invoke the Select File dialog box. Specify the name
of the PreBFC structured mesh file to be read. The solver reads grid information and
zone types from the PreBFC mesh file. For information about importing PreBFC mesh
files, see Section 6.3.4: PreBFC Grid Files.

4.11.18 Partition Files

To perform METIS partitioning on an unpartitioned grid, use the File/Import/Partition/Metis...
menu item.
File −→ Import −→ Partition −→Metis...
You may also partition each cell zone individually, using the File/Import/Partition/Metis
Zone... menu item.
File −→ Import −→ Partition −→Metis Zone...
See Section 31.5.5: Using the Partition Filter for detailed information about partitioning.

4.11.19 CHEMKIN Mechanism

To import a CHEMKIN format, you can import the mechanism file into FLUENT using
the File/Import/CHEMKIN Mechanism...menu item. (Figure 14.1.9).
File −→ Import −→CHEMKIN Mechanism...
See Section 14.1.9: Importing a Volumetric Kinetic Mechanism in CHEMKIN Format for
detailed information on importing a CHEMKIN Mechanism file.

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4.12 Exporting Files

The current release of FLUENT allows you to export data to ABAQUS, ANSYS, ANSYS
Input, ASCII, AVS, CGNS, Data Explorer, EnSight, FAST, FIELDVIEW, I-deas, NASTRAN,
PATRAN, RadTherm, and Tecplot formats. Section 4.12.1: Using the Export Panel explains
how to save data in these formats, and Sections 4.12.2 to 4.12.17 provide specific infor-
mation for each type of File Type. Section 4.12.18: Defining Transient Export Parameters
explains how to export data during the calculation.
For NASTRAN, ABAQUS, ANSYS Input, I-deas Universal, and PATRAN file formats, the
following quantities are exported [4]:

• Nodes, Elements

• Node Sets (Boundary Conditions)

• Temperature

• Pressure

• Heat Flux

• Heat Transfer Coefficient

• Force
To generate the force data that is exported for nodes at boundaries, FLUENT
performs the following steps:
1. Facial force for each wall face is calculated by summing the pressure force,
viscous force and surface tension force of the face.
2. Partial force for each wall face is calculated by dividing its facial force by its
number of shared nodes.
3. Total force for each wall node is calculated by summing the partial forces of
all the wall faces sharing that node.

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i When using the parallel version of FLUENT, you can export only the fol-
lowing packages:

• ABAQUS

• ANSYS Input

• CGNS

• EnSight Case Gold

• Fieldview Unstructured

• I-deas Universal

• NASTRAN

• PATRAN

• Tecplot

i FLUENT cannot import surfaces. Consequently, if you export a file from

FLUENT with surfaces selected, you may not be able to read these files
back into FLUENT. However, TGrid can import surface data (see the TGrid
User’s Guide for details).

i FLUENT supports exporting polyhedral data only for ASCII, EnSight Case
Gold, and Fieldview Unstructured file formats. For further details, see Sec-
tions 4.12.5, 4.12.9, and 4.12.12.

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4.12.1 Using the Export Panel

To write data that can be imported into one of the products for data visualization and
postprocessing, use the Export panel (Figure 4.12.1).
File −→Export...

Figure 4.12.1: The Export Panel

Information concerning the necessary steps and available options for each File Type are
listed in Sections 4.12.2 to 4.12.17, along with the equivalent text commands.

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4.12.2 ABAQUS Files

Select ABAQUS under File Type and choose the surface(s) for which you want to write
data in the Surfaces list. If no surfaces are selected, the entire domain is exported.
When the Energy Equation is enabled under the Define/Models/Energy... menu option, you
can choose the loads to be written based on the kind of finite element analysis you intend
to undertake. By selecting Structural in the Analysis list, you can select the following
Structural Loads: Force, Pressure, and Temperature. By selecting Thermal in the Analysis
list, you can select the following Thermal Loads: Temperature, Heat Flux, and Heat Trans
Coeff. Note the following limitations with these loads:

• When the Energy Equation is disabled, only the Structural Loads options of Force
and Pressure are available.

• Loads are written only on boundary walls when the entire domain is exported (i.e.,
if no Surfaces are selected).

You also have the option of exporting data at specified intervals during the calculation
through the Solver/Execute Commands... menu option. See Section 4.12.18: Defining
Transient Export Parameters for the complete details.
Click the Write... button to save the file, using the Select File dialog box. The exported
file format of ABAQUS (file.inp) contains coordinates, connectivity, zone groups, and
optional loads.
Export of data to ABAQUS is valid only for solid zones or for those surfaces that lie at
the intersection of solid zones. Temperature data is exported for the whole domain.
file/export/abaqus file name list-of-surfaces () yes|no yes|no

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4.12.3 ANSYS Files

Export to ANSYS can only be invoked using the file/export/ansys text command.
You will be prompted to enter an Ansys file name and the Zone to Export.
You have the option of exporting data at specified intervals during the calculation through
the Solver/Execute Commands... menu option. See Section 4.12.18: Defining Transient
Export Parameters for the complete details.
The file written is an ANSYS results file with a .rfl extension. This file preserves the
cell zones defined in FLUENT. The ANSYS file is a single file containing coordinates,
connectivity, and the scalars listed below:

‘‘x-velocity’’, ‘‘y-velocity’’, ‘‘z-velocity’’, ‘‘pressure’’,

‘‘temperature’’, ‘‘turb-kinetic-energy’’, ‘‘turb-diss-rate’’,
‘‘density’’, ‘‘viscosity-turb’’, ‘‘viscosity-lam’’, ‘‘viscosity-eff’’,
‘‘thermal-conductivity-lam’’, ‘‘thermal-conductivity-eff’’,
‘‘total-pressure’’, ‘‘total-temperature’’, ‘‘pressure-coefficient’’,
‘‘mach-number’’, ‘‘stream-function’’, ‘‘heat-flux’’,
‘‘heat-transfer-coef’’, ‘‘wall-shear’’, ‘‘specific-heat-cp’’

i Export to ANSYS is available on a limited number of platforms (aix43,

aix51, alpha hpux10p8, hpux11, irix65, irix65 mips4, and ultra).
To read this file into ANSYS, do the following:

1. In ANSYS, go to General Postproc−→ Data and File Options and read the .rfl file
generated from FLUENT.

2. Go to Results Summary and click on the first line in the upcoming panel. You
will see some information listed in the ANSYS Output window displaying geometry
information.

3. In the small ANSYS Input window, enter the following command:

SET,FIRST

4. In the ANSYS MULTIPHYSICS UTILITY menu, select Plot and then Nodes or Ele-
ments, including the nodal solution under Results in the drop-down list.

file/export/ansys file name list-of-zones ()

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4.12.4 ANSYS Input Files

Select ANSYS Input under File Type and choose the surface(s) for which you want to write
data in the Surfaces list. If no surfaces are selected, the entire domain is exported.
When the Energy Equation is enabled under the Define/Models/Energy... menu option, you
can choose the loads to be written based on the kind of finite element analysis you intend
to undertake. By selecting Structural in the Analysis list, you can select the following
Structural Loads: Force, Pressure, and Temperature. By selecting Thermal in the Analysis
list, you can select the following Thermal Loads: Temperature, Heat Flux, and Heat Trans
Coeff. Note the following limitations with these loads:

• When the Energy Equation is disabled, only the Structural Loads options of Force
and Pressure are available.

• Loads are written only on boundary walls when the entire domain is exported (i.e.,
if no Surfaces are selected).

You also have the option of exporting data at specified intervals during the calculation
through the Solver/Execute Commands... menu option. See Section 4.12.18: Defining
Transient Export Parameters for the complete details.
Click the Write... button to save the file, using the Select File dialog box. FLUENT exports
an input file that contains ANSYS finite element information including nodes, elements,
and loads that can be used to do finite element analysis in ANSYS with minimal effort.
The file format is written in .cdb format. The export of ANSYS Input files is in ASCII
format and thus is available on all platforms.
file/export/ansys-input file name list-of-surfaces () yes|no yes|no

4.12.5 ASCII Files

Select ASCII under File Type and choose the surface(s) for which you want to write data
in the Surfaces list. If no surfaces are selected, the entire domain is exported. Also select
the variable(s) for which data is to be saved in the Functions to Write list.

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Reading and Writing Files

When exporting ASCII files, you have several options:

• Select the Location from which the values of scalar functions are to be taken. If
you specify the data Location as Node, then the data values at the node points are
exported. If you choose Cell Center, then the data values from the cell centers are
exported. For boundary faces, it is the face center values that are exported when
the Cell Center option is selected.

• Select the Delimiter separating the fields (Comma or Space).

• Use the Solver/Execute Commands... menu option to export data at specified in-
tervals during the calculation. See Section 4.12.18: Defining Transient Export
Parameters for the complete details.

Click the Write... button to save the file, using the Select File dialog box. FLUENT
will export a single ASCII file containing coordinates, optional loads, and specified scalar
function data.

i FLUENT supports exporting polyhedral data to ASCII.

file/export/ascii file name list-of-surfaces () yes|no list-of-scalars q yes|no

4.12.6 AVS Files

Select AVS under File Type and specify the scalars you want in the Functions to Write list.
You have the option of exporting data at specified intervals during the calculation through
the Solver/Execute Commands... menu option. See Section 4.12.18: Defining Transient
Export Parameters for the complete details.
Click the Write... button to save the file, using the Select File dialog box. An AVS version
4 UCD file contains coordinate and connectivity information and specified scalar function
data.
file/export/avs file name list-of-scalars q

4.12.7 CGNS Files

Select CGNS under File Type and specify the scalars you want in the Functions to Write
list.
Select the Location from which the values of scalar functions are to be taken. If you
specify the data Location as Node, then the data values at the node points are exported.
If you choose Cell Center, then the data values from the cell centers are exported. For
boundary faces, it is the face center values that are exported when the Cell Center option
is selected.

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You have the option of exporting data at specified intervals during the calculation through
the Solver/Execute Commands... menu option. See Section 4.12.18: Defining Transient
Export Parameters for the complete details.
Click the Write... button to save the file, using the Select File dialog box. CGNS (CFD
general notation system) is a single file (e.g., file.cgns) containing coordinates, con-
nectivity, zone information, velocity, and selected scalars.
file/export/cgns file name location list-of-scalars q

4.12.8 Data Explorer Files

Select Data Explorer under File Typeand choose the surface(s) for which you want to write
data in the Surfaces list. If no surfaces are selected, the entire domain is exported. Also
specify the scalars you want in the Functions to Write list.

i When you are exporting data for Data Explorer, EnSight Case Gold, or I-deas
Universal and the reference zone is not a stationary zone, the data in the
velocity fields is exported by default as velocities relative to the motion
specification of that zone. This data is always exported, even if you do
not choose to export any scalars. Any velocities that you select to export
as scalars in the Functions to Write list (e.g., X Velocity, Y Velocity, Radial
Velocity, etc.) are exported as absolute velocities. For all other types of
exported files, the velocities exported by default are absolute velocities.
You have the option of exporting data at specified intervals during the calculation through
the Solver/Execute Commands... menu option. See Section 4.12.18: Defining Transient
Export Parameters for the complete details.
Click the Write... button to save the file, using the Select File dialog box. A single file
(e.g., file.dx) is exported, containing coordinate, connectivity, velocity, and specified
function data.
file/export/dx file name list-of-surfaces () list-of-scalars q

4.12.9 EnSight Case Gold Files

Select EnSight Case Gold under File Type and select the scalars you want to write in the
Functions to Write list.
You can select the Location from which the values of scalar functions are to be taken. If
you specify the data Location as Node, then the data values at the node points are ex-
ported. If you choose Cell Center, then the data values from the cell centers are exported.
For boundary faces, it is the face center values that are exported when the Cell Center
option is selected.

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Reading and Writing Files

You can also specify the file Format as Binary or ASCII. The advantage of the binary
format is that it takes less time to load the exported files into EnSight.
Click the Write... button to save the file for the specified function(s), using the Select
File dialog box. EnSight Case Gold has four file formats:

• A geometry file (e.g., file.geo) containing the coordinates and connectivity infor-
mation.

• A velocity file (e.g., file.vel) containing the velocity.

• A scalar file (e.g., file.scl1) for each selected variable or function.

• An EnSight case file (e.g., file.encas) that contains details about the other ex-
ported files.

If you enable the Transient option, specify a value for Append Frequency and the File Name.
All of the geometry, velocity, and scalar files (e.g., file.geo, file.vel, file.scl1, etc.)
are appended after the specified number of time steps during the solution process. The
time values are written to the EnSight case file (e.g., file.encas), which also lists all of
the other exported file names. You can write separate files for each time step by enabling
the Separate Files for Each Timestep option. To save the transient parameters, click Apply.

i When exporting EnSight Case Gold files for transient simulations, note the
following:

• You cannot switch the solver between serial and parallel.

• You cannot change the number of compute nodes for a given parallel
run. If this is attempted, the exported EnSight Case Gold files for
each time step will not be compatible.

i For non-stationary reference zones, all the velocities are exported to En-
Sight as velocities relative to the selected reference zone. See the informa-
tional note in Section 4.12.8: Data Explorer Files for further details.

i FLUENT supports exporting polyhedral data to EnSight.

file/export/ensight-gold file name list-of-scalars q yes|no

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 4.12 Exporting Files

4.12.10 FAST Files

This file type is valid only for triangular and tetrahedral grids. Select FAST under File
Type and select the scalars you want to write in the Functions to Write list.
You have the option of exporting data at specified intervals during the calculation through
the Solver/Execute Commands... menu option. See Section 4.12.18: Defining Transient
Export Parameters for the complete details.
Click the Write... button to save the file for the specified function(s), using the Select
File dialog box. The following files are written:

• A grid file in extended Plot3D format containing coordinates and connectivity.

• A velocity file containing the velocity.

• A scalar file for each selected variable or function.

file/export/fast-grid file name

4.12.11 FAST Solution Files

This file type is valid only for triangular and tetrahedral grids. Select FAST Solution
under File Type and click the Write... button. A single file is written containing density,
velocity, and total energy data.
file/export/fast-solution file name

4.12.12 Fieldview Unstructured Files

Select Fieldview Unstructured under File Type and select the scalars you want to write in
the Functions to Write list. Click the Write... button to save the file for the specified
function(s), using the Select File dialog box.
The following files are written:

• A binary file (e.g., file.fvuns) containing coordinate and connectivity information

and specified scalar function data.

• A regions file (e.g., file.fvuns.fvreg) containing information about the cell zones
and the frame of reference.

The cell zone information includes the names of the cell zones along with the grid num-
bers. For the rotating frame of reference, the regions file contains information about the
origin, the axis of rotation and the rotation speed. Volume data is written using the
absolute frame of reference.

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Reading and Writing Files

file/export/fieldview-unstruct file name list-of-scalars q

i FLUENT allows you to export polyhedral data to FIELDVIEW. Note that

while FIELDVIEW supports post-processing of meshes with polyhedral cells,
the polyhedra will be decomposed into tetrahedral cells. This is a limitation
of FIELDVIEW.
The TUI provides separate options to write the grid and data files. Grids that change with
time (sliding mesh, moving deforming mesh, or dynamic adapted mesh) can be written
at each time step by defining the command to write the file in the Execute Commands
panel.
file/export/fieldview-unstruct-grid file name
For the grids that do not change with time, the grid file needs to be written only once.
You can avoid the repeated writing of the grid files by using the TUI command for writing
only the data file.
file/export/fieldview-unstruct-data file name
For more information about exporting data at specified intervals during the calculation,
see Section 4.12.18: Defining Transient Export Parameters.

4.12.13 I-deas Universal Files

i If you intend to export data to I-deas, ensure that the mesh does not contain
pyramidal elements, as these are currently not supported by I-deas.
Select I-deas Universal under File Type. Select the surface(s) for which you want to write
data in the Surfaces list. If no surfaces are selected, the entire domain is exported. You
can specify which scalars you want in the Functions to Write list.
You have the option of selecting loads to be included in the exported file. When the
Energy Equation is enabled under the Define/Models/Energy... menu option, you can
choose the loads based on the kind of finite element analysis you intend to undertake.
By selecting Structural in the Analysis list, you can select the following Structural Loads:
Force, Pressure, and Temperature. By selecting Thermal in the Analysis list, you can select
the following Thermal Loads: Temperature, Heat Flux, and Heat Trans Coeff. Note the
following limitations with these loads:

• When the Energy Equation is disabled, only the Structural Loads options of Force
and Pressure are available.

• Loads are written only on boundary walls when the entire domain is exported (i.e.,
if no Surfaces are selected).

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 4.12 Exporting Files

You also have the option of exporting data at specified intervals during the calculation
through the Solver/Execute Commands... menu option. See Section 4.12.18: Defining
Transient Export Parameters for the complete details.

i For non-stationary reference zones, all the velocities are exported to I-

deas Universal as velocities relative to the selected reference zone. See the
informational note in Section 4.12.8: Data Explorer Files for further details.
Click the Write... button to save the file, using the Select File dialog box. A single file is
written containing coordinates, connectivity, optional loads, zone groups, velocity, and
selected scalars.
file/export/ideas file name list-of-surfaces () yes|no yes|no list-of-scalars q

4.12.14 NASTRAN Files

Select NASTRAN under File Type. Select the surface(s) for which you want to write data
in the Surfaces list. If you do not select any surfaces, the entire domain is exported. You
can specify which scalars you want in the Functions to Write list.
You have the option of selecting loads to be included in the exported file. When the
Energy Equation is enabled under the Define/Models/Energy... menu option, you can
choose the loads based on the kind of finite element analysis you intend to undertake.
By selecting Structural in the Analysis list, you can select the following Structural Loads:
Force, Pressure, and Temperature. By selecting Thermal in the Analysis list, you can select
the following Thermal Loads: Temperature, Heat Flux, and Heat Trans Coeff. Note the
following limitations with these loads:

• When the Energy Equation is disabled, only the Structural Loads options of Force
and Pressure are available.

• Loads are written only on boundary walls when the entire domain is exported (i.e.,
if no Surfaces are selected).

You also have the option of exporting data at specified intervals during the calculation
through the Solver/Execute Commands... menu option. See Section 4.12.18: Defining
Transient Export Parameters for the complete details.
Click the Write... button to save the file, using the Select File dialog box. A single
file (e.g., file.bdf) is written containing coordinates, connectivity, optional loads, zone
groups, and velocity. Pressure is written as PLOAD4, and heat flux is written as QHBDYE
data. If you select wall zones in the Surfaces list, nodal forces are written for the walls.
When data is written for the heat transfer coefficient, it is based on the wall faces rather
than the nodes.
file/export/nastran file name list-of-surfaces () yes|no yes|no list-of-scalars q

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Reading and Writing Files

4.12.15 PATRAN Files

Select PATRAN under File Type. Select the surface(s) for which you want to write data
in the Surfaces list. If you do not select any surfaces, the entire domain is exported. You
can specify which scalars you want in the Functions to Write list.
You have the option of selecting loads to be included in the exported file. When the
Energy Equation is enabled under the Define/Models/Energy... menu option, you can
choose the loads based on the kind of finite element analysis you intend to undertake.
By selecting Structural in the Analysis list, you can select the following Structural Loads:
Force, Pressure, and Temperature. By selecting Thermal in the Analysis list, you can select
the following Thermal Loads: Temperature, Heat Flux, and Heat Trans Coeff. Note the
following limitations with these loads:

• When the Energy Equation is disabled, only the Structural Loads options of Force
and Pressure are available.
• Loads are written only on boundary walls when the entire domain is exported (i.e.,
if no Surfaces are selected).

You also have the option of exporting data at specified intervals during the calculation
through the Solver/Execute Commands... menu option. See Section 4.12.18: Defining
Transient Export Parameters for the complete details.
Click the Write... button to save the file, using the Select File dialog box. A neutral
file (e.g., file.out) is written containing coordinates, connectivity, optional loads, zone
groups, velocity, and selected scalars. Pressure is written as a distributed load. If wall
zones are selected in the Surfaces list, nodal forces are written for the walls. The PATRAN
result template file (e.g., file.res tmpl) is written, which lists the scalars present in
the nodal result file (e.g., file.rst).
file/export/patran-neutral file name list-of-surfaces () yes|no yes|no list-of-scalars
q

4.12.16 RadTherm Files

The option to export a RadTherm file type is available only when the Energy Equation
is enabled under the Define/Models/Energy... menu option. Select RadTherm under File
Type and select the surface(s) for which you want to write data in the Surfaces list. If no
surfaces are selected, the entire domain is exported.
Select the method of writing the heat transfer coefficient (Heat Transfer Coef.), which can
be Flux Based or, if a turbulence model is enabled, Wall Function based.
You have the option of exporting data at specified intervals during the calculation through
the Solver/Execute Commands... menu option. See Section 4.12.18: Defining Transient
Export Parameters for the complete details.

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 4.12 Exporting Files

Click the Write... button to save the file, using the Select File dialog box. A PATRAN
neutral file (e.g., file.neu) is written containing element velocity components (i.e., the
element that is just touching the wall), heat transfer coefficients, and temperatures of
the wall for any selected wall surface. If the wall is one-sided, the data is written for one
side of the wall. If the wall is two-sided, the data is written for both sides. In the case
of wall-wall shadow, the values are written only for the original wall face, not for the
shadow face (which is a duplicate).
file/export/radtherm file name list-of-surfaces () yes|no

4.12.17 Tecplot Files

Select Tecplot under File Type and choose the surface(s) for which you want to write data
in the Surfaces list. If no surfaces are selected, the data is written for the entire domain.
Select the variable(s) for which data is to be saved in the Functions to Write list.
You have the option of exporting data at specified intervals during the calculation through
the Solver/Execute Commands... menu option. See Section 4.12.18: Defining Transient
Export Parameters for the complete details.
Click the Write... button to save the file, using the Select File dialog box. A single
file is written containing the coordinates and scalar functions in the appropriate tabular
format.

i FLUENT exports Tecplot files in FEBLOCK format. The utility fe2ram can
import Tecplot files only in FEPOINT format.

i If you intend to postprocess FLUENT data with Tecplot, you can either ex-
port data from FLUENT and import it into Tecplot, or use the Tecplot FLU-
ENT Data Loader included with your Tecplot distribution. The data loader
reads native FLUENT case and data files directly. If you are interested in
this option, contact Tecplot, Inc. for assistance or visit www.tecplot.com.

file/export/tecplot file name list-of-surfaces () list-of-scalars q

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Reading and Writing Files

4.12.18 Defining Transient Export Parameters

For formats other than EnSight, use the Solver/Execute Commands... menu option to
export data at specified intervals during the calculation. The text command for exporting
to a particular format can be entered directly into the Command text field (or the FLUENT
console if you are defining a macro). It is of the following general form:
file/export/file-type file name [list-of-surfaces ()] [yes|no] [list-of-scalars q]
where items enclosed in square brackets are optional depending on the type of file being
exported.

• file-type indicates the type of file being exported. For example, replace file-type by
fieldview-unstruct to indicate Fieldview Unstructured.

• file name (without the extension) indicates the name of the file that you wish to
save.

i By default, FLUENT does not overwrite exported files. If the specified

file name already exists, FLUENT prompts you with the question OK to
overwrite? every time the command is executed. Enter a response to
this question (yes or no) as part of the text command entered in the
Command field.

• list-of-surfaces indicates the list of surfaces (name or ID) that you wish to export
(for relevant types of files). The () input terminates the list. For example, the
input outlet-3 wall-2 5 () will select surfaces named outlet-3, wall-2, and
also the surface with the ID 5 (not the zone ID).

• list-of-scalars indicates the list of cell functions that you want to write to the
exported file (for relevant types of files). The q input terminates the list. For
example, the input x-velocity cell-volume q will select x velocity and the cell
volume.

• yes|no indicates that you need to answer a prompted question. Certain file types
require more than one yes or no input.

See Section 25.19: Executing Commands During the Calculation for information about
executing commands and creating and using command macros.

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 4.13 Grid-to-Grid Solution Interpolation

4.13 Grid-to-Grid Solution Interpolation

FLUENT can interpolate solution data for a given geometry from one grid to another,
allowing you to compute a solution using one grid (e.g., hexahedral) and then change
to another grid (e.g., hybrid) and continue the calculation using the first solution as a
starting point.

4.13.1 Performing Grid-to-Grid Solution Interpolation

The procedure for grid-to-grid solution interpolation is as follows:

1. Set up the model and calculate a solution on the initial grid.

2. Write an interpolation file for the solution data to be interpolated onto the new
grid, using the Interpolate Data panel (Figure 4.13.1).
File −→Interpolate...

Figure 4.13.1: The Interpolate Data Panel

(a) Under Options, select Write Data.

(b) In the Cell Zones list, select the cell zones for which you want to save data to
be interpolated.
Note: If your case includes both fluid and solid zones, write the data for the
fluid zones and the data for the solid zones to separate files.
(c) Choose the variable(s) for which you want to interpolate data in the Fields
list. All FLUENT solution variables are available for interpolation.

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Reading and Writing Files

(d) Click Write... and specify the interpolation file name in the resulting Select
File dialog box. The file format is described in Section 4.13.2: Format of the
Interpolation File.
3. Set up a new case.
(a) Read in the new grid, using the appropriate menu item in the File/Read/ or
File/Import/ menu.
(b) Define the appropriate models.

i Enable all of the models that were enabled in the original case. For exam-
ple, if the energy equation was enabled in the original case and you forget
to enable it in the new case, the temperature data in the interpolation file
will not interpolated.
(c) Define the boundary conditions, material properties, etc.

i An alternative way to set up the new case is to save the boundary conditions
from the original model using the write-bc text command, and then read
in those boundary conditions with the new grid using the read-bc text
command. See Section 4.6: Reading and Writing Boundary Conditions for
further details.
4. Read in the data to be interpolated.
File −→Interpolate...
(a) Under Options, select Read and Interpolate.
(b) In the Cell Zones list, select the cell zones for which you want to read and
interpolate data.
If the solution has not been initialized, computed, or read, all zones in the Cell
Zones list is selected by default, to ensure that no zone remains without data
after the interpolation. If all zones already have data (from initialization or
a previously computed or read solution), select a subset of the Cell Zones to
read and interpolate data onto a specific zone (or zones).
(c) Click the Read... button and specify the interpolation file name in the resulting
Select File dialog box.

i If your case includes both fluid and solid zones, the two sets of data are
saved to separate files. Hence perform these steps twice, once to interpolate
the data for the fluid zones and once to interpolate the data for the solid
zones.
5. Reduce the under-relaxation factors and calculate on the new grid for a few iter-
ations to avoid sudden changes due to any imbalance of fluxes after interpolation.
Then increase the under-relaxation factors and compute a solution on the new grid.

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 4.14 Saving Hardcopy Files

4.13.2 Format of the Interpolation File

An example of an interpolation file is shown below:

2
2
34800
3
x-velocity
pressure
y-velocity
-0.068062
-0.0680413
...

The format of the interpolation file is as follows:

• The first line is the interpolation file version. It is 1.0 for FLUENT 5 and 2.0 for
FLUENT 6.
• The second line is the dimension (2 or 3).
• The third line is the total number of points.
• The fourth line is the total number of fields (temperature, pressure, etc.) included.
• From line 5 is a list of field names. To see a complete list of the field names used
by FLUENT, select the display/contours text command and view the available
choices for contours of. The list depends on the models turned on.
• Then comes a list of x, y, and (in 3D) z coordinates for all the data points.
• In the end is list of the field values at all the points in the same order as their
names. The number of coordinate and field points should match the number given
in line 3.

4.14 Saving Hardcopy Files

Graphics window displays can be saved in various formats (including TIFF and PostScript).
There can be slight differences between hardcopies and the displayed graphics windows,
since hardcopies are generated using the internal software renderer, while the graphics
windows may utilize specialized graphics hardware for optimum performance.
Many systems provide a utility to “dump” the contents of a graphics window into a
raster file. This is generally the fastest method of generating a hardcopy (since the scene
is already rendered in the graphics window), and guarantees that the hardcopy is identical
to the window.

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Reading and Writing Files

4.14.1 Using the Graphics Hardcopy Panel

To set hardcopy parameters and save hardcopy files, use the Graphics Hardcopy panel.
File −→Hardcopy...

Figure 4.14.1: The Graphics Hardcopy Panel

The procedure for saving a hardcopy file is as follows:

1. Choose the hardcopy file format.

2. Specify the file type, if applicable.
3. Set the coloring.
4. Define the resolution, if applicable.
5. Set the appropriate options.
6. If you are generating a window dump, specify the command to be used for the
dump.
7. (optional) Preview the result.
8. Click the Save... button and enter the filename in the resulting Select File dialog
box. See Section 4.1.7: Automatic Numbering of Files for information on special
features related to filename specification.

If you are not ready to save a hardcopy but want to save the current hardcopy settings,
click the Apply button instead of the Save... button. The applied settings become the
defaults for subsequent hardcopies.

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 4.14 Saving Hardcopy Files

Choosing the Hardcopy File Format

To choose the hardcopy file format, select one of the following items in the Format list:

EPS (Encapsulated PostScript) output is the same as PostScript output, with the ad-
dition of Adobe Document Structuring Conventions (v2) statements. Currently, no
preview bitmap is included in EPS output. Often, programs that import EPS files
use the preview bitmap to display on-screen, although the actual vector PostScript
information is used for printing (on a PostScript device). You can save EPS files
in raster or vector format.

HPGL is a vector file format designed for pen plotters. The HPGL driver supports a
limited set of colors and is not capable of rendering some scenes properly.

IRIS Image is the native raster image file format on SGI computers. The IRIS Image
driver may not be available on all platforms.

JPEG is a common raster file format.

PPM output is a common raster file format.

PostScript is a common vector file format. You can also choose to save a PostScript
file in raster format.

TIFF is a common raster file format.

VRML is a graphics interchange format that allows export of 3D geometrical entities

that you can display in the FLUENT graphics window. This format can commonly
be used by VR systems and the 3D geometry can be viewed and manipulated in a
web-browser graphics window.

i Non-geometric entities such as text, titles, color bars, and orientation axis
are not exported. In addition, most display or visibility characteristics set
in FLUENT, such as lighting, shading method, transparency, face and edge
visibility, outer face culling, and hidden line removal, are not explicitly
exported but are controlled by the software used to view the VRML file.

Window Dump (UNIX systems only) selects a window dump operation for generating
the hardcopy. With this format, you need to specify the appropriate Window Dump
Command.

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Reading and Writing Files

Choosing the File Type

When you save an EPS (Encapsulated PostScript) or PostScript file, choose one of the
following under File Type:

• A Vector file defines the graphics image as a combination of geometric primitives

like lines, polygons, and text. Vector files are usually scalable to any resolution.
The supported vector formats include PostScript, EPS, and HPGL.

• A Raster file defines the color of each individual pixel in the image. Raster files
have a fixed resolution. The supported raster formats are IRIS image, JPEG, PPM,
PostScript, EPS, and TIFF.

i For the quickest print time, you can save vector files for simple 2D displays
and raster files for complicated scenes.

Specifying the Color Mode

For all formats except the window dump, specify the type of Coloring you want to use
for the hardcopy file.

• Select Color for a color-scale copy.

• Select Gray Scale for a gray-scale copy.

• Select Monochrome for a black-and-white copy.

Most monochrome PostScript devices render Color images in shades of gray, but to ensure
that the color ramp is rendered as a linearly-increasing gray ramp, you should select Gray
Scale.

Defining the Resolution

For raster hardcopy files, you can control the resolution of the hardcopy image by spec-
ifying the size (in pixels). Set the desired Width and Height under Resolution. If the
Width and Height are both zero, the hardcopy is generated at the same resolution as the
active graphics window. To check the size of the active window in pixels, click Info in the
Display Options panel.
For PostScript and EPS files, specify the resolution in dots per inch (DPI) instead of
setting the width and height.

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 4.14 Saving Hardcopy Files

Hardcopy Options
For all hardcopy formats except the window dump, you can control two additional settings
under Options:

• Specify the orientation of the hardcopy using the Landscape Orientation button. If
this option is turned on, the hardcopy is made in landscape mode; otherwise, it is
made in portrait mode.

• Control the foreground/background color using the Reverse Foreground/Background

option. If this option is enabled, the foreground and background colors of graphics
windows being hardcopied is swapped. This feature allows you to make hardcopies
with a white background and a black foreground, while the graphics windows are
displayed with a black background and white foreground.

Hardcopy Options for PostScript Files

FLUENT provides options that allow you to save PostScript files that can be printed
more quickly. The following options is found in the display/set/hard-copy/driver/
post-format text menu:

fast-raster enables a raster file that may be larger than the standard raster file, but
will print much more quickly.

raster enables the standard raster file.

rle-raster enables a run-length encoded raster file that is about the same size as the
standard raster file, but will print slightly more quickly. This is the default file
type.

vector enables the standard vector file.

Window Dumps (UNIX Systems Only)

If you select the Window Dump format, the program uses the specified Window Dump
Command to save the hardcopy file. For example, if you want to use xwd to capture a
window, set the Window Dump Command to

xwd -id %w >

When the dump occurs, FLUENT automatically interprets %w to be the ID number of the
active window.
When you click the Save... button, the Select File dialog box appears. Enter the filename
for the output from the window dump (e.g., myfile.xwd).

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Reading and Writing Files

If you are planning to make an animation, save the window dumps into numbered files,
using the %n variable. To do this, use the Window Dump Command (xwd -id %w), but for
the filename in the Select File dialog box enter myfile%n.xwd. Each time a new window
dump is created, the value of %n increases by one. So there is no need to tack numbers
onto the hardcopy filenames manually.
To use the ImageMagick animate program, saving the files in MIFF format (the native
ImageMagick format) is more efficient. In such cases, use the ImageMagick tool import.
Set the default Window Dump Command enter

import -window %w

Click Save... to invoke the Select File dialog box. Specify the output format to be MIFF
by using the .miff suffix at the end of filename.
The window dump feature is both, system and graphics-driver specific. Thus the com-
mands available for dumping windows depends on the particular configuration.
When saving window dumps is that the window dump captures the window exactly as
it is displayed, including resolution, colors, transparency, etc. For this reason, all of the
inputs that control these characteristics are disabled in the Graphics Hardcopy panel when
you enable the Window Dump format. If you are using an 8-bit graphics display, use one
of the built-in raster drivers (e.g., TIFF) to generate higher-quality 24-bit color output
rather than dumping the 8-bit window.

Previewing the Hardcopy Image

Before saving a hardcopy file, you have the option of previewing what the saved image
looks like. Click Preview to apply the current settings to the active graphics window.
Now, you can investigate the effects of different options interactively before saving the
final, approved hardcopy.

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 4.15 Saving the Panel Layout

4.15 Saving the Panel Layout

The Save Layout command in the File pull-down menu allows you to save the present
panel and window layout. You can arrange panels and graphics windows on your screen
in a preferred configuration and select the File/Save Layout menu item.
File −→Save Layout
A .cxlayout file is written in your home directory. If you subsequently arrange different
panels and save the layout again, the positions of these panels are added to the positions
of the panels that you saved earlier. If you move a panel for which a position is already
saved, and then you save the layout, the new position is written to the .cxlayout
file. In subsequent sessions, when you open a panel or create a graphics window, it is
positioned based on the saved configuration. Any panel or window not specified in the
saved configuration uses the default position. The .cxlayout file in your home directory
applies to all Cortex applications (i.e., FLUENT, MixSim, and TGrid).

4.16 The .fluent File

When starting up, FLUENT looks in your home directory for an optional file called
.fluent. If it finds the file, it loads it with the Scheme load function. This file can
contain Scheme functions that customize the code’s operation.
The .fluent file can also contain TUI commands that are executed via the Scheme
function ti-menu-load-string. For example, if the .fluent file contains the following:

(ti-menu-load-string "file read-case test.cas")

then FLUENT will read in the case file test.cas. For more details about ti-menu-load-string,
see Section 3.5: Text Menu Input from Character Strings.

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Chapter 5. Unit Systems

This chapter describes the units used in FLUENT and how you can control them. Infor-
mation is organized into the following sections:

• Section 5.1: Restrictions on Units

• Section 5.2: Units in Grid Files

• Section 5.3: Built-In Unit Systems in FLUENT

• Section 5.4: Customizing Units

FLUENT allows you to work in any unit system, including inconsistent units. Thus, for
example, you may work in British units with heat input in Watts or you may work in SI
units with length defined in inches. This is accomplished by providing FLUENT with a
correct set of conversion factors between the units you want to use and the standard SI
unit system that is used internally by the solver. FLUENT uses these conversion factors
for input and output, internally storing all parameters and performing all calculations
in SI units. Both solvers always prompt you for the units required for all dimensional
inputs.
Units can be altered part-way through a problem setup and/or after you have completed
your calculation. If you have input some parameters in SI units and then you switch to
British, all of your previous inputs (and the default prompts) are converted to the new
unit system. If you have completed a simulation in SI units but you would like to report
the results in any other units, you can alter the unit system and FLUENT will convert
all of the problem data to the new unit system when results are displayed. As noted
above, all problem inputs and results are stored in SI units internally. This means that
the parameters stored in the case and data files are in SI units. FLUENT simply converts
these values to your unit system at the interface level.

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Unit Systems

5.1 Restrictions on Units

It is important to note that the units for some inputs in FLUENT are different from the
units used for the rest of the problem setup.

• You must always define the following in SI units, regardless of the unit system you
are using:
– boundary profiles (see Section 7.26: Boundary Profiles)
– source terms (see Section 7.28: Defining Mass, Momentum, Energy, and Other
Sources)
– custom field functions (see Section 30.5: Custom Field Functions)
– data in externally-created XY plot files (see Section 28.8.3: XY Plots of File
Data)
– user-defined functions (See the separate UDF Manual for details about user-
defined functions.)

• If you define a material property by specifying a temperature-dependent polynomial

or piecewise-polynomial function, remember that temperature in the function is
always in units of Kelvin or Rankine. If you are using Celsius or Kelvin as your
temperature unit, then polynomial coefficient values must be entered in terms of
Kelvin; if you are using Fahrenheit or Rankine as the temperature unit, values
must be entered in terms of Rankine. See Section 8.2: Defining Properties Using
Temperature-Dependent Functions for information about temperature-dependent
material properties.

5.2 Units in Grid Files

Some grid generators allow you to define a set of units for the mesh dimensions. However,
when you read the grid into FLUENT, it is always assumed that the unit of length is me-
ters. If this is not true, you will need to scale the grid, as described in Section 6.8.10: Scal-
ing the Grid.

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 5.3 Built-In Unit Systems in FLUENT

5.3 Built-In Unit Systems in FLUENT

FLUENT provides four built-in unit systems: British, SI, CGS, and “default.” You can
convert all units from one system to another in the Set Units panel (Figure 5.3.1), using
the buttons under the Set All To heading.
Define −→Units...

Figure 5.3.1: The Set Units Panel

To choose the English Engineering standard for all units, click on the british button;
to select the International System of units (SI) standard for all units, click on the si
button; to choose the CGS (centimeter-gram-second) standard for all units, click on the
cgs button; and to return to the “default” system, click on the default button. The
default system of units is like SI, but uses degrees instead of radians for angles. Clicking
on one of the buttons under Set All To will immediately change the unit system. You
can then close the panel if you are not interested in customizing any units.
Changing the unit system in the Set Units panel causes all future inputs that have units
to be based on the newly selected unit system.

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Unit Systems

5.4 Customizing Units

If you would like a mixed unit system, or any unit system different from the four supplied
by FLUENT (and described in Section 5.3: Built-In Unit Systems in FLUENT), you can
use the Set Units panel (Figure 5.3.1) to select an available unit or specify your own unit
name and conversion factor for each quantity.

Listing Current Units

Before customizing units for one or more quantities, you may want to list the current
units. You can do this by clicking on the List button at the bottom of the Set Units
panel. FLUENT will print out a list (in the text window) containing all quantities and
their current units, conversion factors, and offsets.

Changing the Units for a Quantity

FLUENT will allow you to modify the units for individual quantities. This is useful for
problems in which you want to use one of the built-in unit systems, but you want to
change the units for one quantity (or for a few). For example, you may want to use SI
units for your problem, but the dimensions of the geometry are given in inches. You can
select the SI unit system, and then change the unit of length from meters to inches.
To change the units for a particular quantity, you will follow these two steps:

1. Select the quantity in the Quantities list (they are arranged in alphabetical order).

2. Choose a new unit from those that are available in the Units list.

For the example cited above, you would choose length in the Quantities list, and then
select in in the Units list. The Factor will automatically be updated to show 0.0254
meters/inch. (See Figure 5.3.1.) If there were a non-zero offset for the new unit, the
Offset field would also be updated. For example, if you were using SI units but wanted
to define temperature in Celsius instead of Kelvin, you would select temperature in the
Quantities list and c in the Units list. The Factor would change to 1, and the Offset would
change to 273.15. Once you have selected the quantity and the new unit, no further
action is needed, unless you wish to change the units for another quantity by following
the same procedure.

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 5.4 Customizing Units

Defining a New Unit

To create a new unit to be used for a particular quantity, you will follow the procedure
below:

1. In the Set Units panel, select the quantity in the Quantities list.

2. Click on the New... button and the Define Unit panel (Figure 5.4.1) will open. In
this panel, the selected quantity will be shown in the Quantity field.

Figure 5.4.1: The Define Unit Panel

3. Enter the name of your new unit in the Unit field, the conversion factor in the
Factor field, and the offset in the Offset field.

4. Click on OK in the Define Unit panel, and the new unit will appear in the Set Units
panel.

For example, if you want to use hours as the unit of time, select time in the Quantities
list in the Set Units panel and click on the New... button. In the resulting Define Unit
panel, enter hr for the Unit and 3600 for the Factor, as in Figure 5.4.1. Then click on
OK. The new unit hr will appear in the Units list in the Set Units panel, and it will be
selected.

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Unit Systems

Determining the Conversion Factor

The conversion factor you specify (Factor in the Define Unit panel) tells FLUENT the
number to multiply by to obtain the SI unit value from your customized unit value.
Thus the conversion factor should have the form SI units/custom units. For example, if
you want the unit of length to be inches, you should input a conversion factor of 0.0254
meters/inch. If you want the unit of velocity to be feet/min, you can determine the
conversion factor by using the following equation:

ft 0.3048 m min m
x × × =y (5.4-1)
min ft 60 s s
You should input a conversion factor of 0.0051, which is equal to 0.3048/60.

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Chapter 6. Reading and Manipulating Grids

FLUENT can import different types of grids from various sources. You can modify the
grid by translating or scaling node coordinates, partitioning the cells for parallel process-
ing, reordering the cells in the domain to decrease bandwidth, and merging or separating
zones. You can convert all 3D meshes to polyhedral cells except pure hex meshes. Hexa-
hedral cells are preserved during conversion. You can also obtain diagnostic information
on the grid, including memory usage and simplex, topological, and domain information.
You can find out the number of nodes, faces, and cells in the grid, determine the minimum
and maximum cell volumes in the domain, and check for the proper numbers of nodes
and faces per cell. These and other capabilities are described in the following sections.

• Section 6.1: Grid Topologies

• Section 6.2: Grid Requirements and Considerations

• Section 6.3: Grid Import

• Section 6.4: Non-Conformal Grids

• Section 6.5: Checking the Grid

• Section 6.6: Reporting Grid Statistics

• Section 6.7: Converting the Grid to a Polyhedral Mesh

• Section 6.8: Modifying the Grid

See Chapter 26: Adapting the Grid for information about adapting the grid based on
solution data and related functions, and Section 31.5: Partitioning the Grid for details
on partitioning the grid for parallel processing.

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Reading and Manipulating Grids

6.1 Grid Topologies

FLUENT being an unstructured solver uses internal data structures to assign an order
to the cells, faces, and grid points in a mesh and to maintain contact between adjacent
cells. Therefore, It does not require i,j,k indexing to locate neighboring cells. This gives
you the flexibility to use the best grid topology for your problem, as the solver does not
force an overall structure or topology on the grid.
In 2D, quadrilateral and triangular cells are accepted, and in 3D, hexahedral, tetrahedral,
pyramid, wedge, and polyhedral cells can be used. Figure 6.1.1 depicts each of these cell
types. Both single-block and multi-block structured meshes, as well as hybrid meshes
containing quadrilateral and triangular cells or hexahedral, tetrahedral, pyramid, and
wedge cells are acceptable. FLUENT also accepts grids with hanging nodes (i.e., nodes
on edges and faces that are not vertices of all the cells sharing those edges or faces). See
Section 26.2.1: Hanging Node Adaption for details. Grids with non-conformal boundaries
(i.e., grids with multiple subdomains in which the grid node locations at the internal
subdomain boundaries are not identical) are also acceptable. See Section 6.4: Non-
Conformal Grids for details.
Some examples of grids that are valid for FLUENT are presented in Section 6.1.1: Exam-
ples of Acceptable Grid Topologies. Different cell shapes and their face-node connectivity
is explained in Section 6.1.2: Face-Node Connectivity in FLUENT. Section 6.1.3: Choos-
ing the Appropriate Grid Type explains how to choose the grid type that is best suited
for your problem.

6.1.1 Examples of Acceptable Grid Topologies

FLUENT can solve problems on a wide variety of grids. Figures 6.1.2–6.1.13 show exam-
ples of grids that are valid for FLUENT.
O-type grids, grids with zero-thickness walls, C-type grids, conformal block-structured
grids, multiblock structured grids, non-conformal grids, and unstructured triangular,
tetrahedral, quadrilateral, hexahedral, and polyhedral grids are all acceptable.

Note: Though FLUENT does not require a cyclic branch cut in an O-type grid, it will
accept a grid that contains one.

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 6.1 Grid Topologies

2D Cell Types

Triangle Quadrilateral

3D Cell Types

Tetrahedron Hexahedron

Prism/Wedge Pyramid Polyhedron

Figure 6.1.1: Cell Types

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Reading and Manipulating Grids

Figure 6.1.2: Structured Quadrilateral Grid for an Airfoil

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 6.1 Grid Topologies

Figure 6.1.3: Unstructured Quadrilateral Grid

Figure 6.1.4: Multiblock Structured Quadrilateral Grid

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Reading and Manipulating Grids

Figure 6.1.5: O-Type Structured Quadrilateral Grid

Figure 6.1.6: Parachute Modeled With Zero-Thickness Wall

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 6.1 Grid Topologies

Branch Cut

Figure 6.1.7: C-Type Structured Quadrilateral Grid

Figure 6.1.8: 3D Multiblock Structured Grid

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Reading and Manipulating Grids

Figure 6.1.9: Unstructured Triangular Grid for an Airfoil

Figure 6.1.10: Unstructured Tetrahedral Grid

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 6.1 Grid Topologies

Figure 6.1.11: Hybrid Triangular/Quadrilateral Grid with Hanging Nodes

Figure 6.1.12: Non-Conformal Hybrid Grid for a Rotor-Stator Geometry

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Reading and Manipulating Grids

Figure 6.1.13: Converted Polyhedral Mesh

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 6.1 Grid Topologies

6.1.2 Face-Node Connectivity in FLUENT

This section contains information about the connectivity of faces and their related nodes
in terms of node number and face number.
Face-node connectivity for the following cell shapes is explained here:

• triangular (Figure 6.1.14)

• quadrilateral (Figure 6.1.15)

• tetrahedral (Figure 6.1.16)

• wedge (Figure 6.1.17)

• pyramidal (Figure 6.1.18)

• hex (Figure 6.1.19)

• polyhedral (Figure 6.1.20)

This information is useful in interfacing with FLUENT.

Face-Node Connectivity for Triangular Cells

3

Face 3 Face 2

1 2
Face 1

Figure 6.1.14: Face and Node Numbering for Triangular Cells

Face Associated Nodes

Face 1 1-2
Face 2 2-3
Face 3 3-1

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Reading and Manipulating Grids

Face-Node Connectivity for Quadrilateral Cells

Face 3
4 3

Face 4 Face 2

1 2
Face 1

Figure 6.1.15: Face and Node Numbering for Quadrilateral Cells

Face Associated Nodes

Face 1 1-2
Face 2 2-3
Face 3 3-4
Face 4 4-1

Face-Node Connectivity for Tetrahedral Cells

4

1 3

Figure 6.1.16: Face and Node Numbering for Tetrahedral Cells

Face Associated Nodes

Face 1 3-2-4
Face 2 4-1-3
Face 3 2-1-4
Face 4 3-1-2

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 6.1 Grid Topologies

Face-Node Connectivity for Wedge Cells

5

Figure 6.1.17: Face and Node Numbering for Wedge Cells

Face Associated Nodes

Face 1 3-2-1
Face 2 6-5-4
Face 3 4-2-3-6
Face 4 5-1-2-4
Face 5 6-3-1-5

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Reading and Manipulating Grids

Face-Node Connectivity for Pyramidal Cells

5

4 3

1 2

Figure 6.1.18: Face and Node Numbering for Pyramidal Cells

Face Associated Nodes

Face 1 4-3-2-1
Face 2 4-5-3
Face 3 3-5-2
Face 4 2-5-1
Face 5 1-5-4

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 6.1 Grid Topologies

Face-Node Connectivity for Hex Cells

6 5

4 3

7 8

1 2

Figure 6.1.19: Face and Node Numbering for Hex Cells

Face Associated Nodes

Face 1 4-3-2-1
Face 2 3-4-6-5
Face 3 4-1-7-6
Face 4 2-3-5-8
Face 5 1-2-8-7
Face 6 7-8-5-6

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Reading and Manipulating Grids

Face-Node Connectivity for Polyhedral Cells

Figure 6.1.20: An Example of a Polyhedral Cell

For polyhedral cells, there is no explicit face and node numbering as with the other cell
types.

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 6.1 Grid Topologies

6.1.3 Choosing the Appropriate Grid Type

FLUENT can use grids comprised of triangular or quadrilateral cells (or a combination of
the two) in 2D, and tetrahedral, hexahedral, polyhedral, pyramid, or wedge cells (or a
combination of these) in 3D. The choice of which mesh type to use will depend on your
application. When choosing mesh type, consider the following issues:

• Setup time

• Computational expense

• Numerical diffusion

Setup Time
Many flow problems solved in engineering practice involve complex geometries. The cre-
ation of structured or block-structured grids (consisting of quadrilateral or hexahedral
elements) for such problems can be extremely time-consuming if not impossible. There-
fore, setup time for complex geometries is the major motivation for using unstructured
grids employing triangular or tetrahedral cells. However, if your geometry is relatively
simple, there may be no saving in setup time with either approach.
If you already have a mesh created for a structured code, it will save you time to use
this mesh in FLUENT rather than regenerate it. This can be a motivation for using
quadrilateral or hexahedral cells in your FLUENT simulation.

Note: FLUENT has a range of filters that allow you to import structured meshes from
other codes, including FLUENT 4 (see Section 6.3: Grid Import).

Computational Expense
When geometries are complex or the range of length scales of the flow is large, a tri-
angular/tetrahedral mesh can be created with far fewer cells than the equivalent mesh
consisting of quadrilateral/hexahedral elements. This is because a triangular/tetrahedral
mesh allows clustering of cells in selected regions of the flow domain. Structured quadri-
lateral/hexahedral meshes will generally force cells to be placed in regions where they are
not needed. Unstructured quadrilateral/hexahedral meshes offer many of the advantages
of triangular/tetrahedral meshes for moderately-complex geometries.

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Reading and Manipulating Grids

A characteristic of quadrilateral/hexahedral elements that might make them more eco-

nomical in some situations is that they permit a much larger aspect ratio than triangu-
lar/tetrahedral cells. A large aspect ratio in a triangular/tetrahedral cell will invariably
affect the skewness of the cell, which is undesirable as it may impede accuracy and con-
vergence. Therefore, if you have a relatively simple geometry in which the flow conforms
well to the shape of the geometry, such as a long thin duct, use a mesh of high-aspect-
ratio quadrilateral/hexahedral cells. The mesh is likely to have far fewer cells than if you
use triangular/tetrahedral cells.
Converting the entire domain of your (tetrahedral) mesh to a polyhedral mesh will result
in a lower cell count than your original mesh. Although the result is a coarser mesh,
convergence will generally be faster, possibly saving you some computational expense.

Numerical Diffusion
A dominant source of error in multidimensional situations is numerical diffusion (false
diffusion). The term false diffusion is used because the diffusion is not a real phenomenon,
yet its effect on a flow calculation is analogous to that of increasing the real diffusion
coefficient.
The following comments can be made about numerical diffusion:

• Numerical diffusion is most noticeable when the real diffusion is small, that is, when
the situation is convection-dominated.

• All practical numerical schemes for solving fluid flow contain a finite amount of
numerical diffusion. This is because numerical diffusion arises from truncation
errors that are a consequence of representing the fluid flow equations in discrete
form.

• The second-order discretization scheme used in FLUENT can help reduce the effects
of numerical diffusion on the solution.

• The amount of numerical diffusion is inversely related to the resolution of the mesh.
Therefore, one way of dealing with numerical diffusion is to refine the mesh.

• Numerical diffusion is minimized when the flow is aligned with the mesh.
This is the most relevant to the choice of the grid. If you use a triangular/tetrahedral
mesh, the flow can never be aligned with the grid. If you use a quadrilateral/hexahedral
mesh, this situation might occur, but not for complex flows. It is only in a simple
flow, such as the flow through a long duct, in which you can rely on a quadrilat-
eral/hexahedral mesh to minimize numerical diffusion. In such situations. It is
advantageous to use a quadrilateral/hexahedral mesh, since you will be able to get
a better solution with fewer cells than if you were using a triangular/tetrahedral
mesh.

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 6.2 Grid Requirements and Considerations

6.2 Grid Requirements and Considerations

This section contains information about special geometry/grid requirements and general
comments on mesh quality.

6.2.1 Geometry/Grid Requirements

You should be aware of the following geometry setup and grid construction requirements
at the beginning of your problem setup:

• Axisymmetric geometries must be defined such that the axis of rotation is the x
axis of the Cartesian coordinates used to define the geometry (Figure 6.2.1).

x
L
C

Figure 6.2.1: Setup of Axisymmetric Geometries with the x Axis as the Cen-
terline

• FLUENT allows you to set up periodic boundaries using either conformal or non-
conformal periodic zones. For conformal periodic boundaries, the periodic zones
must have identical grids.
The conformal periodic boundaries can be created in GAMBIT or TGrid when you
are generating the volume mesh. See the GAMBIT Modeling Guide or the TGrid
User’s Guide for more information about creating periodic boundaries in GAMBIT
or TGrid.) Alternatively, you can create the conformal periodic boundaries in FLU-
ENT using the make-periodic text command (see Section 6.8.4: Creating Periodic
Zones for details).
Although GAMBIT and TGrid can produce true periodic boundaries, most CAD
packages do not. If your mesh was created in such a package, create the pe-
riodic boundaries using the non-conformal periodic option in FLUENT (see Sec-
tion 6.8.4: Creating Periodic Zones for details). However, this option is recom-
mended only for periodic zones that are planar.

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Reading and Manipulating Grids

6.2.2 Mesh Quality

The quality of the mesh plays a significant role in the accuracy and stability of the
numerical computation. The attributes associated with mesh quality are node point
distribution, smoothness, and skewness.
Regardless of the type of mesh used in your domain, checking the quality of your grid is
essential. Depending on the cell types in the mesh (tetrahedral, hexahedral, polyhedral,
etc.), different quality criteria are evaluated:

• Cell squish on all meshes (Section 30.4: Alphabetical Listing of Field Variables and
Their Definitions).

• Cell equivolume skew on tri/tet elements (Section 30.4: Alphabetical Listing of

Field Variables and Their Definitions).

• Face squish on polyhedral meshes (Section 30.4: Alphabetical Listing of Field Vari-
ables and Their Definitions).

• “Aspect ratio” on all meshes.

The “aspect ratio” is a measure of the stretching of a cell, and is defined as the ratio
of the maximum distance between the cell centroid and face centroids to the minimum
distance between the nodes of the cell (see Figure 6.2.2). If the quality of your grid is
questionable, then a warning will appear in the console noting the problems FLUENT has
detected with your mesh. The warnings that you see use rules of thumb and although it
is a warning, you may still be able to run the case successfully.

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 6.2 Grid Requirements and Considerations























Face Centroid 











































Cell Centroid






















 





 





 





 





 















































 






















 



 



 



 





















 


 


 


 


 






















 




 




 




 




 







































 














































 






















 



 



 



 





















 





 





 





 





 



 


 A

























 


 


 


 


 























 



 



 



 



 
















































 





















 



 



 



 



 
































































 


 


 


 


 







































B
Aspect Ratio = A : B

Figure 6.2.2: Measurements Involved in Calculating the “Aspect Ratio”

To check the quality of your grid, you can use the text command:
grid −→quality
A message will be printed to the console. The example below demonstrates the output
the text command yields.

Grid Quality:
Applying quality criteria for triangular/mixed cells.
Maximum cell squish = 4.61001e-01
Maximum cell skewness = 4.48776e-01
Maximum ‘aspect_ratio’ = 5.23830e+00

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Reading and Manipulating Grids

Node Density and Clustering

Since you are discretely defining a continuous domain, the degree to which the salient
features of the flow (such as shear layers, separated regions, shock waves, boundary layers,
and mixing zones) are resolved, depends on the density and distribution of nodes in the
mesh. In many cases, poor resolution in critical regions can dramatically alter the flow
characteristics. For example, the prediction of separation due to an adverse pressure
gradient depends heavily on the resolution of the boundary layer upstream of the point
of separation.
Resolution of the boundary layer (i.e., mesh spacing near walls) also plays a significant
role in the accuracy of the computed wall shear stress and heat transfer coefficient. This
is particularly true in laminar flows where the grid adjacent to the wall should obey

u∞
r
yp ≤ 1 (6.2-1)
νx

where yp = distance to the wall from the adjacent cell centroid

u∞ = free-stream velocity
ν = kinematic viscosity of the fluid
x = distance along the wall from the starting point of the boundary layer
Equation 6.2-1 is based upon the Blasius solution for laminar flow over a flat plate at
zero incidence [322].
Proper resolution of the mesh for turbulent flows is also very important. Due to the
strong interaction of the mean flow and turbulence, the numerical results for turbulent
flows tend to be more susceptible to grid dependency than those for laminar flows. In
the near-wall region, different mesh resolutions are required depending on the near-wall
model being used. See Section 12.11: Grid Considerations for Turbulent Flow Simulations
for guidelines.
In general, no flow passage should be represented by fewer than 5 cells. Most cases will
require many more cells to adequately resolve the passage. In regions of large gradients,
as in shear layers or mixing zones, the grid should be fine enough to minimize the change
in the flow variables from cell to cell. Unfortunately, it is very difficult to determine
the locations of important flow features in advance. Moreover, the grid resolution in
most complicated 3D flow fields will be constrained by CPU time and computer resource
limitations (i.e., memory and disk space). Although accuracy increases with larger grids,
the CPU and memory requirements to compute the solution and postprocess the results
also increase. Solution-adaptive grid refinement can be used to increase and/or decrease
grid density based on the evolving flow field, and thus provides the potential for more
economical use of grid points (and hence reduced time and resource requirements). See
Chapter 26: Adapting the Grid for information on solution adaption.

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 6.2 Grid Requirements and Considerations

Smoothness
Truncation error is the difference between the partial derivatives in the governing equa-
tions and their discrete approximations. Rapid changes in cell volume between adjacent
cells translate into larger truncation errors. FLUENT provides the capability to improve
the smoothness by refining the mesh based on the change in cell volume or the gradient
of cell volume. For information on refining the grid based on change in cell volume. (See
Sections 26.4 and 26.8).

Cell Shape
The shape of the cell (including its skewness and aspect ratio) also has a significant
impact on the accuracy of the numerical solution.

• Skewness is defined as the difference between the shape of the cell and the shape of
an equilateral cell of equivalent volume. Highly skewed cells can decrease accuracy
and destabilize the solution. For example, optimal quadrilateral meshes will have
vertex angles close to 90 degrees, while triangular meshes should preferably have
angles of close to 60 degrees and have all angles less than 90 degrees.

• Aspect ratio is a measure of the stretching of the cell. As discussed in Sec-

tion 6.1.3: Computational Expense, for highly anisotropic flows, extreme aspect
ratios may yield accurate results with fewer cells. However, a general rule of thumb
is to avoid aspect ratios in excess of 5:1.

Flow-Field Dependency
The effect of resolution, smoothness, and cell shape on the accuracy and stability of the
solution process is dependent on the flow field being simulated. For example, very skewed
cells can be tolerated in benign flow regions, but can be very damaging in regions with
strong flow gradients.
Since the locations of strong flow gradients generally cannot be determined a priori, you
should strive to achieve a high-quality mesh over the entire flow domain.

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Reading and Manipulating Grids

6.3 Grid Import

Since FLUENT can handle a number of different grid topologies, there are many sources
from which you can obtain a grid to be used in your simulation. You can generate a grid
using GAMBIT, TGrid, GeoMesh, PreBFC, ICEMCFD, I-deas, NASTRAN, PATRAN, ARIES,
ANSYS, or other preprocessors. You can also use the grid contained in a FLUENT/UNS,
RAMPANT, or FLUENT 4 case file. You can also prepare multiple mesh files and combine
them to create a single mesh.

6.3.1 GAMBIT Grid Files

You can use GAMBIT to create 2D and 3D structured/unstructured/hybrid grids. To
create any of these meshes for FLUENT, follow the procedure described in the GAMBIT
Modeling Guide, and export your mesh in FLUENT 5/6 format. All such meshes can be
imported directly into FLUENT using the File/Read/Case... menu item, as described in
Section 4.2: Reading Mesh Files.

6.3.2 GeoMesh Grid Files

You can use GeoMesh to create complete 2D quadrilateral or triangular grids, 3D hexa-
hedral grids, and triangular surface grids for 3D tetrahedral grids. To create any of these
meshes for FLUENT, follow the procedure described in the GeoMesh User’s Guide.
To complete the generation of a 3D tetrahedral mesh, read the surface mesh into TGrid
and generate the volume mesh there. All other meshes can be imported directly into
FLUENT using the File/Read/Case... menu item, as described in Section 4.2: Reading
Mesh Files.

6.3.3 TGrid Grid Files

You can use TGrid to create 2D and 3D unstructured triangular/tetrahedral grids from
boundary or surface grids. Follow the meshing procedure described in the TGrid User’s
Guide, and save your mesh using the File/Write/Mesh... menu item. To import the grid
into FLUENT, use the File/Read/Case... menu item, as described in Section 4.2: Reading
Mesh Files.

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6.3.4 PreBFC Grid Files

You can use PreBFC to create two different types of grids for FLUENT, structured quadri-
lateral/hexahedral and unstructured triangular/tetrahedral.

Structured Grid Files

To generate a structured 2D or 3D grid, follow the procedure described in the PreBFC
User’s Guide (Chapters 6 and 7). The resulting grid will contain quadrilateral (2D) or
hexahedral (3D) elements. Do not specify more than 70 wall zones and 35 inlet zones.
To import the grid, use the File/Import/PreBFC File... menu item, as described in Sec-
tion 4.11.17: PreBFC Files.
To manually convert a file in PreBFC format to a mesh file suitable for FLUENT, enter
the following command:

utility fl42seg input filename output filename

The output file produced can be read into FLUENT using the File/Read/Case... menu
item, as described in Section 4.2: Reading Mesh Files.

Unstructured Triangular and Tetrahedral Grid Files

To generate an unstructured 2D grid, follow the procedure described in the PreBFC User’s
Guide. Save the mesh file in the RAMPANT format using the MESH-RAMPANT/TGRID com-
mand. The current FLUENT format is the same as the RAMPANT format. The resulting
grid will contain triangular elements. To import the grid, use the File/Read/Case... menu
item, as described in Section 4.2: Reading Mesh Files.
To generate a 3D unstructured tetrahedral grid, follow the procedure described in Chap-
ter 8 of the PreBFC User’s Guide for generating a surface mesh. Then read the surface
mesh into TGrid, and complete the grid generation there. See Section 6.3.3: TGrid Grid
Files for information about TGrid grid files.

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6.3.5 ICEMCFD Grid Files

You can use ICEMCFD to create structured grids in FLUENT 4 format and unstructured
grids in RAMPANT format.

• To import a FLUENT 4 grid, follow the instructions in Section 6.3.13: FLUENT 4

Case Files.

• To import a RAMPANT grid, use the File/Read/Case... menu item, as described in

Section 4.2: Reading Mesh Files.

The current FLUENT format is the same as the RAMPANT format, not the FLUENT
4 format. After reading a triangular or tetrahedral ICEMCFD volume mesh, perform
smoothing and swapping (as described in Section 26.13: Improving the Grid by Smoothing
and Swapping) to improve its quality.

6.3.6 I-deas Universal Files

You can import an I-deas Universal file into FLUENTin three different ways.

1. Generate an I-deas surface or volume mesh containing triangular, quadrilateral,

tetrahedral, wedge and/or hexahedral elements. Import it into TGrid using the
commands described in the TGrid User’s Guide. Adhere to the restrictions described
in Appendix B of the TGrid User’s Guide. In TGrid, complete the grid generation
(if necessary) and follow the instructions in Section 6.3.3: TGrid Grid Files.

2. Generate an I-deas volume mesh with linear triangular, quadrilateral, tetrahedral,

wedge, or hexahedral elements. Import it directly using the
File/Import/I-deas Universal... menu item, as described in Section 4.11.9: I-deas
Universal Files.

3. Generate an I-deas volume mesh with linear triangular, quadrilateral, tetrahedral,

wedge, or hexahedral elements. Use the fe2ram filter to convert the Universal file
to the format used by FLUENT. To convert an input file in I-deas Universal format
to an output file in FLUENT format, follow the instructions on page 6-32. After
the output file is written, read it into FLUENT using the File/Read/Case... menu
item, as described in Section 4.2: Reading Mesh Files.

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Recognized I-deas Datasets

The following Universal file datasets are recognized by the FLUENT grid import utility:

• Node Coordinates dataset number 15, 781, 2411

• Elements dataset number 71, 780, 2412

• Permanent Groups dataset number 752, 2417, 2429, 2430, 2432, 2435

For 2D volume grids, the elements must exist in a constant z plane.

Note: The mesh area or mesh volume datasets are not recognized. This implies that
writing multiple mesh areas/volumes to a single Universal file may confuse FLUENT.

Grouping Nodes to Create Face Zones

Nodes are grouped in I-deas using the Group command to create boundary face zones. In
FLUENT, boundary conditions are applied to each zone. Faces that contain the nodes in
a group are gathered into a single zone. It is important not to group nodes of internal
faces with nodes of boundary faces.
One technique is to generate groups automatically based on curves or mesh areas—i.e.,
every curve or mesh area will be a different zone in FLUENT. You may also create the
groups manually, generating groups consisting of all nodes related to a given curve (2D)
or mesh area (3D).

Grouping Elements to Create Cell Zones

Elements in I-deas are grouped using the Group command to create the multiple cell
zones. All elements grouped together are placed in a single cell zone in FLUENT. If the
elements are not grouped, FLUENT will place all the cells into a single zone.

Deleting Duplicate Nodes

I-deas may generate duplicate or coincident nodes in the process of creating elements.
These nodes must be removed in I-deas before writing the universal file for import into
FLUENT.

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6.3.7 NASTRAN Files

There are three different ways in which you can import a NASTRAN file into FLUENT:

• You can generate a NASTRAN surface or volume mesh containing triangular, quadri-
lateral, tetrahedral, wedge, and/or hexahedral elements, and import it into TGrid
using the commands described in the TGrid User’s Guide and adhering to the restric-
tions described in Appendix B of the TGrid User’s Guide. In TGrid, complete the
grid generation (if necessary) and then follow the instructions in Section 6.3.3: TGrid
Grid Files.

• You can generate a NASTRAN volume mesh with linear triangular, quadrilat-
eral, tetrahedral, wedge, or hexahedral elements, and import it directly using the
File/Import/NASTRAN... menu item, as described in Section 4.11.12: NASTRAN
Files.

• You can generate a NASTRAN volume mesh with linear triangular, quadrilateral,
tetrahedral, wedge, or hexahedral elements. Then use the fe2ram filter to convert
the NASTRAN file to the format used by FLUENT. To convert an input file in
NASTRAN format to an output file in FLUENT format, follow the instructions on
page 6-32. After the output file has been written, you can read it into FLUENT
using the File/Read/Case... menu item, as described in Section 4.2: Reading Mesh
Files.

After reading a triangular or tetrahedral NASTRAN volume mesh using the latter methods
perform smoothing and swapping (as described in Section 26.13: Improving the Grid by
Smoothing and Swapping) to improve its quality.

Recognized NASTRAN Bulk Data Entries

The following NASTRAN file datasets are recognized by the FLUENT grid import utility:

• GRID single-precision node coordinates

• GRID* double-precision node coordinates

• CBAR line elements

• CTETRA, CTRIA3 tetrahedral and triangular elements

• CHEXA, CQUAD4, CPENTA hexahedral, quadrilateral, and wedge elements

For 2D volume grids, the elements must exist in a constant z plane.

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Deleting Duplicate Nodes

NASTRAN may generate duplicate or coincident nodes in the process of creating ele-
ments. These nodes must be removed in NASTRAN before writing the file for import
into FLUENT.

6.3.8 PATRAN Neutral Files

There are three different ways in which you can import a PATRAN Neutral file into
FLUENT.

• You can generate a PATRAN surface or volume mesh containing triangular, quadri-
lateral, tetrahedral, wedge, and/or hexahedral elements, and import it into TGrid
using the commands described in the TGrid User’s Guide and adhering to the restric-
tions described in Appendix B of the TGrid User’s Guide. In TGrid, complete the
grid generation (if necessary) and then follow the instructions in Section 6.3.3: TGrid
Grid Files.

• You can generate a PATRAN volume mesh with linear triangular, quadrilateral,
tetrahedral, wedge, or hexahedral elements (grouping nodes with the same component-
group name) and import it directly to FLUENT by selecting the File/Import/ PA-
TRAN... menu item, as described in Section 4.11.13: PATRAN Neutral Files.

• You can generate a PATRAN volume mesh with linear triangular, quadrilateral,
tetrahedral, wedge, or hexahedral elements and then use the fe2ram filter to convert
the Neutral file into the format used by FLUENT. To convert an input file in PATRAN
Neutral format to an output file in FLUENT format, follow the instructions on page
6-32. After the output file has been written, you can read it into FLUENT using
the File/Read/Case... menu item, as described in Section 4.2: Reading Mesh Files.

After reading a triangular or tetrahedral PATRAN volume mesh using the latter methods
perform smoothing and swapping (as described in Section 26.13: Improving the Grid by
Smoothing and Swapping) to improve its quality.

Recognized PATRAN Datasets

The following PATRAN Neutral file packet types are recognized by the FLUENT grid
import utility:

• Node Data Packet Type 01

• Element Data Packet Type 02

• Distributed Load Data Packet Type 06

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• Node Temperature Data Packet Type 10

• Name Components Packet Type 21
• File Header Packet Type 25

For 2D volume grids, the elements must exist in a constant z plane.

Grouping Elements to Create Cell Zones

Elements are grouped in PATRAN using the Named Component command to create the
multiple cell zones. All elements grouped together are placed in a single cell zone in
FLUENT. If the elements are not grouped, FLUENT will place all the cells into a single
zone.

6.3.9 ANSYS Files

There are three different ways in which you can import an ANSYS file into FLUENT.

• You can generate a surface or volume mesh containing triangular, quadrilateral,

tetrahedral, wedge, or hexahedral elements using ANSYS or ARIES, and import it
into TGrid using the commands described in the TGrid User’s Guide and adhering
to the restrictions described in Appendix B of the TGrid User’s Guide. In TGrid,
complete the grid generation (if necessary) and then follow the instructions in
Section 6.3.3: TGrid Grid Files.
• You can generate an ANSYS volume mesh with linear triangular, quadrilateral,
tetrahedral, wedge, or hexahedral elements as well as with higher order elements like
20 node hexahedron, SOLID92, and SOLID187 and import it directly to FLUENT
using the File/Import/ANSYS... menu item, as described in Section 4.11.2: ANSYS
Files.
The higher order elements will be converted to their corresponding linear elements
during the import in FLUENT.
• You can generate an ANSYS volume mesh with linear triangular, quadrilateral,
tetrahedral, wedge, or hexahedral elements and then use the fe2ram filter to convert
the ANSYS file into the format used by FLUENT. To convert an input file in ANSYS
5.4 or 5.5 format to an output file in FLUENT format, follow the instructions on
page 6-32. After the output file has been written, you can read it into FLUENT
using the File/Read/Case... menu item, as described in Section 4.2: Reading Mesh
Files.

After reading a triangular or tetrahedral volume mesh using method 2 or 3 above, you
should perform smoothing and swapping (as described in Section 26.13: Improving the
Grid by Smoothing and Swapping) to improve its quality.

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Recognized ANSYS 5.4 and 5.5 Datasets

FLUENT can import mesh files from ANSYS 5.4 and 5.5 (.cdb files), retaining original
boundary names. The following ANSYS file datasets are recognized by the FLUENT grid
import utility:

• NBLOCK node block data

• EBLOCK element block data

• CMBLOCK element/node grouping

The elements must be STIF63 linear shell elements. In addition, if element data without
an explicit element ID is used, the filter assumes sequential numbering of the elements
when creating the zones.

6.3.10 CFX Files

You can import 3D CFX files, such as definition (.def) and result (.res) files into FLU-
ENT, using the File/Import/CFX menu item, as described in Section 4.11.3: CFX Files.
The fe2ram utility is used as the import filter, which can be used as a stand-alone to
obtain a FLUENT mesh file. See Section 6.3.11: Using the fe2ram Filter to Convert Files
for information about fe2ram.
The 3D element set corresponding to zones/domains present in these files are imported as
cell zones in FLUENT. They may contain tetrahedral, pyramidal, wedge, and hexahedral
elements. The boundary zones in these files are a group of faces with a boundary condi-
tion name/type and are imported as face zones with the boundary condition name/type
retained in FLUENT. The following boundary condition types are retained:

• inlet

• outlet

• symmetry

• interface

• wall

The boundaries of type Interface may be conformal or non-conformal. If they are non-
conformal, they are retained. However, conformal interfaces contain coincident nodes
which are merged and changed to type Interior. For some cases, for the merge to work
correctly, the merge tolerance may need to be adjusted. Alternatively, FLUENT’s fuse
thread functionality can be used to merge the conformal interfaces.

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6.3.11 Using the fe2ram Filter to Convert Files

The fe2ram filter can be used to manually convert files of certain formats into FLUENT
mesh files, which can then be read into FLUENT. To use the fe2ram filter, enter the
following at a command prompt in a terminal or command window:

utility fe2ram [dimension] format [zoning] input file output file

Note: The items enclosed in square brackets are optional. Do not type the square brack-
ets.

• dimension indicates the dimension of the dataset. Replace dimension by -d2 to

indicate that the grid is two dimensional. For a 3D grid, do not enter any value for
dimension, because 3D is the default.

• format indicates the format of the file you wish to convert. For example, replace
format with -tANSYS for an ANSYS file, -tIDEAS for an I-deas file, -tNASTRAN for a
NASTRAN file, etc. To print a list of the formats which fe2ram can convert, type
utility fe2ram -cl -help.

• zoning indicates how zones were identified in the original format. Replace zoning
by -zID for a grid that was zoned by property IDs, or -zNONE to ignore all zone
groupings. For a grid zoned by group, do not enter anything for zoning, because
zoning by groups is the default.

• input file is the name of the original file. output file is the name of the file to which
you want to write the converted grid information.
For example, if you wanted to convert the 2D I-deas volume mesh file sample.unv
to an output file called sample.grd, you will enter the following command:

utility fe2ram -d2 -tIDEAS sample.unv sample.grd

6.3.12 FLUENT/UNS and RAMPANT Case Files

If you have a FLUENT/UNS 3 or 4 case file or a RAMPANT 2, 3, or 4 case file and you
want to run a FLUENT simulation using the same grid, you can read it into FLUENT using
the File/Read/Case... menu item, as described in Section 4.4: Reading FLUENT/UNS and
RAMPANT Case and Data Files.

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6.3.13 FLUENT 4 Case Files

If you have a FLUENT 4 case file and you want to run a FLUENT simulation using the
same grid, import it into FLUENT using the File/Import/FLUENT 4 Case... menu item, as
described in Section 4.11.16: FLUENT 4 Case Files. FLUENT will read grid information
and zone types from the FLUENT 4 case file.

i FLUENT 4 may interpret some pressure boundaries differently from the

current release of FLUENT. Check the conversion information printed out
by FLUENT to see if you need to modify any boundary types.
To manually convert an input file in FLUENT 4 format to an output file in the current
FLUENT format, enter the following command:

utility fl42seg input filename output filename

After the output file has been written, you can read it into FLUENT using the File/Read/Case...
menu item, as described in Section 4.2: Reading Mesh Files.

6.3.14 FIDAP Neutral Files

If you have a FIDAP Neutral file and you want to run a FLUENT simulation using the
same grid, import it using the File/Import/FIDAP... menu item, as described in Sec-
tion 4.11.6: FIDAP Neutral Files. FLUENT will read grid information and zone types
from the FIDAP file.
To manually convert an input file in FIDAP format to an output file in FLUENT format,
enter the following command:

utility fe2ram [dimension] -tFIDAP7 input file output file

The item in square brackets is optional. Do not type the square brackets. For a 2D file,
replace dimension with -d2. For a 3D file, do not enter anything for dimension, because
3D is the default.
After the output file has been written, read it into FLUENT using the File/Read/Case...
menu item, as described in Section 4.2: Reading Mesh Files.

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6.3.15 Reading Multiple Mesh/Case/Data Files

There may be some cases in which you will need to read multiple mesh files (subdomains)
to form your computational domain.

• To solve on a multiblock mesh, generate each block of the mesh in the grid generator
and save it to a separate grid file.

• For very complicated geometries, it may be more efficient to save the mesh for each
part as a separate grid file.

The grid node locations need not be identical at the boundaries where two separate
meshes meet. FLUENT can handle non-conformal grid interfaces. See Section 6.4: Non-
Conformal Grids for details about non-conformal grid boundaries.
There are two ways for reading multiple grid files in FLUENT:

• Using FLUENT’s ability to read multiple mesh files.

• Using TGrid or tmerge.

Using FLUENT’s Ability to Read Multiple Mesh Files

FLUENT allows you to handle more than one mesh at a time within the same solver
settings. This multigrid handling capability is time saving, since you can directly read in
the different mesh files in FLUENT itself without using other tools like TGrid or tmerge.
The steps to take when reading more than one mesh file are:

1. Read in your first mesh file.

File −→ Read −→Case...
In the Select File panel (Figure 6.3.1), select the mesh file and click OK.

2. Read in your second mesh file and append it to the fist mesh selected in the first
step.
Grid −→ Zone −→Append Case File...
In the Select File panel, select the second mesh file and click OK.

3. (optional). Display your meshes.

Display −→Grid...
You will find that the second mesh is appended to the first.

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 6.3 Grid Import

Figure 6.3.1: The Select File Panel

FLUENT also allows you to append the data on the mesh. To do that, follow the procedure
above. For the second step, use the following menu:
Grid −→ Zone −→Append Case & Data Files...
Select the case file in the Select File panel (Figure 6.3.1), and click OK. Both the case
and data files will be appended.

i Reading multiple grid and data options are available only for serial cases,
not for parallel cases.

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Using TGrid or tmerge

1. Generate the grid for the whole domain in the grid generator, and save each cell
zone (or block or part) to a separate grid file for FLUENT.

i If one (or more) of the grids you wish to import is structured (e.g., a
FLUENT 4 grid file), first convert it to FLUENT format using the fl42seg
filter described in Section 6.3.13: FLUENT 4 Case Files.
2. Before starting the solver, use either TGrid or the tmerge filter to combine the grids
into one grid file. The TGrid method is convenient, but the tmerge method allows
you to rotate, scale, and/or translate the grids before they are merged.
• To use TGrid, do the following:
(a) Read all of the grid files into TGrid. When TGrid reads the grid files, it
will automatically merge them into a single grid.
(b) Save the merged grid file.
See the TGrid User’s Guide for information about reading and writing files in
TGrid.
• To use the tmerge filter, do the following before starting FLUENT:
(a) For 3D problems, type utility tmerge -3d. For 2D problems, type
utility tmerge -2d.
(b) When prompted, specify the names of the input files (the separate grid
files) and the name of the output file in which to save the complete grid.
(c) For each input file, specify scaling factors, translation distances, or a
rotation angle. In the example below, no scaling, translation, or rotation
is performed.

utility tmerge -2d -cl -p my1.msh my2.msh final.msh

3. Read the combined grid file into the solver in the usual manner (using the
File/Read/Case... menu item).

For a conformal mesh, if you do not want a boundary between the adjacent cell zones, use
the Fuse Face Zones panel to fuse the overlapping boundaries (see Section 6.8.3: Fusing
Face Zones). The matching faces will be moved to a new zone with a boundary type of
interior. If all faces on either or both of the original zones have been moved to the new
zone, the original zone(s) will be discarded.

i If you are planning to use sliding meshes, or if you have non-conformal

boundaries between adjacent cell zones, do not combine the overlapping
zones. Instead, change the type of the two overlapping zones to interface
(as described in Section 6.4: Non-Conformal Grids).

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In this example, scaling, translation, or rotation is not requested. Hence you can simplify
the inputs to the following:

user@mymachine:> utility tmerge -2d

Starting /Fluent.Inc/utility/tmerge2.1/ultra/tmerge_2d.2.1.13

Append 2D grid files.

tmerge2D Fluent Inc, Version 2.1.11

Enter name of grid file (ENTER to continue) : my1.msh

x,y scaling factor, eg. 1 1 : 1 1

x,y translation, eg. 0 1 : 0 0

rotation angle (deg), eg. 45 : 0

Enter name of grid file (ENTER to continue) : my2.msh

x,y scaling factor, eg. 1 1 : 1 1

x,y translation, eg. 0 1 : 0 0

rotation angle (deg), eg. 45 : 0

Enter name of grid file (ENTER to continue) : <Enter>

Enter name of output file : final.msh

Reading...
node zone: id 1, ib 1, ie 1677, typ 1
node zone: id 2, ib 1678, ie 2169, typ 2
.
.
.
done.
Writing...
492 nodes, id 1, ib 1678, ie 2169, type 2.
1677 nodes, id 2, ib 1, ie 1677, type 1.
.
.
.
done.
Appending done.

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6.3.16 Reading Surface Mesh Files

Surface meshes are used as background mesh for geometry based adaption. To read the
surface mesh file into FLUENT, use the Grid/Surface Mesh... menu item. In the Surfaces
Meshes panel, click Read... and select the surface mesh file using the Select File panel.
You can also display and delete the surfaces using this panel.

Figure 6.3.2: The Surface Meshes Panel

6.4 Non-Conformal Grids

In FLUENT it is possible to use a grid composed of cell zones with non-conformal bound-
aries. That is, the grid node locations need not to be identical at the boundaries where
two subdomains meet. FLUENT handles such meshes using the same technique that is
used in the sliding mesh model, although the meshes do not slide in this situation.

6.4.1 Non-Conformal Grid Calculations

To compute the flux across the non-conformal boundary, FLUENT must first compute
the intersection between the interface zones that comprise the boundary. The result-
ing intersection produces an interior zone where the two interface zones overlap (see
Figure 6.4.1).
If one of the interface zones extends beyond the other (Figure 6.4.2), FLUENT will create
one or two additional wall zones for the portion(s) of the boundary where the two interface
zones do not overlap.
Fluxes across the grid interface are computed using the faces resulting from the intersec-
tion of the two interface zones, not from the interface zone faces.

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 6.4 Non-Conformal Grids

interface zone 1
interior zone

interface zone 2

Figure 6.4.1: Completely Overlapping Grid Interface Intersection

wall zone 2
interface zone 1
interior zone

interface zone 2 wall zone 1

Figure 6.4.2: Partially Overlapping Grid Interface Intersection

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In the example shown in Figure 6.4.3, the interface zones are composed of faces A-B and
B-C, and faces D-E and E-F.

cell zone 1

I II
III
interface
A B C zone 1

a d b e c
interface D E F
zone 2
IV VI

cell zone 2

Figure 6.4.3: Two-Dimensional Non-Conformal Grid Interface

The intersection of these zones produces the faces a-d, d-b, b-e, and e-c. Faces produced
in the region where the two cell zones overlap (d-b, b-e, and e-c) are grouped to form an
interior zone, while the remaining face (a-d) forms a wall zone.
To compute the flux across the interface into cell IV, face D-E is ignored and instead,
faces d-b and b-e are used bringing information into cell IV from cells I and III.

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Non-Conformal Interface Algorithms

Non-conformal interface calculations are handled using the following two approaches:

• Triangular face approach: triangulates the polygon intersection faces, and stores
triangular faces. This approach involves node movement and water tight cells.
• Virtual polygon approach: stores area vector and centroid of the polygon faces.
This approach does not involve node movement and cells are not necessarily water
tight cells. Hence gradients are corrected to take into account the missing cell area.

Both the algorithms calculate the intersection of the interface meshes, however using
different approach for calculations.

Note: The former approach of making cells water tight sometimes results in concave
cells, causing the interface creation to fail. For this reason the virtual polygon
approach is more stable than the triangular face approach.

i Previous versions of FLUENT (version 6.1 and earlier) use only the triangu-
lar face approach. Current versions of FLUENT support both approaches.
Case files from FLUENT 6.1 or earlier can be read and run normally in the current version
of FLUENT. By default, these cases will use the triangular face approach. You can also
manually switch to the virtual polygon approach for such cases.
To use the new algorithm, use the use-virtual-polygon-approach TUI command.
define −→ grid-interfaces −→use-virtual-polygon-approach

/define/grid-interfaces> use-virtual-polygon-approach
/define/grid-interfaces>

During sliding mesh calculations, left handed faces can be generated due to bad grids.
FLUENT corrects the left handedness of these faces automatically. But in extreme cases,
it cannot be fully corrected. Such faces are deleted automatically, so that the solution
does not diverge.
Left handed cells can also be created for the geometries that contains sharp edges and
corners, which may affect the final solution. For such geometries, it is recommended
to first separate the zones and then create the interfaces separately to get the better
solution.
Additional input of angle/translation-vector may be required to recreate face-periodic
interfaces. Also, with the new interface in parallel, there will be no need for encapsula-
tion.

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6.4.2 Requirements and Limitations of Non-Conformal Grids

This section describes the requirements and limitations of non-conformal grids:

• The grid interface can be of any shape (including a non-planar surface, in 3D),
provided that the two interface boundaries are based on the same geometry. If
there are sharp features (e.g., 90-degree angles) or curvature in the mesh, it is
especially important that both sides of the interface closely follow that feature.
For example, consider the case of two concentric circles that define two fluid zones
with a circular, non-conformal interface between them, as shown in Figure 6.4.4.
Because the node spacing on the interface edge of the outer fluid zone is coarse
compared to the radius of curvature, the interface does not closely follow the feature
(in this case, the circular edge.)

i The maximum tolerance between two interfaces should not be larger than
their adjacent cell size at that location That is no cell should be completely
enclosed between two interfaces.

Figure 6.4.4: A Circular Non-Conformal Interface

• A face zone cannot share a non-conformal interface with more than one other face
zone.
This is illustrated by an example, shown in Figure 6.4.5. Each volume in the figure
is meshed separately and does not match node-to-node at the interface. In this
example, a non-conformal interface is not allowed to be created between the three
surfaces shown: one side of the box (rectangle 1) and an end cap from each pipe
(circle 1 and circle 2). In order to create a non-conformal interface, rectangle 1
is split into two surfaces, rectangle 1a and rectangle 1b. Then two non-conformal
interfaces are created between rectangle 1a and circle 2 and rectangle 1b and circle
1, respectively, as shown in Figure 6.4.6.

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 6.4 Non-Conformal Grids

rectangle 1

circle 1

circle 2

Figure 6.4.5: Box with Two Pipes Intersecting One Side

Allowed: Divide rectangle 1 into two surfaces

interface pairings are:

rectangle 1a rectangle 1b
rectangle 1a ⇔ circle 2
circle 2 circle 1 rectangle 1b ⇔ circle 1

Not allowed: Keeping things as they are

Not Valid:
rectangle 1
rectangle 1 ⇔ circle 2
circle 2 circle 1 rectangle 1 ⇔ circle 1

Figure 6.4.6: One-to-One Mapping

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Reading and Manipulating Grids

• If you create a single grid with multiple cell zones separated by a non-conformal
boundary, you must be sure that each cell zone has a distinct face zone on the
non-conformal boundary.
The face zones for two adjacent cell zones will have the same position and shape,
but one will correspond to one cell zone and one to the other. It is also possible
to create a separate grid file for each of the cell zones, and then merge them as
described in Section 6.3.15: Reading Multiple Mesh/Case/Data Files.

• All periodic zones must be correctly oriented (either rotational or translational)

before you create the non-conformal interface.
Periodic non-conformal interfaces must overlap exactly. That is they need to have
the same rotational or translational extent and also have the same axial extent. This
is not true for interfaces in general, where a wall zone is created for non-overlapping
regions.

• For 3D cases, if the interface is periodic, only one pair of periodic boundaries can
neighbor the interface.

• Periodic interfaces require conformal periodics adjacent to it. For example, when
you calculate just one channel and blade of a fan, or turbine, etc., you must have
conformal periodics on either side of the interface threads. This will not work with
nonconformal periodics.

See also Section 6.4.4: Starting From a FLUENT/UNS or RAMPANT Case for information
about using non-conformal FLUENT/UNS and RAMPANT cases.

6.4.3 Using a Non-Conformal Grid in FLUENT

If your multiple-zone grid includes non-conformal boundaries, check if the grid meets all
the requirements listed in Section 6.4.2: Requirements and Limitations of Non-Conformal
Grids). This ensures that FLUENT can obtain a solution on the mesh. Then do the
following:

1. Read the grid into FLUENT. If you have multiple grid files that have not yet been
merged, first follow the instructions in Section 6.3.15: Reading Multiple Mesh/Case/Data
Files to merge them into a single grid.

2. After reading in the grid, change the type of each pair of zones that comprises
the non-conformal boundary to interface (as described in Section 7.1.3: Changing
Boundary Zone Types).
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

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 6.4 Non-Conformal Grids

3. Define the non-conformal grid interfaces in the Grid Interfaces panel (Figure 6.4.7).
Define −→Grid Interfaces...

Figure 6.4.7: The Grid Interfaces Panel

(a) Enter a name for the interface in the Grid Interface field.
(b) Specify the two interface zones that comprise the grid interface by selecting
one or more zones in the Interface Zone 1 list and one or more zones in the
Interface Zone 2 list.

i If one of your interface zones is much smaller than the other, you should
specify the smaller zone as Interface Zone 1 to improve the accuracy of the
intersection calculation.
(c) Set the Interface Type, if appropriate. There are two options:
• Enable Periodic for periodic problems.

i Periodic is not a valid option when more than one zone is selected in each
Interface Zone
• Enable Coupled if the interface lies between a solid zone and a fluid zone,
or if you would like to model a (thermally) coupled wall between two fluid
zones using non-conformal interfaces.

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(d) Click on Create to create a new grid interface. For all types of interfaces,
FLUENT will create boundary zones for the interface (e.g., wall-9, wall-10),
which will appear under Boundary Zone 1 and Boundary Zone 2. If you have
enabled the Coupled option, FLUENT will also create wall interface zones (e.g.,
wall-4, wall-4-shadow), which will appear under Interface Wall Zone 1 and
Interface Wall Zone 2.
(e) If the two interface zones did not overlap entirely, check the boundary zone
type of the zone(s) created for the non-overlapping portion(s) of the boundary.
If the zone type is not correct, you can use the Boundary Conditions panel to
change it.
(f) If you have any Coupled type interfaces, define boundary conditions (if rele-
vant) by updating the interface wall zones in the Boundary Conditions panel.

Define −→Boundary Conditions...

If you create an incorrect grid interface, you can select it in the Grid Interface list
and click the Delete button to delete it. Any boundary zones or wall interface zones
that were created when the interface was created will also be deleted. You may
then proceed with the problem setup as usual.

6.4.4 Starting From a FLUENT/UNS or RAMPANT Case

FLUENT/UNS and RAMPANT case files with non-conformal interfaces can be read and
used by FLUENT without any changes. However, you may want to recompute the grid
interface to take advantage of FLUENT’s improved intersection calculation. You cannot
simply delete the original grid interface and recompute it. Instead, you must use the
define/grid-interfaces/recreate text command.
define −→ grid-interfaces −→recreate
When you select this command, FLUENT will recreate all grid interfaces in the domain.
You can then continue the problem setup or calculation as usual.

i If you have a FLUENT/UNS or RAMPANT data file for the non-conformal

case, you must read it in before you use the recreate command.

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 6.5 Checking the Grid

6.5 Checking the Grid

The grid checking capability in FLUENT provides domain extents, volume statistics, grid
topology and periodic boundary information, verification of simplex counters, and (for
axisymmetric cases) node position verification with respect to the x axis. You can obtain
this information by selecting the Check menu item in the Grid pull-down menu.
Grid −→Check

i It is generally a good idea to check your grid right after reading it into the
solver, in order to detect any grid trouble before you get started with the
problem setup.

6.5.1 Grid Check Information

The information that FLUENT generates when you use the Check item will appear in the
console. Sample output is shown below:

Grid Check

Domain Extents:
x-coordinate: min (m) = 0.000000e+00, max (m) = 6.400001e+01
y-coordinate: min (m) = -4.538534e+00, max (m) = 6.400000e+01
Volume statistics:
minimum volume (m3): 2.353664e-05
maximum volume (m3): 7.599501e-03
total volume (m3): 2.341560e+00
minimum 2d volume (m3): 4.027890e-04
maximum 2d volume (m3): 1.230393e-03
Face area statistics:
minimum face area (m2): 1.300719e-04
maximum face area (m2): 3.781404e-02
Checking number of nodes per cell.
Checking number of faces per cell.
Checking thread pointers.
Checking number of cells per face.
Checking face cells.
Checking bridge faces.
Checking right-handed cells.
Checking face handedness.
Checking for nodes that lie below the x-axis.
Checking element type consistency.
Checking boundary types:
Checking face pairs.
Checking periodic boundaries.

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Checking node count.

Checking nosolve cell count.
Checking nosolve face count.
Checking face children.
Checking cell children.
Checking storage.
Done.

The domain extents list the minimum and maximum x, y, and z coordinates in meters.
The volume statistics include minimum, maximum, and total cell volume in m3 . A nega-
tive value for the minimum volume indicates that one or more cells have improper connec-
tivity. Cells with a negative volume can often be identified using the Iso-Value Adaption
capability to mark them for adaption and view them in the graphics window. For more
information on creating and viewing isovalue adaption registers, see Section 26.6: Iso-
value Adaption. You must eliminate these negative volumes before continuing the flow
solution process.
The topological information to be verified begins with the number of faces and nodes
per cell. A triangular cell (2D) should have 3 faces and 3 nodes, a tetrahedral cell (3D)
should have 4 faces and 4 nodes, a quadrilateral cell (2D) should have 4 faces and 4
nodes, and a hexahedral cell (3D) should have 6 faces and 8 nodes. Polyhedral cells (3D)
will have an arbitrary number of faces and nodes.
Next, the face handedness for each zone is checked. The zones should contain all right-
handed faces. Usually a grid with negative volumes will also have left-handed faces.
Again, you cannot obtain a flow solution until you eliminate these connectivity problems.
The last topological verification is checking the element-type consistency. If a mesh does
not contain mixed elements (quadrilaterals and triangles or hexahedra and tetrahedra),
FLUENT will determine that it does not need to keep track of the element types. By
doing so, it can eliminate some unnecessary work.
For axisymmetric cases, the number of nodes below the x axis is listed. Nodes below
the x axis are forbidden for axisymmetric cases, since the axisymmetric cell volumes are
created by rotating the 2D cell volume about the x axis; thus nodes below the x axis
would create negative volumes.
For solution domains with rotationally periodic boundaries, the minimum, maximum,
average, and prescribed periodic angles are computed. A common mistake is to specify
the angle incorrectly. For domains with translationally periodic boundaries, the boundary
information is checked to ensure that the boundaries are truly periodic.
Finally, the simplex counters are verified. The actual numbers of nodes, faces, and cells
the solver has constructed are compared to the values specified in the corresponding
header declarations in the grid file. Any discrepancies are reported.

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 6.6 Reporting Grid Statistics

6.5.2 Repairing Duplicate Shadow Nodes

If the Grid/Check report includes the following message:

WARNING: node on face thread 2 has multiple shadows.

it indicates the existence of duplicate shadow nodes. This error occurs only in grids with
periodic-type walls. You can repair such a grid using the following text command:
grid −→ modify-zones −→repair-periodic
If the interface is rotational periodic, you will be prompted for the rotation angle.

6.6 Reporting Grid Statistics

There are several methods for reporting information about the grid after it has been read
into FLUENT. You can report the amount of memory used by the current problem, the
grid size, and statistics about the grid partitions. Zone-by-zone counts of cells and faces
can also be reported.
Information about grid statistics is provided in the following sections:

• Section 6.6.1: Grid Size

• Section 6.6.2: Memory Usage
• Section 6.6.3: Grid Zone Information
• Section 6.6.4: Partition Statistics

6.6.1 Grid Size

You can print out the numbers of nodes, faces, cells, and partitions in the grid by selecting
the Grid/Info/Size menu item.
Grid −→ Info −→Size
A partition is a piece of a grid that has been segregated for parallel processing (see
Chapter 31: Parallel Processing).
A sample of the resulting output follows:

Grid Size

Level Cells Faces Nodes Partitions

0 7917 12247 4468 1

2 cell zones, 11 face zones.

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If you are interested in how the cells and faces are divided among the different zones,
you can use the Grid/Info/Zones menu item, as described in Section 6.6.3: Grid Zone
Information.
If you are using the density-based coupled explicit solver, the grid information will be
printed for each grid level. The grid levels result from creating coarse grid levels for the
FAS multigrid convergence acceleration (see Section 25.6.4: Full-Approximation Storage
(FAS) Multigrid). A sample of the resulting output is shown below:

Grid Size

Level Cells Faces Nodes Partitions

0 7917 12247 4468 1
1 1347 3658 0 1
2 392 1217 0 1
3 133 475 0 1
4 50 197 0 1
5 17 78 0 1

2 cell zones, 11 face zones.

6.6.2 Memory Usage

During a FLUENT session you may want to check the amount of memory used and
allocated in the present analysis. FLUENT has a feature that will report the follow-
ing information: the numbers of nodes, faces, cells, edges, and object pointers (generic
pointers for various grid and graphics utilities) that are used and allocated; the amount
of array memory (scratch memory used for surfaces) used and allocated; and the amount
of memory used by the solver process.
You can obtain this information by selecting the Grid/Info/Memory Usage menu item.
Grid −→ Info −→Memory Usage
The memory information will be different for UNIX and Windows systems.

UNIX Systems
On UNIX systems, the process memory information includes the following:

• Process Static memory is essentially the size of the code itself.

• Process Dynamic memory is the allocated heap memory used to store the grid and
solution variables.
• Process Total memory is the sum of static and dynamic memory.

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 6.6 Reporting Grid Statistics

Windows Systems
On Windows systems, the process memory information includes the following:

• Process Physical memory is the allocated heap memory currently resident in

RAM.

• Process Virtual memory is the allocated heap memory currently swapped to the
Windows system page file.

• Process Total memory is the sum of physical and virtual memory.

Note the following:

• The memory information does not include the static (code) memory.

• In the serial version of FLUENT, the heap memory value includes storage for the
solver (grid and solution variables), and Cortex (GUI and graphics memory), since
Cortex and the solver are contained in the same process.

• In the parallel version, Cortex runs in its own process, so the heap memory value
includes storage for the grid and solution variables only.

On Windows systems, you can also get more information on the FLUENT process (or
processes) by using the Task Manager (see your Windows documentation for details).
For the serial version, the process image name will be something like fl542s.exe. For
the parallel version, examples of process image names are as follows: cx332.exe (Cortex),
fl542.exe (solver host), and fl smpi542.exe (one solver node).

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6.6.3 Grid Zone Information

You can print information in the console about the nodes, faces, and cells in each zone
using the Grid/Info/Zones menu item.
Grid −→ Info −→Zones
The grid zone information includes the total number of nodes and, for each face and cell
zone, the number of faces or cells, the cell (and, in 3D, face) type (triangular, quadri-
lateral, etc.), the boundary condition type, and the zone ID. Sample output is shown
below:

Zone sizes on domain 1:

21280 hexahedral cells, zone 4.
532 quadrilateral velocity-inlet faces, zone 1.
532 quadrilateral pressure-outlet faces, zone 2.
1040 quadrilateral symmetry faces, zone 3.
1040 quadrilateral symmetry faces, zone 7.
61708 quadrilateral interior faces, zone 5.
1120 quadrilateral wall faces, zone 6.
23493 nodes.

6.6.4 Partition Statistics

You can print grid partition statistics in the console by selecting the Grid/Info/Partitions
menu item.
Grid −→ Info −→Partitions
The statistics include the numbers of cells, faces, interfaces, and neighbors of each par-
tition. See Section 31.5.6: Interpreting Partition Statistics for further details, including
sample output.

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 6.7 Converting the Grid to a Polyhedral Mesh

6.7 Converting the Grid to a Polyhedral Mesh

The FLUENT solver, being face-based, supports polyhedral cells. The advantages that
polyhedral meshes have shown over some of the tetrahedral or hybrid meshes is the
lower overall cell count, almost 3-5 times lower for unstructured meshes than the original
cell count. Currently, there are two options in FLUENT that allow you to convert your
nonpolyhedral mesh to a polyhedral mesh:

• Converting the entire domain into polyhedral cells (applicable only for meshes that
contain tetrahedral and/or wedge/prism cells).

• Converting skewed tetrahedral cells to polyhedral cells.

6.7.1 Converting the Domain to a Polyhedra

Conversion of a mesh to polyhedra only applies to 3D meshes that contain tetrahedral
and/or wedge/prism cells. To begin the conversion process, FLUENT automatically de-
composes each non-hexahedral cell into multiple sub-volumes called “duals” (the shaded
regions seen in the 2D example in Figure 6.7.1). Each dual is associated with one of
the original nodes of the cell. These duals are then agglomerated into polyhedral cells
around the original nodes. Thus, the collection of duals from all cells sharing a particular
node makes up each polyhedral cell (see Figure 6.7.2). The node that is now within the
polyhedral cell is no longer needed and is removed.
To better understand how duals are formed, you can consider the straightforward case of
a tetrahedral mesh. Each of the cells are decomposed in the following manner: first, new
edges are created on each face between the face centroid and the centroids of the edges
of that face. Then, new faces are created within the cell by connecting the cell centroid
to the new edges on each face. These interior faces establish the boundaries between
the duals of a cell, and divide the cell into 4 sub-volumes. These dividing faces may be
adjusted and merged with neighboring faces during the agglomeration process, in order
to minimize the number of faces on the resultant polyhedral cell.

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Figure 6.7.1: Connection of Edge Centroids with Face Centroids

Figure 6.7.2: A Polyhedral Cell

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 6.7 Converting the Grid to a Polyhedral Mesh

Figure 6.7.3: A Converted Polyhedral Cell with Preserved Hexahedral Cell

Shape

i Hexahedral cells are not converted to polyhedra when the domain is con-
verted, except when they border non-hexahedral cells. When the neigh-
boring cell is reconfigured as polyhedra, the shared face of the hexahedral
cell is decomposed into multiple faces as well, resulting in a polyhedral cell.
In such a case the shape of the original hexahedral cell is preserved (i.e.
the overall dimensions of the cell stay the same), but the converted cell has
more than the original 6 faces (see Figure 6.7.3).

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Figure 6.7.4: Treatment of Wedge Boundary Layers

Special Treatment of Boundary Layers

Conversion proceeds in a slightly different manner in boundary layers that are modeled
using thin wedge/prism cells. These cells are decomposed in the plane of the boundary
surface, but not in the direction normal to the surface. The resulting polyhedra will
therefore preserve the thickness of the original wedge/prism cells (Figure 6.7.4). In most
cases, the cell count in the new polyhedral boundary layer will be lower than the original
boundary layer.

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 6.7 Converting the Grid to a Polyhedral Mesh

To convert the entire domain of your mesh, use the Grid/Polyhedra/Convert Domain menu.
Grid −→ Polyhedra −→Convert Domain
The resulting message printed on the console is

Converting domain to polyhedra...

Creating polyhedra zones.
Processing face zones...............
Processing cell zones..
Building polyhedra mesh.......
Optimizing polyhedra mesh.......
Done.

Figure 6.7.5, the original tetrahedral mesh of a section of a manifold, is compared to Fig-
ure 6.7.6 which is the resulting mesh after the entire domain is converted to a polyhedra.

Limitations
Some limitations you will find with polyhedral meshes that you generally do not experi-
ence with other cell types include:

• Meshes that already contain polyhedral cells cannot be converted.

• Meshes with hanging nodes will not be converted. This includes meshes that have
undergone hanging node adaption (see Section 26.2.1: Hanging Node Adaption), as
well as meshes generated by the GAMBIT Hex Core meshing scheme or the TGrid
Hexcore menu option. Note that if the mesh has undergone conformal adaption
(see Section 26.2.2: Conformal Adaption), then it does not have hanging nodes and
can therefore be converted.
• The following grid manipulation tools are not available on polyhedral meshes:
– extrude-face-zone under the modify-zone option
– fuse
– skewness smoothing
– swapping will not affect polyhedral cells
• Meshes in which the domain has been converted to polyhedral cells are not eligible
for adaption. For more information about adaption, see Chapter 26: Adapting the
Grid.
• The dynamic mesh model cannot be used on polyhedral meshes. The dynamic
mesh model will automatically be disabled if a case with the dynamic mesh option
enabled is converted.

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Figure 6.7.5: The Original Tetrahedral Mesh

Figure 6.7.6: The Converted Polyhedral Mesh

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 6.7 Converting the Grid to a Polyhedral Mesh

6.7.2 Converting Skewed Cells to Polyhedra

Another method of cell agglomeration is the skewness-based cluster approach. This type
of conversion is designed to convert only part of the domain. The objective is to convert
only skewed tetrahedral cells above a specified cell equivolume skewness threshold into
polyhedra. By converting the highly skewed tetrahedral cells, the quality of the mesh
can be improved significantly.
A different algorithm is used for local conversion. This algorithm evaluates each highly
skewed tetrahedral cell and all of the surrounding cells, to select an edge on the highly
skewed cell that best matches criteria for cell agglomeration. Then all of the cells which
share this edge are combined into a polyhedral cell. During the process, the data is
interpolated from the original cells to the resultant polyhedra.

Limitations
There are certain limitations with this type of conversion:

• The following grid manipulation tools are not available on polyhedral meshes:
– extrude-face-zone under the modify-zone option
– fuse
– skewness smoothing
– swapping will not affect polyhedral cells

• The polyhedral cells that result from the conversion are not eligible for adaption.
For more information about adaption, see Chapter 26: Adapting the Grid.

• Only tetrahedral cells are converted, as all other cells are skipped.

• Meshes with hanging nodes will not be converted. This includes meshes that have
undergone hanging node adaption (see Section 26.2.1: Hanging Node Adaption),
as well as meshes generated by the GAMBIT Hex Core meshing scheme or the
TGrid Hexcore menu option (hexcore meshes). Note that if the mesh has undergone
conformal adaption (see Section 26.2.2: Conformal Adaption) or it is a hexcore
mesh in which the transitional cells have been converted to polyhedra (see Sec-
tion 31.5.2: Preparing Hexcore Meshes for Partitioning), then it does not have
hanging nodes and can therefore be converted.

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6.7.3 Steps in Converting Skewed Cells to Polyhedral Cells

To convert part of your domain to polyhedral cells, go to the Convert Skewed Cells panel
Grid −→ Polyhedra −→Convert Skewed Cells...

Figure 6.7.7: The Convert Skewed Cells Panel

1. Select the zone(s) you want to consider for local polyhedra conversion under Cell
Zones. Once the zone selection is made, the Current Maximum Cell Skewness and
Cells Above Target (%) skewness are displayed.

2. Set the Target Maximum Cell Skewness (see Section 6.7.2: Limitations) and click the
Convert button.

i The Cells Above Target (%) should be only a couple of percentage points,
else the conversion will be ineffective due to the high face count.
3. The output reported on the FLUENT console is the number of created polyhedra
and the resulting maximum cell skewness.

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 6.8 Modifying the Grid

6.8 Modifying the Grid

There are several ways in which you can modify or manipulate the grid after it has been
read into FLUENT. You can scale or translate the grid, merge or separate zones, create
or slit periodic zones, and fuse boundaries. In addition, you can reorder the cells in the
domain to decrease bandwidth. Smoothing and diagonal swapping, which can be used to
improve the mesh, are described in Section 26.13: Improving the Grid by Smoothing and
Swapping. Methods for partitioning grids to be used in a parallel solver are discussed in
Section 31.5: Partitioning the Grid.

i Whenever you modify the grid, you should be sure to save a new case file
(and a data file, if data exist). If you have old data files that you would
like to be able to read in again, be sure to retain the original case file as
well, as the data in the old data files may not correspond to the new case
file.
Information about grid manipulation is provided in the following sections:

• Section 6.8.1: Merging Zones

• Section 6.8.2: Separating Zones

• Section 6.8.3: Fusing Face Zones

• Section 6.8.4: Creating Periodic Zones

• Section 6.8.5: Slitting Periodic Zones

• Section 6.8.6: Slitting Face Zones

• Section 6.8.7: Extruding Face Zones

• Section 6.8.8: Replacing, Deleting, Deactivating, and Activating Zones

• Section 6.8.9: Reordering the Domain and Zones

• Section 6.8.10: Scaling the Grid

• Section 6.8.11: Translating the Grid

• Section 6.8.12: Rotating the Grid

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6.8.1 Merging Zones

To simplify the solution process, you may want to merge zones. Merging zones involves
combining multiple zones of similar type into a single zone. Setting boundary conditions
and postprocessing may be easier after you have merged similar zones.
Zone merging is performed in the Merge Zones panel (Figure 6.8.1).
Grid −→Merge...

Figure 6.8.1: The Merge Zones Panel

When to Merge Zones

FLUENT allows you to merge zones of similar type into a single zone. This is not necessary
unless the number of zones becomes prohibitive to efficient setup or postprocessing of the
numerical analysis. For example, setting the same boundary condition parameters for
a large number of zones can be time-consuming and may introduce inconsistencies. In
addition, the postprocessing of the data often involves surfaces generated using the zones.
A large number of zones often translates into a large number of surfaces that must be
selected for the various display options, such as color contouring. Fortunately, surfaces
can also be merged (see Section 27.11: Grouping, Renaming, and Deleting Surfaces),
minimizing the negative impact of a large number of zones on postprocessing efficiency.
Although merging zones can be helpful, there may be cases where you will want to retain
a larger number of zones. Since the merging process is not fully reversible, a larger
number of zones provides more flexibility in imposing boundary conditions. Although
a large number of zones can make selection of surfaces for display tedious, it can also
provide more choices for rendering the grid and the flow-field solution. For instance, it
can be difficult to render an internal flow-field solution. If the outer domain is composed
of several zones, the grids of subsets of these zones can be plotted along with the solution
to provide the relationship between the geometry and solution field.

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 6.8 Modifying the Grid

Using the Merge Zones Panel

The procedure for merging multiple zones of the same type into a single zone is as follows:

1. Select the zone type in the Multiple Types list. This list contains all the zone types
for which there are multiple zones. When you choose a type from this list, the
corresponding zones will appear in the Zones of Type list.

2. Select two or more zones in the Zones of Type list.

3. Click on the Merge button to merge the selected zones.

i Remember to save a new case file (and a data file, if data exists).

6.8.2 Separating Zones

There are several methods available in FLUENT that allow you to separate a single face
or cell zone into multiple zones of the same type. If your grid contains a zone that you
want to break up into smaller portions, you can make use of these features. For example,
if you created a single wall zone when generating the grid for a duct, but you want to
specify different temperatures on specific portions of the wall, you will need to break that
wall zone into two or more wall zones. If you plan to solve a problem using the sliding
mesh model or multiple reference frames, but you forgot to create different fluid zones
for the regions moving at different speeds, you will need to separate the fluid zone into
two or more fluid zones.

i After performing any of these separations, you should save a new case file.
If data exist, they are automatically assigned to the proper zones when
separation occurs, so you should also write a new data file.

i The maximum number of zones into which you can separate any one face
zone or cell zone is 32.
There are four ways to separate face zones and two ways to separate cell zones. The face
separation methods will be described first, followed by the cell separation tools. Slitting
(decoupling) of periodic zones is discussed in Section 6.8.5: Slitting Periodic Zones.
Note that all of the separation methods allow you to report the result of the separation
before you commit to performing it.

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Separating Face Zones

Methods for Separating Face Zones

For geometries with sharp corners, it is often easy to separate face zones based on sig-
nificant angle. Faces with normal vectors that differ by an angle greater than or equal
to the specified significant angle will be placed in different zones. For example, if your
grid consists of a cube, and all 6 sides of the cube are in a single wall zone, you would
specify a significant angle of 89◦ . Since the normal vector for each cube side differs by
90◦ from the normals of its adjacent sides, each of the 6 sides will be placed in a different
wall zone.
If you have a small face zone and would like to put each face in the zone into its own
zone, you can do so by separating the faces based on face.
You can also separate face zones based on the marks stored in adaption registers. For
example, you can mark cells for adaption based on their location in the domain (region
adaption), their boundary closeness (boundary adaption), isovalues of some variable, or
any of the other adaption methods discussed in Chapter 26: Adapting the Grid. When
you specify which register is to be used for the separation of the face zone, all faces of
cells that are marked will be placed into a new face zone. (Use the Manage Adaption
Registers panel to determine the ID of the register you wish to use.)
Finally, you can separate face zones based on contiguous regions. For example, when you
use coupled wall boundary conditions you need the faces on the zone to have a consistent
orientation. Consistent orientation can only be guaranteed on contiguous regions, so you
may need to separate face zones to allow proper boundary condition specification.

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Inputs for Separating Face Zones

To break up a face zone based on angle, face, adaption mark, or region, use the Separate
Face Zones panel (Figure 6.8.2).
Grid −→ Separate −→Faces...

Figure 6.8.2: The Separate Face Zones Panel

i If you are planning to separate face zones, you should do so before per-
forming any adaptions using the (default) hanging node adaption method.
Face zones that contain hanging nodes cannot be separated.
The steps for separating faces are as follows:

1. Select the separation method (Angle, Face, Mark, or Region) under Options.

2. Specify the face zone to be separated in the Zones list.

3. If you are separating by face or region, skip to the next step. Otherwise, do one of
the following:
• If you are separating faces by angle, specify the significant angle in the Angle
field.
• If you are separating faces by mark, select the adaption register to be used in
the Registers list.

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4. (optional) To check what the result of the separation will be before you actually
separate the face zone, click on the Report button. The report will look like this:

Zone not separated.

45 faces in contiguous region 0
30 faces in contiguous region 1
11 faces in contiguous region 2
14 faces in contiguous region 3
Separates zone 4 into 4 zone(s).

5. To separate the face zone, click on the Separate button. FLUENT will print the
following information:

45 faces in contiguous region 0

30 faces in contiguous region 1
11 faces in contiguous region 2
14 faces in contiguous region 3
Separates zone 4 into 4 zone(s).
Updating zone information ...
created zone wall-4:001
created zone wall-4:002
created zone wall-4:010
done.

i When you separate the face zone by adaption mark, you may sometimes
find that a face of a corner cell will be placed in the wrong face zone. You
can usually correct this problem by performing an additional separation,
based on angle, to move the offending face to a new zone. You can then
merge this new zone with the zone in which you want the face to be placed,
as described in Section 6.8.1: Merging Zones.

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Separating Cell Zones

Methods for Separating Cell Zones

If you have two or more enclosed cell regions sharing internal boundaries (as shown in
Figure 6.8.3), but all of the cells are contained in a single cell zone, you can separate the
cells into distinct zones using the separation-by-region method. Note that if the shared
internal boundary is of type interior, you must change it to another double-sided face
zone type (fan, radiator, etc.) prior to performing the separation.

zone 1 zone 2

Figure 6.8.3: Cell Zone Separation Based on Region

You can also separate cell zones based on the marks stored in adaption registers. You
can mark cells for adaption using any of the adaption methods discussed in Chap-
ter 26: Adapting the Grid (e.g., you can mark cells with a certain isovalue range or
cells inside or outside a specified region). When you specify which register is to be used
for the separation of the cell zone, cells that are marked will be placed into a new cell
zone. (Use the Manage Adaption Registers panel to determine the ID of the register you
wish to use.)

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Inputs for Separating Cell Zones

To break up a cell zone based on region or adaption mark, use the Separate Cell Zones
panel (Figure 6.8.4).
Grid −→ Separate −→Cells...

Figure 6.8.4: The Separate Cell Zones Panel

i If you are planning to separate cell zones, you should do so before perform-
ing any adaptions using the (default) hanging node adaption method. Cell
zones that contain hanging nodes cannot be separated.
The steps for separating cells are as follows:

1. Select the separation method (Mark or Region) under Options.

2. Specify the cell zone to be separated in the Zones list.

3. If you are separating cells by mark, select the adaption register to be used in the
Registers list.

4. (optional) To check what the result of the separation will be before you actually
separate the cell zone, click on the Report button. The report will look like this:

Zone not separated.

Separates zone 14 into two zones, with 1275 and 32 cells.

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5. To separate the cell zone, click on the Separate button. FLUENT will print the
following information:

Separates zone 14 into two zones, with 1275 and 32 cells.

No faces marked on thread, 2
No faces marked on thread, 3
No faces marked on thread, 1
No faces marked on thread, 5
No faces marked on thread, 7
No faces marked on thread, 8
No faces marked on thread, 9
No faces marked on thread, 61
Separates zone 62 into two zones, with 1763 and 58 faces.
All faces marked on thread, 4
No faces marked on thread, 66
Moved 20 faces from face zone 4 to zone 6
Updating zone information ...
Moved 32 cells from cell zone 14 to zone 10
created zone interior-4
created zone interior-6
created zone fluid-14:010
done.

As shown in the example above, separation of a cell zone will often result in the separation
of face zones as well. When you separate by mark, faces of cells that are moved to a new
zone will be placed in a new face zone. When you separate by region, faces of cells that
are moved to a new zone will not necessarily be placed in a new face zone.
If you find that any faces are placed incorrectly, see the comment above, at the end of
the inputs for face zone separation.

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6.8.3 Fusing Face Zones

The face fusing utility is a convenient feature that can be used to fuse boundaries (and
merge duplicate nodes and faces) created by assembling multiple mesh regions. When
the domain is divided into subdomains and the grid is generated separately for each
subdomain, you will combine the subdomains into a single file before reading the grid
into the solver. (See Section 6.3.15: Reading Multiple Mesh/Case/Data Files for details.)
This situation could arise if you generate each block of a multiblock grid separately and
save it to a separate grid file. Another possible scenario is that you decided, during grid
generation, to save the mesh for each part of a complicated geometry as a separate part
file. (Note that the grid node locations need not be identical at the boundaries where
two subdomains meet; see Section 6.4: Non-Conformal Grids for details.)
The Fuse Face Zones panel (Figure 6.8.5) allows you to merge the duplicate nodes and
delete these artificial internal boundaries.
Grid −→Fuse...

Figure 6.8.5: The Fuse Face Zones Panel

The boundaries on which the duplicate nodes lie are assigned zone ID numbers (just like
any other boundary) when the grid files are combined, as described in Section 6.3.15: Read-
ing Multiple Mesh/Case/Data Files. You need to keep track of the zone ID numbers when
tmerge or TGrid reports its progress or, after the complete grid is read in, display all
boundary grid zones and use the mouse-probe button to determine the zone names (see
Section 28.3: Controlling the Mouse Button Functions for information about the mouse
button functions).

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Inputs for Fusing Face Zones

The steps for fusing face zones are as follows:

1. Select the zones to be fused in the Zones list.

2. Click on the Fuse button to fuse the selected zones.

If all of the appropriate faces do not get fused using the default Tolerance, you should
increase it and attempt to fuse the zones again. (This tolerance is the same as the
matching tolerance discussed in Section 6.8.4: Creating Periodic Zones.) The Tolerance
should not exceed 0.5, or you may fuse the wrong nodes.

i Remember to save a new case file (and a data file, if data exist) after fusing
faces.

Fusing Zones on Branch Cuts

Meshes imported from structured mesh generators or solvers (such as FLUENT 4) can
often be O-type or C-type grids with a reentrant branch cut where coincident duplicate
nodes lie on a periodic boundary. Since FLUENT uses an unstructured grid representa-
tion, there is no reason to retain this artificial internal boundary. (Of course, you can
preserve these periodic boundaries and the solution algorithm will solve the problem with
periodic boundary conditions.)
To fuse this periodic zone with itself, you must first slit the periodic zone, as described
in Section 6.8.5: Slitting Periodic Zones. This will create two symmetry zones that you
can fuse using the procedure above.
Note that if you need to fuse portions of a non-periodic zone with itself, you must use
the text command fuse-face-zones.
grid −→ modify-zones −→fuse-face-zones
This command will prompt you for the name or ID of each zone to be fused. (You will
enter the same zone twice.) To change the node tolerance, use the matching-tolerance
command.

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6.8.4 Creating Periodic Zones

FLUENT allows you to set up periodic boundaries using either conformal or non-conformal
periodic zones. You can assign periodicity to your grid by coupling a pair of face zones.
If the two zones have identical node and face distributions, you can create a conformal
periodic zone. If the two zones are not identical at the boundaries within a specified
tolerance, then you can create a non-conformal periodic zone. (See Section 6.4: Non-
Conformal Grids for more information about non-conformal grids.)

i Remember to save a new case file (and a data file, if data exist) after
creating or slitting a periodic boundary.

Creating Conformal Periodic Zones

To create conformal periodic boundaries, you will use the make-periodic text command.
grid −→ modify-zones −→make-periodic
You will need to specify the two face zones that will comprise the periodic pair (you
can enter their full names or just their IDs), and indicate whether they are rotationally
or translationally periodic. The order in which you specify the periodic zone and its
matching shadow zone is not significant.

/grid/modify-zones> mp
Periodic zone [()] 1
Shadow zone [()] 4
Rotational periodic? (if no, translational) [yes] n
Create periodic zones? [yes] yes

computed translation deltas: -2.000000 -2.000000

all 10 faces matched for zones 1 and 4.

zone 4 deleted
Created periodic zones.

When you create a conformal periodic boundary, the solver will check to see if the faces
on the selected zones “match” (i.e., whether or not the nodes on corresponding faces
are coincident). The matching tolerance for a face is a fraction of the minimum edge
length of the face. If the periodic boundary creation fails, you can change the matching
tolerance using the matching-tolerance command, but it should not exceed 0.5 or you
may match up the periodic zones incorrectly and corrupt the grid.
grid −→ modify-zones −→matching-tolerance

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Creating Non-Conformal Periodic Zones

To create non-conformal periodic boundaries, you need to change the non-conformal
periodic zones to interface zones. You will then need to set up the origin as well as the
axes of the adjacent cell zone. For example, if interface-15 and interface-2 are the two
non-conformal periodic zones, the non-conformal periodic boundaries are set up using
the make-periodic command in the define/grid-interfaces text menu.
define −→ grid-interfaces −→make-periodic
For example:

/define/grid-interfaces> make-periodic
Periodic zone [()] interface-15
Shadow zone [()] interface-2
Rotational periodic? (if no, translational) [yes] yes
Rotation angle (deg) [0] 40.0
Create periodic zone? [yes] yes
grid-interface name [] fan-periodic

i If non-conformal periodics are used, they should not be intersected by

any other non-conformal interfaces. Note that the created non-conformal
periodic zones cannot be used with 3-D sliding mesh cases.

6.8.5 Slitting Periodic Zones

If you wish to decouple the zones in a periodic pair, you can use the slit-periodic
command.
grid −→ modify-zones −→slit-periodic
You will specify the periodic zone’s name or ID, and the solver will decouple the two
zones in the pair (the periodic zone and its shadow) and change them to two symmetry
zones:

/grid/modify-zones> sp
periodic zone [()] periodic-1

Separated periodic zone.

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6.8.6 Slitting Face Zones

The face-zone slitting feature has two uses:

• You can slit a single boundary zone of any double-sided type (i.e., any boundary
zone that has cells on both sides of it) into two distinct zones.
• You can slit a coupled wall zone into two distinct, uncoupled wall zones.

When you slit a face zone, the solver will duplicate all faces and nodes, except those
nodes that are located at the ends (2D) or edges (3D) of the zone. One set of nodes and
faces will belong to one of the resulting boundary zones and the other set will belong to
the other zone. The only ill effect of the shared nodes at each end is that you may see
some inaccuracies at those points when you graphically display solution data with a slit
boundary. (Note that if you adapt the boundary after slitting, you will not be able to
fuse the boundaries back together again.)
Normally, you will not need to manually slit a face zone. Two-sided walls are automat-
ically slit, but remain coupled. (This coupling refers only to the grid; it is independent
of thermal coupling.) The adaption process treats these coupled walls just like periodic
boundaries; adapting on one wall causes the same adaption on the shadow. If you want
to adapt one wall independent of its shadow, you should slit the coupled wall to obtain
two distinct walls.

i You should not confuse “slitting” a face zone with “separating” a face
zone. When you slit a face zone, additional faces and nodes are created
and placed in a new zone. When you separate a face zone, a new zone will
be created, but no new faces or nodes are created; the existing faces and
nodes are simply redistributed among the zones.

Inputs for Slitting Face Zones

If you wish to slit a face zone, you can use the slit-face-zone command.
grid −→ modify-zones −→slit-face-zone
You will specify the face zone’s name or ID, and the solver will replace the zone with two
zones:

/grid/modify-zones> slfz
face zone id/name [] wall-4

zone 4 deleted
face zone 4 created
face zone 10 created

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i Remember to save a new case file (and a data file, if data exist) after
slitting faces.

6.8.7 Extruding Face Zones

The ability to extrude a boundary face zone allows you to extend the solution domain
without having to exit the solver. A typical application of the extrusion capability is to
extend the solution domain when recirculating flow is impinging on a flow outlet. The
current extrusion capability creates prismatic or hexahedral layers based on the shape of
the face and normal vectors computed by averaging the face normals to the face zone’s
nodes. You can define the extrusion process by specifying a list of displacements (in SI
units) or by specifying a total distance (in SI units) and parametric coordinates.

i Note that extrusion is not possible from boundary face zones that have
hanging nodes.

Specifying Extrusion by Displacement Distances

You can specify the extrusion by entering a list of displacement distances (in SI units)
using the extrude-face-zone-delta command.
grid −→ modify-zones −→extrude-face-zone-delta
You will be prompted for the boundary face zone ID or name and a list of displacement
distances.

Specifying Extrusion by Parametric Coordinates

You can specify the extrusion by specifying a distance (in SI units) and parametric
coordinates using the extrude-face-zone-para command
grid −→ modify-zones −→extrude-face-zone-para
You will be prompted for the boundary face zone ID or name, a total distance, and a list
of parametric coordinates. The list of parametric coordinates should begin with 0.0 and
end with 1.0. For example, the following list of parametric coordinates would create two
equally spaced extrusion layers: 0.0, 0.5, 1.0.

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6.8.8 Replacing, Deleting, Deactivating, and Activating Zones

FLUENT allows you to append or replace the existing cell zone in the grid. You can also
permanently delete a cell zone and all associated face zones, or temporarily deactivate
and activate zones from your FLUENT case.

Replacing Zones
This feature allows you to replace a small region of a computational domain with a new
region of different mesh quality. This functionality will be required where you may want
to make changes to the geometry or mesh quality for any part of the domain. This ability
of FLUENT is time saving since you can modify only the required part of the domain,
without remeshing the whole domain every time. The replaced mesh will be conformal
with that of the old mesh.
Replacing a zone is performed in the Replace Cell Zones panel (Figure 6.8.6).
Grid −→ Zone −→Replace...

Figure 6.8.6: The Replace Cell Zones Panel

For replacing the zones of the same type, do the following:

1. Click Browse... and select the new or modified mesh containing the cell zone which
will replace the cell zone in the current mesh.
The zone names of the new mesh will be listed under the Replace with list box.
FLUENT checks for all face zones which have the same name as the face zones that
were deleted and applies the old boundary conditions.
2. Under Existing Zones, select the zone you want to replace. Note that the new cell
zone might not have the same name as the old cell zone.
FLUENT will first separate all the face zones which are connected to any undeleted
zones in the current mesh. The deleted cell zone is now totally separated and can
be deleted without affecting anything else.

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3. Under Replace with, select the zone from the newly read mesh.

4. Click Replace to replace the selected zone.

FLUENT stitches the two-sided walls, creating sliding interfaces, and restores the
condition of the mesh to its original form.

Deleting Zones
To permanently delete zones, select them in the Delete Cell Zones panel (Figure 6.8.7),
and click Delete.
Grid −→ Zone −→Delete...

Figure 6.8.7: The Delete Cell Zones Panel

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Deactivating Zones
To deactivate zones, select them in the Deactivate Cell Zones panel (Figure 6.8.8), and
click Deactivate.
Grid −→ Zone −→Deactivate...

Figure 6.8.8: The Deactivate Cell Zones Panel

Deactivation will separate all relevant interior face zones (i.e., fan, interior, porous-jump,
or radiator) into wall and wall-shadow pairs.

Note: When you deactivate a zone using the Deactivate Cell Zones panel, FLUENT will
remove the zone from the grid and from all relevant solver loops.

To deactivate selected cell zones in parallel

1. Read in the data file, or initialize your solution.

2. Select the zone(s) to be deactivated under Cell Zones.

3. Click the Deactivate button.

i If you have neither read in the data file, nor initialized the solution, prior
to clicking the Deactivate button, then the selected cell zones will only be
marked for deactivation. The zones will not be deactivated until data is
read, or the solution is initialized.

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Activating Zones
You can reactivate the zones and recover the last data available for them using the
Activate Cell Zones panel (Figure 6.8.9).
Grid −→ Zone −→Activate...

Figure 6.8.9: The Activate Cell Zones Panel

Note: The Activate Cell Zones panel will only be populated with zones that were previously
deactivated.

After reactivation, you need to make sure that the boundary conditions for the wall and
wall-shadow pairs are restored correctly to what you assigned before deactivating the
zones. If you plan to reactivate them at a later time, make sure that the face zones that
are separated during deactivation are not modified. Adaption, however, is supported.
To activate selected cell zones in parallel

1. Read in the data file, or initialize your solution.

2. Select the zone(s) to be activated under Cell Zones.

3. Click the Activate button.

i If you have neither read in the data file, nor initialized the solution, prior
to clicking the Activate button, then the selected cell zones will only be
marked for activation. The zones will not be activated until data is read,
or the solution is initialized.

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6.8.9 Reordering the Domain and Zones

Reordering the domain can improve the computational performance of the solver by
rearranging the nodes, faces, and cells in memory. The Grid/Reorder submenu contains
commands for reordering the domain and zones, and also for printing the bandwidth of
the present grid partitions. The domain can be reordered to increase memory access
efficiency, and the zones can be reordered for user-interface convenience. The bandwidth
provides insight into the distribution of the cells in the zones and in memory.
To reorder the domain, select the Domain menu item.
Grid −→ Reorder −→Domain
To reorder the zones, select the Zones menu item.
Grid −→ Reorder −→Zones
Finally, you can print the bandwidth of the present grid partitions by selecting the Print
Bandwidth menu item. This command prints the semi-bandwidth and maximum memory
distance for each grid partition.
Grid −→ Reorder −→Print Bandwidth

i Remember to save a new case file (and a data file, if data exist) after
reordering.

About Reordering
The Reverse Cuthill-McKee algorithm [72] is used in the reordering process to construct
a “level tree” initiated from a “seed cell” in the domain. First a cell (called the seed cell)
is selected using the algorithm of Gibbs, Poole, and Stockmeyer [118]. Each cell is then
assigned to a level based on its distance from the seed cell. These level assignments form
the level tree. In general, the faces and cells are reordered so that neighboring cells are
near each other in the zone and in memory. Since most of the computational loops are
over faces, you would like the two cells in memory cache at the same time to reduce cache
and/or disk swapping—i.e., you want the cells near each other in memory to reduce the
cost of memory access. The present scheme reorders the faces and cells in the zone, and
the nodes, faces, and cells in memory.
You may also choose to reorder the zones. The zones are reordered by first sorting on
zone type and then on zone ID. Zone reordering is performed simply for user-interface
convenience.

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A typical output produced using the domain reordering is shown below:

>> Reordering domain using Reverse Cuthill-McKee method:

zones, cells, faces, done.
Bandwidth reduction = 809/21 = 38.52
Done.

If you print the bandwidth, you will see a report similar to the following:

Maximum cell distance = 21

The bandwidth is the maximum difference between neighboring cells in the zone—i.e., if
you numbered each cell in the zone list sequentially and compared the differences between
these indices.

6.8.10 Scaling the Grid

Internally, FLUENT stores the computational grid in meters, the SI unit of length. When
grid information is read into the solver, it is assumed that the grid was generated in
units of meters. If your grid was created using a different unit of length (inches, feet,
centimeters, etc.), you must scale the grid to meters. To do this, you can select from a
list of common units to convert the grid or you can supply your own custom scale factors.
Each node coordinate will be multiplied by the corresponding scale factor.
Scaling can also be used to change the physical size of the grid. For instance, you could
stretch the grid in the x direction by assigning a scale factor of 2 in the x direction and
1 in the y and z directions. This would double the extent of the grid in the x direction.
However, you should use anisotropic scaling with caution, since it will change the aspect
ratios of the cells in your grid.

i If you plan to scale the grid in any way, you should do so before you
initialize the flow or begin calculations. Any data that exist when you
scale the grid will be invalid.
You will use the Scale Grid panel (Figure 6.8.10) to scale the grid from a standard unit
of measurement or to apply custom scaling factors.
Grid −→Scale...

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Figure 6.8.10: The Scale Grid Panel

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Using the Scale Grid Panel

The procedure for scaling the grid is as follows:

1. Indicate the units in which you created the grid by choosing the appropriate ab-
breviation for centimeters, millimeters, inches, or feet in the Grid Was Created In
drop-down list. The Scale Factors will automatically be set to the correct values
(e.g., 0.0254 meters/inch or 0.3048 meters/foot). If you created your grid using
units other than those in the list, you can enter the Scale Factors (e.g., the number
of meters per yard) manually.

2. Click on the Scale button. The Domain Extents will be updated to show the correct
range in meters. If you prefer to use your original unit of length during the FLUENT
session, you can follow the procedure described below to change the unit.

Changing the Unit of Length

As mentioned above in step 2, when you scale the grid you do not change the units;
you just convert the original dimensions of your grid points from your original units to
meters by multiplying each node coordinate by the specified Scale Factors. If you want
to work in your original units, instead of in meters, you can click on the Change Length
Units button. This is a shortcut for changing the length unit in the Set Units panel (see
Section 5.4: Customizing Units). When you click on the Change Length Units button, the
Domain Extents will be updated to show the range in your original units. This unit will
be used for all future inputs of length quantities.

Unscaling the Grid

If you use the wrong scale factor, accidentally click the Scale button twice, or wish to
undo the scaling for any other reason, you can click on the Unscale button. “Unscaling”
simply divides each of the node coordinates by the specified Scale Factors. (Selecting m
in the Grid Was Created In list and clicking on Scale will not unscale the grid.)

Changing the Physical Size of the Grid

You can also use the Scale Grid panel to change the physical size of the grid. For example,
if your grid is 5 feet by 8 feet, and you want to model the same geometry with dimensions
twice as big (10 × 16), you can enter 2 for the X and Y Scale Factors and click on Scale.
The Domain Extents will be updated to show the new range.

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6.8.11 Translating the Grid

You can “move” the grid by applying prescribed offsets to the Cartesian coordinates of
all the nodes in the grid. This would be necessary for a rotating problem if the grid were
set up with the axis of rotation not passing through the origin, or for an axisymmetric
problem if the grid were set up with the axis of rotation not coinciding with the x axis.
It is also useful if, for example, you want to move the origin to a particular point on an
object (such as the leading edge of a flat plate) to make an XY plot have the desired
distances on the x axis.
You can translate grid points in FLUENT using the Translate Grid panel (Figure 6.8.11).
Grid −→Translate...

Figure 6.8.11: The Translate Grid Panel

Using the Translate Grid Panel

The procedure for translating the grid is as follows:

1. Enter the desired translations in the x, y, and (for 3D) z directions (i.e., the desired
delta in the axes origin) in the X, Y, and Z fields under Translation Offsets. You
can specify positive or negative real numbers in the current unit of length.

2. Click on the Translate button. The Domain Extents will be updated to display
the new extents of the translated grid. (Note that the Domain Extents are purely
informational; you cannot edit them manually.)

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6.8.12 Rotating the Grid

The ability to rotate the mesh is analogous to the ability to translate the mesh in FLUENT.
You can rotate the mesh about the x, y, or z (for 3D) axis and also specify the rotation
origin. This option is useful in the cases where the structural grid and the CFD grid are
offset by a small angle.
You can rotate the grid in FLUENT using the Rotate Grid panel (Figure 6.8.12).
Grid −→Rotate...

Figure 6.8.12: The Rotate Grid Panel

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Using the Rotate Grid Panel

The procedure for rotating the grid is as follows:

1. Specify the required Rotation Angle for the grid. You can specify any positive or
negative real number in the correct unit of angle.

2. Under Rotation Origin, enter X, Y, and Z (for 3D) coordinates to specify a new
origin for axis of rotation.

3. Under Rotation Axis, enter 1 for the axis along which you want to rotate the grid.

4. Click on Rotate button.

The Domain Extents will be updated to display the new extents of the rotated
grid. (Note that the Domain Extents are purely informational; you cannot edit
them manually.)

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Chapter 7. Boundary Conditions

This chapter describes the boundary condition options available in FLUENT. Details
regarding the boundary condition inputs you must supply and the internal treatment at
boundaries are provided.
The information in this chapter is divided into the following sections:

• Section 7.1: Overview of Defining Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.2: Flow Inlet and Exit Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.3: Pressure Inlet Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.4: Velocity Inlet Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.5: Mass Flow Inlet Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.6: Inlet Vent Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.7: Intake Fan Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.8: Pressure Outlet Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.9: Pressure Far-Field Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.10: Outflow Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.11: Outlet Vent Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.12: Exhaust Fan Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.13: Wall Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.14: Symmetry Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.15: Periodic Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.16: Axis Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.17: Fluid Conditions

• Section 7.18: Solid Conditions

• Section 7.19: Porous Media Conditions

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Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.20: Fan Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.21: Radiator Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.22: Porous Jump Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.23: Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.24: User-Defined Fan Model

• Section 7.25: Heat Exchanger Models

• Section 7.26: Boundary Profiles

• Section 7.27: Fixing the Values of Variables

• Section 7.28: Defining Mass, Momentum, Energy, and Other Sources

• Section 7.29: Coupling Boundary Conditions with GT-Power

• Section 7.30: Coupling Boundary Conditions with WAVE

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 7.1 Overview of Defining Boundary Conditions

7.1 Overview of Defining Boundary Conditions

Boundary conditions specify the flow and thermal variables on the boundaries of your
physical model. They are, therefore, a critical component of your FLUENT simulations
and it is important that they are specified appropriately.

7.1.1 Available Boundary Types

The boundary types available in FLUENT are classified as follows:

• Flow inlet and exit boundaries: pressure inlet, velocity inlet, mass flow inlet, and
inlet. vent, intake fan, pressure outlet, pressure far-field, outflow, outlet vent, and
exhaust fan.

• Wall, repeating, and pole boundaries: wall, symmetry, periodic, and axis.

• Internal cell zones: fluid, and solid (porous is a type of fluid zone).

• Internal face boundaries: fan, radiator, porous jump, wall, and interior.

(The internal face boundary conditions are defined on cell faces, which means that they
do not have a finite thickness and they provide a means of introducing a step change
in flow properties. These boundary conditions are used to implement physical models
representing fans, thin porous membranes, and radiators. The “interior” type of internal
face zone does not require any input from you.)
In this chapter, the boundary conditions listed above will be described, and an expla-
nation of how to set them and when they are most appropriately used will be provided.
Note that while periodic boundaries are described in Section 7.15: Periodic Boundary
Conditions, additional information about modeling fully-developed periodic flows is pro-
vided in Section 9.4: Periodic Flows.

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Boundary Conditions

7.1.2 The Boundary Conditions Panel

The Boundary Conditions panel (Figure 7.1.1) allows you to change the boundary zone
type for a given zone and open other panels to set the boundary condition parameters
for each zone.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

Figure 7.1.1: The Boundary Conditions Panel

Sections 7.1.3–7.1.6 explain how to perform these operations with the Boundary Conditions
panel, and how to use the mouse and the graphics display in conjunction with the panel.

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 7.1 Overview of Defining Boundary Conditions

7.1.3 Changing Boundary Zone Types

Before you set any boundary conditions, you should check the zone types of all boundary
zones and change any if necessary. For example, if your grid includes a pressure inlet,
but you want to use a velocity inlet instead, you will need to change the pressure-inlet
zone to a velocity-inlet zone.
The steps for changing a zone type are as follows:

1. In the Boundary Conditions panel, select the zone to be changed in the Zone list.

2. Choose the correct zone type in the Type list.

3. Confirm the change when prompted by the Question dialog box.

Once you have confirmed the change, the zone type will be changed, the name will
change automatically (if the original name was the default name for that zone—see
Section 7.1.7: Changing Boundary Zone Names), and the panel for setting conditions for
the zone will open automatically.

i Note that you cannot use this method to change zone types to or from the
periodic type, since additional restrictions exist for this boundary type.
Section 6.8.4: Creating Periodic Zones explains how to create and uncouple
periodic zones.

i If you are using one of the general multiphase models (VOF, mixture,
or Eulerian), the procedure for changing types is slightly different. See
Section 23.9.8: Steps for Setting Boundary Conditions for details.

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Boundary Conditions

Categories of Zone Types

You should be aware that you can only change boundary types within each category
listed in Table 7.1.1. (Note that a double-sided face zone is a zone that separates two
different cell zones or regions.)

Table 7.1.1: Zone Types Listed by Category

Category Zone Types
Faces axis, outflow, mass flow inlet, pressure far-
field, pressure inlet, pressure outlet, sym-
metry, velocity inlet, wall, inlet vent, in-
take fan, outlet vent, exhaust fan
Double-Sided Faces fan, interior, porous jump, radiator, wall
Periodic periodic
Cells fluid, solid (porous is a type of fluid cell)

7.1.4 Setting Boundary Conditions

In FLUENT, boundary conditions are associated with zones, not with individual faces
or cells. If you want to combine two or more zones that will have the same boundary
conditions, see Section 6.8.1: Merging Zones for information about merging zones.
To set boundary conditions for a particular zone, perform one of the following sequences:

1. Choose the zone in the Boundary Conditions panel’s Zone list.

2. Click on the Set... button.

or

1. Choose the zone in the Zone list.

2. Click on the selected zone type in the Type list.

or

1. Double-click on the zone in the Zone list.

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 7.1 Overview of Defining Boundary Conditions

The panel for the selected boundary zone will open, and you can specify the appropriate
boundary conditions.

i If you are using one of the general multiphase models (VOF, mixture, or
Eulerian), the procedure for setting boundary conditions is slightly different
from that described above. See Section 23.9.8: Steps for Setting Boundary
Conditions for details.

7.1.5 Copying Boundary Conditions

You can copy boundary conditions from one zone to other zones of the same type. If, for
example, you have several wall zones in your model and they all have the same boundary
conditions, you can set the conditions for one wall, and then simply copy them to the
others.
The procedure for copying boundary conditions is as follows:

1. In the Boundary Conditions panel, click the Copy... button. This will open the Copy
BCs panel (Figure 7.1.2).

Figure 7.1.2: The Copy BCs Panel

2. In the From Zone list, select the zone that has the conditions you want to copy.

3. In the To Zones list, select the zone or zones to which you want to copy the condi-
tions.

4. Click Copy. FLUENT will set all of the boundary conditions for the zones selected in
the To Zones list to be the same as the conditions for the zone selected in the From
Zone list. (You cannot copy a subset of the conditions, such as only the thermal
conditions.)

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Boundary Conditions

Note that you cannot copy conditions from external walls to internal (i.e., two-sided)
walls, or vice versa, if the energy equation is being solved, since the thermal conditions
for external and internal walls are different.

i If you are using one of the general multiphase models (VOF, mixture,
or Eulerian), the procedure for copying boundary conditions is slightly
different. See Section 23.9.8: Steps for Copying Boundary Conditions for
details.

7.1.6 Selecting Boundary Zones in the Graphics Display

Whenever you need to select a zone in the Boundary Conditions panel, you can use the
mouse in the graphics window to choose the appropriate zone. This feature is particularly
useful if you are setting up a problem for the first time, or if you have two or more zones
of the same type and you want to determine the zone IDs (i.e., figure out which zone is
which). To use this feature, do the following:

1. Display the grid using the Grid Display panel.

2. Use the mouse probe button (the right button, by default—see Section 28.3: Con-
trolling the Mouse Button Functions to modify the mouse button functions) to click
on a boundary zone in the graphics window.

The zone you select in the graphics display will automatically be selected in the Zone
list in the Boundary Conditions panel, and its name and ID will be printed in the console
window.

7.1.7 Changing Boundary Zone Names

The default name for a zone is its type plus an ID number (e.g., pressure-inlet-7). In some
cases, you may want to assign more descriptive names to the boundary zones. If you
have two pressure-inlet zones, for example, you might want to rename them small-inlet
and large-inlet. (Changing the name of a zone will not change its type. Instructions for
changing a zone’s type are provided in Section 7.1.3: Changing Boundary Zone Types.)
To rename a zone, follow these steps:

1. Select the zone to be renamed in the Zones list in the Boundary Conditions panel.

2. Click Set... to open the panel for the selected zone.

3. Enter a new name under Zone Name.

4. Click the OK button.

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 7.1 Overview of Defining Boundary Conditions

Note that if you specify a new name for a zone and then change its type, the name you
specified will be retained; the automatic name change that accompanies a change in type
occurs only if the name of the zone is its type plus its ID.

7.1.8 Defining Non-Uniform Boundary Conditions

Most conditions at each type of boundary zone can be defined as profile functions instead
of constant values. You can use a profile contained in an externally generated boundary
profile file, or a function that you create using a user-defined function (UDF). Bound-
ary condition profiles are described in Section 7.26: Boundary Profiles, and user-defined
functions are described in the separate UDF Manual.

7.1.9 Defining Transient Boundary Conditions

There are two ways you can specify transient boundary conditions:

• transient profile with a format similar to the standard boundary profiles described
in Section 7.26: Boundary Profiles

• transient profile in a tabular format

i For both methods, the boundary condition will vary only in time; it must
be spatially uniform. However, if the in-cylinder model is activated (Sec-
tion 11.7.1: Setting In-Cylinder Parameters), then you have the option
to use the crank angle instead of time. Crank angles can be included in
transient tables as well as transient profiles, in a similar fashion to time.
Examples of transient profiles and transient tables in crank angle can be
found in the sections that follow.

Standard Transient Profiles

The format of the standard transient profile file (based on the profiles described in Sec-
tion 7.26: Boundary Profiles) is

((profile-name transient n periodic?)

(field_name-1 a1 a2 a3 .... an)
(field_name-2 b1 b2 b3 .... bn)
.
.
.
.
(field_name-r r1 r2 r3 .... rn))

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Boundary Conditions

One of the field names should be used for the time field, and the time field section
must be in ascending order. The periodic? entry indicates whether or not the profile is
time-periodic. Set it to 1 for a time-periodic profile, or 0 if the profile is not time-periodic.
An example is shown below:

((sampleprofile transient 3 0)
(time
1
2
3
)
(u
10
20
30
)
)

This example demonstrates the use of crank angle in a transient profile

((example transient 3 1)
(angle
0.000000e+00 1.800000e+02 3.600000e+02)
(temperature
3.000000e+02 5.000000e+02 3.000000e+02)
)

i All quantities, including coordinate values, must be specified in SI units

because FLUENT does not perform unit conversion when reading profile
files. Also, boundary profile names must have all lowercase letters (e.g.,
name). Uppercase letters in boundary profile names are not acceptable.
You can read this file into FLUENT using the Boundary Profiles panel or the File/Read/Profile...
menu item.
Define −→Profiles...
File −→ Read −→Profile...
See Section 7.26.3: Using Boundary Profiles for details.

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 7.1 Overview of Defining Boundary Conditions

Tabular Transient Profiles

The format of the tabular transient profile file is

profile-name n_field n_data periodic?

field-name-1 field-name-2 field-name-3 .... field-name-n_field
v-1-1 v-2-1 ... ... ... ... v-n_field-1
v-1-2 v-2-2 ... ... ... ... v-n_field-2
.
.
.
.
.
v-1-n_data v-2-n_data ... ... ... ... v-n_field-n_data

The first field name (e.g. field-name-1) should be used for the time field, and the time
field section, which represents the flow time, must be in ascending order. The periodic?
entry indicates whether or not the profile is time-periodic. Set it to 1 for a time-periodic
profile, or 0 if the profile is not time-periodic.
An example is shown below:

sampletabprofile 2 3 0
time u
1 10
2 20
3 30

This file defines the same transient profile as the standard profile example above.
If the periodicity is set to 1, then n data must be the number that closes one period.
An example is shown below:

periodtabprofile 2 4 1
time u
0 10
1 20
2 30
3 10

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Boundary Conditions

The following example uses crank angle instead of time:

example 2 3 1
angle temperature
0 300
180 500
360 300

i All quantities, including coordinate values, must be specified in SI units be-

cause FLUENT does not perform unit conversion when reading profile files.
Also, boundary profile names must have all lowercase letters (e.g., name).
Uppercase letters in boundary profile names are not acceptable. When
choosing the field names, spaces or parentheses should not be included.
You can read this file into FLUENT using the read-transient-table text command.
file −→read-transient-table
After reading the table into FLUENT, the profile will be listed in the Boundary Profiles
panel and can be used in the same way as a boundary profile. See Section 7.26.3: Using
Boundary Profiles for details.

7.1.10 Saving and Reusing Boundary Conditions

You can save boundary conditions to a file so that you can use them to specify the same
conditions for a different case, as described in Section 4.6: Reading and Writing Boundary
Conditions.

7.2 Flow Inlet and Exit Boundary Conditions

FLUENT has a wide range of boundary conditions that permit flow to enter and exit the
solution domain. To help you select the most appropriate boundary condition for your
application, this section includes descriptions of how each type of condition is used, and
what information is needed for each one. Recommendations for determining inlet values
of the turbulence parameters are also provided.

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 7.2 Flow Inlet and Exit Boundary Conditions

7.2.1 Using Flow Boundary Conditions

This section provides an overview of flow boundaries in FLUENT and how to use them.
FLUENT provides 10 types of boundary zone types for the specification of flow inlets and
exits: velocity inlet, pressure inlet, mass flow inlet, pressure outlet, pressure far-field,
outflow, inlet vent, intake fan, outlet vent, and exhaust fan.
The inlet and exit boundary condition options in FLUENT are as follows:

• Velocity inlet boundary conditions are used to define the velocity and scalar prop-
erties of the flow at inlet boundaries.
• Pressure inlet boundary conditions are used to define the total pressure and other
scalar quantities at flow inlets.
• Mass flow inlet boundary conditions are used in compressible flows to prescribe a
mass flow rate at an inlet. It is not necessary to use mass flow inlets in incompress-
ible flows because when density is constant, velocity inlet boundary conditions will
fix the mass flow.
• Pressure outlet boundary conditions are used to define the static pressure at flow
outlets (and also other scalar variables, in case of backflow). The use of a pressure
outlet boundary condition instead of an outflow condition often results in a better
rate of convergence when backflow occurs during iteration.
• Pressure far-field boundary conditions are used to model a free-stream compressible
flow at infinity, with free-stream Mach number and static conditions specified. This
boundary type is available only for compressible flows.
• Outflow boundary conditions are used to model flow exits where the details of the
flow velocity and pressure are not known prior to solution of the flow problem. They
are appropriate where the exit flow is close to a fully developed condition, as the
outflow boundary condition assumes a zero normal gradient for all flow variables
except pressure. They are not appropriate for compressible flow calculations.
• Inlet vent boundary conditions are used to model an inlet vent with a specified loss
coefficient, flow direction, and ambient (inlet) total pressure and temperature.
• Intake fan boundary conditions are used to model an external intake fan with a
specified pressure jump, flow direction, and ambient (intake) total pressure and
temperature.
• Outlet vent boundary conditions are used to model an outlet vent with a specified
loss coefficient and ambient (discharge) static pressure and temperature.
• Exhaust fan boundary conditions are used to model an external exhaust fan with
a specified pressure jump and ambient (discharge) static pressure.

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Boundary Conditions

7.2.2 Determining Turbulence Parameters

When the flow enters the domain at an inlet, outlet, or far-field boundary, FLUENT
requires specification of transported turbulence quantities. This section describes which
quantities are needed for specific turbulence models and how they must be specified. It
also provides guidelines for the most appropriate way of determining the inflow boundary
values.

Specification of Turbulence Quantities Using Profiles

If it is important to accurately represent a boundary layer or fully-developed turbulent
flow at the inlet, you should ideally set the turbulence quantities by creating a boundary
profile file (see Section 7.26: Boundary Profiles) from experimental data or empirical
formulas. If you have an analytical description of the profile, rather than data points,
you can either use this analytical description to create a boundary profile file, or create a
user-defined function to provide the inlet boundary information. (See the separate UDF
Manual for information on user-defined functions.)
Once you have created the profile function, you can use it as described below:

• Spalart-Allmaras model: Choose Turbulent Viscosity or Turbulent Viscosity Ratio in

the Turbulence Specification Method drop-down list and select the appropriate profile
name in the drop-down list next to Turbulent Viscosity or Turbulent Viscosity Ratio.
FLUENT computes the boundary value for the modified turbulent viscosity, ν̃, by
combining µt /µ with the appropriate values of density and molecular viscosity.

• k- models: Choose K and Epsilon in the Turbulence Specification Method drop-down
list and select the appropriate profile names in the drop-down lists next to Turb.
Kinetic Energy and Turb. Dissipation Rate.

• k-ω models: Choose K and Omega in the Turbulence Specification Method drop-down
list and select the appropriate profile names in the drop-down lists next to Turb.
Kinetic Energy and Spec. Dissipation Rate.

• Reynolds stress model: Choose K and Epsilon in the Turbulence Specification Method
drop-down list and select the appropriate profile names in the drop-down lists
next to Turb. Kinetic Energy and Turb. Dissipation Rate. Choose Reynolds-Stress
Components in the Reynolds-Stress Specification Method drop-down list and select
the appropriate profile name in the drop-down list next to each of the individual
Reynolds-stress components.

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 7.2 Flow Inlet and Exit Boundary Conditions

Uniform Specification of Turbulence Quantities

In some situations, it is appropriate to specify a uniform value of the turbulence quantity
at the boundary where inflow occurs. Examples are fluid entering a duct, far-field bound-
aries, or even fully-developed duct flows where accurate profiles of turbulence quantities
are unknown.
In most turbulent flows, higher levels of turbulence are generated within shear layers
than enter the domain at flow boundaries, making the result of the calculation relatively
insensitive to the inflow boundary values. Nevertheless, caution must be used to ensure
that boundary values are not so unphysical as to contaminate your solution or impede
convergence. This is particularly true of external flows where unphysically large values
of effective viscosity in the free stream can “swamp” the boundary layers.
You can use the turbulence specification methods described above to enter uniform con-
stant values instead of profiles. Alternatively, you can specify the turbulence quantities
in terms of more convenient quantities such as turbulence intensity, turbulent viscosity
ratio, hydraulic diameter, and turbulence length scale. These quantities are discussed
further in the following sections.

Turbulence Intensity

The turbulence intensity, I, is defined as the ratio of the root-mean-square of the velocity
fluctuations, u0 , to the mean flow velocity, uavg .
A turbulence intensity of 1% or less is generally considered low and turbulence intensities
greater than 10% are considered high. Ideally, you will have a good estimate of the
turbulence intensity at the inlet boundary from external, measured data. For example, if
you are simulating a wind-tunnel experiment, the turbulence intensity in the free stream is
usually available from the tunnel characteristics. In modern low-turbulence wind tunnels,
the free-stream turbulence intensity may be as low as 0.05%.
For internal flows, the turbulence intensity at the inlets is totally dependent on the
upstream history of the flow. If the flow upstream is under-developed and undisturbed,
you can use a low turbulence intensity. If the flow is fully developed, the turbulence
intensity may be as high as a few percent. The turbulence intensity at the core of a
fully-developed duct flow can be estimated from the following formula derived from an
empirical correlation for pipe flows:

u0
I≡ = 0.16(ReDH )−1/8 (7.2-1)
uavg

At a Reynolds number of 50,000, for example, the turbulence intensity will be 4%, ac-
cording to this formula.

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Boundary Conditions

Turbulence Length Scale and Hydraulic Diameter

The turbulence length scale, `, is a physical quantity related to the size of the large eddies
that contain the energy in turbulent flows.
In fully-developed duct flows, ` is restricted by the size of the duct, since the turbulent
eddies cannot be larger than the duct. An approximate relationship between ` and the
physical size of the duct is

` = 0.07L (7.2-2)

where L is the relevant dimension of the duct. The factor of 0.07 is based on the maximum
value of the mixing length in fully-developed turbulent pipe flow, where L is the diameter
of the pipe. In a channel of non-circular cross-section, you can base L on the hydraulic
diameter.
If the turbulence derives its characteristic length from an obstacle in the flow, such as
a perforated plate, it is more appropriate to base the turbulence length scale on the
characteristic length of the obstacle rather than on the duct size.
It should be noted that the relationship of Equation 7.2-2, which relates a physical
dimension (L) to the turbulence length scale (`), is not necessarily applicable to all
situations. For most cases, however, it is a suitable approximation.
Guidelines for choosing the characteristic length L or the turbulence length scale ` for
selected flow types are listed below:

• For fully-developed internal flows, choose the Intensity and Hydraulic Diameter spec-
ification method and specify the hydraulic diameter L = DH in the Hydraulic Di-
ameter field.

• For flows downstream of turning vanes, perforated plates, etc., choose the Intensity
and Hydraulic Diameter method and specify the characteristic length of the flow
opening for L in the Hydraulic Diameter field.

• For wall-bounded flows in which the inlets involve a turbulent boundary layer,
choose the Intensity and Length Scale method and use the boundary-layer thickness,
δ99 , to compute the turbulence length scale, `, from ` = 0.4δ99 . Enter this value for
` in the Turbulence Length Scale field.

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 7.2 Flow Inlet and Exit Boundary Conditions

Turbulent Viscosity Ratio

The turbulent viscosity ratio, µt /µ, is directly proportional to the turbulent Reynolds
number (Ret ≡ k 2 /(ν)). Ret is large (on the order of 100 to 1000) in high-Reynolds-
number boundary layers, shear layers, and fully-developed duct flows. However, at the
free-stream boundaries of most external flows, µt /µ is fairly small. Typically, the turbu-
lence parameters are set so that 1 < µt /µ < 10.
To specify quantities in terms of the turbulent viscosity ratio, you can choose Turbulent
Viscosity Ratio (for the Spalart-Allmaras model) or Intensity and Viscosity Ratio (for the
k- models, the k-ω models, or the RSM).

Relationships for Deriving Turbulence Quantities

To obtain the values of transported turbulence quantities from more convenient quantities
such as I, L, or µt /µ, you must typically resort to an empirical relation. Several useful
relations, most of which are used within FLUENT, are presented below.

Estimating Modified Turbulent Viscosity from Turbulence Intensity and Length Scale

To obtain the modified turbulent viscosity, ν̃, for the Spalart-Allmaras model from the
turbulence intensity, I, and length scale, `, the following equation can be used:
s
3
ν̃ = uavg I ` (7.2-3)
2

This formula is used in FLUENT if you select the Intensity and Hydraulic Diameter speci-
fication method with the Spalart-Allmaras model. ` is obtained from Equation 7.2-2.

Estimating Turbulent Kinetic Energy from Turbulence Intensity

The relationship between the turbulent kinetic energy, k, and turbulence intensity, I, is

3
k = (uavg I)2 (7.2-4)
2
where uavg is the mean flow velocity.
This relationship is used in FLUENT whenever the Intensity and Hydraulic Diameter, Inten-
sity and Length Scale, or Intensity and Viscosity Ratio method is used instead of specifying
explicit values for k and .

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Boundary Conditions

Estimating Turbulent Dissipation Rate from a Length Scale

If you know the turbulence length scale, `, you can determine  from the relationship

k 3/2
 = Cµ3/4 (7.2-5)
`
where Cµ is an empirical constant specified in the turbulence model (approximately 0.09).
The determination of ` was discussed previously.
This relationship is used in FLUENT whenever the Intensity and Hydraulic Diameter or
Intensity and Length Scale method is used instead of specifying explicit values for k and
.

Estimating Turbulent Dissipation Rate from Turbulent Viscosity Ratio

The value of  can be obtained from the turbulent viscosity ratio µt /µ and k using the
following relationship:

!−1
k2 µt
 = ρCµ (7.2-6)
µ µ

where Cµ is an empirical constant specified in the turbulence model (approximately 0.09).

This relationship is used in FLUENT whenever the Intensity and Viscosity Ratio method
is used instead of specifying explicit values for k and .

Estimating Turbulent Dissipation Rate for Decaying Turbulence

If you are simulating a wind-tunnel situation in which the model is mounted in the test
section downstream of a grid and/or wire mesh screens, you can choose a value of  such
that

∆kU∞
≈ (7.2-7)
L∞

where ∆k is the approximate decay of k you wish to have across the flow domain (say, 10%
of the inlet value of k), U∞ is the free-stream velocity, and L∞ is the streamwise length
of the flow domain. Equation 7.2-7 is a linear approximation to the power-law decay
observed in high-Reynolds-number isotropic turbulence. Its basis is the exact equation
for k in decaying turbulence, U ∂k/∂x = −.
If you use this method to estimate , you should also check the resulting turbulent
viscosity ratio µt /µ to make sure that it is not too large, using Equation 7.2-6.

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 7.2 Flow Inlet and Exit Boundary Conditions

Although this method is not used internally by FLUENT, you can use it to derive a
constant free-stream value of  that you can then specify directly by choosing K and
Epsilon in the Turbulence Specification Method drop-down list. In this situation, you will
typically determine k from I using Equation 7.2-4.

Estimating Specific Dissipation Rate from a Length Scale

If you know the turbulence length scale, `, you can determine ω from the relationship

k 1/2
ω= 1/4
(7.2-8)
Cµ `

where Cµ is an empirical constant specified in the turbulence model (approximately 0.09).

The determination of ` was discussed previously.
This relationship is used in FLUENT whenever the Intensity and Hydraulic Diameter or
Intensity and Length Scale method is used instead of specifying explicit values for k and
ω.

Estimating Specific Dissipation Rate from Turbulent Viscosity Ratio

The value of ω can be obtained from the turbulent viscosity ratio µt /µ and k using the
following relationship:

!−1
k µt
ω=ρ (7.2-9)
µ µ

This relationship is used in FLUENT whenever the Intensity and Viscosity Ratio method
is used instead of specifying explicit values for k and ω.

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Boundary Conditions

Estimating Reynolds Stress Components from Turbulent Kinetic Energy

When the RSM is used, if you do not specify the values of the Reynolds stresses explicitly
at the inlet using the Reynolds-Stress Components option in the Reynolds-Stress Specifica-
tion Method drop-down list, they are approximately determined from the specified values
of k. The turbulence is assumed to be isotropic such that

u0i u0j = 0 (7.2-10)

and

2
u0α u0α = k (7.2-11)
3
(no summation over the index α).
FLUENT will use this method if you select K or Turbulence Intensity in the Reynolds-Stress
Specification Method drop-down list.

Specifying Inlet Turbulence for LES

The turbulence intensity value specified at a velocity inlet for LES, as described in Sec-
tion 12.20.4: Large Eddy Simulation Model, is used to randomly perturb the instan-
taneous velocity field at the inlet. It does not specify a modeled turbulence quantity.
Instead, the stochastic components of the flow at the inlet boundary are accounted for
by superposing random perturbations on individual velocity components as described in
Section 12.9.4: Inlet Boundary Conditions for the LES Model.

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 7.3 Pressure Inlet Boundary Conditions

7.3 Pressure Inlet Boundary Conditions

Pressure inlet boundary conditions are used to define the fluid pressure at flow inlets,
along with all other scalar properties of the flow. They are suitable for both incom-
pressible and compressible flow calculations. Pressure inlet boundary conditions can be
used when the inlet pressure is known but the flow rate and/or velocity is not known.
This situation may arise in many practical situations, including buoyancy-driven flows.
Pressure inlet boundary conditions can also be used to define a “free” boundary in an
external or unconfined flow.
You can find the following information about pressure inlet boundary conditions in these
section:

• Section 7.3.1: Inputs at Pressure Inlet Boundaries

• Section 7.3.2: Default Settings at Pressure Inlet Boundaries

• Section 7.3.3: Calculation Procedure at Pressure Inlet Boundaries

For an overview of flow boundaries, see Section 7.2: Flow Inlet and Exit Boundary
Conditions.

7.3.1 Inputs at Pressure Inlet Boundaries

Summary
You will enter the following information for a pressure inlet boundary:

• total (stagnation) pressure

• total (stagnation) temperature

• flow direction

• static pressure

• turbulence parameters (for turbulent calculations)

• radiation parameters (for calculations using the P-1 model, the DTRM, the DO
model, or the surface-to-surface model)

• chemical species mass fractions (for species calculations)

• mixture fraction and variance (for non-premixed or partially premixed combustion

calculations)

• progress variable (for premixed or partially premixed combustion calculations)

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Boundary Conditions

• discrete phase boundary conditions (for discrete phase calculations)

• multiphase boundary conditions (for general multiphase calculations)

• open channel flow parameters (for open channel flow calculations using the VOF
multiphase model)

All values are entered in the Pressure Inlet panel (Figure 7.3.1), which is opened from the
Boundary Conditions panel (as described in Section 7.1.4: Setting Boundary Conditions).
Note that open channel boundary condition inputs are described in Section 23.10.2: Mod-
eling Open Channel Flows.

Figure 7.3.1: The Pressure Inlet Panel

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 7.3 Pressure Inlet Boundary Conditions

Pressure Inputs and Hydrostatic Head

The pressure field (p0s ) and your pressure inputs (p0s or p00 ) include the hydrostatic head,
ρ0 gx. That is, the pressure in FLUENT is defined as

p0s = ps − ρ0 gx (7.3-1)

or

∂p0s ∂ps
= − ρ0 g (7.3-2)
∂x ∂x
This definition allows the hydrostatic head to be taken into the body force term, (ρ−ρ0 )g,
and excluded from the pressure calculation when the density is uniform. Thus your inputs
of pressure should not include hydrostatic pressure differences, and reports of pressure
(p0s ) will not show any influence of the hydrostatic pressure. See Section 13.2.5: Natural
Convection and Buoyancy-Driven Flows for information about buoyancy-driven (natural-
convection) flows.

Defining Total Pressure and Temperature

Enter the value for total pressure in the Gauge Total Pressure field in the Pressure Inlet
panel. Total temperature is set in the Total Temperature field.
Remember that the total pressure value is the gauge pressure with respect to the operat-
ing pressure defined in the Operating Conditions panel. Total pressure for an incompress-
ible fluid is defined as

1
p0 = ps + ρ|~v |2 (7.3-3)
2
and for a compressible fluid of constant cp as

γ/(γ−1)
γ−1 2

p0 = ps 1 + M (7.3-4)
2

where p0 = total pressure

ps = static pressure
M = Mach number
γ = ratio of specific heats (cp /cv )
If you are modeling axisymmetric swirl, ~v in Equation 7.3-3 will include the swirl com-
ponent.

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Boundary Conditions

If the adjacent cell zone is moving (i.e., if you are using a rotating reference frame, mul-
tiple reference frames, a mixing plane, or sliding meshes) and you are using the pressure-
based solver, the velocity in Equation 7.3-3 (or the Mach number in Equation 7.3-4) will
be absolute or relative to the grid velocity, depending on whether or not the Absolute
velocity formulation is enabled in the Solver panel. For the density-based solvers, the ve-
locity in Equation 7.3-3 (or the Mach number in Equation 7.3-4) is always in the absolute
frame.

Defining the Flow Direction

You can define the flow direction at a pressure inlet explicitly, or you can define the flow
to be normal to the boundary. If you choose to specify the direction vector, you can set
either the (Cartesian) x, y, and z components, or the (cylindrical) radial, tangential, and
axial components.
For moving zone problems calculated using the pressure-based solver, the flow direction
will be absolute or relative to the grid velocity, depending on whether or not the Absolute
velocity formulation is enabled in the Solver panel. For the density-based solvers, the
flow direction will always be in the absolute frame.
The procedure for defining the flow direction is as follows, referring to Figure 7.3.1:

1. Choose which method you will use to specify the flow direction by selecting Direction
Vector or Normal to Boundary in the Direction Specification Method drop-down list.
2. If you selected Normal to Boundary in step 1 and you are modeling axisymmetric
swirl, enter the appropriate value for the Tangential-Component of Flow Direction. If
you chose Normal to Boundary and your geometry is 3D or 2D without axisymmetric
swirl, there are no additional inputs for flow direction.
3. If you chose in step 1 to specify the direction vector, and your geometry is 3D,
you will next choose the coordinate system in which you will define the vector
components. Choose Cartesian (X, Y, Z), Cylindrical (Radial, Tangential, Axial), or
Local Cylindrical (Radial, Tangential, Axial) in the Coordinate System drop-down list.
• The Cartesian coordinate system is based on the Cartesian coordinate system
used by the geometry.
• The Cylindrical coordinate system uses the axial, radial, and tangential com-
ponents based on the following coordinate systems:
– For problems involving a single cell zone, the coordinate system is defined
by the rotation axis and origin specified in the Fluid panel.
– For problems involving multiple zones (e.g., multiple reference frames or
sliding meshes), the coordinate system is defined by the rotation axis
specified in the Fluid (or Solid) panel for the fluid (or solid) zone that is
adjacent to the inlet.

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 7.3 Pressure Inlet Boundary Conditions

For all of the above definitions of the cylindrical coordinate system, positive
radial velocities point radially out from the rotation axis, positive axial veloc-
ities are in the direction of the rotation axis vector, and positive tangential
velocities are based on the right-hand rule using the positive rotation axis (see
Figure 7.3.2).
axial
radial
tangential tangential

radial
rotation axis
rotation origin
axis

radial

rotation axis
axial
tangential
(swirl)

Figure 7.3.2: Cylindrical Velocity Components in 3D, 2D, and Axisymmetric

Domains

• The Local Cylindrical coordinate system allows you to define a coordinate sys-
tem specifically for the inlet. When you use the local cylindrical option, you
will define the coordinate system right here in the Pressure Inlet panel. The
local cylindrical coordinate system is useful if you have several inlets with
different rotation axes.
4. If you chose in step 1 to specify the direction vector, define the vector components
as follows:
• If your geometry is 2D non-axisymmetric, or you chose in step 3 to input
Cartesian vector components, enter the appropriate values for X, Y, and (in
3D) Z-Component of Flow Direction.
• If your geometry is 2D axisymmetric, or you chose in step 3 to input Cylin-
drical components, enter the appropriate values for Axial, Radial, and (if you
are modeling axisymmetric swirl or using cylindrical coordinates) Tangential-
Component of Flow Direction.
• If you are using Local Cylindrical coordinates, enter the appropriate values for
Axial, Radial, and Tangential-Component of Flow Direction, and then specify
the X, Y, and Z-Component of Axis Direction and the X, Y, and Z-Coordinate
of Axis Origin.
Figure 7.3.2 shows the vector components for these different coordinate systems.

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Boundary Conditions

Defining Static Pressure

The static pressure (termed the Supersonic/Initial Gauge Pressure) must be specified if the
inlet flow is supersonic or if you plan to initialize the solution based on the pressure inlet
boundary conditions. Solution initialization is discussed in Section 25.14: Initializing the
Solution.
Remember that the static pressure value you enter is relative to the operating pressure set
in the Operating Conditions panel. Note the comments in Section 7.3.1: Pressure Inputs
and Hydrostatic Head regarding hydrostatic pressure.
The Supersonic/Initial Gauge Pressure is ignored by FLUENT whenever the flow is subsonic,
in which case it is calculated from the specified stagnation quantities. If you choose to
initialize the solution based on the pressure-inlet conditions, the Supersonic/Initial Gauge
Pressure will be used in conjunction with the specified stagnation pressure to compute
initial values according to the isentropic relations (for compressible flow) or Bernoulli’s
equation (for incompressible flow). Therefore, for a sub-sonic inlet it should generally be
set based on a reasonable estimate of the inlet Mach number (for compressible flow) or
inlet velocity (for incompressible flow).

Defining Turbulence Parameters

For turbulent calculations, there are several ways in which you can define the turbulence
parameters. Instructions for deciding which method to use and determining appropriate
values for these inputs are provided in Section 7.2.2: Determining Turbulence Parameters.
Turbulence modeling in general is described in Chapter 12: Modeling Turbulence.

Defining Radiation Parameters

If you are using the P-1 radiation model, the DTRM, the DO model, or the surface-to-
surface model, you will set the Internal Emissivity and (optionally) Black Body Tempera-
ture. See Section 13.3.15: Defining Boundary Conditions for Radiation for details. (The
Rosseland radiation model does not require any boundary condition inputs.)

Defining Species Mass Fractions

If you are modeling species transport, you will set the species mass fractions under Species
Mass Fractions. For details, see Section 14.1.5: Defining Boundary Conditions for Species.

Defining Non-Premixed Combustion Parameters

If you are using the non-premixed or partially premixed combustion model, you will set
the Mean Mixture Fraction and Mixture Fraction Variance (and the Secondary Mean Mixture
Fraction and Secondary Mixture Fraction Variance, if you are using two mixture fractions),
as described in Section 15.13: Defining Non-Premixed Boundary Conditions.

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 7.3 Pressure Inlet Boundary Conditions

Defining Premixed Combustion Boundary Conditions

If you are using the premixed or partially premixed combustion model, you will set the
Progress Variable, as described in Section 16.3.5: Setting Boundary Conditions for the
Progress Variable.

Defining Discrete Phase Boundary Conditions

If you are modeling a discrete phase of particles, you can set the fate of particle tra-
jectories at the pressure inlet. See Section 22.13: Setting Boundary Conditions for the
Discrete Phase for details.

Defining Multiphase Boundary Conditions

If you are using the VOF, mixture, or Eulerian model for multiphase flow, you will
need to specify volume fractions for secondary phases and (for some models) additional
parameters. See Section 23.9.8: Defining Multiphase Boundary Conditions for details.

Defining Open Channel Boundary Conditions

If you are using the VOF model for multiphase flow and modeling open channel flows,
you will need to specify the Free Surface Level, Bottom Level, and additional parameters.
See Section 23.10.2: Modeling Open Channel Flows for details.

7.3.2 Default Settings at Pressure Inlet Boundaries

Default settings (in SI) for pressure inlet boundary conditions are as follows:

Gauge Total Pressure 0

Supersonic/Initial Gauge Pressure 0
Total Temperature 300
X-Component of Flow Direction 1
Y-Component of Flow Direction 0
Z-Component of Flow Direction 0
Turb. Kinetic Energy 1
Turb. Dissipation Rate 1

7.3.3 Calculation Procedure at Pressure Inlet Boundaries

The treatment of pressure inlet boundary conditions by FLUENT can be described as a
loss-free transition from stagnation conditions to the inlet conditions. For incompressible
flows, this is accomplished by application of the Bernoulli equation at the inlet boundary.
In compressible flows, the equivalent isentropic flow relations for an ideal gas are used.

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Boundary Conditions

Incompressible Flow Calculations at Pressure Inlet Boundaries

When flow enters through a pressure inlet boundary, FLUENT uses the boundary con-
dition pressure you input as the total pressure of the fluid at the inlet plane, p0 . In
incompressible flow, the inlet total pressure and the static pressure, ps , are related to the
inlet velocity via Bernoulli’s equation:

1
p0 = ps + ρv 2 (7.3-5)
2
With the resulting velocity magnitude and the flow direction vector you assigned at the
inlet, the velocity components can be computed. The inlet mass flow rate and fluxes of
momentum, energy, and species can then be computed as outlined in Section 7.4.3: Cal-
culation Procedure at Velocity Inlet Boundaries.
For incompressible flows, density at the inlet plane is either constant or calculated as a
function of temperature and/or species mass fractions, where the mass fractions are the
values you entered as an inlet condition.
If flow exits through a pressure inlet, the total pressure specified is used as the static
pressure. For incompressible flows, total temperature is equal to static temperature.

Compressible Flow Calculations at Pressure Inlet Boundaries

In compressible flows, isentropic relations for an ideal gas are applied to relate total
pressure, static pressure, and velocity at a pressure inlet boundary. Your input of total
pressure, p00 , at the inlet and the static pressure, p0s , in the adjacent fluid cell are thus
related as

p00 + pop
γ/(γ−1)
γ−1 2

0
= 1+ M (7.3-6)
ps + pop 2

where

v v
M≡ =√ (7.3-7)
c γRTs

c = the speed of sound, and γ = cp /cv . Note that the operating pressure, pop , appears in
Equation 7.3-6 because your boundary condition inputs are in terms of pressure relative
to the operating pressure. Given p00 and p0s , Equations 7.3-6 and 7.3-7 are used to compute
the velocity magnitude of the fluid at the inlet plane. Individual velocity components at
the inlet are then derived using the direction vector components.

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 7.4 Velocity Inlet Boundary Conditions

For compressible flow, the density at the inlet plane is defined by the ideal gas law in the
form

p0s + pop
ρ= (7.3-8)
RTs

The specific gas constant, R, is computed from the species mass fractions, Yi , that you
defined as boundary conditions at the pressure inlet boundary. The static temperature
at the inlet, Ts , is computed from your input of total temperature, T0 , as

T0 γ−1 2
=1+ M (7.3-9)
Ts 2

7.4 Velocity Inlet Boundary Conditions

Velocity inlet boundary conditions are used to define the flow velocity, along with all
relevant scalar properties of the flow, at flow inlets. The total (or stagnation) properties
of the flow are not fixed, so they will rise to whatever value is necessary to provide the
prescribed velocity distribution.

i This boundary condition is intended for incompressible flows, and its use
in compressible flows will lead to a nonphysical result because it allows
stagnation conditions to float to any level. You should also be careful not
to place a velocity inlet too close to a solid obstruction, since this could
cause the inflow stagnation properties to become highly non-uniform.
In special instances, a velocity inlet may be used in FLUENT to define the flow velocity
at flow exits. (The scalar inputs are not used in such cases.) In such cases you must
ensure that overall continuity is maintained in the domain.
You can find the following information about velocity inlet boundary conditions in this
section:

• Section 7.4.1: Inputs at Velocity Inlet Boundaries

• Section 7.4.2: Default Settings at Velocity Inlet Boundaries

• Section 7.4.3: Calculation Procedure at Velocity Inlet Boundaries

For an overview of flow boundaries, see Section 7.2: Flow Inlet and Exit Boundary
Conditions.

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Boundary Conditions

7.4.1 Inputs at Velocity Inlet Boundaries

Summary
You will enter the following information for a velocity inlet boundary:

• velocity magnitude and direction or velocity components

• swirl velocity (for 2D axisymmetric problems with swirl)

• temperature (for energy calculations)

• outflow gauge pressure (for calculations with the density-based solvers)

• turbulence parameters (for turbulent calculations)

• radiation parameters (for calculations using the P-1 model, the DTRM, the DO
model, or the surface-to-surface model)

• chemical species mass fractions (for species calculations)

• mixture fraction and variance (for non-premixed or partially premixed combustion

calculations)

• progress variable (for premixed or partially premixed combustion calculations)

• discrete phase boundary conditions (for discrete phase calculations)

• multiphase boundary conditions (for general multiphase calculations)

All values are entered in the Velocity Inlet panel (Figure 7.4.1), which is opened from the
Boundary Conditions panel (as described in Section 7.1.4: Setting Boundary Conditions).

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 7.4 Velocity Inlet Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.4.1: The Velocity Inlet Panel

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Boundary Conditions

Defining the Velocity

You can define the inflow velocity by specifying the velocity magnitude and direction, the
velocity components, or the velocity magnitude normal to the boundary. If the cell zone
adjacent to the velocity inlet is moving (i.e., if you are using a rotating reference frame,
multiple reference frames, or sliding meshes), you can specify either relative or absolute
velocities. For axisymmetric problems with swirl in FLUENT, you will also specify the
swirl velocity.
The procedure for defining the inflow velocity is as follows:

1. Choose which method you will use to specify the flow direction by selecting Mag-
nitude and Direction, Components, or Magnitude, Normal to Boundary in the Velocity
Specification Method drop-down list.
2. If the cell zone adjacent to the velocity inlet is moving, you can choose to specify
relative or absolute velocities by selecting Relative to Adjacent Cell Zone or Absolute
in the Reference Frame drop-down list. If the adjacent cell zone is not moving,
Absolute and Relative to Adjacent Cell Zone will be equivalent, so you need not visit
the list.
3. If you are going to set the velocity magnitude and direction or the velocity com-
ponents, and your geometry is 3D, you will next choose the coordinate system in
which you will define the vector or velocity components. Choose Cartesian (X, Y,
Z), Cylindrical (Radial, Tangential, Axial), or Local Cylindrical (Radial, Tangential,
Axial) in the Coordinate System drop-down list. See Section 7.3.1: Defining the
Flow Direction for information about Cartesian, cylindrical, and local cylindrical
coordinate systems.
4. Set the appropriate velocity parameters, as described below for each specification
method.

Setting the Velocity Magnitude and Direction

If you selected Magnitude and Direction as the Velocity Specification Method in step 1
above, you will enter the magnitude of the velocity vector at the inflow boundary (the
Velocity Magnitude) and the direction of the vector:

• If your geometry is 2D non-axisymmetric, or you chose in step 3 to use the Cartesian

coordinate system, you will define the X, Y, and (in 3D) Z-Component of Flow
Direction.
• If your geometry is 2D axisymmetric, or you chose in step 3 to use a Cylindrical coor-
dinate system, enter the appropriate values of Radial, Axial, and (if you are modeling
axisymmetric swirl or using cylindrical coordinates) Tangential-Component of Flow
Direction.

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 7.4 Velocity Inlet Boundary Conditions

• If you chose in step 3 to use a Local Cylindrical coordinate system, enter the appro-
priate values for Axial, Radial, and Tangential-Component of Flow Direction, and then
specify the X, Y, and Z-Component of Axis Direction and the X, Y, and Z-Coordinate
of Axis Origin.

Figure 7.3.2 shows the vector components for these different coordinate systems.

Setting the Velocity Magnitude Normal to the Boundary

If you selected Magnitude, Normal to Boundary as the Velocity Specification Method in step
1 above, you will enter the magnitude of the velocity vector at the inflow boundary (the
Velocity Magnitude). If you are modeling 2D axisymmetric swirl, you will also enter the
Tangential-Component of Flow Direction.

Setting the Velocity Components

If you selected Components as the Velocity Specification Method in step 1 above, you will
enter the components of the velocity vector at the inflow boundary as follows:

• If your geometry is 2D non-axisymmetric, or you chose in step 3 to use the Cartesian

coordinate system, you will define the X, Y, and (in 3D) Z-Velocity.

• If your geometry is 2D axisymmetric without swirl, you will set the Radial and
Axial-Velocity.

• If your model is 2D axisymmetric with swirl, you will set the Axial, Radial, and
Swirl-Velocity, and (optionally) the Swirl Angular Velocity, as described below.

• If you chose in step 3 to use a Cylindrical coordinate system, you will set the Radial,
Tangential, and Axial-Velocity, and (optionally) the Angular Velocity, as described
below.

• If you chose in step 3 to use a Local Cylindrical coordinate system, you will set
the Radial, Tangential, and Axial-Velocity, and (optionally) the Angular Velocity, as
described below, and then specify the X, Y, and Z-Component of Axis Direction and
the X, Y, and Z-Coordinate of Axis Origin.

i Remember that positive values for x, y, and z velocities indicate flow in the
positive x, y, and z directions. If flow enters the domain in the negative x
direction, for example, you will need to specify a negative value for the x
velocity. The same holds true for the radial, tangential, and axial velocities.
Positive radial velocities point radially out from the axis, positive axial
velocities are in the direction of the axis vector, and positive tangential
velocities are based on the right-hand rule using the positive axis.

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Boundary Conditions

Setting the Angular Velocity

If you chose Components as the Velocity Specification Method in step 1 above, and you are
modeling axisymmetric swirl, you can specify the inlet Swirl Angular Velocity Ω in addition
to the Swirl-Velocity. Similarly, if you chose Components as the Velocity Specification
Method and you chose in step 3 to use a Cylindrical or Local Cylindrical coordinate system,
you can specify the inlet Angular Velocity Ω in addition to the Tangential-Velocity.
If you specify Ω, vθ is computed for each cell as Ωr, where r is the radial coordinate in
the coordinate system defined by the rotation axis and origin. If you specify both the
Swirl-Velocity and the Swirl Angular Velocity, or the Tangential-Velocity and the Angular
Velocity, FLUENT will add vθ and Ωr to get the swirl or tangential velocity at each cell.

Defining the Temperature

For calculations in which the energy equation is being solved, you will set the static
temperature of the flow at the velocity inlet boundary in the Temperature field.

Defining Outflow Gauge Pressure

If you are using one of the density-based solvers, you can specify an Outflow Gauge
Pressure for a velocity inlet boundary. If the flow exits the domain at any face on the
boundary, that face will be treated as a pressure outlet with the pressure prescribed in
the Outflow Gauge Pressure field.

Defining Turbulence Parameters

For turbulent calculations, there are several ways in which you can define the turbulence
parameters. Instructions for deciding which method to use and determining appropriate
values for these inputs are provided in Section 7.2.2: Determining Turbulence Parameters.
Turbulence modeling in general is described in Chapter 12: Modeling Turbulence.

Defining Radiation Parameters

If you are using the P-1 radiation model, the DTRM, the DO model, or the surface-to-
surface model, you will set the Internal Emissivity and (optionally) Black Body Tempera-
ture. See Section 13.3.15: Defining Boundary Conditions for Radiation for details. (The
Rosseland radiation model does not require any boundary condition inputs.)

Defining Species Mass Fractions

If you are modeling species transport, you will set the species mass fractions under Species
Mass Fractions. For details, see Section 14.1.5: Defining Boundary Conditions for Species.

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 7.4 Velocity Inlet Boundary Conditions

Defining Non-Premixed Combustion Parameters

If you are using the non-premixed or partially premixed combustion model, you will set
the Mean Mixture Fraction and Mixture Fraction Variance (and the Secondary Mean Mixture
Fraction and Secondary Mixture Fraction Variance, if you are using two mixture fractions),
as described in Section 15.13: Defining Non-Premixed Boundary Conditions.

Defining Premixed Combustion Boundary Conditions

If you are using the premixed or partially premixed combustion model, you will set the
Progress Variable, as described in Section 16.3.5: Setting Boundary Conditions for the
Progress Variable.

Defining Discrete Phase Boundary Conditions

If you are modeling a discrete phase of particles, you can set the fate of particle trajecto-
ries at the velocity inlet. See Section 22.13: Setting Boundary Conditions for the Discrete
Phase for details.

Defining Multiphase Boundary Conditions

If you are using the VOF, mixture, or Eulerian model for multiphase flow, you will
need to specify volume fractions for secondary phases and (for some models) additional
parameters. See Section 23.9.8: Defining Multiphase Boundary Conditions for details.

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Boundary Conditions

7.4.2 Default Settings at Velocity Inlet Boundaries

Default settings (in SI) for velocity inlet boundary conditions are as follows:

Temperature 300
Velocity Magnitude 0
X-Component of Flow Direction 1
Y-Component of Flow Direction 0
Z-Component of Flow Direction 0
X-Velocity 0
Y-Velocity 0
Z-Velocity 0
Turb. Kinetic Energy 1
Turb. Dissipation Rate 1
Outflow Gauge Pressure 0

7.4.3 Calculation Procedure at Velocity Inlet Boundaries

FLUENT uses your boundary condition inputs at velocity inlets to compute the mass flow
into the domain through the inlet and to compute the fluxes of momentum, energy, and
species through the inlet. This section describes these calculations for the case of flow
entering the domain through the velocity inlet boundary and for the less common case
of flow exiting the domain through the velocity inlet boundary.

Treatment of Velocity Inlet Conditions at Flow Inlets

When your velocity inlet boundary condition defines flow entering the physical domain of
the model, FLUENT uses both the velocity components and the scalar quantities that you
defined as boundary conditions to compute the inlet mass flow rate, momentum fluxes,
and fluxes of energy and chemical species.
The mass flow rate entering a fluid cell adjacent to a velocity inlet boundary is computed
as
Z
ṁ = ~
ρ~v · dA (7.4-1)

Note that only the velocity component normal to the control volume face contributes to
the inlet mass flow rate.

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 7.4 Velocity Inlet Boundary Conditions

Treatment of Velocity Inlet Conditions at Flow Exits

Sometimes a velocity inlet boundary is used where flow exits the physical domain. This
approach might be used, for example, when the flow rate through one exit of the domain
is known or is to be imposed on the model.

i In such cases you must ensure that overall continuity is maintained in the
domain.
In the pressure-based solver, when flow exits the domain through a velocity inlet boundary
FLUENT uses the boundary condition value for the velocity component normal to the exit
flow area. It does not use any other boundary conditions that you have input. Instead,
all flow conditions except the normal velocity component are assumed to be those of the
upstream cell.
In the density-based solvers, if the flow exits the domain at any face on the boundary,
that face will be treated as a pressure outlet with the pressure prescribed in the Outflow
Gauge Pressure field.

Density Calculation
Density at the inlet plane is either constant or calculated as a function of temperature,
pressure, and/or species mass fractions, where the mass fractions are the values you
entered as an inlet condition.

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Boundary Conditions

7.5 Mass Flow Inlet Boundary Conditions

Mass flow boundary conditions can be used in FLUENT to provide a prescribed mass flow
rate or mass flux distribution at an inlet. Physically, specifying the mass flux permits
the total pressure to vary in response to the interior solution. This is in contrast to the
pressure inlet boundary condition (see Section 7.3: Pressure Inlet Boundary Conditions),
where the total pressure is fixed while the mass flux varies.
A mass flow inlet is often used when it is more important to match a prescribed mass
flow rate than to match the total pressure of the inflow stream. An example is the case
of a small cooling jet that is bled into the main flow at a fixed mass flow rate, while
the velocity of the main flow is governed primarily by a (different) pressure inlet/outlet
boundary condition pair.

i The adjustment of inlet total pressure might result in a slower convergence,

so if both the pressure inlet boundary condition and the mass flow inlet
boundary condition are acceptable choices, you should choose the former.

i It is not necessary to use mass flow inlets in incompressible flows because

when density is constant, velocity inlet boundary conditions will fix the
mass flow.

i Mass flow inlet boundary conditions cannot be applied to any of the mul-
tiphase models if all phases are incompressible.
You can find the following information about mass flow inlet boundary conditions in this
section:

• Section 7.5.1: Inputs at Mass Flow Inlet Boundaries

• Section 7.5.2: Default Settings at Mass Flow Inlet Boundaries

• Section 7.5.3: Calculation Procedure at Mass Flow Inlet Boundaries

For an overview of flow boundaries, see Section 7.2: Flow Inlet and Exit Boundary
Conditions.

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 7.5 Mass Flow Inlet Boundary Conditions

7.5.1 Inputs at Mass Flow Inlet Boundaries

Summary
You will enter the following information for a mass flow inlet boundary:

• mass flow rate, mass flux, or (primarily for the mixing plane model) mass flux with
average mass flux

• total (stagnation) temperature

• static pressure

• flow direction

• turbulence parameters (for turbulent calculations)

• radiation parameters (for calculations using the P-1 model, the DTRM, the DO
model, or the surface-to-surface model)

• chemical species mass fractions (for species calculations)

• mixture fraction and variance (for non-premixed or partially premixed combustion

calculations)

• progress variable (for premixed or partially premixed combustion calculations)

• discrete phase boundary conditions (for discrete phase calculations)

• open channel flow parameters (for open channel flow calculations using the VOF
multiphase model)

All values are entered in the Mass-Flow Inlet panel (Figure 7.5.1), which is opened from the
Boundary Conditions panel (as described in Section 7.1.4: Setting Boundary Conditions).
Note that open channel boundary condition inputs are described in Section 23.10.2: Mod-
eling Open Channel Flows.

Defining the Mass Flow Rate or Mass Flux

You can specify the mass flow rate through the inlet zone and have FLUENT convert
this value to mass flux, or specify the mass flux directly. For cases where the mass flux
varies across the boundary, you can also specify an average mass flux; see below for more
information about this specification method.
If you set the mass flow rate, it will be converted internally to a uniform mass flux over
the zone by dividing the flow rate by the area of the zone. You can define the mass flux
(but not the mass flow rate) using a boundary profile or a user-defined function.

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Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.5.1: The Mass-Flow Inlet Panel

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 7.5 Mass Flow Inlet Boundary Conditions

The inputs for mass flow rate or flux are as follows:

1. Choose the method you will use to specify the mass flow by selecting Mass Flow
Rate, Mass Flux, or Mass Flux with Average Mass Flux in the Mass Flow Specification
Method drop-down list.

2. If you selected Mass Flow Rate (the default), set the prescribed mass flow rate in
the Mass Flow-Rate field.

i Note that for axisymmetric problems, this mass flow rate is the flow rate
through the entire (2π-radian) domain, not through a 1-radian slice.
If you selected Mass Flux, set the prescribed mass flux in the Mass Flux field.
If you selected Mass Flux with Average Mass Flux, set the prescribed mass flux and
average mass flux in the Mass Flux and Average Mass Flux fields.

More About Mass Flux and Average Mass Flux

As noted above, you can specify an average mass flux with the mass flux. If, for example,
you specify a mass flux profile such that the average mass flux integrated over the zone
area is 4.7, but you actually want to have a total mass flux of 5, you can keep the profile
unchanged, and specify an average mass flux of 5. FLUENT will maintain the profile
shape but adjust the values so that the resulting mass flux across the boundary is 5.
The mass flux with average mass flux specification method is also used by the mixing
plane model described in Section 10.3.2: The Mixing Plane Model. If the mass flow
inlet boundary is going to represent one of the mixing planes, then you do not need to
specify the mass flux or flow rate; you can keep the default Mass Flow-Rate of 1. When
you create the mixing plane later on in the problem setup, FLUENT will automatically
select the Mass Flux with Average Mass Flux method in the Mass-Flow Inlet panel and set
the Average Mass Flux to the value obtained by integrating the mass flux profile for the
upstream zone. This will ensure that mass is conserved between the upstream zone and
the downstream (mass flow inlet) zone.

Defining the Total Temperature

Enter the value for the total (stagnation) temperature of the inflow stream in the Total
Temperature field in the Mass-Flow Inlet panel.

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Boundary Conditions

Defining Static Pressure

The static pressure (termed the Supersonic/Initial Gauge Pressure) must be specified if the
inlet flow is supersonic or if you plan to initialize the solution based on the pressure inlet
boundary conditions. Solution initialization is discussed in Section 25.14: Initializing the
Solution.
The Supersonic/Initial Gauge Pressure is ignored by FLUENT whenever the flow is sub-
sonic. If you choose to initialize the flow based on the mass flow inlet conditions, the
Supersonic/Initial Gauge Pressure will be used in conjunction with the specified stagnation
quantities to compute initial values according to isentropic relations.
Remember that the static pressure value you enter is relative to the operating pressure set
in the Operating Conditions panel. Note the comments in Section 7.3.1: Pressure Inputs
and Hydrostatic Head regarding hydrostatic pressure.

Defining the Flow Direction

You can define the flow direction at a mass flow inlet explicitly, or you can define the
flow to be normal to the boundary.
You will have the option to specify the flow direction either in the absolute or relative
reference frame, when the cell zone adjacent to the mass flow inlet is moving. If the cell
zone adjacent to the mass flow inlet is not moving, both formulations are equivalent.
The procedure for defining the flow direction is as follows, referring to Figure 7.5.1:

1. Choose which method you will use to specify the flow direction by selecting Direction
Vector or Normal to Boundary in the Direction Specification Method drop-down list.

2. If you selected Normal to Boundary, there are no additional inputs for flow direction.

i Note that if you are modeling axisymmetric swirl, the flow direction will
be normal to the boundary; i.e., there will be no swirl component at the
boundary for axisymmetric swirl.

3. If the cell zone adjacent to the mass flow inlet is moving, choose Absolute (the
default) or Relative in the Reference Frame drop-down list.

i These options are equivalent when the cell zone next to the mass flow inlet
is stationary.

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 7.5 Mass Flow Inlet Boundary Conditions

4. If you selected Direction Vector and your geometry is 2D, go to the next step. If
your geometry is 3D, you will next choose the coordinate system in which you
will define the flow direction components. Choose Cartesian (X, Y, Z), Cylindrical
(Radial, Tangential, Axial), or Local Cylindrical (Radial, Tangential, Axial) in the Co-
ordinate System drop-down list. See Section 7.3.1: Defining the Flow Direction for
information about Cartesian, cylindrical, and local cylindrical coordinate systems.

5. If you selected Direction Vector, set the vector components as follows:

• If your geometry is 2D non-axisymmetric, or you chose to use a 3D Carte-
sian coordinate system, enter the appropriate values for X, Y, and (in 3D)
Z-Component of Flow Direction.
• If your geometry is 2D axisymmetric, or you chose to use a 3D Cylindrical
coordinate system, enter the appropriate values for Axial, Radial, and (if you
are modeling swirl or using cylindrical coordinates) Tangential-Component of
Flow Direction.
• If you chose to use a 3D Local Cylindrical coordinate system, enter the ap-
propriate values for Axial, Radial, and Tangential-Component of Flow Direction,
and then specify the X, Y, and Z-Component of Axis Direction and the X, Y,
and Z-Coordinate of Axis Origin.
Figure 7.3.2 shows the vector components for these different coordinate systems.

Defining Turbulence Parameters

For turbulent calculations, there are several ways in which you can define the turbulence
parameters. Instructions for deciding which method to use and determining appropriate
values for these inputs are provided in Section 7.2.2: Determining Turbulence Parameters.
Turbulence modeling is described in Chapter 12: Modeling Turbulence.

Defining Radiation Parameters

If you are using the P-1 radiation model, the DTRM, the DO model, or the surface-to-
surface model, you will set the Internal Emissivity and (optionally) Black Body Tempera-
ture. See Section 13.3.15: Defining Boundary Conditions for Radiation for details. (The
Rosseland radiation model does not require any boundary condition inputs.)

Defining Species Mass Fractions

If you are modeling species transport, you will set the species mass fractions under Species
Mass Fractions. For details, see Section 14.1.5: Defining Boundary Conditions for Species.

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Boundary Conditions

Defining Non-Premixed Combustion Parameters

If you are using the non-premixed or partially premixed combustion model, you will set
the Mean Mixture Fraction and Mixture Fraction Variance (and the Secondary Mean Mixture
Fraction and Secondary Mixture Fraction Variance, if you are using two mixture fractions),
as described in Section 15.13: Defining Non-Premixed Boundary Conditions.

Defining Premixed Combustion Boundary Conditions

If you are using the premixed or partially premixed combustion model, you will set the
Progress Variable, as described in Section 16.3.5: Setting Boundary Conditions for the
Progress Variable.

Defining Discrete Phase Boundary Conditions

If you are modeling a discrete phase of particles, you can set the fate of particle trajec-
tories at the mass flow inlet. See Section 22.13: Setting Boundary Conditions for the
Discrete Phase for details.

Defining Open Channel Boundary Conditions

If you are using the VOF model for multiphase flow and modeling open channel flows,
you will need to specify the Free Surface Level, Bottom Level, and additional parameters.
See Section 23.10.2: Modeling Open Channel Flows for details.

7.5.2 Default Settings at Mass Flow Inlet Boundaries

Default settings (in SI) for mass flow inlet boundary conditions are as follows:

Mass Flow-Rate 1
Total Temperature 300
Supersonic/Initial Gauge Pressure 0
X-Component of Flow Direction 1
Y-Component of Flow Direction 0
Z-Component of Flow Direction 0
Turb. Kinetic Energy 1
Turb. Dissipation Rate 1

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 7.5 Mass Flow Inlet Boundary Conditions

7.5.3 Calculation Procedure at Mass Flow Inlet Boundaries

When mass flow boundary conditions are used for an inlet zone, a velocity is computed
for each face in that zone, and this velocity is used to compute the fluxes of all relevant
solution variables into the domain. With each iteration, the computed velocity is adjusted
so that the correct mass flow value is maintained.
To compute this velocity, your inputs for mass flow rate, flow direction, static pressure,
and total temperature are used.
There are two ways to specify the mass flow rate. The first is to specify the total mass
flow rate, ṁ, for the inlet. The second is to specify the mass flux, ρvn (mass flow rate
per unit area). If a total mass flow rate is specified, FLUENT converts it internally to a
uniform mass flux by dividing the mass flow rate by the total inlet area:

ṁ
ρvn = (7.5-1)
A
If the direct mass flux specification option is used, the mass flux can be varied over the
boundary by using profile files or user-defined functions. If the average mass flux is also
specified (either explicitly by you or automatically by FLUENT), it is used to correct the
specified mass flux profile, as described earlier in this section.
Once the value of ρvn at a given face has been determined, the density, ρ, at the face
must be determined in order to find the normal velocity, vn . The manner in which the
density is obtained depends upon whether the fluid is modeled as an ideal gas or not.
Each of these cases is examined below.

Flow Calculations at Mass Flow Boundaries for Ideal Gases

If the fluid is an ideal gas, the static temperature and static pressure are required to
compute the density:

p = ρRT (7.5-2)

If the inlet is supersonic, the static pressure used is the value that has been set as a
boundary condition. If the inlet is subsonic, the static pressure is extrapolated from the
cells inside the inlet face.

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Boundary Conditions

The static temperature at the inlet is computed from the total enthalpy, which is deter-
mined from the total temperature that has been set as a boundary condition. The total
enthalpy is given by

1
h0 (T0 ) = h(T ) + v 2 (7.5-3)
2
where the velocity is related to the mass flow rate given by Equation 7.5-1. Using Equa-
tion 7.5-2 to relate density to the (known) static pressure and (unknown) temperature,
Equation 7.5-3 can be solved to obtain the static temperature.

Flow Calculations at Mass Flow Boundaries for Incompressible Flows

When you are modeling incompressible flows, the static temperature is equal to the
total temperature. The density at the inlet is either constant or readily computed as a
function of the temperature and (optionally) the species mass fractions. The velocity is
then computed using Equation 7.5-1.

Flux Calculations at Mass Flow Boundaries

To compute the fluxes of all variables at the inlet, the flux velocity, vn , is used along with
the inlet value of the variable in question. For example, the flux of mass is ρvn , and the
flux of turbulence kinetic energy is ρkvn . These fluxes are used as boundary conditions
for the corresponding conservation equations during the course of the solution.

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 7.6 Inlet Vent Boundary Conditions

7.6 Inlet Vent Boundary Conditions

Inlet vent boundary conditions are used to model an inlet vent with a specified loss
coefficient, flow direction, and ambient (inlet) pressure and temperature.

7.6.1 Inputs at Inlet Vent Boundaries

You will enter the following information for an inlet vent boundary:

• total (stagnation) pressure

• total (stagnation) temperature

• flow direction

• static pressure

• turbulence parameters (for turbulent calculations)

• radiation parameters (for calculations using the P-1 model, the DTRM, the DO
model, or the surface-to-surface model)

• chemical species mass fractions (for species calculations)

• mixture fraction and variance (for non-premixed or partially premixed combustion

calculations)

• progress variable (for premixed or partially premixed combustion calculations)

• discrete phase boundary conditions (for discrete phase calculations)

• multiphase boundary conditions (for general multiphase calculations)

• loss coefficient

• open channel flow parameters (for open channel flow calculations using the VOF
multiphase model)

All values are entered in the Inlet Vent panel (Figure 7.6.1), which is opened from the
Boundary Conditions panel (as described in Section 7.1.4: Setting Boundary Conditions).
The first 11 items listed above are specified in the same way that they are specified
at pressure inlet boundaries. See Section 7.3.1: Inputs at Pressure Inlet Boundaries for
details. Specification of the loss coefficient is described here. Open channel boundary
condition inputs are described in Section 23.10.2: Modeling Open Channel Flows.

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Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.6.1: The Inlet Vent Panel

Specifying the Loss Coefficient

An inlet vent is considered to be infinitely thin, and the pressure drop through the vent
is assumed to be proportional to the dynamic head of the fluid, with an empirically
determined loss coefficient that you supply. That is, the pressure drop, ∆p, varies with
the normal component of velocity through the vent, v, as follows:

1
∆p = kL ρv 2 (7.6-1)
2
where ρ is the fluid density, and kL is the non-dimensional loss coefficient.

i ∆p is the pressure drop in the direction of the flow; therefore the vent will
appear as a resistance even in the case of backflow.

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 7.7 Intake Fan Boundary Conditions

You can define the Loss-Coefficient across the vent as a constant, polynomial, piecewise-
linear, or piecewise-polynomial function of the normal velocity. The panels for defining
these functions are the same as those used for defining temperature-dependent properties.
See Section 8.2: Defining Properties Using Temperature-Dependent Functions for details.

7.7 Intake Fan Boundary Conditions

Intake fan boundary conditions are used to model an external intake fan with a specified
pressure jump, flow direction, and ambient (intake) pressure and temperature.

7.7.1 Inputs at Intake Fan Boundaries

You will enter the following information for an intake fan boundary:

• total (stagnation) pressure

• total (stagnation) temperature

• flow direction

• static pressure

• turbulence parameters (for turbulent calculations)

• radiation parameters (for calculations using the P-1 model, the DTRM, the DO
model, or the surface-to-surface model)

• chemical species mass fractions (for species calculations)

• mixture fraction and variance (for non-premixed or partially premixed combustion

calculations)

• progress variable (for premixed or partially premixed combustion calculations)

• discrete phase boundary conditions (for discrete phase calculations)

• multiphase boundary conditions (for general multiphase calculations)

• pressure jump

• open channel flow parameters (for open channel flow calculations using the VOF
multiphase model)

All values are entered in the Intake Fan panel (shown in Figure 7.7.1), which is opened
from the Boundary Conditions panel (as described in Section 7.1.4: Setting Boundary
Conditions).

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Boundary Conditions

The first 11 items listed above are specified in the same way that they are specified
at pressure inlet boundaries. See Section 7.3.1: Inputs at Pressure Inlet Boundaries for
details. Specification of the pressure jump is described here. Open channel boundary
condition inputs are described in Section 23.10.2: Modeling Open Channel Flows.

Figure 7.7.1: The Intake Fan Panel

Specifying the Pressure Jump

An intake fan is considered to be infinitely thin, and the discontinuous pressure rise across
it is specified as a function of the velocity through the fan. In the case of reversed flow,
the fan is treated like an outlet vent with a loss coefficient of unity.
You can define the Pressure-Jump across the fan as a constant, polynomial, piecewise-linear,
or piecewise-polynomial function of the normal velocity. The panels for defining these
functions are the same as those used for defining temperature-dependent properties. See
Section 8.2: Defining Properties Using Temperature-Dependent Functions for details.

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 7.8 Pressure Outlet Boundary Conditions

7.8 Pressure Outlet Boundary Conditions

Pressure outlet boundary conditions require the specification of a static (gauge) pressure
at the outlet boundary. The value of the specified static pressure is used only while the
flow is subsonic. Should the flow become locally supersonic, the specified pressure will
no longer be used; pressure will be extrapolated from the flow in the interior. All other
flow quantities are extrapolated from the interior.
A set of “backflow” conditions is also specified should the flow reverse direction at the
pressure outlet boundary during the solution process. Convergence difficulties will be
minimized if you specify realistic values for the backflow quantities.
Several options in FLUENT exist, where a radial equilibrium outlet boundary condition
can be used (see Section 7.8.1: Defining Static Pressure for details), and a target mass
flow rate for pressure outlets (see Section 7.8.4: Target Mass Flow Rate Option for details)
can be specified.
You can find the following information about pressure outlet boundary conditions in this
section:

• Section 7.8.1: Inputs at Pressure Outlet Boundaries

• Section 7.8.2: Default Settings at Pressure Outlet Boundaries

• Section 7.8.3: Calculation Procedure at Pressure Outlet Boundaries

• Section 7.8.4: Other Optional Inputs at Pressure Outlet Boundaries

For an overview of flow boundaries, see Section 7.2: Flow Inlet and Exit Boundary
Conditions.

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Boundary Conditions

7.8.1 Inputs at Pressure Outlet Boundaries

Summary
You will enter the following information for a pressure outlet boundary:

• static pressure

• backflow conditions
– total (stagnation) temperature (for energy calculations)
– backflow direction specification method
– turbulence parameters (for turbulent calculations)
– chemical species mass fractions (for species calculations)
– mixture fraction and variance (for non-premixed or partially premixed com-
bustion calculations)
– progress variable (for premixed or partially premixed combustion calculations)
– multiphase boundary conditions (for general multiphase calculations)

• radiation parameters (for calculations using the P-1 model, the DTRM, the DO
model, or the surface-to-surface model)

• discrete phase boundary conditions (for discrete phase calculations)

• open channel flow parameters (for open channel flow calculations using the VOF
multiphase model)

• non-reflecting boundary (for compressible density-based solver, see Section 7.23.2: Gen-
eral Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions for details)

• target mass flow rate (not available for multiphase flows)

All values are entered in the Pressure Outlet panel (Figure 7.8.1), which is opened from the
Boundary Conditions panel (as described in Section 7.1.4: Setting Boundary Conditions).
Note that open channel boundary condition inputs are described in Section 23.10.2: Mod-
eling Open Channel Flows.

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 7.8 Pressure Outlet Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.8.1: The Pressure Outlet Panel

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Boundary Conditions

Defining Static Pressure

To set the static pressure at the pressure outlet boundary, enter the appropriate value
for Gauge Pressure in the Pressure Outlet panel. This value will be used for subsonic flow
only. Should the flow become locally supersonic, the pressure will be extrapolated from
the upstream conditions.
Remember that the static pressure value you enter is relative to the operating pressure set
in the Operating Conditions panel. Refer to Section 7.3.1: Pressure Inputs and Hydrostatic
Head regarding hydrostatic pressure.
FLUENT also provides an option to use a radial equilibrium outlet boundary condition.
To enable this option, turn on Radial Equilibrium Pressure Distribution. When this feature
is active, the specified gauge pressure applies only to the position of minimum radius
(relative to the axis of rotation) at the boundary. The static pressure on the rest of
the zone is calculated from the assumption that radial velocity is negligible, so that the
pressure gradient is given by

∂p ρv 2
= θ (7.8-1)
∂r r
where r is the distance from the axis of rotation and vθ is the tangential velocity. Note
that this boundary condition can be used even if the rotational velocity is zero. For
example, it could be applied to the calculation of the flow through an annulus containing
guide vanes.

i Note that the radial equilibrium outlet condition is available only for 3D
and axisymmetric swirl calculations.

Defining Backflow Conditions

Backflow properties consistent with the models you are using will appear in the Pressure
Outlet panel. The specified values will be used only if flow is pulled in through the outlet.

• The Backflow Total Temperature should be set for problems involving energy calcu-
lation.

• When the direction of the backflow re-entering the computational domain is known,
and deemed to be relevant to the flow field solution, you can specify it choosing one
of the options available in the Backflow Direction Specification Method drop-down
list. The default value for this field is Normal to Boundary, and requires no further
input. If you choose Direction Vector, the panel will expand to show the inputs for
the components of the direction vector for the backflow, and if you are running the
3D version of FLUENT, the panel will display a Coordinate System drop-down list.
If you choose From Neighboring Cell, FLUENT will determine the direction of the

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 7.8 Pressure Outlet Boundary Conditions

backflow using the direction of the flow in the cell layer adjacent to the pressure
outlet.

• For turbulent calculations, there are several ways in which you can define the tur-
bulence parameters. Instructions for deciding which method to use in determin-
ing appropriate values for these inputs are provided in Section 7.2.2: Determining
Turbulence Parameters. Turbulence modeling in general is described in Chap-
ter 12: Modeling Turbulence.

• If you are modeling species transport, you will set the backflow species mass frac-
tions under Species Mass Fractions. For details, see Section 14.1.5: Defining Bound-
ary Conditions for Species.

• If you are modeling combustion using the non-premixed or partially premixed com-
bustion model, you will set the backflow mixture fraction and variance values. See
Section 15.13: Defining Non-Premixed Boundary Conditions for details.

• If you are modeling combustion using the premixed or partially premixed combus-
tion model, you will set the backflow Progress Variable value. See Section 16.3.5: Set-
ting Boundary Conditions for the Progress Variable for details.

• If you are using the VOF, mixture, or Eulerian model for multiphase flow, you will
need to specify volume fractions for secondary phases and (for some models) addi-
tional parameters. See Section 23.9.8: Defining Multiphase Boundary Conditions
for details.

• If backflow occurs, the pressure you specified as the Gauge Pressure will be used as
total pressure, so you need not specify a backflow pressure value explicitly. The
flow direction in this case will be normal to the boundary.
If the cell zone adjacent to the pressure outlet is moving (i.e., if you are using a ro-
tating reference frame, multiple reference frames, mixing planes, or sliding meshes)
and you are using the pressure-based solver, the velocity in the dynamic contri-
bution to total pressure (see Equation 7.3-3) will be absolute or relative to the
motion of the cell zone, depending on whether or not the Absolute velocity formu-
lation is enabled in the Solver panel. For the density-based solvers, the velocity in
Equation 7.3-3 (or the Mach number in Equation 7.3-4) is always in the absolute
frame.

i Even if no backflow is expected in the converged solution, you should always

set realistic values to minimize convergence difficulties in the event that
backflow does occur during the calculation.

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Boundary Conditions

Defining Radiation Parameters

If you are using the P-1 radiation model, the DTRM, the DO model, or the surface-to-
surface model, you will set the Internal Emissivity and (optional) Black Body Temperature.
See Section 13.3.15: Defining Boundary Conditions for Radiation for details. (The Rosse-
land radiation model does not require any boundary condition inputs.)

Defining Discrete Phase Boundary Conditions

If you are modeling a discrete phase of particles, you can set the fate of particle tra-
jectories at the pressure outlet. See Section 22.13: Setting Boundary Conditions for the
Discrete Phase for details.

Defining Open Channel Boundary Conditions

If you are using the VOF model for multiphase flow and modeling open channel flows,
you will need to specify the Free Surface Level, Bottom Level, and additional parameters.
See Section 23.10.2: Modeling Open Channel Flows for details.

7.8.2 Default Settings at Pressure Outlet Boundaries

Default settings (in SI) for pressure outlet boundary conditions are as follows:

Gauge Pressure 0
Backflow Total Temperature 300
Backflow Turb. Kinetic Energy 1
Backflow Turb. Dissipation Rate 1

7.8.3 Calculation Procedure at Pressure Outlet Boundaries

At pressure outlets, FLUENT uses the boundary condition pressure you input as the static
pressure of the fluid at the outlet plane, ps , and extrapolates all other conditions from
the interior of the domain.

Density-Based Solver Implementation

In the density-based solver, the pressure at the faces of the pressure outlet boundary
condition is computed using a pressure splitting procedure based on the AU SM + scheme
of Liou [214].
For subsonic compressible flow leaving the exit pressure boundary, the pressure is com-
puted using a weighted average of the left and right state of the face boundary. This
weighting is a blend of fifth-order polynomials based on the exit face normal Mach num-
ber [214]. Therefore, the face pressure Pf is function of (Pc , Pe , Mn ), where Pc is the

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 7.8 Pressure Outlet Boundary Conditions

interior cell pressure neighboring the exit face f, Pe is the specified exit pressure, and Mn
is the face normal Mach number.

Pressure
Outlet

face f
P
f
Pc Pe

L R 

c
Mn

Figure 7.8.2: Pressures at the Face of a Pressure Outlet Boundary

If the flow becomes locally supersonic, then the face pressure value Pf is extrapolated
from the interior cell pressure.
For incompressible flows, the face pressure is computed as an average between the spec-
ified pressure and interior pressure.

Pf = 0.5(Pc + Pe ) (7.8-2)

With this boundary implementation, the exit pressure is not constant along the pressure
outlet boundary. However, upon flow convergence, the average boundary pressure will
be close to the specified static exit pressure.

i This implementation is not available when you use the general NRBC
option, or when you enable the turbo-specific NRBC model.

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Boundary Conditions

7.8.4 Other Optional Inputs at Pressure Outlet Boundaries

Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions Option
One of the options that may be used at pressure outlets is non-reflecting boundary
conditions (NRBC). This option is only available when the density-based solver and ideal
gas law are used. The NRBC option is used when waves are made to pass through the
boundaries while avoiding false reflections. Details of non-reflecting boundary conditions
can be found in Section 7.23.2: General Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions of this
chapter.

Target Mass Flow Rate Option

Two methods (Method 1 and Method 2) are available for adjusting the pressure at a
pressure-outlet zone in order to meet the desired mass flow rate. Both methods are
based on the simple Bernoulli’s equation. However, they differ in the internal iteration
strategy for obtaining the change in pressure on a pressure-outlet zone. In general, the
target mass flow rate is achieved by adjusting the pressure value at the pressure-outlet
zone up and down at every iteration. This is done in accordance with one of the two
available methods until the desired target mass flow rate is obtained.
The change in pressure based on Bernoulli’s equation is given by the following equation:

dP = 0.5ρave (ṁ2 − ṁ2req )/(ρave A)2 (7.8-3)

where dP is the change in pressure, ṁ is the current computed mass flow rate at the
pressure-outlet boundary, ṁreq is the required mass flow rate, ρave is the computed av-
erage density at the pressure-outlet boundary, and A is the area of the pressure-outlet
boundary.
The default method, Method 1, should suffice in obtaining a converged solution on the
targeted mass flow rate. However, if convergence difficulties are encountered while using
the default method, then the user may want to select the alternate method, Method
2. There are other solution strategies that may be used if convergence difficulties are
encountered, which will be discussed at the end of this section.
The target mass flow rate option can be activated from the Pressure Outlet boundary
panel by selecting the target mass flow rate button. This option will allow you to specify
either a constant value or attach a UDF to set the target mass flow rate.

i Note that the target mass flow rate option is not available with multiphase
flows or when any of the non-reflecting boundary conditions models are
used. Moreover, if the pressure-outlet zone is used in the mixing-plane
model, the target mass flow rate option will not be available for that par-
ticular zone.

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 7.8 Pressure Outlet Boundary Conditions

Target Mass Flow Rate Settings

The settings for the target mass flow rate option can be accessed from the
target-mass-flow-rate-settings text command:
define −→ boundary-conditions −→target-mass-flow-rate-settings
There are two options under this menu:

1. The set-method option allows you to:

(a) Select Method 1 or 2 (the default setting is Method 1).
(b) Set the under-relaxation factor (the default setting is 0.05).
(c) Set the maximum and minimum pressure that will be imposed on any pressure-
outlet when a target mass flow rate option is activated. The purpose of this
input is to limit the exit pressure value and prevent it from reaching unrea-
sonable limits.

2. The verbosity? option, if enabled, prints to the cortex window the required mass
flow rate, computed mass flow rate, mean pressure, the new pressure imposed on
the outlet and the change in pressure in SI units.

Solution Strategies When Using the Target Mass Flow Rate Option

If convergence difficulties are encountered or if the solution is not converging at the

desired mass flow rate, then try to lower the under-relaxation factor from the default
value. Otherwise, you can use the alternate method to converge at the required mass
flow rate. Also, in some cases you may want to limit the pressure values in the zone
by adjusting the minimum or maximum pressure limits (note that this limit is applied
to all pressure-outlet zones when the target mass flow rate option is selected). All of
the above parameters can be accessed from the target-mass-flow-rate-settings text
command.
In some cases, you may want to switch off the target mass flow rate option initially, then
guess an exit pressure that will bring the solution closer to the target mass flow rate.
After the solution stabilizes, you can turn on the target mass flow rate option and iterate
to convergence. For many complex flow problems, this strategy is usually very successful.
The use of Full Multigrid Initialization is also very helpful in obtaining a good starting
solution and in general will reduce the time required to get a converged solution on
a target mass flow rate. For further information on Full Multigrid Initialization, see
Section 25.15: Using Full Multigrid (FMG) Initialization.

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Boundary Conditions

Setting Target Mass Flow Rates Using UDFs

For some unsteady problems it is desirable that the target mass flow rate be a function of
the physical flow time. This enforcement of boundary condition can be done by attaching
a UDF with DEFINE_PROFILE functions to the target mass flow rate field.

i Note that the mass flow rate profile is a function of time and only one
constant value should be applied to all zone faces at a given time.
An example of a simple UDF using a DEFINE PROFILE that will adjust the mass flow rate
can be found in Section 2.3.13: DEFINE PROFILE of the UDF Manual.

7.9 Pressure Far-Field Boundary Conditions

Pressure far-field conditions are used in FLUENT to model a free-stream condition at in-
finity, with free-stream Mach number and static conditions being specified. The pressure
far-field boundary condition is often called a characteristic boundary condition, since it
uses characteristic information (Riemann invariants) to determine the flow variables at
the boundaries.

i This boundary condition is applicable only when the density is calculated

using the ideal-gas law (see Section 8.3: Density). Using it for other flows is
not permitted. To effectively approximate true infinite-extent conditions,
you must place the far-field boundary far enough from the object of interest.
For example, in lifting airfoil calculations, it is not uncommon for the far-
field boundary to be a circle with a radius of 20 chord lengths.
You can find the following information about pressure far-field boundary conditions in
this section:

• Section 7.9.1: Inputs at Pressure Far-Field Boundaries

• Section 7.9.2: Default Settings at Pressure Far-Field Boundaries

• Section 7.9.3: Calculation Procedure at Pressure Far-Field Boundaries

For an overview of flow boundaries, see Section 7.2: Flow Inlet and Exit Boundary
Conditions.

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 7.9 Pressure Far-Field Boundary Conditions

7.9.1 Inputs at Pressure Far-Field Boundaries

Summary
You will enter the following information for a pressure far-field boundary:

• static pressure

• mach number

• temperature

• flow direction

• turbulence parameters (for turbulent calculations)

• radiation parameters (for calculations using the P-1 model, the DTRM, the DO
model, or the surface-to-surface model)

• chemical species mass fractions (for species calculations)

• discrete phase boundary conditions (for discrete phase calculations)

All values are entered in the Pressure Far-Field panel (Figure 7.9.1), which is opened
from the Boundary Conditions panel (as described in Section 7.1.4: Setting Boundary
Conditions).

Defining Static Pressure, Mach Number, and Static Temperature

To set the static pressure and temperature at the far-field boundary, enter the appropriate
values for Gauge Pressure and Temperature in the Pressure Far-Field panel. You will also
set the Mach Number there. The Mach number can be subsonic, sonic, or supersonic.

Defining the Flow Direction

You can define the flow direction at a pressure far-field boundary by setting the compo-
nents of the direction vector. If your geometry is 2D non-axisymmetric or 3D, enter the
appropriate values for X, Y, and (in 3D) Z-Component of Flow Direction in the Pressure
Far-Field panel. If your geometry is 2D axisymmetric, enter the appropriate values for
Axial, Radial, and (if you are modeling axisymmetric swirl) Tangential-Component of Flow
Direction.

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Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.9.1: The Pressure Far-Field Panel

Defining Turbulence Parameters

For turbulent calculations, there are several ways in which you can define the turbulence
parameters. Instructions for deciding which method to use and determining appropriate
values for these inputs are provided in Section 7.2.2: Determining Turbulence Parameters.
Turbulence modeling is described in Chapter 12: Modeling Turbulence.

Defining Radiation Parameters

If you are using the P-1 radiation model, the DTRM, the DO model, or the surface-to-
surface model, you will set the Internal Emissivity and (optionally) Black Body Temperature.
See Section 13.3.15: Defining Boundary Conditions for Radiation for details.

Defining Species Transport Parameters

If you are modeling species transport, you will set the species mass fractions under Species
Mass Fractions. See Section 14.1.5: Defining Boundary Conditions for Species for details.

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 7.9 Pressure Far-Field Boundary Conditions

Defining Discrete Phase Boundary Conditions

If you are modeling a discrete phase of particles, you can set the fate of particle trajecto-
ries at the pressure far-field boundary. See Section 22.13: Setting Boundary Conditions
for the Discrete Phase for details.

7.9.2 Default Settings at Pressure Far-Field Boundaries

Default settings (in SI) for pressure far-field boundary conditions are as follows:

Gauge Pressure 0
Mach Number 0.6
Temperature 300
X-Component of Flow Direction 1
Y-Component of Flow Direction 0
Z-Component of Flow Direction 0
Turb. Kinetic Energy 1
Turb. Dissipation Rate 1

7.9.3 Calculation Procedure at Pressure Far-Field Boundaries

The pressure far-field boundary condition is a non-reflecting boundary condition based on
the introduction of Riemann invariants (i.e., characteristic variables) for a one-dimensional
flow normal to the boundary. For flow that is subsonic there are two Riemann invariants,
corresponding to incoming and outgoing waves:

2c∞
R∞ = vn∞ − (7.9-1)
γ−1

2ci
Ri = vni + (7.9-2)
γ−1

where vn is the velocity magnitude normal to the boundary, c is the local speed of sound
and γ is the ratio of specific heats (ideal gas). The subscript ∞ refers to conditions being
applied at infinity (the boundary conditions), and the subscript i refers to conditions in
the interior of the domain (i.e., in the cell adjacent to the boundary face). These two
invariants can be added and subtracted to give the following two equations:

1
vn = (Ri + R∞ ) (7.9-3)
2

γ−1
c= (Ri − R∞ ) (7.9-4)
4

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Boundary Conditions

where vn and c become the values of normal velocity and sound speed applied on the
boundary. At a face through which flow exits, the tangential velocity components and
entropy are extrapolated from the interior; at an inflow face, these are specified as hav-
ing free-stream values. Using the values for vn , c, tangential velocity components, and
entropy the values of density, velocity, temperature, and pressure at the boundary face
can be calculated.

7.10 Outflow Boundary Conditions

Outflow boundary conditions in FLUENT are used to model flow exits where the details
of the flow velocity and pressure are not known prior to solution of the flow problem. You
do not define any conditions at outflow boundaries (unless you are modeling radiative
heat transfer, a discrete phase of particles, or split mass flow): FLUENT extrapolates
the required information from the interior. It is important, however, to understand the
limitations of this boundary type.

i Note that outflow boundaries cannot be used in the following cases:

• If a problem includes pressure inlet boundaries; use pressure outlet boundary con-
ditions (see Section 7.8: Pressure Outlet Boundary Conditions) instead.

• If you are modeling compressible flow.

• If you are modeling unsteady flows with varying density, even if the flow is incom-
pressible.

• With the multiphase models (Eulerian, mixture, and VOF (except when modeling
open channel flow, as described in Section 23.3.9: Open Channel Flow).

You can find the following information about outflow boundary conditions in this section:

• Section 7.10.1: FLUENT’s Treatment at Outflow Boundaries

• Section 7.10.2: Using Outflow Boundaries

• Section 7.10.3: Mass Flow Split Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.10.4: Other Inputs at Outflow Boundaries

For an overview of flow boundaries, see Section 7.2: Flow Inlet and Exit Boundary
Conditions.

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 7.10 Outflow Boundary Conditions

7.10.1 FLUENT’s Treatment at Outflow Boundaries

The boundary conditions used by FLUENT at outflow boundaries are as follows:

• A zero diffusion flux for all flow variables.

• An overall mass balance correction.

The zero diffusion flux condition applied at outflow cells means that the conditions of the
outflow plane are extrapolated from within the domain and have no impact on the up-
stream flow. The extrapolation procedure used by FLUENT updates the outflow velocity
and pressure in a manner that is consistent with a fully-developed flow assumption, as
noted below, when there is no area change at the outflow boundary.
The zero diffusion flux condition applied by FLUENT at outflow boundaries is approached
physically in fully-developed flows. Fully-developed flows are flows in which the flow
velocity profile (and/or profiles of other properties such as temperature) is unchanging
in the flow direction.
It is important to note that gradients in the cross-stream direction may exist at an outflow
boundary. Only the diffusion fluxes in the direction normal to the exit plane are assumed
to be zero.

7.10.2 Using Outflow Boundaries

As noted in Section 7.10.1: FLUENT’s Treatment at Outflow Boundaries, the outflow
boundary condition is obeyed in fully-developed flows where the diffusion flux for all flow
variables in the exit direction are zero. However, you may also define outflow boundaries
at physical boundaries where the flow is not fully developed—and you can do so with
confidence if the assumption of a zero diffusion flux at the exit is expected to have a
small impact on your flow solution. The appropriate placement of an outflow boundary
is described by example below.

• Outflow boundaries where normal gradients are negligible: Figure 7.10.1 shows
a simple two-dimensional flow problem and several possible outflow boundary lo-
cation choices. Location C shows the outflow boundary located upstream of the
plenum exit but in a region of the duct where the flow is fully-developed. At this
location, the outflow boundary condition is exactly obeyed.

• Ill-posed outflow boundaries: Location B in Figure 7.10.1 shows the outflow bound-
ary near the reattachment point of the recirculation in the wake of the backward-
facing step. This choice of outflow boundary condition is ill-posed as the gradients
normal to the exit plane are quite large at this point and can be expected to have
a significant impact on the flow field upstream. Because the outflow boundary
condition ignores these axial gradients in the flow, location B is a poor choice for

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Boundary Conditions

A B C

outflow outflow outflow

condition condition condition
ill-posed not obeyed
obeyed

Figure 7.10.1: Choice of the Outflow Boundary Condition Location

an outflow boundary. The exit location should be moved downstream from the
reattachment point.
Figure 7.10.1 shows a second ill-posed outflow boundary at location A. Here, the
outflow is located where flow is pulled into the FLUENT domain through the out-
flow boundary. In situations like this the FLUENT calculation typically does not
converge and the results of the calculation have no validity. This is because when
flow is pulled into the domain through an outflow, the mass flow rate through
the domain is “floating” or undefined. In addition, when flow enters the domain
through an outflow boundary, the scalar properties of the flow are not defined. For
example, the temperature of the flow pulled in through the outflow is not defined.
(FLUENT chooses the temperature using the temperature of the fluid adjacent to
the outflow, inside the domain.) Thus you should view all calculations that involve
flow entering the domain through an outflow boundary with skepticism. For such
calculations, pressure outlet boundary conditions (see Section 7.8: Pressure Outlet
Boundary Conditions) are recommended.

i Note that convergence may be affected if there is recirculation through

the outflow boundary at any point during the calculation, even if the final
solution is not expected to have any flow reentering the domain. This is
particularly true of turbulent flow simulations.

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 7.10 Outflow Boundary Conditions

7.10.3 Mass Flow Split Boundary Conditions

In FLUENT, it is possible to use multiple outflow boundaries and specify the fractional
flow rate through each boundary. In the Outflow panel, set the Flow Rate Weighting to
indicate what portion of the outflow is through the boundary.

Figure 7.10.2: The Outflow Panel

The Flow Rate Weighting is a weighting factor:

percentage flow Flow Rate Weighting specified on boundary

= (7.10-1)
through boundary sum of all Flow Rate Weightings

By default, the Flow Rate Weighting for all outflow boundaries is set to 1. If the flow is
divided equally among all of your outflow boundaries (or if you have just one outflow
boundary), you need not change the settings from the default; FLUENT will scale the
flow rate fractions to obtain equal fractions through all outflow boundaries. Thus, if you
have two outflow boundaries and you want half of the flow to exit through each one, no
inputs are required from you. If, however, you want 75% of the flow to exit through one,
and 25% through the other, you will need to explicitly specify both Flow Rate Weightings,
i.e., 0.75 for one boundary and 0.25 for the other.

i If you specify a Flow Rate Weighting of 0.75 at the first exit and leave the
default Flow Rate Weighting (1.0) at the second exit, then the flow through
each boundary will be
0.75
Boundary 1 = 0.75+1.0
= 0.429 or 42.9%

1.0
Boundary 2 = 0.75+1.0
= 0.571 or 57.1%

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Boundary Conditions

7.10.4 Other Inputs at Outflow Boundaries

Radiation Inputs at Outflow Boundaries
In general, there are no boundary conditions for you to set at an outflow boundary. If,
however, you are using the P-1 radiation model, the DTRM, the DO model, or the surface-
to-surface model, you will set the Internal Emissivity and (optionally) Black Body Temper-
ature in the Outflow panel. These parameters are described in Section 13.3.15: Defining
Boundary Conditions for Radiation. The default value for Internal Emissivity is 1 and the
default value for Black Body Temperature is 300.

Defining Discrete Phase Boundary Conditions

If you are modeling a discrete phase of particles, you can set the fate of particle trajec-
tories at the outflow boundary. See Section 22.13: Setting Boundary Conditions for the
Discrete Phase for details.

7.11 Outlet Vent Boundary Conditions

Outlet vent boundary conditions are used to model an outlet vent with a specified loss
coefficient and ambient (discharge) pressure and temperature.

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 7.11 Outlet Vent Boundary Conditions

7.11.1 Inputs at Outlet Vent Boundaries

You will enter the following information for an outlet vent boundary:

• static pressure

• backflow conditions
– total (stagnation) temperature (for energy calculations)
– turbulence parameters (for turbulent calculations)
– chemical species mass fractions (for species calculations)
– mixture fraction and variance (for non-premixed or partially premixed com-
bustion calculations)
– progress variable (for premixed or partially premixed combustion calculations)
– multiphase boundary conditions (for general multiphase calculations)

• radiation parameters (for calculations using the P-1 model, the DTRM, the DO
model, or the surface-to-surface model)

• discrete phase boundary conditions (for discrete phase calculations)

• loss coefficient

• open channel flow parameters (for open channel flow calculations using the VOF
multiphase model)

All values are entered in the Outlet Vent panel (Figure 7.11.1), which is opened from the
Boundary Conditions panel (as described in Section 7.1.4: Setting Boundary Conditions).
The first 4 items listed above are specified in the same way that they are specified at
pressure outlet boundaries. See Section 7.8.1: Inputs at Pressure Outlet Boundaries for
details. Specification of the loss coefficient is described here. Open channel boundary
condition inputs are described in Section 23.10.2: Modeling Open Channel Flows.

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Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.11.1: The Outlet Vent Panel

Specifying the Loss Coefficient

An outlet vent is considered to be infinitely thin, and the pressure drop through the
vent is assumed to be proportional to the dynamic head of the fluid, with an empirically
determined loss coefficient which you supply. That is, the pressure drop, ∆p, varies with
the normal component of velocity through the vent, v, as follows:

1
∆p = kL ρv 2 (7.11-1)
2
where ρ is the fluid density, and kL is the nondimensional loss coefficient.

i ∆p is the pressure drop in the direction of the flow; therefore the vent will
appear as a resistance even in the case of backflow.
You can define a constant, polynomial, piecewise-linear, or piecewise-polynomial function for
the Loss-Coefficient across the vent. The panels for defining these functions are the same
as those used for defining temperature-dependent properties. See Section 8.2: Defining
Properties Using Temperature-Dependent Functions for details.

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 7.12 Exhaust Fan Boundary Conditions

7.12 Exhaust Fan Boundary Conditions

Exhaust fan boundary conditions are used to model an external exhaust fan with a
specified pressure jump and ambient (discharge) pressure.

7.12.1 Inputs at Exhaust Fan Boundaries

You will enter the following information for an exhaust fan boundary:

• static pressure

• backflow conditions
– total (stagnation) temperature (for energy calculations)
– turbulence parameters (for turbulent calculations)
– chemical species mass fractions (for species calculations)
– mixture fraction and variance (for non-premixed or partially premixed com-
bustion calculations)
– progress variable (for premixed or partially premixed combustion calculations)
– multiphase boundary conditions (for general multiphase calculations)
– user-defined scalar boundary conditions (for user-defined scalar calculations)

• radiation parameters (for calculations using the P-1 model, the DTRM, the DO
model, or the surface-to-surface model)

• discrete phase boundary conditions (for discrete phase calculations)

• pressure jump

• open channel flow parameters (for open channel flow calculations using the VOF
multiphase model)

All values are entered in the Exhaust Fan panel (Figure 7.12.1), which is opened from the
Boundary Conditions panel (as described in Section 7.1.4: Setting Boundary Conditions).
The first 4 items listed above are specified in the same way that they are specified at
pressure outlet boundaries. See Section 7.8.1: Inputs at Pressure Outlet Boundaries for
details. Specification of the pressure jump is described here. Open channel boundary
condition inputs are described in Section 23.10.2: Modeling Open Channel Flows.

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Boundary Conditions

Specifying the Pressure Jump

An exhaust fan is considered to be infinitely thin, and the discontinuous pressure rise
across it is specified as a function of the local fluid velocity normal to the fan. You
can define a constant, polynomial, piecewise-linear, or piecewise-polynomial function for
the Pressure-Jump across the fan. The panels for defining these functions are the same
as those used for defining temperature-dependent properties. See Section 8.2: Defining
Properties Using Temperature-Dependent Functions for details.

Figure 7.12.1: The Exhaust Fan Panel

i You must be careful to model the exhaust fan so that a pressure rise occurs
for forward flow through the fan. In the case of reversed flow, the fan is
treated like an inlet vent with a loss coefficient of unity.

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 7.13 Wall Boundary Conditions

7.13 Wall Boundary Conditions

Wall boundary conditions are used to bound fluid and solid regions. In viscous flows,
the no-slip boundary condition is enforced at walls by default, but you can specify a
tangential velocity component in terms of the translational or rotational motion of the
wall boundary, or model a “slip” wall by specifying shear. (You can also model a slip
wall with zero shear using the symmetry boundary type, but using a symmetry boundary
will apply symmetry conditions for all equations. See Section 7.14: Symmetry Boundary
Conditions for details.)
The shear stress and heat transfer between the fluid and wall are computed based on the
flow details in the local flow field.
You can find the following information about wall boundary conditions in this section:

• Section 7.13.1: Inputs at Wall Boundaries

• Section 7.13.2: Default Settings at Wall Boundaries

• Section 7.13.3: Shear-Stress Calculation Procedure at Wall Boundaries

• Section 7.13.4: Heat Transfer Calculations at Wall Boundaries

7.13.1 Inputs at Wall Boundaries

Summary
You will enter the following information for a wall boundary:

• thermal boundary conditions (for heat transfer calculations)

• wall motion conditions (for moving or rotating walls)

• shear conditions (for slip walls, optional)

• wall roughness (for turbulent flows, optional)

• species boundary conditions (for species calculations)

• chemical reaction boundary conditions (for surface reactions)

• radiation boundary conditions (for calculations using the P-1 model, the DTRM,
the DO model, or the surface-to-surface model)

• discrete phase boundary conditions (for discrete phase calculations)

• wall adhesion contact angle (for VOF calculations, optional)

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Boundary Conditions

Thermal Boundary Conditions at Walls

When you are solving the energy equation, you need to define thermal boundary condi-
tions at wall boundaries. Five types of thermal conditions are available:

• fixed heat flux

• fixed temperature

• convective heat transfer

• external radiation heat transfer

• combined external radiation and convection heat transfer

If the wall zone is a “two-sided wall” (a wall that forms the interface between two regions,
such as the fluid/solid interface for a conjugate heat transfer problem) a subset of these
thermal conditions will be available, but you will also be able to choose whether or not
the two sides of the wall are “coupled”. See below for details.
The inputs for each type of thermal condition are described below. If the wall has a non-
zero thickness, you should also set parameters for calculating thin-wall thermal resistance
and heat generation in the wall, as described below.
You can model conduction within boundary walls and internal (i.e., two-sided) walls
of your model. This type of conduction, called shell conduction, allows you to more
conveniently model heat conduction on walls where the wall thickness is small with
respect to the overall geometry (e.g., finned heat exchangers or sheet metal in automobile
underhoods). Meshing these walls with solid cells would lead to high-aspect-ratio meshes
and a significant increase in the total number of cells. See below for details about shell
conduction.
Thermal conditions are entered in the Thermal section of the Wall panel (Figure 7.13.1),
which is opened from the Boundary Conditions panel (as described in Section 7.1.4: Setting
Boundary Conditions). To view the thermal conditions, click the Thermal tab.

Heat Flux Boundary Conditions

For a fixed heat flux condition, choose the Heat Flux option under Thermal Conditions.
You will then need to set the appropriate value for the heat flux at the wall surface in the
Heat Flux field. You can define an adiabatic wall by setting a zero heat flux condition.
This is the default condition for all walls.

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 7.13 Wall Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.13.1: The Wall Panel (Thermal Section)

Temperature Boundary Conditions

To select the fixed temperature condition, choose the Temperature option under Thermal
Conditions in the Wall panel. You will need to specify the temperature at the wall surface
(Temperature). The heat transfer to the wall is computed using Equation 7.13-8 or
Equation 7.13-9.

Convective Heat Transfer Boundary Conditions

For a convective heat transfer wall boundary, select Convection under Thermal Conditions.
Your inputs of Heat Transfer Coefficient and Free Stream Temperature will allow FLUENT
to compute the heat transfer to the wall using Equation 7.13-12.

External Radiation Boundary Conditions

If radiation heat transfer from the exterior of your model is of interest, you can enable the
Radiation option in the Wall panel and set the External Emissivity and External Radiation
Temperature.

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Boundary Conditions

Combined Convection and External Radiation Boundary Conditions

You can choose a thermal condition that combines the convection and radiation boundary
conditions by selecting the Mixed option. With this thermal condition, you will need to set
the Heat Transfer Coefficient, Free Stream Temperature, External Emissivity, and External
Radiation Temperature.

Thin-Wall Thermal Resistance Parameters

By default, a wall will have a thickness of zero. You can, however, in conjunction with
any of the thermal conditions, model a thin layer of material on the wall. For example,
you can model the effect of a piece of sheet metal between two fluid zones, a coating on
a solid zone, or contact resistance between two solid regions. FLUENT will solve a 1D
conduction equation to compute the thermal resistance offered by the wall and the heat
generation in the wall.
To include these effects in the heat transfer calculation you will need to specify the type
of material, the thickness of the wall, and the heat generation rate in the wall. Select the
material type in the Material Name drop-down list, and specify the thickness in the Wall
Thickness field. If you want to check or modify the properties of the selected material,
you can click Edit... to open the Material panel; this panel contains just the properties of
the selected material, not the full contents of the standard Materials panel.
The thermal resistance of the wall is ∆x/k, where k is the conductivity of the wall
material and ∆x is the wall thickness. The thermal wall boundary condition you set will
be specified on the outside of the fluid/solid domain, which is called the inner surface of
the thin wall, as shown in Figure 7.13.2. This is the side of the wall surface away from
the adjacent fluid or solid cell zone. The temperature specified at this side of the wall is
Tb .

i The convention used in FLUENT is that for any wall, “outer” refers to the
surface of the wall facing the fluid/solid cell zone and “inner” refers to
the surface of the wall facing away from the adjacent fluid/solid cell zone.
If shell conduction is enabled (Section 7.13.1: Shell Conduction in Thin-
Walls), the shell cell temperature will be stored in the “inner” surface.
If there is no shell conduction, then the “outer” surface stores the face
temperature of the wall while the “inner” surface stores the evaluated value
of the boundary condition specified by the user.

i Note that for thin walls, you can only specify a constant thermal conduc-
tivity. If you want to use a non-constant thermal conductivity for a wall
with non-zero thickness, you should use the shell conduction model (see
below for details).

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 7.13 Wall Boundary Conditions

thin wall

outer surface
(wall surface toward the
adjacent fluid or solid cell zone)

Tb

fluid or
solid cells
inner surface
(wall surface away from the
adjacent fluid or solid cell zone)

∆x

Figure 7.13.2: Thermal Conditions are Specified on the Inner Surface of the
Thin Wall

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Boundary Conditions

Specify the heat generation rate inside the wall in the Heat Generation Rate field. This
option is useful if, for example, you are modeling printed circuit boards where you know
the electrical power dissipated in the circuits.

Thermal Conditions for Two-Sided Walls

If the wall zone has a fluid or solid region on each side, it is called a “two-sided wall”.
When you read a grid with this type of wall zone into FLUENT, a “shadow” zone will
automatically be created so that each side of the wall is a distinct wall zone. In the Wall
panel, the shadow zone’s name will be shown in the Shadow Face Zone field. You can
choose to specify different thermal conditions on each zone, or to couple the two zones:

• To couple the two sides of the wall, select the Coupled option under Thermal Condi-
tions. (This option will appear in the Wall panel only when the wall is a two-sided
wall.) No additional thermal boundary conditions are required, because the solver
will calculate heat transfer directly from the solution in the adjacent cells. You
can, however, specify the material type, wall thickness, and heat generation rate
for thin-wall thermal resistance calculations, as described above. Note that the re-
sistance parameters you set for one side of the wall will automatically be assigned to
its shadow wall zone. Specifying the heat generation rate inside the wall is useful if,
for example, you are modeling printed circuit boards where you know the electrical
power dissipated in the circuits but not the heat flux or wall temperature.

• To uncouple the two sides of the wall and specify different thermal conditions on
each one, choose Temperature or Heat Flux as the thermal condition type. (Convec-
tion and Radiation are not applicable for two-sided walls.) The relationship between
the wall and its shadow will be retained, so that you can couple them again at a
later time, if desired. You will need to set the relevant parameters for the selected
thermal condition, as described above. The two uncoupled walls can have differ-
ent thicknesses, and are effectively insulated from one another. If you specify a
non-zero wall thickness for the uncoupled walls, the thermal boundary conditions
you set will be specified on the inner surfaces of the two thin walls, as shown in
Figure 7.13.3, where Tb1 is the Temperature (or qb1 is the Heat Flux) specified on one
wall and Tb2 is the Temperature (or qb2 is the Heat Flux) specified on the other wall.
kw1 and kw2 are the thermal conductivities of the uncoupled thin walls. Note that
the gap between the walls in Figure 7.13.3 is not part of the model; it is included in
the figure only to show where the thermal boundary condition for each uncoupled
wall is applied.

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 7.13 Wall Boundary Conditions

thin walls

q b1 or Tb1

q b2 or Tb2
fluid or fluid or
solid cells solid cells

k w1 k w2

Figure 7.13.3: Thermal Conditions are Specified on the Inner Surfaces of the
Uncoupled Thin Walls

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Boundary Conditions

Shell Conduction in Thin-Walls

To enable shell conduction for a wall, turn on the Shell Conduction option in the Wall
boundary condition panel. When this option is enabled, FLUENT will compute heat
conduction within the wall, in addition to conduction across the wall (which is always
computed when the energy equation is solved). The Shell Conduction option will appear
in the Wall panel for all walls when solution of the energy equation is active. For a wall
with shell conduction enabled, the thermal conditions are applied as described above for
thin walls.
FLUENT cases with shell conduction can be read in serial or parallel. Either a partitioned
or an unpartitioned case file can be read in parallel (see Section 31.5: Partitioning the
Grid for more infomation on partitioning). After reading a case file in parallel, shell zones
can be created on any wall with a positive thickness.
To delete existing shell conduction zones all at once, the TUI command
define/boundary-conditions/modify-zones/delete-all-shells is used. This ca-
pability is available in both serial and parallel mode.

i You must specify a non-zero Wall Thickness in the Wall panel, because the
shell conduction model is relevant only for walls with non-zero thickness.

i Note that the shell conduction model has several limitations:

• It is available only in 3D.

• It is available only when the pressure-based solver is used.

• It cannot be used with the non-premixed or partially premixed combustion model.

• When used in conjunction with the discrete ordinates (DO) radiation model, shell
conducting walls cannot be semi-transparent.

• Shell conducting walls cannot be split or merged. If you need to split or merge a
shell conducting wall, disable the Shell Conduction option for the wall, perform the
split or merge operation, and then enable Shell Conduction for the new wall zones.

• The shell conduction model cannot be used on a wall zone that has been adapted.
If you want to perform adaption elsewhere in the computational domain, be sure to
use the mask register described in Section 26.11.1: Manipulating Adaption Registers
to ensure that no adaption is performed on the shell conducting wall.

• Fluxes at the ends of a shell conducting wall are not included in the heat balance
reports. These fluxes are accounted for correctly in the FLUENT solution, but not
in the flux report itself.

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 7.13 Wall Boundary Conditions

Wall Motion
Wall boundaries can be either stationary or moving. The stationary boundary condition
specifies a fixed wall, whereas the moving boundary condition can be used to specify the
translational or rotational velocity of the wall, or the velocity components.
Wall motion conditions are entered in the Momentum section of the Wall panel (Fig-
ure 7.13.4), which is opened from the Boundary Conditions panel (as described in Sec-
tion 7.1.4: Setting Boundary Conditions). To view the wall motion conditions, click the
Momentum tab.

Figure 7.13.4: The Wall Panel for a Moving Wall

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Boundary Conditions

Defining a Stationary Wall

For a stationary wall, choose the Stationary Wall option under Wall Motion.

Velocity Conditions for Moving Walls

If you wish to include tangential motion of the wall in your calculation, you need to define
the translational or rotational velocity, or the velocity components. Select the Moving
Wall option under Wall Motion. The Wall panel will expand, as shown in Figure 7.13.4,
to show the wall velocity conditions.
Note that you cannot use the moving wall condition to model problems where the wall
has a motion normal to itself. FLUENT will neglect any normal component of wall motion
that you specify using the methods below.

Specifying Relative or Absolute Velocity

If the cell zone adjacent to the wall is moving (e.g., if you are using a moving reference
frame or a sliding mesh), you can choose to specify velocities relative to the zone motion
by enabling the Relative to Adjacent Cell Zone option. If you choose to specify relative
velocities, a velocity of zero means that the wall is stationary in the relative frame, and
therefore moving at the speed of the adjacent cell zone in the absolute frame. If you
choose to specify absolute velocities (by enabling the Absolute option), a velocity of zero
means that the wall is stationary in the absolute frame, and therefore moving at the
speed of the adjacent cell zone—but in the opposite direction—in the relative reference
frame.

i If you are using one or more moving reference frames, sliding meshes, or
mixing planes, and you want the wall to be fixed in the moving frame, it is
recommended that you specify relative velocities (the default) rather than
absolute velocities. Then, if you modify the speed of the adjacent cell zone,
you will not need to make any changes to the wall velocities, as you would
if you specified absolute velocities.
Note that if the adjacent cell zone is not moving, the absolute and relative options are
equivalent.

Translational Wall Motion

For problems that include linear translational motion of the wall boundary (e.g., a rect-
angular duct with a moving belt as one wall) you can enable the Translational option
and specify the wall’s Speed and Direction (X,Y,Z vector). By default, wall motion is
“disabled” by the specification of Translational velocity with a Speed of zero.
If you need to define non-linear translational motion, you will need to use the Components
option, described below.

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 7.13 Wall Boundary Conditions

Rotational Wall Motion

For problems that include rotational wall motion you can enable the Rotational option
and define the rotational Speed about a specified axis. To define the axis, set the Rotation-
Axis Direction and Rotation-Axis Origin. This axis is independent of the axis of rotation
used by the adjacent cell zone, and independent of any other wall rotation axis. For
3D problems, the axis of rotation is the vector passing through the specified Rotation-
Axis Origin and parallel to the vector from (0,0,0) to the (X,Y,Z) point specified under
Rotation-Axis Direction. For 2D problems, you will specify only the Rotation-Axis Origin;
the axis of rotation is the z-direction vector passing through the specified point. For 2D
axisymmetric problems, you will not define the axis: the rotation will always be about
the x axis, with the origin at (0,0).
Note that the modeling of tangential rotational motion will be correct only if the wall
bounds a surface of revolution about the prescribed axis of rotation (e.g., a circle or
cylinder). Note also that rotational motion can be specified for a wall in a stationary
reference frame.

Wall Motion Based on Velocity Components

For problems that include linear or non-linear translational motion of the wall boundary
you can enable the Components option and specify the X-Velocity, Y-Velocity, and Z-
Velocity of the wall. You can define non-linear translational motion using a boundary
profile or a user-defined function for the X-Velocity, Y-Velocity, and/or Z-Velocity of the
wall.

Wall Motion for Two-Sided Walls

As discussed earlier in this section, when you read a grid with a two-sided wall zone
(which forms the interface between fluid/solid regions) into FLUENT, a “shadow” zone
will automatically be created so that each side of the wall is a distinct wall zone. For
two-sided walls, it is possible to specify different motions for the wall and shadow zones,
whether or not they are coupled. Note, however, that you cannot specify motion for a
wall (or shadow) that is adjacent to a solid zone.

Shear Conditions at Walls

Four types of shear conditions are available:

• no-slip

• specified shear

• specularity coefficient

• Marangoni stress

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Boundary Conditions

The no-slip condition is the default, and it indicates that the fluid sticks to the wall
and moves with the same velocity as the wall, if it is moving. The specified shear and
Marangoni stress boundary conditions are useful in modeling situations in which the
shear stress (rather than the motion of the fluid) is known. Examples of such situations
are applied shear stress, slip wall (zero shear stress), and free surface conditions (zero
shear stress or shear stress dependent on surface tension gradient). The specified shear
boundary condition allows you to specify the x, y, and z components of the shear stress
as constant values or boundary profiles. The Marangoni stress boundary condition allows
you to specify the gradient of the surface tension with respect to the temperature at this
surface. The shear stress is calculated based on the surface gradient of the temperature
and the specified surface tension gradient. The Marangoni stress option is available only
for calculations in which the energy equation is being solved.
The specularity coefficient shear condition is specifically used in multiphase with granular
flows. The specularity coefficient is a measure of the fraction of collisions which transfer
momentum to the wall and its value ranges between zero and unity. This implementation
is based on the Johnson and Jackson [166] boundary conditions for granular flows.
Shear conditions are entered in the Momentum section of the Wall panel, which is opened
from the Boundary Conditions panel (as described in Section 7.1.4: Setting Boundary
Conditions). To view the shear conditions, click the Momentum tab.

No-Slip Walls

You can model a no-slip wall by selecting the No Slip option under Shear Condition. This
is the default for all walls in viscous flows.

Specified Shear

In addition to the no-slip wall that is the default for viscous flows, you can model a slip
wall by specifying zero or non-zero shear. For non-zero shear, the shear to be specified is
the shear at the wall by the fluid. To specify the shear, select the Specified Shear option
under Shear Condition (see Figure 7.13.5). You can then enter x, y, and z components of
shear under Shear Stress. Wall functions for turbulence are not used with the Specified
Shear option.

Specularity Coefficient

For multiphase granular flow, you can specify the specularity coefficient such that when
the value is zero, this condition is equivalent to zero shear at the wall, but when the
value is near unity, there is a significant amount of lateral momentum transfer. To
specify the specularity coefficient, select the Specularity Coefficient option under Shear
Condition (see Figure 7.13.6) and enter the desired value in the text-entry box under
Specularity Coefficient.

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 7.13 Wall Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.13.5: The Wall Panel for Specified Shear

Marangoni Stress

FLUENT can also model shear stresses caused by the variation of surface tension due to
temperature. The shear stress applied at the wall is given by

dσ
τ= ∇s T (7.13-1)
dT
where dσ/dT is the surface tension gradient with respect to temperature, and ∇s T is the
surface gradient. This shear stress is then applied to the momentum equation.
To model Marangoni stress for the wall, select the Marangoni Stress option under Shear
Condition (see Figure 7.13.7). This option is available only for calculations in which the
energy equation is being solved. You can then enter the surface tension gradient (dσ/dT
in Equation 7.13-1) in the Surface Tension Gradient field. Wall functions for turbulence
are not used with the Marangoni Stress option.

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Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.13.6: The Wall Panel for the Specularity Coefficient

Wall Roughness Effects in Turbulent Wall-Bounded Flows

Fluid flows over rough surfaces are encountered in diverse situations. Examples are,
among many others, flows over the surfaces of airplanes, ships, turbomachinery, heat
exchangers, and piping systems, and atmospheric boundary layers over terrain of varying
roughness. Wall roughness affects drag (resistance) and heat and mass transfer on the
walls.
If you are modeling a turbulent wall-bounded flow in which the wall roughness effects
are considered to be significant, you can include the wall roughness effects through the
law-of-the-wall modified for roughness.

Law-of-the-Wall Modified for Roughness

Experiments in roughened pipes and channels indicate that the mean velocity distribution
near rough walls, when plotted in the usual semi-logarithmic scale, has the same slope
(1/κ) but a different intercept (additive constant B in the log-law). Thus, the law-of-
the-wall for mean velocity modified for roughness has the form

up u∗ 1 ρu∗ yp
= ln(E ) − ∆B (7.13-2)
τw /ρ κ µ

where u∗ = Cµ1/4 k 1/2 and

1
∆B = ln fr (7.13-3)
κ

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 7.13 Wall Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.13.7: The Wall Panel for Marangoni Stress

where fr is a roughness function that quantifies the shift of the intercept due to roughness
effects.
∆B depends, in general, on the type (uniform sand, rivets, threads, ribs, mesh-wire, etc.)
and size of the roughness. There is no universal roughness function valid for all types of
roughness. For a sand-grain roughness and similar types of uniform roughness elements,
however, ∆B has been found to be well-correlated with the nondimensional roughness
height, Ks+ = ρKs u∗ /µ, where Ks is the physical roughness height and u∗ = Cµ1/4 k 1/2 .
Analyses of experimental data show that the roughness function is not a single function
of Ks+ , but takes different forms depending on the Ks+ value. It has been observed that
there are three distinct regimes:

• hydrodynamically smooth (Ks+ ≤ 2.25)

• transitional (2.25 < Ks+ ≤ 90)

• fully rough (Ks+ > 90)

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Boundary Conditions

According to the data, roughness effects are negligible in the hydrodynamically smooth
regime, but become increasingly important in the transitional regime, and take full effect
in the fully rough regime.
In FLUENT, the whole roughness regime is subdivided into the three regimes, and the
formulas proposed by Cebeci and Bradshaw based on Nikuradse’s data [51] are adopted
to compute ∆B for each regime.
For the hydrodynamically smooth regime (Ks+ ≤ 2.25):

∆B = 0 (7.13-4)

For the transitional regime (2.25 < Ks+ ≤ 90):

Ks+ − 2.25
" #
1 n o
∆B = ln + Cs Ks+ × sin 0.4258(ln Ks+ − 0.811) (7.13-5)
κ 87.75

where Cs is a roughness constant, and depends on the type of the roughness.

In the fully rough regime (Ks+ > 90):
1
∆B = ln(1 + Cs Ks+ ) (7.13-6)
κ

In the solver, given the roughness parameters, ∆B(Ks+ ) is evaluated using the corre-
sponding formula (Equation 7.13-4, 7.13-5, or 7.13-6). The modified law-of-the-wall in
Equation 7.13-2 is then used to evaluate the shear stress at the wall and other wall
functions for the mean temperature and turbulent quantities.

Setting the Roughness Parameters

The roughness parameters are in the Momentum section of the Wall panel (see Fig-
ure 7.13.7), which is opened from the Boundary Conditions panel (as described in Sec-
tion 7.1.4: Setting Boundary Conditions). To view the wall roughness parameters, click
the Momentum tab.
To model the wall roughness effects, you must specify two roughness parameters: the
Roughness Height, Ks , and the Roughness Constant, Cs . The default roughness height
(Ks ) is zero, which corresponds to smooth walls. For the roughness to take effect, you
must specify a non-zero value for Ks . For a uniform sand-grain roughness, the height
of the sand-grain can simply be taken for Ks . For a non-uniform sand-grain, however,
the mean diameter (D50 ) would be a more meaningful roughness height. For other
types of roughness, an “equivalent” sand-grain roughness height could be used for Ks .
The above approaches are only relevant if the height is considered constant per surface.
However, if the roughness constant or roughness height is not constant (i.e., flow over a
nonuniform surface), then you can specify a boundary profile (Section 7.26: Boundary

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 7.13 Wall Boundary Conditions

Profiles). Similarly, user-defined functions may be used to define a wall roughness height
that is not constant. For details on the format of user-defined functions, refer to the
separate UDF Manual.
Choosing a proper roughness constant (Cs ) is dictated mainly by the type of the given
roughness. The default roughness constant (Cs = 0.5) was determined so that, when used
with k- turbulence models, it reproduces Nikuradse’s resistance data for pipes roughened
with tightly-packed, uniform sand-grain roughness. You may need to adjust the roughness
constant when the roughness you want to model departs much from uniform sand-grain.
For instance, there is some experimental evidence that, for non-uniform sand-grains,
ribs, and wire-mesh roughness, a higher value (Cs = 0.5 ∼ 1.0) is more appropriate.
Unfortunately, a clear guideline for choosing Cs for arbitrary types of roughness is not
available.
Note that it is not physically meaningful to have a mesh size such that the wall-adjacent
cell is smaller than the roughness height. For best results, make sure that the distance
from the wall to the centroid of the wall-adjacent cell is greater than Ks .

Species Boundary Conditions for Walls

By default, a zero-gradient condition for all species is assumed at walls (except for species
that participate in surface reactions), but it is also possible to specify species mass
fractions at walls. That is, Dirichlet boundary conditions such as those that are specified
at inlets can be used at walls as well.
If you wish to retain the default zero-gradient condition for a species, no inputs are
required. If you want to specify the mass fraction for a species at the wall, the steps are
as follows:

1. Click the Species tab in the Wall panel to view the species boundary conditions for
the wall (see Figure 7.13.8).

2. Under Species Boundary Condition, select Specified Mass Fraction (rather than Zero
Diffusive Flux) in the drop-down list to the right of the species name. The panel
will expand to include space for Species Mass Fractions.

3. Under Species Mass Fractions, specify the mass fraction for the species.

The boundary condition type for each species is specified separately, so you can choose
to use different methods for different species.
If you are modeling species transport with reactions, you can, alternatively, enable a
reaction mechanism at a wall by turning on the Reaction option and selecting an available
mechanism from the Reaction Mechanisms drop-down list. See Section 14.1.4: Defining
Zone-Based Reaction Mechanisms more information about defining reaction mechanisms.

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Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.13.8: The Wall Panel for Species Boundary Condition Input

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 7.13 Wall Boundary Conditions

Reaction Boundary Conditions for Walls

If you have enabled the modeling of wall surface reactions in the Species Model panel,
you can indicate whether or not surface reactions should be activated for the wall. In the
Species section of the Wall panel (Figure 7.13.8), turn the Surface Reactions option on or
off.
Note that a zero-gradient condition is assumed at the wall for species that do not par-
ticipate in any surface reactions.

Radiation Boundary Conditions for Walls

If you are using the P-1 radiation model, the DTRM, the DO model, or the surface-to-
surface model, you will need to set the emissivity of the wall (Internal Emissivity) in the
Radiation section of the Wall panel. If you are using the Rosseland model you do not need
to set the emissivity, because FLUENT assumes the emissivity is 1. If you are using the
DO model you will also need to define the wall as diffuse, specular, or semi-transparent.
See Section 13.3.15: Defining Boundary Conditions for Radiation for details.

Discrete Phase Model (DPM) Boundary Conditions for Walls

If you are modeling a discrete phase of particles, you can set the fate of particle tra-
jectories at the wall in the DPM section of the Wall panel. See Section 22.13: Setting
Boundary Conditions for the Discrete Phase for details.

Wall Adhesion Contact Angle for VOF Model

If you are using the VOF model and you are modeling wall adhesion, you can specify the
contact angle for each pair of phases at the wall in the Momentum section of the Wall
panel. See Section 23.9.8: Steps for Setting Boundary Conditions for details.

User-Defined Scalar (UDS) Boundary Conditions for Walls

If you have defined UDS transport equations in your model, you can specify boundary
conditions for each equation in the UDS section of the Wall panel. See Section 9.3.3: Set-
ting Up UDS Equations in FLUENT for details.

7.13.2 Default Settings at Wall Boundaries

The default thermal boundary condition is a fixed heat flux of zero. Walls are, by default,
not moving.

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Boundary Conditions

7.13.3 Shear-Stress Calculation Procedure at Wall Boundaries

For no-slip wall conditions, FLUENT uses the properties of the flow adjacent to the
wall/fluid boundary to predict the shear stress on the fluid at the wall. In laminar flows
this calculation simply depends on the velocity gradient at the wall, while in turbulent
flows one of the approaches described in Section 12.10: Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-
Bounded Turbulent Flows is used.
For specified-shear walls, FLUENT will compute the tangential velocity at the boundary.
If you are modeling inviscid flow with FLUENT, all walls use a slip condition, so they are
frictionless and exert no shear stress on the adjacent fluid.

Shear-Stress Calculation in Laminar Flow

In a laminar flow, the wall shear stress is defined by the normal velocity gradient at the
wall as

∂v
τw = µ (7.13-7)
∂n
When there is a steep velocity gradient at the wall, you must be sure that the grid is
sufficiently fine to accurately resolve the boundary layer. Guidelines for the appropriate
placement of the near-wall node in laminar flows are provided in Section 6.2.2: Node
Density and Clustering.

Shear-Stress Calculation in Turbulent Flows

Wall treatments for turbulent flows are described in Section 12.10: Near-Wall Treatments
for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows.

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7.13.4 Heat Transfer Calculations at Wall Boundaries

Temperature Boundary Conditions
When a fixed temperature condition is applied at the wall, the heat flux to the wall from
a fluid cell is computed as

q = hf (Tw − Tf ) + qrad (7.13-8)

where
hf = fluid-side local heat transfer coefficient
Tw = wall surface temperature
Tf = local fluid temperature
qrad = radiative heat flux
Note that the fluid-side heat transfer coefficient is computed based on the local flow-field
conditions (e.g., turbulence level, temperature, and velocity profiles), as described by
Equations 7.13-15 and 12.10-5.
Heat transfer to the wall boundary from a solid cell is computed as

ks
q= (Tw − Ts ) + qrad (7.13-9)
∆n
where
ks = thermal conductivity of the solid
Ts = local solid temperature
∆n = distance between wall surface and the solid cell center

Heat Flux Boundary Conditions

When you define a heat flux boundary condition at a wall, you specify the heat flux at
the wall surface. FLUENT uses Equation 7.13-8 and your input of heat flux to determine
the wall surface temperature adjacent to a fluid cell as

q − qrad
Tw = + Tf (7.13-10)
hf

where, as noted above, the fluid-side heat transfer coefficient is computed based on the
local flow-field conditions. When the wall borders a solid region, the wall surface tem-
perature is computed as

(q − qrad )∆n
Tw = + Ts (7.13-11)
ks

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Boundary Conditions

Convective Heat Transfer Boundary Conditions

When you specify a convective heat transfer coefficient boundary condition at a wall,
FLUENT uses your inputs of the external heat transfer coefficient and external heat sink
temperature to compute the heat flux to the wall as

q = hf (Tw − Tf ) + qrad
= hext (Text − Tw ) (7.13-12)

where
hext = external heat transfer coefficient defined by you
Text = external heat-sink temperature defined by you
qrad = radiative heat flux
Equation 7.13-12 assumes a wall of zero thickness.

External Radiation Boundary Conditions

When the external radiation boundary condition is used in FLUENT, the heat flux to the
wall is computed as

q = hf (Tw − Tf ) + qrad
4
= ext σ(T∞ − Tw4 ) (7.13-13)

where
ext = emissivity of the external wall surface defined by you
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
Tw = surface temperature of the wall
T∞ = temperature of the radiation source or sink on the exterior
of the domain, defined by you
qrad = radiative heat flux to the wall from within the domain
Equation 7.13-13 assumes a wall of zero thickness.

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 7.14 Symmetry Boundary Conditions

Combined External Convection and Radiation Boundary Conditions

When you choose the combined external heat transfer condition, the heat flux to the wall
is computed as

q = hf (Tw − Tf ) + qrad
4
= hext (Text − Tw ) + ext σ(T∞ − Tw4 ) (7.13-14)

where the variables are as defined above. Equation 7.13-14 assumes a wall of zero thick-
ness.

Calculation of the Fluid-Side Heat Transfer Coefficient

In laminar flows, the fluid side heat transfer at walls is computed using Fourier’s law
applied at the walls. FLUENT uses its discrete form:
!
∂T
q = kf (7.13-15)
∂n wall

where n is the local coordinate normal to the wall.

For turbulent flows, FLUENT uses the law-of-the-wall for temperature derived using the
analogy between heat and momentum transfer [197]. See Section 12.10.2: Standard Wall
Functions for details.

7.14 Symmetry Boundary Conditions

Symmetry boundary conditions are used when the physical geometry of interest, and the
expected pattern of the flow/thermal solution, have mirror symmetry. They can also be
used to model zero-shear slip walls in viscous flows. This section describes the treatment
of the flow at symmetry planes and provides examples of the use of symmetry. You do
not define any boundary conditions at symmetry boundaries, but you must take care to
correctly define your symmetry boundary locations.

i At the centerline of an axisymmetric geometry, you should use the axis

boundary type rather than the symmetry boundary type, as illustrated in
Figure 7.16.1. See Section 7.16: Axis Boundary Conditions for details.

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Boundary Conditions

7.14.1 Examples of Symmetry Boundaries

Symmetry boundaries are used to reduce the extent of your computational model to a
symmetric subsection of the overall physical system. Figures 7.14.1 and 7.14.2 illustrate
two examples of symmetry boundary conditions used in this way.

symmetry
planes

Figure 7.14.1: Use of Symmetry to Model One Quarter of a 3D Duct

2 symmetry planes
(model includes a
90° sector)

Figure 7.14.2: Use of Symmetry to Model One Quarter of a Circular Cross-

Section

Figure 7.14.3 illustrates two problems in which a symmetry plane would be inappropriate.
In both examples, the problem geometry is symmetric but the flow itself does not obey the
symmetry boundary conditions. In the first example, buoyancy creates an asymmetric
flow. In the second, swirl in the flow creates a flow normal to the would-be symmetry
plane. Note that this second example should be handled using rotationally periodic
boundaries (as illustrated in Figure 7.15.1).

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cold

hot fluid
rises g
hot

cold not a plane of symmetry

not a plane of symmetry

Figure 7.14.3: Inappropriate Use of Symmetry

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Boundary Conditions

7.14.2 Calculation Procedure at Symmetry Boundaries

FLUENT assumes a zero flux of all quantities across a symmetry boundary. There is no
convective flux across a symmetry plane: the normal velocity component at the symmetry
plane is thus zero. There is no diffusion flux across a symmetry plane: the normal
gradients of all flow variables are thus zero at the symmetry plane. The symmetry
boundary condition can therefore be summarized as follows:

• zero normal velocity at a symmetry plane

• zero normal gradients of all variables at a symmetry plane

As stated above, these conditions determine a zero flux across the symmetry plane, which
is required by the definition of symmetry. Since the shear stress is zero at a symmetry
boundary, it can also be interpreted as a “slip” wall when used in viscous flow calculations.

7.15 Periodic Boundary Conditions

Periodic boundary conditions are used when the physical geometry of interest and the
expected pattern of the flow/thermal solution have a periodically repeating nature. Two
types of periodic conditions are available in FLUENT. The first type does not allow a
pressure drop across the periodic planes. (Note to FLUENT 4 users: This type of periodic
boundary is referred to as a “cyclic” boundary in FLUENT 4.) The second type allows a
pressure drop to occur across translationally periodic boundaries, enabling you to model
“fully-developed” periodic flow. (In FLUENT 4 this is a “periodic” boundary.)
This section discusses the no-pressure-drop periodic boundary condition. A complete
description of the fully-developed periodic flow modeling capability is provided in Sec-
tion 9.4: Periodic Flows.
You can find the following information about periodic boundary conditions in this section:

• Section 7.15.1: Examples of Periodic Boundaries

• Section 7.15.2: Inputs for Periodic Boundaries

• Section 7.15.3: Default Settings at Periodic Boundaries

• Section 7.15.4: Calculation Procedure at Periodic Boundaries

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 7.15 Periodic Boundary Conditions

7.15.1 Examples of Periodic Boundaries

Periodic boundary conditions are used when the flows across two opposite planes in
your computational model are identical. Figure 7.15.1 illustrates a typical application
of periodic boundary conditions. In this example the flow entering the computational
model through one periodic plane is identical to the flow exiting the domain through the
opposite periodic plane. Periodic planes are always used in pairs as illustrated in this
example.
4 tangential inlets

periodic boundaries

Figure 7.15.1: Use of Periodic Boundaries to Define Swirling Flow in a Cylin-

drical Vessel

7.15.2 Inputs for Periodic Boundaries

For a periodic boundary without any pressure drop, there is only one input you need to
consider: whether the geometry is rotationally or translationally periodic. (Additional
inputs are required for a periodic flow with a periodic pressure drop. See Section 9.4: Pe-
riodic Flows.)
Rotationally periodic boundaries are boundaries that form an included angle about the
centerline of a rotationally symmetric geometry. Figure 7.15.1 illustrates rotational pe-
riodicity. Translationally periodic boundaries are boundaries that form periodic planes
in a rectilinear geometry. Figure 7.15.2 illustrates translationally periodic boundaries.
You will specify translational or rotational periodicity for a periodic boundary in the
Periodic panel (Figure 7.15.4), which is opened from the Boundary Conditions panel (as
described in Section 7.1.4: Setting Boundary Conditions).

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Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.15.2: Example of Translational Periodicity - Physical Domain

periodic boundary

periodic boundary

Figure 7.15.3: Example of Translational Periodicity - Modeled Domain

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 7.15 Periodic Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.15.4: The Periodic Panel

Note that there will be an additional item in the Periodic panel for the density-based
solvers, which allows you to specify the periodic pressure jump. See Section 9.4: Periodic
Flows for details.
If the domain is rotationally periodic, select Rotational as the Periodic Type; if it is
translationally periodic, select Translational. For rotationally periodic domains, the solver
will automatically compute the angle through which the periodic zone is rotated. The
axis used for this rotation is the axis of rotation specified for the adjacent cell zone.
Note that there is no need for the adjacent cell zone to be moving for you to use a
rotationally periodic boundary. You could, for example, model pipe flow in 3D using
a nonrotating reference frame with a pie-slice of the pipe; the sides of the slice would
require rotational periodicity.
You can use the Grid/Check menu item (see Section 6.5: Checking the Grid) to compute
and display the minimum, maximum, and average rotational angles of all faces on periodic
boundaries. If the difference between the minimum, maximum, and average values is not
negligible, then there is a problem with the grid: the grid geometry is not periodic about
the specified axis.

7.15.3 Default Settings at Periodic Boundaries

By default, all periodic boundaries are translational.

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Boundary Conditions

7.15.4 Calculation Procedure at Periodic Boundaries

FLUENT treats the flow at a periodic boundary as though the opposing periodic plane
is a direct neighbor to the cells adjacent to the first periodic boundary. Thus, when
calculating the flow through the periodic boundary adjacent to a fluid cell, the flow
conditions at the fluid cell adjacent to the opposite periodic plane are used.

7.16 Axis Boundary Conditions

The axis boundary type must be used as the centerline of an axisymmetric geometry (see
Figure 7.16.1). It can also be used for the centerline of a cylindrical-polar quadrilateral
or hexahedral grid (e.g., a grid created for a structured-grid code such as FLUENT 4).
You do not need to define any boundary conditions at axis boundaries.

axis

Figure 7.16.1: Use of an Axis Boundary as the Centerline in an Axisymmetric

Geometry

Calculation Procedure at Axis Boundaries

To determine the appropriate physical value for a particular variable at a point on the
axis, FLUENT uses the cell value in the adjacent cell.

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 7.17 Fluid Conditions

7.17 Fluid Conditions

A fluid zone is a group of cells for which all active equations are solved. The only required
input for a fluid zone is the type of fluid material. You must indicate which material the
fluid zone contains so that the appropriate material properties will be used.

i If you are modeling species transport and/or combustion, you will not select
a material here; the mixture material is specified in the Species Model panel
when you enable the model. Similarly, you will not specify the materials for
a multiphase flow here; you will choose them when you define the phases,
as described in Section 23.10.3: Defining the Phases for the VOF Model.
Optional inputs allow you to set sources or fixed values of mass, momentum, heat (tem-
perature), turbulence, species, and other scalar quantities. You can also define motion
for the fluid zone. If there are rotationally periodic boundaries adjacent to the fluid zone,
you will need to specify the rotation axis. If you are modeling turbulence using one of the
k- models, the k-ω model, or the Spalart-Allmaras model, you can choose to define the
fluid zone as a laminar flow region. If you are modeling radiation using the DO model,
you can specify whether or not the fluid participates in radiation.

i For information about porous zones, see Section 7.19: Porous Media
Conditions.

7.17.1 Inputs for Fluid Zones

You will set all fluid conditions in the Fluid panel (Figure 7.17.1), which is opened from the
Boundary Conditions panel (as described in Section 7.1.4: Setting Boundary Conditions).

Defining the Fluid Material

To define the material contained in the fluid zone, select the appropriate item in the
Material Name drop-down list. This list will contain all fluid materials that have been
defined (or loaded from the materials database) in the Materials panel. If you want to
check or modify the properties of the selected material, you can click Edit... to open the
Material panel; this panel contains just the properties of the selected material, not the
full contents of the standard Materials panel.

i If you are modeling species transport or multiphase flow, the Material Name
list will not appear in the Fluid panel. For species calculations, the mixture
material for all fluid zones will be the material you specified in the Species
Model panel. For multiphase flows, the materials are specified when you
define the phases, as described in Section 23.10.3: Defining the Phases for
the VOF Model.

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Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.17.1: The Fluid Panel

Defining Sources
If you wish to define a source of heat, mass, momentum, turbulence, species, or other
scalar quantity within the fluid zone, you can do so by enabling the Source Terms option.
See Section 7.28: Defining Mass, Momentum, Energy, and Other Sources for details.

Defining Fixed Values

If you wish to fix the value of one or more variables in the fluid zone, rather than
computing them during the calculation, you can do so by enabling the Fixed Values
option. See Section 7.27: Fixing the Values of Variables for details.

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Specifying a Laminar Zone

When you are calculating a turbulent flow, it is possible to “turn off” turbulence mod-
eling in a specific fluid zone. To disable turbulence modeling, turn on the Laminar Zone
option in the Fluid panel. This will disable the turbulence production, but transport the
turbulence quantities. If, in addition, you want to set the turbulent viscosity to zero you
can do that using the text command define/ boundary-conditions/fluid. You will
be asked if you want to Set Turbulent Viscosity to zero within laminar zone?.
If your response is yes, FLUENT will set both the production term in the turbulence
transport equation and µt to zero. This is useful if you know that the flow in a certain
region is laminar. For example, if you know the location of the transition point on an air-
foil, you can create a laminar/turbulent transition boundary where the laminar cell zone
borders the turbulent cell zone. This feature allows you to model turbulent transition on
the airfoil.
Disabling turbulence modeling in a fluid zone, can be applied to all the turbulence models
except the Large Eddy Simulation (LES) model.

Specifying a Reaction Mechanism

If you are modeling species transport with reactions, you can enable a reaction mechanism
in a fluid zone by turning on the Reaction option and selecting an available mechanism
from the Reaction Mechanisms drop-down list. See Section 14.1.4: Defining Zone-Based
Reaction Mechanisms more information about defining reaction mechanisms.

Specifying the Rotation Axis

If there are rotationally periodic boundaries adjacent to the fluid zone or if the zone is
rotating, you must specify the rotation axis. To define the axis, set the Rotation-Axis
Direction and Rotation-Axis Origin. This axis is independent of the axis of rotation used
by any adjacent wall zones or any other cell zones. For 3D problems, the axis of rotation
is the vector from the Rotation-Axis Origin in the direction of the vector given by your
Rotation-Axis Direction inputs. For 2D non-axisymmetric problems, you will specify only
the Rotation-Axis Origin; the axis of rotation is the z-direction vector passing through the
specified point. (The z direction is normal to the plane of your geometry so that rotation
occurs in the plane.) For 2D axisymmetric problems, you will not define the axis: the
rotation will always be about the x axis, with the origin at (0,0).

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Boundary Conditions

Defining Zone Motion

To define zone motion for a rotating or translating reference frame, select Moving Refer-
ence Frame in the Motion Type drop-down list (visible if you scroll down using the scroll
bar to the right of the Rotation-Axis Origin and Direction) and then set the appropriate
parameters in the expanded portion of the panel.
To define zone motion for a sliding mesh, select Moving Mesh in the Motion Type drop-
down list and then set the appropriate parameters in the expanded portion of the panel.
See Section 11.2: Sliding Mesh Theory for details.
For problems that include linear, translational motion of the fluid zone, specify the
Translational Velocity by setting the X, Y, and Z components. For problems that include
rotational motion, specify the rotational Speed under Rotational Velocity. The rotation
axis is defined as described above.
See Chapter 10: Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames for details about mod-
eling flows in moving reference frames.

Defining Radiation Parameters

If you are using the DO radiation model, you can specify whether or not the fluid zone par-
ticipates in radiation using the Participates in Radiation option. See Section 13.3.15: Defin-
ing Boundary Conditions for Radiation for details.

7.18 Solid Conditions

A “solid” zone is a group of cells for which only a heat conduction problem is solved;
no flow equations are solved. The material being treated as a solid may actually be
a fluid, but it is assumed that no convection is taking place. The only required input
for a solid zone is the type of solid material. You must indicate which material the
solid zone contains so that the appropriate material properties will be used. Optional
inputs allow you to set a volumetric heat generation rate (heat source) or a fixed value
of temperature. You can also define motion for the solid zone. If there are rotationally
periodic boundaries adjacent to the solid zone, you will need to specify the rotation axis.
If you are modeling radiation using the DO model, you can specify whether or not the
solid material participates in radiation.

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7.18.1 Inputs for Solid Zones

You will set all solid conditions in the Solid panel (Figure 7.18.1), which is opened from the
Boundary Conditions panel (as described in Section 7.1.4: Setting Boundary Conditions).

Figure 7.18.1: The Solid Panel

Defining the Solid Material

To define the material contained in the solid zone, select the appropriate item in the
Material Name drop-down list. This list will contain all solid materials that have been
defined (or loaded from the materials database) in the Materials panel. If you want to
check or modify the properties of the selected material, you can click Edit... to open the
Material panel; this panel contains just the properties of the selected material, not the
full contents of the standard Materials panel.

Defining a Heat Source

If you wish to define a source of heat within the solid zone, you can do so by enabling the
Source Terms option. See Section 7.28: Defining Mass, Momentum, Energy, and Other
Sources for details.

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Boundary Conditions

Defining a Fixed Temperature

If you wish to fix the value of temperature in the solid zone, rather than computing
it during the calculation, you can do so by enabling the Fixed Values option. See Sec-
tion 7.27: Fixing the Values of Variables for details.

Specifying the Rotation Axis

If there are rotationally periodic boundaries adjacent to the solid zone or if the zone is
rotating, you must specify the rotation axis. To define the axis, set the Rotation-Axis
Direction and Rotation-Axis Origin. This axis is independent of the axis of rotation used
by any adjacent wall zones or any other cell zones. For 3D problems, the axis of rotation
is the vector from the Rotation-Axis Origin in the direction of the vector given by your
Rotation-Axis Direction inputs. For 2D non-axisymmetric problems, you will specify only
the Rotation-Axis Origin; the axis of rotation is the z-direction vector passing through the
specified point. (The z direction is normal to the plane of your geometry so that rotation
occurs in the plane.) For 2D axisymmetric problems, you will not define the axis: the
rotation will always be about the x axis, with the origin at (0,0).

Defining Zone Motion

To define zone motion for a rotating or translating reference frame, select Moving Refer-
ence Frame in the Motion Type drop-down list and then set the appropriate parameters
in the expanded portion of the panel.
To define zone motion for a sliding mesh, select Moving Mesh in the Motion Type drop-
down list and then set the appropriate parameters in the expanded portion of the panel.
See Section 11.2: Sliding Mesh Theory for details.
For problems that include linear, translational motion of the fluid zone, specify the
Translational Velocity by setting the X, Y, and Z components. For problems that include
rotational motion, specify the rotational Speed under Rotational Velocity. The rotation
axis is defined as described above.
See Chapter 10: Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames for details about mod-
eling flows in moving reference frames.

Defining Radiation Parameters

If you are using the DO radiation model, you can specify whether or not the solid
material participates in radiation using the Participates in Radiation option. See Sec-
tion 13.3.15: Defining Boundary Conditions for Radiation for details.

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7.19 Porous Media Conditions

The porous media model can be used for a wide variety of problems, including flows
through packed beds, filter papers, perforated plates, flow distributors, and tube banks.
When you use this model, you define a cell zone in which the porous media model is
applied and the pressure loss in the flow is determined via your inputs as described
in Section 7.19.2: Momentum Equations for Porous Media. Heat transfer through the
medium can also be represented, subject to the assumption of thermal equilibrium be-
tween the medium and the fluid flow, as described in Section 7.19.3: Treatment of the
Energy Equation in Porous Media.
A 1D simplification of the porous media model, termed the “porous jump,” can be used to
model a thin membrane with known velocity/pressure-drop characteristics. The porous
jump model is applied to a face zone, not to a cell zone, and should be used (instead
of the full porous media model) whenever possible because it is more robust and yields
better convergence. See Section 7.22: Porous Jump Boundary Conditions for details.
You can find information about modeling porous media in the following sections:

• Section 7.19.1: Limitations and Assumptions of the Porous Media Model

• Section 7.19.2: Momentum Equations for Porous Media

• Section 7.19.3: Treatment of the Energy Equation in Porous Media

• Section 7.19.4: Treatment of Turbulence in Porous Media

• Section 7.19.5: Effect of Porosity on Transient Scalar Equations

• Section 7.19.6: User Inputs for Porous Media

• Section 7.19.7: Modeling Porous Media Based on Physical Velocity

• Section 7.19.8: Solution Strategies for Porous Media

• Section 7.19.9: Postprocessing for Porous Media

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Boundary Conditions

7.19.1 Limitations and Assumptions of the Porous Media Model

The porous media model incorporates an empirically determined flow resistance in a
region of your model defined as “porous”. In essence, the porous media model is nothing
more than an added momentum sink in the governing momentum equations. As such,
the following modeling assumptions and limitations should be readily recognized:

• Since the volume blockage that is physically present is not represented in the model,
by default FLUENT uses and reports a superficial velocity inside the porous medium,
based on the volumetric flow rate, to ensure continuity of the velocity vectors across
the porous medium interface. As a more accurate alternative, you can instruct
FLUENT to use the true (physical) velocity inside the porous medium. See Sec-
tion 7.19.7: Modeling Porous Media Based on Physical Velocity for details.

• The effect of the porous medium on the turbulence field is only approximated. See
Section 7.19.4: Treatment of Turbulence in Porous Media for details.

• When applying the porous media model in a moving reference frame, FLUENT
will either apply the relative reference frame or the absolute reference frame when
you enable the Relative Velocity Resistance Formulation. This allows for the correct
prediction of the source terms. For more information about porous media, see
Sections 7.19.6 and 7.19.6.

• When specifying the specific heat capacity, Cp , for the selected material in the
porous zone, Cp must be entered as a constant value.

7.19.2 Momentum Equations for Porous Media

Porous media are modeled by the addition of a momentum source term to the standard
fluid flow equations. The source term is composed of two parts: a viscous loss term
(Darcy, the first term on the right-hand side of Equation 7.19-1 ), and an inertial loss
term (the second term on the right-hand side of Equation 7.19-1)
 
3 3
X X 1
Si = −  Dij µvj + Cij ρ|v|vj  (7.19-1)
j=1 j=1 2

where Si is the source term for the ith (x, y, or z) momentum equation, |v| is the
magnitude of the velocity and D and C are prescribed matrices. This momentum sink
contributes to the pressure gradient in the porous cell, creating a pressure drop that is
proportional to the fluid velocity (or velocity squared) in the cell.

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 7.19 Porous Media Conditions

To recover the case of simple homogeneous porous media

µ 1
 
Si = − vi + C2 ρ|v|vi (7.19-2)
α 2
where α is the permeability and C2 is the inertial resistance factor, simply specify D and
C as diagonal matrices with 1/α and C2 , respectively, on the diagonals (and zero for the
other elements).
FLUENT also allows the source term to be modeled as a power law of the velocity mag-
nitude:

Si = −C0 |v|C1 = −C0 |v|(C1 −1) vi (7.19-3)

where C0 and C1 are user-defined empirical coefficients.

i In the power-law model, the pressure drop is isotropic and the units for C0
are SI.

Darcy’s Law in Porous Media

In laminar flows through porous media, the pressure drop is typically proportional to ve-
locity and the constant C2 can be considered to be zero. Ignoring convective acceleration
and diffusion, the porous media model then reduces to Darcy’s Law:

µ
∇p = − ~v (7.19-4)
α
The pressure drop that FLUENT computes in each of the three (x,y,z) coordinate direc-
tions within the porous region is then

3
X µ
∆px = vj ∆nx
j=1 αxj

3
X µ
∆py = vj ∆ny (7.19-5)
j=1 αyj

3
X µ
∆pz = vj ∆nz
j=1 αzj

where 1/αij are the entries in the matrix D in Equation 7.19-1, vj are the velocity
components in the x, y, and z directions, and ∆nx , ∆ny , and ∆nz are the thicknesses of
the medium in the x, y, and z directions.

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Boundary Conditions

Here, the thickness of the medium (∆nx , ∆ny , or ∆nz ) is the actual thickness of the
porous region in your model. Thus if the thicknesses used in your model differ from the
actual thicknesses, you must make the adjustments in your inputs for 1/αij .

Inertial Losses in Porous Media

At high flow velocities, the constant C2 in Equation 7.19-1 provides a correction for
inertial losses in the porous medium. This constant can be viewed as a loss coefficient
per unit length along the flow direction, thereby allowing the pressure drop to be specified
as a function of dynamic head.
If you are modeling a perforated plate or tube bank, you can sometimes eliminate the
permeability term and use the inertial loss term alone, yielding the following simplified
form of the porous media equation:

3
1
X  
∇p = − C2ij ρvj |v| (7.19-6)
j=1 2

or when written in terms of the pressure drop in the x, y, z directions:

3
X 1
∆px ≈ C2xj ∆nx ρvj |v|
j=1 2
3
X 1
∆py ≈ C2yj ∆ny ρvj |v|
j=1 2
3
X 1
∆pz ≈ C2zj ∆nz ρvj |v| (7.19-7)
j=1 2

Again, the thickness of the medium (∆nx , ∆ny , or ∆nz ) is the thickness you have defined
in your model.

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7.19.3 Treatment of the Energy Equation in Porous Media

FLUENT solves the standard energy transport equation (Equation 13.2-1) in porous media
regions with modifications to the conduction flux and the transient terms only. In the
porous medium, the conduction flux uses an effective conductivity and the transient term
includes the thermal inertia of the solid region on the medium:

" ! #
∂
hi Ji + (τ · ~v ) + Sfh
X
(γρf Ef + (1 − γ)ρs Es ) + ∇ · (~v (ρf Ef + p)) = ∇ · keff ∇T −
∂t i
(7.19-8)
where
Ef = total fluid energy
Es = total solid medium energy
γ = porosity of the medium
keff = effective thermal conductivity of the medium
Sfh = fluid enthalpy source term

Effective Conductivity in the Porous Medium

The effective thermal conductivity in the porous medium, keff , is computed by FLUENT
as the volume average of the fluid conductivity and the solid conductivity:

keff = γkf + (1 − γ)ks (7.19-9)

where
γ = porosity of the medium
kf = fluid phase thermal conductivity (including the turbulent contribution, kt )
ks = solid medium thermal conductivity
The fluid thermal conductivity kf and the solid thermal conductivity ks can be computed
via user-defined functions.
The anisotropic effective thermal conductivity can also be specified via user-defined func-
tions. In this case, the isotropic contributions from the fluid, γkf , are added to the
diagonal elements of the solid anisotropic thermal conductivity matrix.

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Boundary Conditions

7.19.4 Treatment of Turbulence in Porous Media

FLUENT will, by default, solve the standard conservation equations for turbulence quanti-
ties in the porous medium. In this default approach, turbulence in the medium is treated
as though the solid medium has no effect on the turbulence generation or dissipation
rates. This assumption may be reasonable if the medium’s permeability is quite large
and the geometric scale of the medium does not interact with the scale of the turbulent
eddies. In other instances, however, you may want to suppress the effect of turbulence
in the medium.
If you are using one of the turbulence models (with the exception of the Large Eddy
Simulation (LES) model), you can suppress the effect of turbulence in a porous region
by setting the turbulent contribution to viscosity, µt , equal to zero. When you choose
this option, FLUENT will transport the inlet turbulence quantities through the medium,
but their effect on the fluid mixing and momentum will be ignored. In addition, the
generation of turbulence will be set to zero in the medium. This modeling strategy is
enabled by turning on the Laminar Zone option in the Fluid panel. Enabling this option
implies that µt is zero and that generation of turbulence will be zero in this porous zone.
Disabling the option (the default) implies that turbulence will be computed in the porous
region just as in the bulk fluid flow. Refer to Section 7.17.1: Specifying a Laminar Zone
for details about using the Laminar Zone option.

7.19.5 Effect of Porosity on Transient Scalar Equations

For transient porous media calculations, the effect of porosity on the time-derivative terms
is accounted for in all scalar transport equations and the continuity equation. When the
∂
effect of porosity is taken into account, the time-derivative term becomes ∂t (γρφ), where
φ is the scalar quantity (k, , etc.) and γ is the porosity.
The effect of porosity is enabled automatically for transient calculations, and the porosity
is set to 1 by default.

7.19.6 User Inputs for Porous Media

When you are modeling a porous region, the only additional inputs for the problem setup
are as follows. Optional inputs are indicated as such.

1. Define the porous zone.

2. Define the porous velocity formulation. (optional)

3. Identify the fluid material flowing through the porous medium.

4. Enable reactions for the porous zone, if appropriate, and select the reaction mech-
anism.

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 7.19 Porous Media Conditions

5. Enable the Relative Velocity Resistance Formulation. By default, this option is al-
ready enabled and takes the moving porous media into consideration (as described
in Section 7.19.6: Including the Relative Velocity Resistance Formulation).

6. Set the viscous resistance coefficients (Dij in Equation 7.19-1, or 1/α in Equa-
tion 7.19-2) and the inertial resistance coefficients (Cij in Equation 7.19-1, or C2 in
Equation 7.19-2), and define the direction vectors for which they apply. Alterna-
tively, specify the coefficients for the power-law model.

7. Specify the porosity of the porous medium.

8. Select the material contained in the porous medium (required only for models that
include heat transfer). Note that the specific heat capacity, Cp , for the selected
material in the porous zone can only be entered as a constant value.

9. Set the volumetric heat generation rate in the solid portion of the porous medium
(or any other sources, such as mass or momentum). (optional)

10. Set any fixed values for solution variables in the fluid region (optional).

11. Suppress the turbulent viscosity in the porous region, if appropriate.

12. Specify the rotation axis and/or zone motion, if relevant.

Methods for determining the resistance coefficients and/or permeability are presented
below. If you choose to use the power-law approximation of the porous-media momentum
source term, you will enter the coefficients C0 and C1 in Equation 7.19-3 instead of the
resistance coefficients and flow direction.
You will set all parameters for the porous medium in the Fluid panel (Figure 7.19.1),
which is opened from the Boundary Conditions panel (as described in Section 7.1.4: Setting
Boundary Conditions).

Defining the Porous Zone

As mentioned in Section 7.1: Overview of Defining Boundary Conditions, a porous zone
is modeled as a special type of fluid zone. To indicate that the fluid zone is a porous
region, enable the Porous Zone option in the Fluid panel. The panel will expand to show
the porous media inputs (as shown in Figure 7.19.1).

Defining the Porous Velocity Formulation

The Solver panel contains a Porous Formulation region where you can instruct FLUENT to
use either a superficial or physical velocity in the porous medium simulation. By default,
the velocity is set to Superficial Velocity. For details about using the Physical Velocity
formulation, see Section 7.19.7: Modeling Porous Media Based on Physical Velocity.

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Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.19.1: The Fluid Panel for a Porous Zone

Defining the Fluid Passing Through the Porous Medium

To define the fluid that passes through the porous medium, select the appropriate fluid
in the Material Name drop-down list in the Fluid panel. If you want to check or modify
the properties of the selected material, you can click Edit... to open the Material panel;
this panel contains just the properties of the selected material, not the full contents of
the standard Materials panel.

i If you are modeling species transport or multiphase flow, the Material Name
list will not appear in the Fluid panel. For species calculations, the mixture
material for all fluid/porous zones will be the material you specified in the
Species Model panel. For multiphase flows, the materials are specified when
you define the phases, as described in Section 23.10.3: Defining the Phases
for the VOF Model.

Enabling Reactions in a Porous Zone

If you are modeling species transport with reactions, you can enable reactions in a porous
zone by turning on the Reaction option in the Fluid panel and selecting a mechanism in
the Reaction Mechanism drop-down list.

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 7.19 Porous Media Conditions

If your mechanism contains wall surface reactions, you will also need to specify a value
for the Surface-to-Volume Ratio. This value is the surface area of the pore walls per
unit volume ( VA ), and can be thought of as a measure of catalyst loading. With this
value, FLUENT can calculate the total surface area on which the reaction takes place
in each cell by multiplying VA by the volume of the cell. See Section 14.1.4: Defining
Zone-Based Reaction Mechanisms for details about defining reaction mechanisms. See
Section 14.2: Wall Surface Reactions and Chemical Vapor Deposition for details about
wall surface reactions.

Including the Relative Velocity Resistance Formulation

Prior to FLUENT 6.3, cases with moving reference frames used the absolute velocities
in the source calculations for inertial and viscous resistance. This approach has been
enhanced so that relative velocities are used for the porous source calculations (Sec-
tion 7.19.2: Momentum Equations for Porous Media). Using the Relative Velocity Resis-
tance Formulation option (turned on by default) allows you to better predict the source
terms for cases involving moving meshes or moving reference frames (MRF). This option
works well in cases with non-moving and moving porous media. Note that FLUENT will
use the appropriate velocities (relative or absolute), depending on your case setup.

Defining the Viscous and Inertial Resistance Coefficients

The viscous and inertial resistance coefficients are both defined in the same manner.
The basic approach for defining the coefficients using a Cartesian coordinate system is
to define one direction vector in 2D or two direction vectors in 3D, and then specify
the viscous and/or inertial resistance coefficients in each direction. In 2D, the second
direction, which is not explicitly defined, is normal to the plane defined by the specified
direction vector and the z direction vector. In 3D, the third direction is normal to
the plane defined by the two specified direction vectors. For a 3D problem, the second
direction must be normal to the first. If you fail to specify two normal directions, the
solver will ensure that they are normal by ignoring any component of the second direction
that is in the first direction. You should therefore be certain that the first direction is
correctly specified.
You can also define the viscous and/or inertial resistance coefficients in each direction
using a user-defined function (UDF). The user-defined options become available in the
corresponding drop-down list when the UDF has been created and loaded into FLUENT.
Note that the coefficients defined in the UDF must utilize the DEFINE PROFILE macro.
For more information on creating and using user-defined function, see the separate UDF
Manual.
If you are modeling axisymmetric swirling flows, you can specify an additional direction
component for the viscous and/or inertial resistance coefficients. This direction compo-
nent is always tangential to the other two specified directions. This option is available
for both density-based and pressure-based solvers.

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Boundary Conditions

In 3D, it is also possible to define the coefficients using a conical (or cylindrical) coordinate
system, as described below.

i Note that the viscous and inertial resistance coefficients are generally based
on the superficial velocity of the fluid in the porous media.
The procedure for defining resistance coefficients is as follows:

1. Define the direction vectors.

• To use a Cartesian coordinate system, simply specify the Direction-1 Vector
and, for 3D, the Direction-2 Vector. The unspecified direction will be deter-
mined as described above. These direction vectors correspond to the principle
axes of the porous media.
For some problems in which the principal axes of the porous medium are not
aligned with the coordinate axes of the domain, you may not know a priori
the direction vectors of the porous medium. In such cases, the plane tool in
3D (or the line tool in 2D) can help you to determine these direction vectors.
(a) “Snap” the plane tool (or the line tool) onto the boundary of the porous
region. (Follow the instructions in Section 27.6.1: Using the Plane Tool
or 27.5.1 for initializing the tool to a position on an existing surface.)
(b) Rotate the axes of the tool appropriately until they are aligned with the
porous medium.
(c) Once the axes are aligned, click on the Update From Plane Tool or Update
From Line Tool button in the Fluid panel. FLUENT will automatically set
the Direction-1 Vector to the direction of the red arrow of the tool, and
(in 3D) the Direction-2 Vector to the direction of the green arrow.
• To use a conical coordinate system (e.g., for an annular, conical filter element),
follow the steps below. This option is available only in 3D cases.
(a) Turn on the Conical option.
(b) Specify the Cone Axis Vector and Point on Cone Axis. The cone axis is
specified as being in the direction of the Cone Axis Vector (unit vector),
and passing through the Point on Cone Axis. The cone axis may or may
not pass through the origin of the coordinate system.
(c) Set the Cone Half Angle (the angle between the cone’s axis and its surface,
shown in Figure 7.19.2). To use a cylindrical coordinate system, set the
Cone Half Angle to 0.

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 7.19 Porous Media Conditions

Figure 7.19.2: Cone Half Angle

For some problems in which the axis of the conical filter element is not aligned
with the coordinate axes of the domain, you may not know a priori the direc-
tion vector of the cone axis and coordinates of a point on the cone axis. In
such cases, the plane tool can help you to determine the cone axis vector and
point coordinates. One method is as follows:
(a) Select a boundary zone of the conical filter element that is normal to the
cone axis vector in the drop-down list next to the Snap to Zone button.
(b) Click on the Snap to Zone button. FLUENT will automatically “snap” the
plane tool onto the boundary. It will also set the Cone Axis Vector and
the Point on Cone Axis. (Note that you will still have to set the Cone Half
Angle yourself.)
An alternate method is as follows:
(a) “Snap” the plane tool onto the boundary of the porous region. (Follow
the instructions in Section 27.6.1: Using the Plane Tool for initializing the
tool to a position on an existing surface.)
(b) Rotate and translate the axes of the tool appropriately until the red arrow
of the tool is pointing in the direction of the cone axis vector and the origin
of the tool is on the cone axis.
(c) Once the axes and origin of the tool are aligned, click on the Update From
Plane Tool button in the Fluid panel. FLUENT will automatically set the
Cone Axis Vector and the Point on Cone Axis. (Note that you will still have
to set the Cone Half Angle yourself.)

2. Under Viscous Resistance, specify the viscous resistance coefficient 1/α in each di-
rection.
Under Inertial Resistance, specify the inertial resistance coefficient C2 in each direc-
tion. (You will need to scroll down with the scroll bar to view these inputs.)
For porous media cases containing highly anisotropic inertial resistances, enable
Alternative Formulation under Inertial Resistance. The Alternative Formulation option
provides better stability to the calculation when your porous medium is anisotropic.

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Boundary Conditions

The pressure loss through the medium depends on the magnitude of the veloc-
ity vector of the i th component in the medium. Using the formulation of Equa-
tion 7.19-6 yields the expression below:

1
Si = ρCi |vi |vi (7.19-10)
2
Whether or not you use the Alternative Formulation option depends on how well
you can fit your experimentally determined pressure drop data to the FLUENT
model. For example, if the flow through the medium is aligned with the grid in
your FLUENT model, then it will not make a difference whether or not you use the
formulation.
For more infomation about simulations involving highly anisotropic porous media,
see Section 7.19.8: Solution Strategies for Porous Media.

i Note that the alternative formulation is compatible only with the pressure-
based solver.
If you are using the Conical specification method, Direction-1 is the cone axis di-
rection, Direction-2 is the normal to the cone surface (radial (r) direction for a
cylinder), and Direction-3 is the circumferential (θ) direction.
In 3D there are three possible categories of coefficients, and in 2D there are two:
• In the isotropic case, the resistance coefficients in all directions are the same
(e.g., a sponge). For an isotropic case, you must explicitly set the resistance
coefficients in each direction to the same value.
• When (in 3D) the coefficients in two directions are the same and those in the
third direction are different or (in 2D) the coefficients in the two directions
are different, you must be careful to specify the coefficients properly for each
direction. For example, if you had a porous region consisting of cylindrical
straws with small holes in them positioned parallel to the flow direction, the
flow would pass easily through the straws, but the flow in the other two direc-
tions (through the small holes) would be very little. If you had a plane of flat
plates perpendicular to the flow direction, the flow would not pass through
them at all; it would instead move in the other two directions.
• In 3D the third possible case is one in which all three coefficients are different.
For example, if the porous region consisted of a plane of irregularly-spaced
objects (e.g., pins), the movement of flow between the blockages would be
different in each direction. You would therefore need to specify different coef-
ficients in each direction.

Methods for deriving viscous and inertial loss coefficients are described in the sections
that follow.

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 7.19 Porous Media Conditions

Deriving Porous Media Inputs Based on Superficial Velocity, Using a Known Pressure Loss

When you use the porous media model, you must keep in mind that the porous cells in
FLUENT are 100% open, and that the values that you specify for 1/αij and/or C2ij must
be based on this assumption. Suppose, however, that you know how the pressure drop
varies with the velocity through the actual device, which is only partially open to flow.
The following exercise is designed to show you how to compute a value for C2 which is
appropriate for the FLUENT model.
Consider a perforated plate which has 25% area open to flow. The pressure drop through
the plate is known to be 0.5 times the dynamic head in the plate. The loss factor, KL ,
defined as

1 2
∆p = KL ( ρv25%open ) (7.19-11)
2
is therefore 0.5, based on the actual fluid velocity in the plate, i.e., the velocity through
the 25% open area. To compute an appropriate value for C2 , note that in the FLUENT
model:

1. The velocity through the perforated plate assumes that the plate is 100% open.

2. The loss coefficient must be converted into dynamic head loss per unit length of
the porous region.

Noting item 1, the first step is to compute an adjusted loss factor, KL0 , which would be
based on the velocity of a 100% open area:

1 2
∆p = KL0 ( ρv100%open ) (7.19-12)
2
or, noting that for the same flow rate, v25%open = 4 × v100%open ,

2
v25%open
KL0 = KL × 2
v100%open
 2
4
= 0.5 ×
1
= 8 (7.19-13)

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Boundary Conditions

The adjusted loss factor has a value of 8. Noting item 2, you must now convert this into
a loss coefficient per unit thickness of the perforated plate. Assume that the plate has a
thickness of 1.0 mm (10−3 m). The inertial loss factor would then be

KL0
C2 =
thickness
8
= = 8000 m−1 (7.19-14)
10−3

Note that, for anisotropic media, this information must be computed for each of the 2
(or 3) coordinate directions.

Using the Ergun Equation to Derive Porous Media Inputs for a Packed Bed

As a second example, consider the modeling of a packed bed. In turbulent flows, packed
beds are modeled using both a permeability and an inertial loss coefficient. One technique
for deriving the appropriate constants involves the use of the Ergun equation [98], a semi-
empirical correlation applicable over a wide range of Reynolds numbers and for many
types of packing:

|∆p| 150µ (1 − )2 1.75ρ (1 − ) 2

= 2 3
v∞ + v∞ (7.19-15)
L Dp  Dp 3

When modeling laminar flow through a packed bed, the second term in the above equation
may be dropped, resulting in the Blake-Kozeny equation [98]:

|∆p| 150µ (1 − )2

= v∞ (7.19-16)
L Dp2 3

In these equations, µ is the viscosity, Dp is the mean particle diameter, L is the bed
depth, and  is the void fraction, defined as the volume of voids divided by the volume
of the packed bed region. Comparing Equations 7.19-4 and 7.19-6 with 7.19-15, the
permeability and inertial loss coefficient in each component direction may be identified
as

Dp2 3
α= (7.19-17)
150 (1 − )2

and

3.5 (1 − )
C2 = (7.19-18)
Dp  3

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 7.19 Porous Media Conditions

Using an Empirical Equation to Derive Porous Media Inputs for Turbulent Flow Through a
Perforated Plate

As a third example we will take the equation of Van Winkle et al. [279, 339] and show
how porous media inputs can be calculated for pressure loss through a perforated plate
with square-edged holes.
The expression, which is claimed by the authors to apply for turbulent flow through
square-edged holes on an equilateral triangular spacing, is
q
ṁ = CAf (2ρ∆p)/(1 − (Af /Ap )2 ) (7.19-19)

where
ṁ =
mass flow rate through the plate
Af =
the free area or total area of the holes
Ap =
the area of the plate (solid and holes)
C =
a coefficient that has been tabulated for various Reynolds-number ranges
and for various D/t
D/t = the ratio of hole diameter to plate thickness
for t/D > 1.6 and for Re > 4000 the coefficient C takes a value of approximately 0.98,
where the Reynolds number is based on hole diameter and velocity in the holes.
Rearranging Equation 7.19-19, making use of the relationship

ṁ = ρvAp (7.19-20)

and dividing by the plate thickness, ∆x = t, we obtain

∆p 1 2 1 (Ap /Af )2 − 1
 
= ρv (7.19-21)
∆x 2 C2 t

where v is the superficial velocity (not the velocity in the holes). Comparing with Equa-
tion 7.19-6 it is seen that, for the direction normal to the plate, the constant C2 can be
calculated from

1 (Ap /Af )2 − 1
C2 = (7.19-22)
C2 t

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Boundary Conditions

Using Tabulated Data to Derive Porous Media Inputs for Laminar Flow Through a Fibrous Mat

Consider the problem of laminar flow through a mat or filter pad which is made up of
randomly-oriented fibers of glass wool. As an alternative to the Blake-Kozeny equation
(Equation 7.19-16) we might choose to employ tabulated experimental data. Such data
is available for many types of fiber [158].

volume fraction of dimensionless permeability B

solid material of glass wool
0.262 0.25
0.258 0.26
0.221 0.40
0.218 0.41
0.172 0.80

where B = α/a2 and a is the fiber diameter. α, for use in Equation 7.19-4, is easily
computed for a given fiber diameter and volume fraction.

Deriving the Porous Coefficients Based on Experimental Pressure and Velocity Data

Experimental data that is available in the form of pressure drop against velocity through
the porous component, can be extrapolated to determine the coefficients for the porous
media. To effect a pressure drop across a porous medium of thickness, ∆n, the coefficients
of the porous media are determined in the manner described below.
If the experimental data is:

Velocity (m/s) Pressure Drop (Pa)

20.0 78.0
50.0 487.0
80.0 1432.0
110.0 2964.0

then an xy curve can be plotted to create a trendline through these points yielding the
following equation

∆p = 0.28296v 2 − 4.33539v (7.19-23)

where ∆p is the pressure drop and v is the velocity.

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 7.19 Porous Media Conditions

Note that a simplified version of the momentum equation, relating the pressure drop to
the source term, can be expressed as

∇p = Si (7.19-24)
or
∆p = −Si ∆n (7.19-25)

Hence, comparing Equation 7.19-23 to Equation 7.19-2, yields the following curve coef-
ficients:

1
0.28296 = C2 ρ∆n (7.19-26)
2

with ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 , and a porous media thickness, ∆n, assumed to be 1m in this
example, the inertial resistance factor, C2 = 0.462.
Likewise,

µ
− 4.33539 = ∆n (7.19-27)
α

with µ = 1.7894 × 10−5 , the viscous inertial resistance factor, 1

α
= −242282.

i Note that this same technique can be applied to the porous jump bound-
ary condition. Similar to the case of the porous media, you have to take
into account the thickness of the medium ∆n. Your experimental data
can be plotted in an xy curve, yielding an equation that is equivalent to
Equation 7.22-1. From there, you can determine the permeability α and
the pressure jump coefficient C2 .

Using the Power-Law Model

If you choose to use the power-law approximation of the porous-media momentum source
term (Equation 7.19-3), the only inputs required are the coefficients C0 and C1 . Under
Power Law Model in the Fluid panel, enter the values for C0 and C1. Note that the
power-law model can be used in conjunction with the Darcy and inertia models.
C0 must be in SI units, consistent with the value of C1.

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Boundary Conditions

Defining Porosity
To define the porosity, scroll down below the resistance inputs in the Fluid panel, and set
the Porosity under Fluid Porosity.
You can also define the porosity using a user-defined function (UDF). The user-defined
option becomes available in the corresponding drop-down list when the UDF has been
created and loaded into FLUENT. Note that the porosity defined in the UDF must utilize
the DEFINE PROFILE macro. For more information on creating and using user-defined
function, see the separate UDF Manual.
The porosity, γ, is the volume fraction of fluid within the porous region (i.e., the open
volume fraction of the medium). The porosity is used in the prediction of heat transfer in
the medium, as described in Section 7.19.3: Treatment of the Energy Equation in Porous
Media, and in the time-derivative term in the scalar transport equations for unsteady
flow, as described in Section 7.19.5: Effect of Porosity on Transient Scalar Equations. It
also impacts the calculation of reaction source terms and body forces in the medium.
These sources will be proportional to the fluid volume in the medium. If you want to
represent the medium as completely open (no effect of the solid medium), you should
set the porosity equal to 1.0 (the default). When the porosity is equal to 1.0, the solid
portion of the medium will have no impact on heat transfer or thermal/reaction source
terms in the medium.

Defining the Porous Material

If you choose to model heat transfer in the porous medium, you must specify the material
contained in the porous medium.
To define the material contained in the porous medium, scroll down below the resistance
inputs in the Fluid panel, and select the appropriate solid in the Solid Material Name
drop-down list under Fluid Porosity. If you want to check or modify the properties of the
selected material, you can click Edit... to open the Material panel; this panel contains
just the properties of the selected material, not the full contents of the standard Materials
panel. In the Material panel, you can define the non-isotropic thermal conductivity of the
porous material using a user-defined function (UDF). The user-defined option becomes
available in the corresponding drop-down list when the UDF has been created and loaded
into FLUENT. Note that the non-isotropic thermal conductivity defined in the UDF must
utilize the DEFINE PROPERTY macro. For more information on creating and using user-
defined function, see the separate UDF Manual.

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 7.19 Porous Media Conditions

Defining Sources
If you want to include effects of the heat generated by the porous medium in the energy
equation, enable the Source Terms option and set a non-zero Energy source. The solver
will compute the heat generated by the porous region by multiplying this value by the
total volume of the cells comprising the porous zone. You may also define sources of
mass, momentum, turbulence, species, or other scalar quantities, as described in Sec-
tion 7.28: Defining Mass, Momentum, Energy, and Other Sources.

Defining Fixed Values

If you want to fix the value of one or more variables in the fluid region of the zone, rather
than computing them during the calculation, you can do so by enabling the Fixed Values
option. See Section 7.27: Fixing the Values of Variables for details.

Suppressing the Turbulent Viscosity in the Porous Region

As discussed in Section 7.19.4: Treatment of Turbulence in Porous Media, turbulence
will be computed in the porous region just as in the bulk fluid flow. If you are using
one of the turbulence models (with the exception of the Large Eddy Simulation (LES)
Model), and you want the turbulence generation to be zero in the porous zone, turn on
the Laminar Zone option in the Fluid panel. Refer to Section 7.17.1: Specifying a Laminar
Zone for more information about suppressing turbulence generation.

Specifying the Rotation Axis and Defining Zone Motion

Inputs for the rotation axis and zone motion are the same as for a standard fluid zone.
See Section 7.17.1: Inputs for Fluid Zones for details.

7.19.7 Modeling Porous Media Based on Physical Velocity

As stated in Section 7.19.1: Limitations and Assumptions of the Porous Media Model,
by default FLUENT calculates the superficial velocity based on volumetric flow rate. The
superficial velocity in the governing equations can be represented as

~vsuperficial = γ~vphysical (7.19-28)

where γ is the porosity of the media defined as the ratio of the volume occupied by the
fluid to the total volume.
The superficial velocity values within the porous region remain the same as those outside
of the porous region. This limits the accuracy of the porous model where there should
be an increase in velocity throughout the porous region. For more accurate simulations

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Boundary Conditions

of porous media flows, it becomes necessary to solve for the true, or physical velocity
throughout the flowfield, rather than the superficial velocity.
FLUENT allows the calculation on the physical velocity using the Porous Formulation
region of the Solver panel. By default, the Superficial Velocity option is turned on.
Using the physical velocity formulation, and assuming a general scalar φ, the governing
equation in an isotropic porous media has the following form:

∂(γρφ)
+ ∇ · (γρ~v φ) = ∇ · (γΓ∇φ) + γSφ (7.19-29)
∂t
Assuming isotropic porosity and single phase flow, the volume-averaged mass and mo-
mentum conservation equations are as follows:

∂(γρ)
+ ∇ · (γρ~v ) = 0 (7.19-30)
∂t

∂(γρ~v ) ~ f − µ + C2 ρ |~v | ~v
 
+ ∇ · (γρ~v~v ) = −γ∇p + ∇ · (γ~τ ) + γ B (7.19-31)
∂t α 2
The last term in Equation 7.19-31 represents the viscous and inertial drag forces imposed
by the pore walls on the fluid.

i Note that even when you solve for the physical velocity in Equation 7.19-31,
the two resistance coefficients can still be derived using the superficial ve-
locity as given in Section 7.19.6: Defining the Viscous and Inertial Resis-
tance Coefficients. FLUENT assumes that the inputs for these resistance
coefficients are based upon well-established empirical correlations that are
usually based on superficial velocity. Therefore, FLUENT automatically
converts the inputs for the resistance coefficients into those that are com-
patible with the physical velocity formulation.

i Note that the inlet mass flow is also calculated from the superficial velocity.
Therefore, for the same mass flow rate at the inlet and the same resistance
coefficients, for either the physical or superficial velocity formulation you
should obtain the same pressure drop across the porous media zone.

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 7.19 Porous Media Conditions

7.19.8 Solution Strategies for Porous Media

In general, you can use the standard solution procedures and solution parameter settings
when your FLUENT model includes porous media. You may find, however, that the rate
of convergence slows when you define a porous region through which the pressure drop
is relatively large in the flow direction (e.g., the permeability, α, is low or the inertial
factor, C2 , is large). This slow convergence can occur because the porous media pressure
drop appears as a momentum source term—yielding a loss of diagonal dominance—in the
matrix of equations solved. The best remedy for poor convergence of a problem involving
a porous medium is to supply a good initial guess for the pressure drop across the medium.
You can supply this guess by patching a value for the pressure in the fluid cells upstream
and/or downstream of the medium, as described in Section 25.14.2: Patching Values in
Selected Cells. It is important to recall, when patching the pressure, that the pressures
you input should be defined as the gauge pressures used by the solver (i.e., relative to
the operating pressure defined in the Operating Conditions panel).
Another possible way to deal with poor convergence is to temporarily disable the porous
media model (by turning off the Porous Zone option in the Fluid panel) and obtain an
initial flow field without the effect of the porous region. With the porous media model
turned off, FLUENT will treat the porous zone as a fluid zone and calculate the flow field
accordingly. Once an initial solution is obtained, or the calculation is proceeding steadily
to convergence, you can enable the porous media model and continue the calculation
with the porous region included. (This method is not recommended for porous media
with high resistance.)
Simulations involving highly anisotropic porous media may, at times, pose convergence
troubles. You can address these issues by limiting the anisotropy of the porous media
coefficients (1/αij and C2i,j ) to two or three orders of magnitude. Even if the medium’s
resistance in one direction is infinite, you do not need to set the resistance in that direction
to be greater than 1000 times the resistance in the primary flow direction.

7.19.9 Postprocessing for Porous Media

The impact of a porous region on the flow field can be determined by examining either
velocity components or pressure values. Graphical plots (including XY plots and contour
or vector plots) or alphanumeric reports of the following variables/functions may be of
interest:

• X, Y, Z Velocity (in the Velocity... category)

• Static Pressure (in the Pressure... category)

These variables are contained in the specified categories of the variable selection drop-
down list that appears in postprocessing panels.

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Boundary Conditions

Note that thermal reporting in the porous region is defined follows:

keff = γks + (1 − γ)kf (7.19-32)

where
γ = porosity of the medium
kf = fluid phase thermal conductivity (including the turbulent contribution, kt )
ks = solid medium thermal conductivity

i For porous media involving surface reactions, you can display/report the
surface reaction rates using the Arrhenius Rate of Reaction-n in the Reac-
tions... category of the variable selection drop-down list.

7.20 Fan Boundary Conditions

The fan model is a lumped parameter model that can be used to determine the impact
of a fan with known characteristics upon some larger flow field. The fan boundary type
allows you to input an empirical fan curve which governs the relationship between head
(pressure rise) and flow rate (velocity) across a fan element. You can also specify radial
and tangential components of the fan swirl velocity. The fan model does not provide
an accurate description of the detailed flow through the fan blades. Instead, it predicts
the amount of flow through the fan. Fans may be used in conjunction with other flow
sources, or as the sole source of flow in a simulation. In the latter case, the system flow
rate is determined by the balance between losses in the system and the fan curve.
FLUENT also provides a connection for a special user-defined fan model that updates
the pressure jump function during the calculation. This feature is described in Sec-
tion 7.24: User-Defined Fan Model.
You can find the following information about modeling fans in this section:

• Section 7.20.1: Fan Equations

• Section 7.20.2: User Inputs for Fans

• Section 7.20.3: Postprocessing for Fans

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7.20.1 Fan Equations

Modeling the Pressure Rise Across the Fan
A fan is considered to be infinitely thin, and the discontinuous pressure rise across it
is specified as a function of the velocity through the fan. The relationship may be a
constant, a polynomial, piecewise-linear, or piecewise-polynomial function, or a user-
defined function.
In the case of a polynomial, the relationship is of the form

N
fn v n−1
X
∆p = (7.20-1)
n=1

where ∆p is the pressure jump, fn are the pressure-jump polynomial coefficients, and v
is the magnitude of the local fluid velocity normal to the fan.

i The velocity v can be either positive or negative. You must be careful to

model the fan so that a pressure rise occurs for forward flow through the
fan.
You can, optionally, use the mass-averaged velocity normal to the fan to determine a
single pressure-jump value for all faces in the fan zone.

Modeling the Fan Swirl Velocity

For three-dimensional problems, the values of the convected tangential and radial velocity
fields can be imposed on the fan surface to generate swirl. These velocities can be specified
as functions of the radial distance from the fan center. The relationships may be constant
or polynomial functions, or user-defined functions.

i You must use SI units for all fan swirl velocity inputs.

For the case of polynomial functions, the tangential and radial velocity components can
be specified by the following equations:

N
fn rn ; −1 ≤ N ≤ 6
X
Uθ = (7.20-2)
n=−1

N
gn rn ; −1 ≤ N ≤ 6
X
Ur = (7.20-3)
n=−1

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Boundary Conditions

where Uθ and Ur are, respectively, the tangential and radial velocities on the fan surface
in m/s, fn and gn are the tangential and radial velocity polynomial coefficients, and r is
the distance to the fan center.

7.20.2 User Inputs for Fans

Once the fan zone has been identified (in the Boundary Conditions panel), you will set all
modeling inputs for the fan in the Fan panel (Figure 7.20.1), which is opened from the
Boundary Conditions panel (as described in Section 7.1.4: Setting Boundary Conditions).

Figure 7.20.1: The Fan Panel

Inputs for a fan are as follows:

1. Identify the fan zone.

2. Define the pressure jump across the fan.

3. Define the discrete phase boundary condition for the fan (for discrete phase calcu-
lations).

4. Define the swirl velocity, if desired (3D only).

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Identifying the Fan Zone

Since the fan is considered to be infinitely thin, it must be modeled as the interface
between cells, rather than a cell zone. Thus the fan zone is a type of internal face
zone (where the faces are line segments in 2D or triangles/quadrilaterals in 3D). If,
when you read your grid into FLUENT, the fan zone is identified as an interior zone, use
the Boundary Conditions panel (as described in Section 7.1.3: Changing Boundary Zone
Types) to change the appropriate interior zone to a fan zone.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...
Once the interior zone has been changed to a fan zone, you can open the Fan panel and
specify the pressure jump and, optionally, the swirl velocity.

Defining the Pressure Jump

To define the pressure jump, you will specify a polynomial, piecewise-linear, or piecewise-
polynomial function of velocity, a user-defined function, or a constant value. You should
also check the Zone Average Direction vector to be sure that a pressure rise occurs for
forward flow through the fan. The Zone Average Direction, calculated by the solver, is the
face-averaged direction vector for the fan zone. If this vector is pointing in the direction
you want the fan to blow, do not select Reverse Fan Direction; if it is pointing in the
opposite direction, select Reverse Fan Direction.

Polynomial, Piecewise-Linear, or Piecewise-Polynomial Function

Follow these steps to set a polynomial, piecewise-linear, or piecewise-polynomial function

for the pressure jump:

1. Check that the Profile Specification of Pressure-Jump option is off in the Fan panel.

2. Choose polynomial, piecewise-linear, or piecewise-polynomial in the drop-down list to

the right of Pressure-Jump. (If the function type you want is already selected, you
can click on the Edit... button to open the panel where you will define the function.)

3. In the panel that appears for the definition of the Pressure-Jump function (e.g.,
Figure 7.20.2), enter the appropriate values. These profile input panels are used
the same way as the profile input panels for temperature-dependent properties. See
Section 8.2: Defining Properties Using Temperature-Dependent Functions to find
out how to use them.

4. Set any of the optional parameters described below. (optional)

When you define the pressure jump using any of these types of functions, you can choose
to limit the minimum and maximum velocity magnitudes used to calculate the pressure

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Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.20.2: Polynomial Profile Panel for Pressure Jump Definition

jump. Enabling the Limit Polynomial Velocity Range option limits the pressure jump when
a Min Velocity Magnitude and a Max Velocity Magnitude are specified.

i The values corresponding to the Min Velocity Magnitude and the Max Ve-
locity Magnitude do not limit the flow field velocity to this range. However,
this range does limit the value of the pressure jump, which is a polynomial
and a function of velocity, as seen in Equation 7.20-1. If the calculated
normal velocity magnitude exceeds the Max Velocity Magnitude that has
been specified, then the pressure jump at the Max Velocity Magnitude value
will be used. Similarly, if the calculated velocity is less than the specified
Min Velocity Magnitude, the pressure jump at the Min Velocity Magnitude
will be substituted for the pressure jump corresponding to the calculated
velocity.
You also have the option to use the mass-averaged velocity normal to the fan to determine
a single pressure-jump value for all faces in the fan zone. Turning on Calculate Pressure-
Jump from Average Conditions enables this option.

Constant Value

To define a constant pressure jump, follow these steps:

1. Turn off the Profile Specification of Pressure-Jump option in the Fan panel.

2. Choose constant in the drop-down list to the right of Pressure-Jump.

3. Enter the value for ∆p in the Pressure-Jump field.

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 7.20 Fan Boundary Conditions

You can follow the procedure below, if it is more convenient:

1. Turn on the Profile Specification of Pressure-Jump option.

2. Select constant in the drop-down list below Pressure Jump Profile, and enter the
value for ∆p in the Pressure Jump Profile field.

User-Defined Function or Boundary Profile

For a user-defined pressure-jump function or a function defined in a boundary profile file,

you will follow these steps:

1. Turn on the Profile Specification of Pressure-Jump option.

2. Choose the appropriate function in the drop-down list below Pressure Jump Profile.

See the separate UDF Manual for information about user-defined functions, and Sec-
tion 7.26: Boundary Profiles for details about boundary profile files.

Example: Determining the Pressure Jump Function

This example shows you how to determine the function for the pressure jump. Consider
the simple two-dimensional duct flow illustrated in Figure 7.20.3. Air at constant density
enters the 2.0 m × 0.4 m duct with a velocity of 15 m/s. Centered in the duct is a fan.

Air Fan
0.4 m
5 m/s

2.0 m

Figure 7.20.3: A Fan Located In a 2D Duct

Assume that the fan characteristics are as follows when the fan is operating at 2000 rpm:

Q (m3 /s) ∆p (Pa)

25 0.0
20 175
15 350
10 525
5 700
0 875

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Boundary Conditions

where Q is the flow through the fan and ∆p is the pressure rise across the fan. The fan
characteristics in this example follow a simple linear relationship between pressure rise
and flow rate. To convert this into a relationship between pressure rise and velocity, the
cross-sectional area of the fan must be known. In this example, assuming that the duct
is 1.0 m deep, this area is 0.4 m2 , so that the corresponding velocity values are as follows:

v (m/s) ∆p (Pa)
62.5 0.0
50.0 175
37.5 350
25.0 525
12.5 700
0 875

The polynomial form of this relationship is the following equation for a line:

∆p = 875 − 14v (7.20-4)

Defining Discrete Phase Boundary Conditions for the Fan

If you are modeling a discrete phase of particles, you can set the fate of particle trajec-
tories at the fan. See Section 22.13: Setting Boundary Conditions for the Discrete Phase
for details.

Defining the Fan Swirl Velocity

If you want to set tangential and radial velocity fields on the fan surface to generate swirl
in a 3D problem, follow these steps:

1. Turn on the Swirl-Velocity Specification option in the Fan panel.

2. Specify the fan’s axis of rotation by defining the axis origin (Fan Origin) and direc-
tion vector (Fan Axis).

3. Set the value for the radius of the fan’s hub (Fan Hub Radius). The default is
1 × 10−6 to avoid division by zero in the polynomial.

4. Set the tangential and radial velocity functions as polynomial functions of radial
distance, constant values, or user-defined functions.

i You must use SI units for all fan swirl velocity inputs.

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 7.20 Fan Boundary Conditions

Polynomial Function

To define a polynomial function for tangential or radial velocity, follow the steps below:

1. Check that the Profile Specification of Tangential Velocity or Profile Specification of

Radial Velocity option is off in the Fan panel.

2. Enter the coefficients fn in Equation 7.20-2 or gn in Equation 7.20-3 in the Tangential-

or Radial-Velocity Polynomial Coefficients field. Enter f−1 first, then f0 , etc. Separate
each coefficient by a blank space. Remember that the first coefficient is for 1r .

Constant Value

To define a constant tangential or radial velocity, the steps are as follows:

1. Turn on the Profile Specification of Tangential Velocity or Profile Specification of

Radial Velocity option in the Fan panel.

2. Select constant in the drop-down list under Tangential or Radial Velocity Profile.

3. Enter the value for Uθ or Ur in the Tangential or Radial Velocity Profile field.

You can follow the procedure below, if it is more convenient:

1. Turn off the Profile Specification of Tangential Velocity or Profile Specification of

Radial Velocity option in the Fan panel.

2. Enter the value for Uθ or Ur in the Tangential- or Radial-Velocity Polynomial Coeffi-

cients field.

User-Defined Function or Boundary Profile

For a user-defined tangential or radial velocity function or a function contained in a

boundary profile file, follow the procedure below:

1. Turn on the Profile Specification of Tangential or Radial Velocity option.

2. Choose the appropriate function from the drop-down list under Tangential or Radial
Velocity Profile.

See the separate UDF Manual for information about user-defined functions, and Sec-
tion 7.26: Boundary Profiles for details about boundary profile files.

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Boundary Conditions

7.20.3 Postprocessing for Fans

Reporting the Pressure Rise Through the Fan
You can use the Surface Integrals panel to report the pressure rise through the fan, as
described in Section 29.5: Surface Integration. There are two steps to this procedure:

1. Create a surface on each side of the fan zone. Use the Transform Surface panel (as
described in Section 27.10: Transforming Surfaces) to translate the fan zone slightly
upstream and slightly downstream to create two new surfaces.

2. In the Surface Integrals panel, report the average Static Pressure just upstream and
just downstream of the fan. You can then calculate the pressure rise through the
fan.

Graphical Plots
Graphical reports of interest with fans are as follows:

• Contours or profiles of Static Pressure and Static Temperature.

• XY plots of Static Pressure and Static Temperature vs position.

Chapter 28: Displaying Graphics explains how to generate graphical displays of data.

i When generating these plots, be sure to turn off the display of node values
so that you can see the different values on each side of the fan. (If you
display node values, the cell values on either side of the fan will be averaged
to obtain a node value, and you will not see, for example, the pressure jump
across the fan.)

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 7.21 Radiator Boundary Conditions

7.21 Radiator Boundary Conditions

A lumped-parameter model for a heat exchange element (for example, a radiator or
condenser), is available in FLUENT. The radiator boundary type allows you to specify
both the pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient as functions of the velocity normal
to the radiator.
You can find the following information about modeling radiators in this section:

• Section 7.21.1: Radiator Equations

• Section 7.21.2: User Inputs for Radiators

• Section 7.21.3: Postprocessing for Radiators

A more detailed heat exchanger model is also available in FLUENT. See Section 7.25: Heat
Exchanger Models for details.

7.21.1 Radiator Equations

Modeling the Pressure Loss Through a Radiator
A radiator is considered to be infinitely thin, and the pressure drop through the radiator
is assumed to be proportional to the dynamic head of the fluid, with an empirically
determined loss coefficient which you supply. That is, the pressure drop, ∆p, varies with
the normal component of velocity through the radiator, v, as follows:

1
∆p = kL ρv 2 (7.21-1)
2
where ρ is the fluid density, and kL is the non-dimensional loss coefficient, which can
be specified as a constant or as a polynomial, piecewise-linear, or piecewise-polynomial
function.
In the case of a polynomial, the relationship is of the form

N
rn v n−1
X
kL = (7.21-2)
n=1

where rn are polynomial coefficients and v is the magnitude of the local fluid velocity
normal to the radiator.

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Boundary Conditions

Modeling the Heat Transfer Through a Radiator

The heat flux from the radiator to the surrounding fluid is given as

q = h(Tair,d − Text ) (7.21-3)

where q is the heat flux, Tair,d is the temperature downstream of the heat exchanger
(radiator), and Text is the reference temperature for the liquid. The convective heat
transfer coefficient, h, can be specified as a constant or as a polynomial, piecewise-linear,
or piecewise-polynomial function.
For a polynomial, the relationship is of the form

N
hn v n ; 0 ≤ N ≤ 7
X
h= (7.21-4)
n=0

where hn are polynomial coefficients and v is the magnitude of the local fluid velocity
normal to the radiator in m/s.
Either the actual heat flux (q) or the heat transfer coefficient and radiator temperature
(h, Text ) may be specified. q (either the entered value or the value calculated using
Equation 7.21-3) is integrated over the radiator surface area.

Calculating the Heat Transfer Coefficient

To model the thermal behavior of the radiator, you must supply an expression for the
heat transfer coefficient, h, as a function of the fluid velocity through the radiator, v. To
obtain this expression, consider the heat balance equation:

ṁcp ∆T
q= = h(Tair,d − Text ) (7.21-5)
A
where
q = heat flux (W/m2 )
ṁ = fluid mass flow rate (kg/s)
cp = specific heat capacity of fluid (J/kg-K)
h = empirical heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 -K)
Text = external temperature (reference temperature for the liquid) (K)
Tair,d = temperature downstream from the heat exchanger (K)
A = heat exchanger frontal area (m2 )
Equation 7.21-5 can be rewritten as

ṁcp (Tair,u − Tair,d )

q= = h(Tair,d − Text ) (7.21-6)
A

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 7.21 Radiator Boundary Conditions

where Tair,u is the upstream air temperature. The heat transfer coefficient, h, can there-
fore be computed as

ṁcp (Tair,u − Tair,d )

h= (7.21-7)
A(Tair,d − Text )

or, in terms of the fluid velocity,

ρvcp (Tair,u − Tair,d )

h= (7.21-8)
Tair,d − Text

7.21.2 User Inputs for Radiators

Once the radiator zone has been identified (in the Boundary Conditions panel), you will
set all modeling inputs for the radiator in the Radiator panel (Figure 7.21.1), which
is opened from the Boundary Conditions panel (as described in Section 7.1.4: Setting
Boundary Conditions).

Figure 7.21.1: The Radiator Panel

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Boundary Conditions

The inputs for a radiator are as follows:

1. Identify the radiator zone.

2. Define the pressure loss coefficient.

3. Define either the heat flux or the heat transfer coefficient and radiator temperature.

4. Define the discrete phase boundary condition for the radiator (for discrete phase
calculations).

Identifying the Radiator Zone

Since the radiator is considered to be infinitely thin, it must be modeled as the interface
between cells, rather than a cell zone. Thus the radiator zone is a type of internal face
zone (where the faces are line segments in 2D or triangles/quadrilaterals in 3D). If, when
you read your grid into FLUENT, the radiator zone is identified as an interior zone, use
the Boundary Conditions panel (as described in Section 7.1.3: Changing Boundary Zone
Types) to change the appropriate interior zone to a radiator zone.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...
Once the interior zone has been changed to a radiator zone, you can open the Radiator
panel and specify the loss coefficient and heat flux information.

Defining the Pressure Loss Coefficient Function

To define the pressure loss coefficient kL you can specify a polynomial, piecewise-linear,
or piecewise-polynomial function of velocity, or a constant value.

Polynomial, Piecewise-Linear, or Piecewise-Polynomial Function

Follow these steps to set a polynomial, piecewise-linear, or piecewise-polynomial function

for the pressure loss coefficient:

1. Choose polynomial, piecewise-linear, or piecewise-polynomial in the drop-down list to

the right of Loss-Coefficient. (If the function type you want is already selected, you
can click on the Edit... button to open the panel where you will define the function.)

2. In the panel that appears for the definition of the Loss-Coefficient function (e.g.,
Figure 7.21.2), enter the appropriate values. These profile input panels are used
the same way as the profile input panels for temperature-dependent properties. See
Section 8.2: Defining Properties Using Temperature-Dependent Functions to find
out how to use them.

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 7.21 Radiator Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.21.2: Polynomial Profile Panel for Loss-Coefficient Definition

Constant Value

To define a constant loss coefficient, follow these steps:

1. Choose constant in the Loss-Coefficient drop-down list.

2. Enter the value for kL in the Loss-Coefficient field.

Example: Calculating the Loss Coefficient

This example shows you how to determine the loss coefficient function. Consider the
simple two-dimensional duct flow of air through a water-cooled radiator, shown in Fig-
ure 7.21.3.
The radiator characteristics must be known empirically. For this case, assume that the
radiator to be modeled yields the test data shown in Table 7.21.1, which was taken with
a waterside flow rate of 7 kg/min and an inlet water temperature of 400.0 K. To compute
the loss coefficient, it is helpful to construct a table with values of the dynamic head,
1
2
ρv 2 , as a function of pressure drop, ∆p, and the ratio of these two values, kL (from
Equation 7.21-1). (The air density, defined in Figure 7.21.3, is 1.0 kg/m3 .) The reduced
data are shown in Table 7.21.2 below.
The loss coefficient is a linear function of the velocity, decreasing as the velocity increases.
The form of this relationship is

kL = 7.0 − 0.2v (7.21-9)

where v is now the absolute value of the velocity through the radiator.

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Boundary Conditions

T = 300 K

AIR

➯ 0.5 m
T = 300 K
U = 8 m/s

RADIATOR, T = 400 K

2.0 m

Figure 7.21.3: A Simple Duct with a Radiator

Table 7.21.1: Airside Radiator Data

Velocity Upstream Downstream Pressure

(m/s) Temp (K) Temp (K) Drop (Pa)
5.0 300.0 330.0 75.0
10.0 300.0 322.5 250.0
15.0 300.0 320.0 450.0

Table 7.21.2: Reduced Radiator Data

1
v (m/s) 2
ρv 2
(Pa) ∆p (Pa) kL
5.0 12.5 75.0 6.0
10.0 50.0 250.0 5.0
15.0 112.5 450.0 4.0

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 7.21 Radiator Boundary Conditions

Defining the Heat Flux Parameters

As mentioned in Section 7.21.1: Radiator Equations, you can either define the actual heat
flux (q) in the Heat Flux field, or set the heat transfer coefficient and radiator temperature
(h, Text ). All inputs are in the Radiator panel.
To define the actual heat flux, specify a Temperature of 0, and set the constant Heat Flux
value.
To define the radiator temperature, enter the value for Text in the Temperature field. To
define the heat transfer coefficient, you can specify a polynomial, piecewise-linear, or
piecewise-polynomial function of velocity, or a constant value.

Polynomial, Piecewise-Linear, or Piecewise-Polynomial Function

Follow these steps to set a polynomial, piecewise-linear, or piecewise-polynomial function

for the heat transfer coefficient:

1. Choose polynomial, piecewise-linear, or piecewise-polynomial in the drop-down list

to the right of Heat-Transfer-Coefficient. (If the function type you want is already
selected, you can click on the Edit... button to open the panel where you will define
the function.)

2. In the panel that appears for the definition of the Heat-Transfer-Coefficient func-
tion, enter the appropriate values. These profile input panels are used the same
way as the profile input panels for temperature-dependent properties. See Sec-
tion 8.2: Defining Properties Using Temperature-Dependent Functions to find out
how to use them.

Constant Value

To define a constant heat transfer coefficient, follow these steps:

1. Choose constant in the Heat-Transfer-Coefficient drop-down list.

2. Enter the value for h in the Heat-Transfer-Coefficient field.

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Boundary Conditions

Example: Determining the Heat Transfer Coefficient Function

This example shows you how to determine the function for the heat transfer coefficient.
Consider the simple two-dimensional duct flow of air through a water-cooled radiator,
shown in Figure 7.21.3.
The data supplied in Table 7.21.1 along with values for the air density (1.0 kg/m3 ) and
specific heat (1000 J/kg-K) can be used to obtain the following values for the heat transfer
coefficient h:

Velocity (m/s) h (W/m2 -K)

5.0 2142.9
10.0 2903.2
15.0 3750.0

The heat transfer coefficient obeys a second-order polynomial relationship (fit to the
points in the table above) with the velocity, which is of the form

h = 1469.1 + 126.11v + 1.73v 2 (7.21-10)

Note that the velocity v is assumed to be the absolute value of the velocity passing
through the radiator.

Defining Discrete Phase Boundary Conditions for the Radiator

If you are modeling a discrete phase of particles, you can set the fate of particle trajec-
tories at the radiator. See Section 22.13: Setting Boundary Conditions for the Discrete
Phase for details.

7.21.3 Postprocessing for Radiators

Reporting the Radiator Pressure Drop
You can use the Surface Integrals panel to report the pressure drop across the radiator,
as described in Section 29.5: Surface Integration. There are two steps to this procedure:

1. Create a surface on each side of the radiator zone. Use the Transform Surface panel
(as described in Section 27.10: Transforming Surfaces) to translate the radiator
zone slightly upstream and slightly downstream to create two new surfaces.

2. In the Surface Integrals panel, report the average Static Pressure just upstream and
just downstream of the radiator. You can then calculate the pressure drop across
the radiator.

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 7.21 Radiator Boundary Conditions

To check this value against the expected value based on Equation 7.21-1, you can use
the Surface Integrals panel to report the average normal velocity through the radiator. (If
the radiator is not aligned with the x, y, or z axis, you will need to use the Custom Field
Function Calculator panel to generate a function for the velocity normal to the radiator.)
Once you have the average normal velocity, you can use Equation 7.21-2 to determine
the loss coefficient and then Equation 7.21-1 to calculate the expected pressure loss.

Reporting Heat Transfer in the Radiator

To determine the temperature rise across the radiator, follow the procedure outlined
above for the pressure drop to generate surfaces upstream and downstream of the radiator.
Then use the Surface Integrals panel (as for the pressure drop report) to report the average
Static Temperature on each surface. You can then calculate the temperature rise across
the radiator.

Graphical Plots
Graphical reports of interest with radiators are as follows:

• Contours or profiles of Static Pressure and Static Temperature.

• XY plots of Static Pressure and Static Temperature vs position.

Chapter 28: Displaying Graphics explains how to generate graphical displays of data.

i When generating these plots, be sure to turn off the display of node values
so that you can see the different values on each side of the radiator. (If
you display node values, the cell values on either side of the radiator will
be averaged to obtain a node value, and you will not see, for example, the
pressure loss across the radiator.)

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Boundary Conditions

7.22 Porous Jump Boundary Conditions

Porous jump conditions are used to model a thin “membrane” that has known velocity
(pressure-drop) characteristics. It is essentially a 1D simplification of the porous media
model available for cell zones. Examples of uses for the porous jump condition include
modeling pressure drops through screens and filters, and modeling radiators when you are
not concerned with heat transfer. This simpler model should be used whenever possible
(instead of the full porous media model) because it is more robust and yields better
convergence.
The thin porous medium has a finite thickness over which the pressure change is defined
as a combination of Darcy’s Law and an additional inertial loss term:

µ 1
 
∆p = − v + C2 ρv 2 ∆m (7.22-1)
α 2
where µ is the laminar fluid viscosity, α is the permeability of the medium, C2 is the
pressure-jump coefficient, v is the velocity normal to the porous face, and ∆m is the
thickness of the medium. Appropriate values for α and C2 can be calculated using the
techniques described in Section 7.19.6: User Inputs for Porous Media.

User Inputs for the Porous Jump Model

Once the porous jump zone has been identified (in the Boundary Conditions panel), you
will set all modeling inputs for the porous jump in the Porous Jump panel (Figure 7.22.1),
which is opened from the Boundary Conditions panel (as described in Section 7.1.4: Setting
Boundary Conditions).

Figure 7.22.1: The Porous Jump Panel

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 7.22 Porous Jump Boundary Conditions

The inputs required for the porous jump model are as follows:

1. Identify the porous-jump zone.

2. Set the Face Permeability of the medium (α in Equation 7.22-1).

3. Set the Porous Medium Thickness (∆m).

4. Set the Pressure-Jump Coefficient (C2 ).

5. Define the discrete phase boundary condition for the porous jump (for discrete
phase calculations).

Identifying the Porous Jump Zone

Since the porous jump model is a 1D simplification of the porous media model, the
porous-jump zone must be modeled as the interface between cells, rather than a cell
zone. Thus the porous-jump zone is a type of internal face zone (where the faces are
line segments in 2D or triangles/quadrilaterals in 3D). If the porous-jump zone is not
identified as such by default when you read in the grid (i.e., if it is identified as another
type of internal face zone), you can use the Boundary Conditions panel to change the
appropriate face zone to a porous-jump zone.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...
The procedure for changing a zone’s type is described in Section 7.1.3: Changing Bound-
ary Zone Types. Once the zone has been changed to a porous jump, you can open
the Porous Jump panel (as described in Section 7.1.4: Setting Boundary Conditions) and
specify the porous jump parameters listed above.

Defining Discrete Phase Boundary Conditions for the Porous Jump

If you are modeling a discrete phase of particles, you can set the fate of particle trajecto-
ries at the porous jump. See Section 22.13: Setting Boundary Conditions for the Discrete
Phase for details.

Postprocessing for the Porous Jump

Postprocessing suggestions for a problem that includes a porous jump are the same as
for porous media problems. See Section 7.19.9: Postprocessing for Porous Media.

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Boundary Conditions

7.23 Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions

The standard pressure boundary condition, imposed on the boundaries of artificially
truncated domain, results in the reflection of the outgoing waves. As a consequence,
the interior domain will contain spurious wave reflections. Many applications require
precise control of the wave reflections from the domain boundaries to obtain accurate
flow solutions. Non-reflecting boundary conditions provide a special treatment to the
domain boundaries to control these spurious wave reflections.
In FLUENT, two types of non-reflecting boundary conditions (NRBC) are available:

• turbo-specific NRBC

• general NRBC

Turbo-specific NRBCs, as the name indicates, are oriented toward turbomachinery types
of geometry and are applicable only in steady-state calculations. On the other hand,
the general NRBC, can be used in both steady and unsteady calculations, and have no
geometric restrictions. Both methods are available in the density-based solvers and when
the compressible ideal-gas law is used.

i NRBCs are not available in the pressure-based solver.

Information about non-reflecting boundary conditions (NRBCs) is provided in the fol-

lowing sections.

• Section 7.23.1: Turbo-Specific Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions

• Section 7.23.2: General Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions

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7.23.1 Turbo-Specific Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions

Overview
The standard pressure boundary conditions for compressible flow fix specific flow variables
at the boundary (e.g., static pressure at an outlet boundary). As a result, pressure waves
incident on the boundary will reflect in an unphysical manner, leading to local errors.
The effects are more pronounced for internal flow problems where boundaries are usually
close to geometry inside the domain, such as compressor or turbine blade rows.
The turbo-specific non-reflecting boundary conditions permit waves to “pass” through
the boundaries without spurious reflections. The method used in FLUENT is based on the
Fourier transformation of solution variables at the non-reflecting boundary [123]. Simi-
lar implementations have been investigated by other authors [240, 317]. The solution is
rearranged as a sum of terms corresponding to different frequencies, and their contribu-
tions are calculated independently. While the method was originally designed for axial
turbomachinery, it has been extended for use with radial turbomachinery.

Limitations
Note the following limitations of turbo-specific NRBCs:

• They are available only with the density-based solvers (explicit or implicit).

• The current implementation applies to steady compressible flows, with the density
calculated using the ideal gas law.

• Inlet and outlet boundary conditions must be pressure inlets and outlets only.

i Note that the pressure inlet boundaries must be set to the cylindrical co-
ordinate flow specification method when turbo-specific NRBCs are used.

• Quad-mapped (structured) surface meshes must be used for inflow and outflow
boundaries in a 3D geometry (i.e., triangular or quad-paved surface meshes are not
allowed). See Figures 7.23.1 and 7.23.2 for examples.

i Note that you may use unstructured meshes in 2D geometries (Fig-

ure 7.23.3), and an unstructured mesh may be used away from the inlet
and outlet boundaries in 3D geometries.

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Boundary Conditions

• The turbo-specific NRBC method used in FLUENT is based on quasi-3D analysis.

The method developed for 2D turbo-specific NRBC [123] has been extended for use
on 3D geometries [317] by decoupling the tangential flow variations from the radial
variations. This approximation works best for geometries with a blade pitch that
is small compared to the radius of the geometry.

• Reverse flow on the inflow and outflow boundaries are not allowed. If strong reverse
flow is present, then you should consider using the General NRBCs instead.

• NRBCs are not compatible with species transport models. They are mainly used
to solve ideal-gas single-specie flow.

Figure 7.23.1: Mesh and Prescribed Boundary Conditions in a 3D Axial Flow

Problem

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Figure 7.23.2: Mesh and Prescribed Boundary Conditions in a 3D Radial

Flow Problem

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Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.23.3: Mesh and Prescribed Boundary Conditions in a 2D Case

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 7.23 Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions

Theory
Turbo-specific NRBCs are based on Fourier decomposition of solutions to the linearized
Euler equations. The solution at the inlet and outlet boundaries is circumferentially
decomposed into Fourier modes, with the 0th mode representing the average boundary
value (which is to be imposed as a user input), and higher harmonics that are modified
to eliminate reflections [317].

Equations in Characteristic Variable Form

In order to treat individual waves, the linearized Euler equations are transformed to
characteristic variable (Ci ) form. If we first consider the 1D form of the linearized Euler
equations, it can be shown that the characteristic variables Ci are related to the solution
variables as follows:

Q̃ = T −1 C (7.23-1)

where
− a12 0 0 1 1
     

ρ̃ 
 2a2 2a2 
C1 

1 1
0 0 0
  
 
ũ C

 
    

 a
   2 ρ a 2 ρ a   2
 
1
Q̃ = ũt  , T −1
 
=
 0 ρ a
0 0 0  , C = C3

1
 



ũr 




 0 0 ρ a
0 0





C4 



p̃ 

1 1 C 

0 0 0
 
5
2 2

where a is the average acoustic speed along a boundary zone, ρ̃, ũa , ũt , ũr , and p̃ represent
perturbations from a uniform condition (e.g., ρ̃ = ρ − ρ, p̃ = p − p, etc.).
Note that the analysis is performed using the cylindrical coordinate system. All overlined
(averaged) flow field variables (e.g., ρ, a) are intended to be averaged along the pitchwise
direction.
In quasi-3D approaches [123, 240, 317], a procedure is developed to determine the changes
in the characteristic variables, denoted by δCi , at the boundaries such that waves will
not reflect. These changes in characteristic variables are determined as follows:

δC = T δQ (7.23-2)

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Boundary Conditions

where
    
−a2




δC1 


0 0 0 1 


δρ 


δC 0 0 ρa 0 0 δu

 
   
 

 2
  


  a
 
δC = δC3  , T = 
 0 0 0 ρa 0  , δQ = δut
  



δC4 




 0 ρa 0 0 1 




δur 



δC  0 −ρ a 0 0 1 δp 
   
5

The changes to the outgoing characteristics — one characteristic for subsonic inflow (δC5 ),
and four characteristics for subsonic outflow (δC1 , δC2 , δC3 , δC4 ) — are determined from
extrapolation of the flow field variables using Equation 7.23-2.
The changes in the incoming characteristics — four characteristics for subsonic inflow
(δC1 , δC2 , δC3 , δC4 ), and one characteristic for subsonic outflow (δC5 ) — are split
into two components: average change along the boundary (δC i ), and local changes in
the characteristic variable due to harmonic variation along the boundary (δCiL ). The
incoming characteristics are therefore given by

 
δCij = δCioldj + σ δCinewj − δCioldj (7.23-3)
 
δCinewj = δC i + δCiLj (7.23-4)

where i = 1, 2, 3, 4 on the inlet boundary or i = 5 on the outlet boundary, and j = 1, ..., N

is the grid index in the pitchwise direction including the periodic point once. The under-
relaxation factor σ has a default value of 0.75. Note that this method assumes a periodic
solution in the pitchwise direction.
The flow is decomposed into mean and circumferential components using Fourier decom-
position. The 0th Fourier mode corresponds to the average circumferential solution, and
is treated according to the standard 1D characteristic theory. The remaining parts of the
solution are described by a sum of harmonics, and treated as 2D non-reflecting boundary
conditions [123].

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 7.23 Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions

Inlet Boundary

For subsonic inflow, there is one outgoing characteristic (δC5 ) determined from Equa-
tion 7.23-2, and four incoming characteristics (δC1 , δC2 , δC3 , δC4 ) calculated using
Equation 7.23-3. The average changes in the incoming characteristics are computed from
the requirement that the entropy (s), radial and tangential flow angles (αr and αt ), and
stagnation enthalpy (h0 ) are specified. Note that in FLUENT you can specify p0 and T0
at the inlet, from which sin and h0in are easily obtained. This is equivalent to forcing the
following four residuals to be zero:

R1 = p (s − sin ) (7.23-5)
R2 = ρ a (ut − ua tan αt ) (7.23-6)
R3 = ρ a (ur − ua tan αr ) (7.23-7)
 
R4 = ρ h0 − h0in (7.23-8)

where

sin = γ ln (T0in ) − (γ − 1) ln (p0in ) (7.23-9)

h0in = cp T0in (7.23-10)

The average characteristic is then obtained from residual linearization as follows (see also
Figure 7.23.4 for an illustration of the definitions for the prescribed inlet angles):

−1
  



δC 1  0 0 0 R1 
  tan αt M1 −Mt tan αt  

δC 2

 

(1−γ)M M M
tan αt M  R2 

= tan αr Mt M2 − tan αr
 (7.23-11)


δC 3 



 (γ−1)M M
tan αt M M
 R 
 3
2 −2
δC 4 2M 2 MMr R4
  t
 
(γ−1)M M M

where

ua
Ma = (7.23-12)
a
ut
Mt = (7.23-13)
a
ur
Mr = (7.23-14)
a

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Boundary Conditions

and

M = 1 + Ma − Mt tan αt + Mr tan αr (7.23-15)

M1 = −1 − Ma − Mr tan αr (7.23-16)
M2 = −1 − Ma − Mt tan αt (7.23-17)

radial

ur
v

ut αr
ua
axial
αt
theta

Figure 7.23.4: Prescribed Inlet Angles

where
q
|v| = u2t + u2r + u2a (7.23-18)

ut
et = (7.23-19)
|v|
ur
er = (7.23-20)
|v|
ua
ea = (7.23-21)
|v|
et
tan αt = (7.23-22)
ea
er
tan αr = (7.23-23)
ea

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 7.23 Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions

To address the local characteristic changes at each j grid point along the inflow boundary,
the following relations are developed [123, 317]:

δC1Lj = p (sj − s) 

δC2Lj = C20 j − ρa utj − ut
(7.23-24)
 
δC3Lj = −ρa urj − ur
  
−2 1
δC4Lj = δC1Lj + Mtj δC2Lj + Mrj δC3Lj + ρ h0j − h0
(1+Maj ) γ−1

Note that the relation for the first and fourth local characteristics force the local entropy
and stagnation enthalpy to match their average steady-state values.
The characteristic variable C20 j is computed from the inverse discrete Fourier transform
of the second characteristic. The discrete Fourier transform of the second characteristic
in turn is related to the discrete Fourier transform of the fifth characteristic. Hence, the
characteristic variable C20 j is computed along the pitch as follows:
 
N
−1 !
2
θj − θ1 
C20 j
X
= 2<  Ĉ2n exp i2πn (7.23-25)
θN − θ1
 
n=1

The Fourier coefficients C20 n are related to a set of equidistant distributed characteristic
variables C5∗j by the following [240]:

N

ut + B X jn
 
∗

− C exp −i2π β>0


N (a + ua ) j=1 5j



 N
Ĉ2n = (7.23-26)

ut + B



 − C5j β<0


a + ua

where

( √
i β β>0
B= q (7.23-27)
−sign (ut ) |β| β < 0

and

β = a2 − u2a − u2t (7.23-28)

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Boundary Conditions

The set of equidistributed characteristic variables C5∗j is computed from arbitrary dis-
tributed C5j by using a cubic spline for interpolation, where

 
C5j = −ρ a uaj − ua + (pj − p) (7.23-29)

For supersonic inflow the user-prescribed static pressure (psin ) along with total pressure
(p0in ) and total temperature (T0in ) are sufficient for determining the flow condition at the
inlet.

Outlet Boundary

For subsonic outflow, there are four outgoing characteristics (δC1 , δC2 , δC3 , and δC4 )
calculated using Equation 7.23-2, and one incoming characteristic (δC5 ) determined from
Equation 7.23-3. The average change in the incoming fifth characteristic is given by

δC 5 = −2 (p − pout ) (7.23-30)

where p is the current averaged pressure at the exit plane and pout is the desirable average
exit pressure (this value is specified by you for single-blade calculations or obtained from
the assigned profile for mixing-plane calculations). The local changes (δC5Lj ) are given
by

 
δC5Lj = C50 j + ρ a uaj − ua − (pj − p) (7.23-31)

0
The characteristic variable C5j is computed along the pitch as follows:
 
N
−1 !
2
θj − θ1
C50 j
X
= 2<  Ĉ5n exp i2πn 
(7.23-32)
θN − θ1
 
n=1

The Fourier coefficients Ĉ5n are related to two sets of equidistantly distributed charac-
teristic variables (C2∗j and C4∗j , respectively) and given by the following [240]:

N N

A2 X jn A4 X jn
   
∗ ∗



 C2j exp i2π − C4j exp i2π β>0

N j=1 N N j=1 N
Ĉ5n =  (7.23-33)



A2 C2j − A4 C4j β<0


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 7.23 Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions

where

2ua
A2 = (7.23-34)
B − ut
B + ut
A4 = (7.23-35)
B − ut

The two sets of equidistributed characteristic variables (C2∗j and C4∗j ) are computed from
arbitrarily distributed C2j and C4j characteristics by using a cubic spline for interpolation,
where

 
C2j = ρ a utj − ut (7.23-36)

 
C4j = ρ a uaj − ua + (pj − p) (7.23-37)

For supersonic outflow all flow field variables are extrapolated from the interior.

Updated Flow Variables

Once the changes in the characteristics are determined on the inflow or outflow bound-
aries, the changes in the flow variables δQ can be obtained from Equation 7.23-2. There-
fore, the values of the flow variables at the boundary faces are as follows:

pf = pj + δp (7.23-38)
uaf = uaj + δua (7.23-39)
utf = utj + δut (7.23-40)
urf = urj + δur (7.23-41)
Tf = Tj + δT (7.23-42)

Using Turbo-Specific Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions

i If you intend to use turbo-specific NRBCs in conjunction with the density-

based implicit solver, it is recommended that you first converge the solution
before turning on turbo-specific NRBCs, then converge it again with turbo-
specific NRBCs turned on. If the solution is diverging, then you should
lower the CFL number. These steps are necessary because only approx-
imate flux Jacobians are used for the pressure-inlet and pressure-outlet
boundaries when turbo-specific NRBCs are activated with the density-
based implicit solver.

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Boundary Conditions

The procedure for using the turbo-specific NRBCs is as follows:

1. Turn on the turbo-specific NRBCs using the non-reflecting-bc text command:

define −→ boundary-conditions −→ non-reflecting-bc −→
turbo-specific-nrbc −→enable?
If you are not sure whether or not NRBCs are turned on, use the show-status text
command.

2. Perform NRBC initialization using the initialize text command:

define −→ boundary-conditions −→ non-reflecting-bc −→
turbo-specific-nrbc −→initialize
If the initialization is successful, a summary printout of the domain extent will be
displayed. If the initialization is not successful, an error message will be displayed
indicating the source of the problem. The initialization will set up the pressure-inlet
and pressure-outlet boundaries for use with turbo-specific NRBCs.

i Note that the pressure inlet boundaries must be set to the cylindrical co-
ordinate flow specification method when turbo-specific NRBCs are used.
3. If necessary, modify the parameters in the set/ submenu:
define −→ boundary-conditions −→ non-reflecting-bc −→
turbo-specific-nrbc −→set
under-relaxation allows you to set the value of the under-relaxation factor σ in
Equation 7.23-3. The default value is 0.75.
discretization allows you to set the discretization scheme. The default is to use
higher-order reconstruction if available.
verbosity allows you to control the amount of information printed to the console
during an NRBC calculation.
• 0 : silent
• 1 : basic information (default)
• 2 : detailed information (for debugging purposes only)

Using the NRBCs with the Mixing-Plane Model

If you want to use the NRBCs with the mixing-plane model you must define the mixing
plane interfaces as pressure-outlet and pressure-inlet zone type pairs.

i Turbo-specific NRBCs should not be used with the mixing-plane model if

reverse flow is present across the mixing-plane.

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 7.23 Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions

Using the NRBCs in Parallel FLUENT

When the turbo-specific NRBCs are used in conjunction with the parallel solver, all cells
in each boundary zone, where NRBCs will be applied, must be located or contained
within a single partition. You can ensure this by manually partitioning the grid (see
Section 31.5.4: Partitioning the Grid Manually for more information).

7.23.2 General Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions

Overview
The general non-reflecting boundary conditions in FLUENT are based on character-
istic wave relations derived from the Euler equations, and applied only on pressure-
outlet boundary conditions. To obtain the primitive flow quantities (P, u, v, w, T ) on the
pressure-outlet, reformulated Euler equations are solved on the boundary of the domain
in an algorithm similar to the flow equations applied to the interior of the domain.
Unlike the turbo-specific NRBC method presented in the previous section, the General
NRBC method is not restricted by geometric constraints or mesh type. However, good
cell skewness near the boundaries where the NRBC will be applied is advisable for a more
stable, converged solution. In addition, the General NRBCs can be applied to steady or
transient flows as long as the compressible ideal-gas law is used.

Restrictions and Limitations

Note the following restrictions and limitations on the general NRBCs:

• The general NRBC is available only with the density-based solvers.

• The general NRBC is available only with compressible flow while using the ideal-gas
law.

i The general NRBC should not be used with the wet steam or real gas
models.
• The general NRBC is not available if the target mass flow rate is activated in the
pressure-outlet panel.
• The general NRBC should not be used if the turbo-specific NRBC is activated.

i If you switch from Turbo-specific NRBC to general NRBC or vice versa,

then make sure you switch off one NRBC model before turning on the next.
You cannot use both NRBC models at the same time.
• NRBCs are not compatible with species transport models. They are mainly used
to solve ideal-gas single-specie flow.

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Boundary Conditions

Theory
General NRBCs are derived by first recasting the Euler equations in an orthogonal coor-
dinate system (x1 , x2 , x3 ) such that one of the coordinates, x1 , is normal to the boundary
Figure 7.23.5. The characteristic analysis [374, 375] is then used to modify terms corre-
sponding to waves propagating in the x1 normal direction. When doing so, a system of
equations can be written to describe the wave propagation as follows:

∂ρ ∂m2 ∂m3
+ d1 + + =0 (7.23-43)
∂t ∂x2 ∂x3
∂m1 ∂(m1 U2 ) ∂(m1 U3 )
+ U1 d1 + ρd3 + + =0
∂t ∂x2 ∂x3
∂m2 ∂(m2 U2 ) ∂(m2 U3 ) ∂P
+ U2 d1 + ρd4 + + + =0
∂t ∂x2 ∂x3 ∂x2
∂m3 ∂(m3 U2 ) ∂(m3 U3 ) ∂P
+ U3 d1 + ρd5 + + + =0
∂t ∂x2 ∂x3 ∂x3
∂ρE 1 2 d2 ∂[(ρE + P )U2 ] ∂[(ρE + P )U3 ]
+ |V | d1 + + m1 d3 + m2 d4 + m3 d5 + + =0
∂t 2 (γ − 1) ∂x2 ∂x3

Where m1 = ρU1 , m2 = ρU1 and m3 = ρU3 and U1 , U2 and U3 are the velocity components
in the coordinate system (x1 , x2 , x3 ). The equations above are solved on pressure-outlet
boundaries, along with the interior governing flow equations, using similar time stepping
algorithms to obtain the values of the primitive flow variables (P, u, v, w, T ).

i Note that a transformation between the local orthogonal coordinate system

(x1 , x2 , x3 ) and the global Cartesian system (X, Y, Z) must be defined on
each face on the boundary to obtain the velocity components (u, v, w) in
a global Cartesian system.
The di terms in the transformed Euler equations contain the outgoing and incoming
characteristic wave amplitudes, Li , and are defined as follows:

1 1
d1 = 2
[L2 + (L5 + L1 )] (7.23-44)
c 2
1
d2 = (L5 + L1 )
2
1
d3 = (L5 − L1 )
2ρc
d4 = L3
d5 = L4

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 7.23 Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions

x2
local orthogonal
coordinate system

x1

y global coordinate
system
pressure outlet boundary

Figure 7.23.5: The Local Orthogonal Coordinate System onto which Euler
Equations are Recasted for the General NRBC Method

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Boundary Conditions

From characteristic analyses, the wave amplitudes, Li , are given by:

∂P ∂U1
L1 = λ1 ( − ρc ) (7.23-45)
∂x1 ∂x1
∂P ∂P
L2 = λ2 (c2 − )
∂x1 ∂x1
∂U2
L3 = λ3
∂x1
∂U3
L4 = λ4
∂x1
∂P ∂U1
L5 = λ5 ( + ρc )
∂x1 ∂x1

The outgoing and incoming characteristic waves are associated with the characteristic
velocities of the system (i.e eigenvalues), λi , as seen in Figure 7.23.6. These eigenvalues
are given by:

λ1 = U1 − c (7.23-46)
λ2 = λ3 = λ4 = U1
λ5 = U1 + c

For subsonic flow leaving a pressure-outlet boundary, four waves leave the domain (asso-
ciated with positive eigenvalues λ2 , λ3 , λ4 , and λ5 ) and one enters the domain (associated
with negative eigenvalue λ1 ).
To solve Equations 7.23-44 on a pressure-outlet boundary, the values of L2 , L3 , L4 and
∂P
L5 must be first determined from Equations 7.23-46 by using extrapolated values of ∂x 1
,
∂U1 ∂U2 ∂U3
,
∂x1 ∂x1
, and ∂x1 from inside the domain. Then, for the lone incoming wave, the Linear
Relaxation Method (LRM) of Poinsot [287, 288] is used to determine the value of the L1
wave amplitude. The LRM method sets the value of the incoming wave amplitude to be
proportional to the differences between the local pressure on a boundary face and the
imposed exit pressure. Therefore, L1 is given by

L1 = K(P − Pexit ) (7.23-47)

where Pexit is the imposed pressure at the exit boundary, K is the relaxation factor, and
P is the local pressure value at the boundary.
In general, the desirable average pressure on a non-reflecting boundary can be either
relaxed toward a pressure value at infinity or enforced to be equivalent to some desired
pressure at the exit of the boundary.

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 7.23 Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions

x2

x1

L1, λ 1

L 2 ,λ 2
L 3 ,λ 3
L 4 ,λ 4
L5 , λ 5

flow direction

pressure outlet
boundary

Figure 7.23.6: Waves Leaving and Entering a Boundary Face on a Pressure-

Outlet Boundary. The Wave Amplitudes are Shown with the
Associated Eigenvalues for a Subsonic Flow Condition

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Boundary Conditions

If you want the average pressure at the boundary to relax toward P at infinity (i.e.
Pexit = P∞ ), the suggested K factor is given by:

c
K = σ1 (1 − Mmax 2 ) (7.23-48)
h
where c is the acoustic speed , h is the domain size, Mmax is the maximum Mach number
in the domain, and σ1 is the under-relaxation factor (default value is 0.15) . On the other
hand, if the desired average pressure at the boundary is to approach a specific imposed
value at the boundary, then the K factor is given by:

K = σ2 c (7.23-49)

where the default value for σ2 is 5.0

Using General Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions

The General NRBC is available for use in the Pressure Outlet panel when either the
density-based explicit or the density-based implicit solvers are activated to solve for
compressible flows using the ideal-gas law.
To activate the general NRBC

1. Select pressure-outlet from the Boundary Conditions Panel and click the Set... button.

2. In the Pressure Outlet panel, enable the Non-Reflecting Boundary option.

3. Select one of the two NRBC Pressure Specification options: Exit pressure is at infinity
or Exit pressure is average pressure.
(a) The Exit pressure is at infinity boundary is typically used in unsteady calcu-
lations or when the exit pressure value is imposed at infinity. The boundary
is designed so that the pressure at the boundary relaxes toward the imposed
pressure at infinity. The speed at which this relaxation takes place is controlled
by the parameter, sigma, which can be adjusted in the TUI:
define −→ boundary-conditions −→ non-reflecting-bc −→
general-nrbc −→set
In the set/ submenu, you can set the sigma value. The default value for
sigma is 0.15.

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 7.23 Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.23.7: The Pressure Outlet Panel With the Non-Reflecting Boundary
Enabled

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Boundary Conditions

(b) The Exit pressure is average pressure boundary specification is usually used in
steady-state calculations when you want to force the average pressure on the
boundary to approach the exit pressure value. The matching of average exit
pressure to the imposed average pressure is controlled by parameter sigma2
which can be adjusted in the TUI:
define −→ boundary-conditions −→ non-reflecting-bc −→
general-nrbc −→set
In the set/ submenu, you can set the sigma2 value. The default value for
sigma2 is 5.0 .

i There is no guarantee that the sigma2 value of 5.0 will force the average
boundary pressure to match the specified exit pressure in all flow situations.
In the case where the desired average boundary pressure has not been
achieved, the user can intervene to adjust the sigma2 value so that the
desired average pressure on the boundary is approached.

Usually, the solver can operate at higher CFL values without the NRBCs being turned
on. Therefore, for steady-state solutions the best practice is to first achieve a good
stable solution (not necessarily converged) before activating the non-reflecting boundary
condition. In many flow situations, the CFL value must be reduced from the normal
operation to keep the solution stable. This is particularly true with the density-based
implicit solver since the boundary update is done in an explicit manner. A typical CFL
value in the density-based implicit solver, with the NRBC activated, is 2.0.

7.24 User-Defined Fan Model

The user-defined fan model in FLUENT allows you to periodically regenerate a profile file
that can be used to specify the characteristics of a fan, including pressure jump across
the fan, and radial and swirling components of velocity generated by the fan.
For example, consider the calculation of the pressure jump across the fan. You can,
through the standard interface, input a constant for the pressure jump, specify a poly-
nomial that describes the pressure jump as a function of axial velocity through the fan,
or use a profile file that describes the pressure jump as a function of the axial velocity or
location at the fan face. If you use a profile file, the same profile will be used consistently
throughout the course of the solution. Suppose, however, that you want to change the
profile as the flow field develops. This would require a periodic update to the profile
file itself, based upon some instructions that you supply. The user-defined fan model is
designed to help you do this.

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 7.24 User-Defined Fan Model

To use this model, you need to generate an executable that reads a fan profile file that is
written by FLUENT, and writes out a modified one, which FLUENT will then read. The
source code for this executable can be written in any programming language (Fortran or
C, for example). Your program will be called and executed automatically, according to
inputs that you supply through the standard interface.

7.24.1 Steps for Using the User-Defined Fan Model

To make use of the user-defined fan model, follow the steps below.

1. In your model, identify one or more interior faces to represent one or more fan
zones.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

2. Input the name of your executable and the instructions for reading and writing
profile files in the User-Defined Fan Model panel.
Define −→ User-Defined −→Fan Model...

3. Initialize the flow field and the profile files.

4. Enter the fan parameters using the standard Fan panel (opened from the Boundary
Conditions panel).

5. Perform the calculation.

7.24.2 Example of a User-Defined Fan

Usage of the user-defined fan model is best demonstrated by an example. With this
in mind, consider the domain shown in Figure 7.24.1. An inlet supplies air at 10 m/s
to a cylindrical region, 1.25 m long and 0.2 m in diameter, surrounded by a symmetry
boundary. At the center of the flow domain is a circular fan. A pressure outlet boundary
is at the downstream end.

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Boundary Conditions

Grid

Figure 7.24.1: The Inlet, Fan, and Pressure Outlet Zones for a Circular Fan
Operating in a Cylindrical Domain

Solving this problem with the user-defined fan model will cause FLUENT to periodically
write out a radial profile file with the current solution variables at the fan face. These
variables (static pressure, pressure jump, axial, radial, and swirling (tangential) velocity
components) will represent averaged quantities over annular sections of the fan. The sizes
of the annular regions are determined by the size of the fan and the number of radial
points to be used in the profiles.
Once the profile file is written, FLUENT will invoke an executable, which will perform
the following tasks:

1. Read the profile file containing the current flow conditions at the fan.

2. Perform a calculation to compute new values for the pressure jump, radial velocity,
and swirl velocity for the fan.

3. Write a new profile file that contains the results of these calculations.

FLUENT will then read the new profile file and continue with the calculation.

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 7.24 User-Defined Fan Model

Setting the User-Defined Fan Parameters

Specification of the parameters for the user-defined fan begins in the User-Defined Fan
Model panel (Figure 7.24.2).
Define −→ User-Defined −→ Fan Model...

Figure 7.24.2: The User-Defined Fan Model Panel

In this panel, you can select the fan zone(s) on which your executable will operate under
Fan Zones. In this example, there is only one fan, fan-8. If you have multiple fan zones in
a simulation, for which you have different profile specifications, you can select them all
at this point. Your executable will be able to differentiate between the fan zones because
the zone ID for each fan is included in the solution profile file. The executable will be
invoked once for each zone, and separate profile files will be written for each.
The executable file will be called on to update the profile file periodically, based on the
input for the Iteration Update Interval. An input of 10, as shown in the panel, means that
the fan executable in this example will act every 10 iterations to modify the profile file.
The number of points in the profile file to be written by FLUENT is entered under Output
Profile Points. This profile file can have the same or a different number of points as the
one that is written by the external executable.
Finally, the name of the executable should be entered under External Command Name.
In the current example, the name of the executable is fantest.

i If the executable is not located in your working directory, then you must
type the complete path to the executable.

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Boundary Conditions

Sample User-Defined Fan Program

The executable file will be built from the Fortran program, fantest.f, which is shown
below. You can obtain a copy of this subroutine and the two that it calls (to read and
write profile files) by contacting your Fluent technical support engineer.

c
c This program is invoked at intervals by FLUENT to
c read a profile-format file that contains radially
c averaged data at a fan face, compute new pressure-jump
c and swirl-velocity components, and write a new profile
c file that will subsequently be read by FLUENT to
c update the fan conditions.
c
c Usage: fantest < input_profile > output_profile
c

integer npmax
parameter (npmax = 900)
integer inp ! input: number of profile points
integer iptype ! input: profile type (0=radial, 1=point)
real ir(npmax) ! input: radial positions
real ip(npmax) ! input: pressure
real idp(npmax) ! input: pressure-jump
real iva(npmax) ! input: axial velocity
real ivr(npmax) ! input: radial velocity
real ivt(npmax) ! input: tangential velocity
character*80 zoneid
integer rfanprof ! function to read a profile file
integer status
c
status = rfanprof(npmax,zoneid,iptype,
$ inp,ir,ip,idp,iva,ivr,ivt)
if (status.ne.0) then
write(*,*) ’error reading input profile file’
else
do 10 i = 1, inp
idp(i) = 200.0 - 10.0*iva(i)
ivt(i) = 20.0*ir(i)
ivr(i) = 0.0
10 continue
call wfanprof(6,zoneid,iptype,inp,ir,idp,ivr,ivt)
endif
stop
end

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 7.24 User-Defined Fan Model

After the variable declarations, which have comments on the right, the subroutine rfanprof
is called to read the profile file, and pass the current values of the relevant variables (as
defined in the declaration list) to fantest. A loop is done on the number of points in
the profile to compute new values for:

• The pressure jump across the fan, idp, which in this example is a function of the
axial velocity, iva.

• The swirling or tangential velocity, ivt, which in this example is proportional to

the radial position, ir.

• The radial velocity, ivr, which in this example is set to zero.

After the loop, a new profile is written by the subroutine wfanprof, shown below.
(For more information on profile file formats, see Section 7.26.2: Boundary Profile File
Format.)

subroutine wfanprof(unit,zoneid,ptype,n,r,dp,vr,vt)
c
c writes a FLUENT profile file for input by the
c user fan model
c
integer unit ! output unit number
character*80 zoneid
integer ptype ! profile type (0=radial, 1=point)
integer n ! number of points
real r(n) ! radial position
real dp(n) ! pressure jump
real vr(n) ! radial velocity
real vt(n) ! tangential velocity
character*6 typenam

if (ptype.eq.0) then
typenam = ’radial’
else
typenam = ’point’
endif

write(unit,*) ’((’, zoneid(1:index(zoneid,’\0’)-1), ’ ’,

$ typenam, n, ’)’

write(unit,*) ’(r’
write(unit,100) r
write(unit,*) ’)’

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Boundary Conditions

write(unit,*) ’(pressure-jump’
write(unit,100) dp
write(unit,*) ’)’

write(unit,*) ’(radial-velocity’
write(unit,100) vr
write(unit,*) ’)’

write(unit,*) ’(tangential-velocity’
write(unit,100) vt
write(unit,*) ’)’

100 format(5(e15.8,1x))
return
end

This subroutine will write a profile file in either radial or point format, based on your
input for the integer ptype. (See Section 7.26: Boundary Profiles for more details on the
types of profile files that are available.) The names that you use for the various profiles
are arbitrary. Once you have initialized the profile files, the names you use in wfanprof
will appear as profile names in the Fan panel.

Initializing the Flow Field and Profile Files

The next step in the setup of the user-defined fan is to initialize (create) the profile files
that will be used. To do this, first initialize the flow field with the Solution Initialization
panel (using the velocity inlet conditions, for example), and then type the command
(update-user-fans) in the console window. (The parentheses are part of the command,
and must be typed in.)
This will create the profile names that are given in the subroutine wfanprof.

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 7.24 User-Defined Fan Model

Selecting the Profiles

Once the profile names have been established, you will need to visit the Fan panel (Fig-
ure 7.24.3) to complete the problem setup. (See Section 7.20: Fan Boundary Conditions
for general information on using the Fan panel.)

Figure 7.24.3: The Fan Panel

At this time, the Fan Axis, Fan Origin, and Fan Hub Radius can be entered, along with
the choice of profiles for the calculation of pressure jump, tangential velocity, and radial
velocity. With the profile options enabled, you can select the names of the profiles from
the drop-down lists. In the panel above, the selected profiles are named fan-8-pressure-
jump, fan-8-tangential-velocity, and fan-8-radial-velocity, corresponding to the names that
were used in the subroutine wfanprof.

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Boundary Conditions

Performing the Calculation

The solution is now ready to run. As it begins to converge, the report in the console
window shows that the profile files are being written and read every 10 iterations:

iter continuity x-velocity y-velocity z-velocity k

! 1 residual normalization factors changed (continuity
1 1.0000e+00 1.0000e+00 1.0000e+00 1.0000e+00 1.0000e+00
! 2 residual normalization factors changed (continuity
2 1.0000e+00 1.0000e+00 1.0000e+00 1.0000e+00 9.4933e-01
3 6.8870e-01 7.2663e-01 7.3802e-01 7.5822e-01 6.1033e-01
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
9 2.1779e-01 9.8139e-02 3.0497e-01 2.9609e-01 2.8612e-01
Writing "fan-8-out.prof"...
Done.
Reading "fan-8-in.prof"...

Reading profile file...

10 "fan-8" radial-profile points, r, pressure-jump,
radial-velocity, tangential-velocity.

Done.
10 1.7612e-01 7.4618e-02 2.5194e-01 2.4538e-01 2.4569e-01
11 1.6895e-01 8.3699e-02 2.0316e-01 2.0280e-01 2.1169e-01
. . . . . .
. . . . . .

The file fan-8-out.prof is written out by FLUENT and read by the executable fantest.
It contains values for pressure, pressure jump, axial velocity, radial velocity, and tangen-
tial velocity at 20 radial locations at the site of the fan. The file fan-8-in.prof is
generated by fantest and contains updated values for pressure jump and radial and
tangential velocity only. It is therefore a smaller file than fan-8-out.prof. The prefix
for these files takes its name from the fan zone with which the profiles are associated.
An example of the profile file fan-8-in.prof is shown below. This represents the last
profile file to be written by fantest during the convergence history.

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 7.24 User-Defined Fan Model

((fan-8 radial 10)

(r
0.24295786E-01 0.33130988E-01 0.41966137E-01 0.50801374E-01 0.59636571E-01
0.68471842E-01 0.77307090E-01 0.86142287E-01 0.94963484E-01 0.95353782E-01
)
(pressure-jump
0.10182057E+03 0.98394081E+02 0.97748657E+02 0.97787750E+02 0.97905228E+02
0.98020668E+02 0.98138817E+02 0.98264198E+02 0.98469681E+02 0.98478783E+02
)
(radial-velocity
0.00000000E+00 0.00000000E+00 0.00000000E+00 0.00000000E+00 0.00000000E+00
0.00000000E+00 0.00000000E+00 0.00000000E+00 0.00000000E+00 0.00000000E+00
)
(tangential-velocity
0.48591572E+00 0.66261977E+00 0.83932275E+00 0.10160275E+01 0.11927314E+01
0.13694369E+01 0.15461419E+01 0.17228458E+01 0.18992697E+01 0.19070756E+01
)

Results
A plot of the transverse velocity components at the site of the fan is shown in Fig-
ure 7.24.4. As expected, there is no radial component, and the tangential (swirling)
component increases with radius.

1.04e+01

1.00e+01

9.60e+00

9.20e+00

8.79e+00

8.38e+00

7.97e+00

7.56e+00

7.15e+00

6.75e+00 Y

X Z
6.34e+00

Velocity Vectors Colored By Velocity Magnitude (m/s)

Figure 7.24.4: Transverse Velocities at the Site of the Fan

As a final check on the result, an XY plot of the static pressure as a function of x position
is shown (Figure 7.24.5). This XY plot is made on a line at y=0.05 m, or at about half
the radius of the duct. According to the input file shown above, the pressure jump at the
site of the fan should be approximately 97.8 Pa/m. Examination of the figure supports
this finding.

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Boundary Conditions

y=.05

1.00e+01

0.00e+00

-1.00e+01

-2.00e+01

-3.00e+01

-4.00e+01
Static
-5.00e+01
Pressure
(pascal) -6.00e+01

-7.00e+01

-8.00e+01

-9.00e+01

-1.00e+02
Y
-0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

X Z
Position (m)

Static Pressure

Figure 7.24.5: Static Pressure Jump Across the Fan

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 7.25 Heat Exchanger Models

7.25 Heat Exchanger Models

Many engineering systems, including power plants, climate control, and engine cooling
systems typically contain tubular heat exchangers. However, for most engineering prob-
lems, it is impractical to model individual fins and tubes of a heat exchanger core. In
principle, heat exchanger cores introduce a pressure drop to the gas stream (also termed
the primary fluid) and transfer heat to a second fluid, a coolant, referred to here as the
auxiliary fluid.
In FLUENT, lumped-parameter models are used to account for the pressure loss and
auxiliary fluid heat rejection. FLUENT provides two heat exchanger models: the simple-
effectiveness-model and the number-of-transfer-units (NTU) model. The models can be
used to compute auxiliary fluid inlet temperature for a fixed heat rejection or total heat
rejection for a fixed auxiliary fluid inlet temperature. For the simple-effectiveness-model,
the auxiliary fluid may be single-phase or two-phase.
The following sections contain information about the heat exchanger models:

• Section 7.25.1: Overview and Restrictions of the Heat Exchanger Models

• Section 7.25.2: Heat Exchanger Model Theory

• Section 7.25.3: Using the Heat Exchanger Model

• Section 7.25.4: Using the Heat Exchanger Group

• Section 7.25.5: Postprocessing for the Heat Exchanger Model

7.25.1 Overview and Restrictions of the Heat Exchanger Models

Overview
In a typical heat exchanger core, the auxiliary fluid temperature is stratified in the
direction of the auxiliary fluid flow. As a result, heat rejection is not constant over the
entire core. In FLUENT, the fluid zone representing the heat exchanger core is subdivided
into macroscopic cells or macros along the auxiliary fluid path, as in Figure 7.25.1. In
this figure, the core is discretized into 3 × 4×2 macros. This configuration consists of 2
passes, each pass having four rows and three columns of macros. The auxiliary fluid inlet
temperature to each macro is computed and then subsequently used to compute the heat
rejection from each macro. This approach provides a realistic heat rejection distribution
over the heat exchanger core.
To use the heat exchanger models, you must define one or more fluid zone(s) to represent
the heat exchanger core. Typically, the fluid zone is sized to the dimension of the core
itself. As part of the setup procedure, you will define the auxiliary fluid path, the number

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Boundary Conditions

of macros, and the physical properties and operating conditions of the core (pressure drop
parameters, heat exchanger effectiveness, auxiliary fluid flow rate, etc.).
You can also combine several fluid zones as a single heat exchanger group. In this
situation each fluid zone acts as a separate heat exchanger core, and the auxiliary fluid
mass flow rate of the heat exchanger group is divided among the zones in the ratio of the
respective volumes. For the purpose of auxiliary fluid flow, heat exchanger groups can also
be connected in series. In addition, a heat exchanger group can have an auxiliary fluid
pressure drop (e.g., for pressure dependent properties) and a supplementary auxiliary
fluid stream entering or leaving it. For more information on heat exchanger groups, see
Section 7.25.4: Using the Heat Exchanger Group.
The heat exchanger models were designed for “compact” heat exchangers, implying that
the gas side flow is unidirectional. The auxiliary fluid is assumed to flow through a large
number of parallel tubes, which can optionally double back in a serpentine pattern to
create a number of “passes”. You can independently choose the principal auxiliary fluid
flow direction, the pass-to-pass direction and the external gas flow direction.

i It is highly recommended that the free-form Tet mesh is not used in the
Heat Exchanger Model. Instead, evenly distributed Hex/Wedge cells should
be used for improved accuracy and a more robust solution process.

Coolant Passage

Macro 0 Macro 1 Macro 2 Macro 21 Macro 2 2 Macro 23

Macro 3 Macro 4 Macro 5 Macro 18 Macro 19 Macro 20

Macro 6 Macro 7 Macro 8 Macro 15 Macro 16 Macro 17

Macro 9 Macro 10 Macro 11 Macro 12 Macro 13 Macro 14

Figure 7.25.1: Core Discretized Into 3 × 4×2 Macros

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 7.25 Heat Exchanger Models

Restrictions
The following restrictions are made for the heat exchanger models:

• The core must be approximately rectangular in shape.

• The gas streamwise direction (see Equation 7.25-1) must be aligned with one of the
three orthogonal axes defined by the rectangular core.

• Flow acceleration effects are neglected in calculating the pressure loss coefficient.

• For the simple-effectiveness-model, the gas capacity rate must be less than the aux-
iliary fluid capacity rate.

• Auxiliary fluid phase change cannot be modeled using the ntu-model.

• The macro-based method requires that an equal number of cells reside in each
macro of equal size.

7.25.2 Heat Exchanger Model Theory

In FLUENT, the heat exchanger core is treated as a fluid zone with momentum and heat
transfer. Pressure loss is modeled as a momentum sink in the momentum equation, and
heat transfer is modeled as a heat source in the energy equation.
FLUENT provides two heat exchanger models: the default ntu-model and the simple-
effectiveness-model. The simple-effectiveness-model interpolates the effectiveness from the
velocity vs effectiveness curve that you provide. For the ntu-model, FLUENT calculates
the effectiveness, , from the NTU value that is calculated by FLUENT from the heat
transfer data provided by the user in tabular format. FLUENT will automatically convert
this heat transfer data to a primary fluid mass flow rate vs NTU curve (this curve will be
piecewise linear). This curve will be used by FLUENT to calculate the NTU for macros
based on their size and primary fluid flow rate.
The ntu-model provides the following features:

• The model can be used to check heat capacity for both the gas and the auxiliary
fluid and takes the lesser of the two for the calculation of heat transfer.

• The model can be used to model heat transfer to the gas from the auxiliary fluid
and vice versa.

• The model can be used to model gas-side reverse flow.

• The model can be used with variable density of gas.

• The model can be used in either the serial or parallel FLUENT solvers.

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Boundary Conditions

The simple-effectiveness-model provides the following features:

• The model can be used to model heat transfer from the auxiliary fluid to the fluid.

• The auxiliary fluid properties can be a function of pressure and temperature, thus
allowing phase change of the auxiliary fluid.

• The model can be used by serial as well as parallel solvers.

• The model can be used to make a network of heat exchangers using a heat exchanger
group (Section 7.25.4: Using the Heat Exchanger Group).

Streamwise Pressure Drop

In both heat exchanger models, pressure loss is modeled using the porous media model
in FLUENT. The streamwise pressure drop can be expressed as

1
∆p = f ρm UA2 min (7.25-1)
2

where
∆p = streamwise pressure drop
f = streamwise pressure loss coefficient
ρm = mean gas density
UAmin = gas velocity at the minimum flow area
The pressure loss coefficient is computed from

νe νe A νm
 
f = (Kc + 1 − σ 2 ) − (1 − σ 2 − Ke ) +2 − 1 + fc (7.25-2)
νi νi Ac νi

where
σ = minimum flow to face area ratio
Kc = entrance loss coefficient
Ke = exit loss coefficient
A = gas-side surface area
Ac = minimum cross-sectional flow area
fc = core friction factor
νe = specific volume at the exit
νi = specific volume at the inlet
νm = mean specific volume ≡ 12 (νe + νi )

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 7.25 Heat Exchanger Models

Kc and Ke are empirical quantities obtained from experimental data. You will need to
specify these parameters based on graphs that are closest to the heat exchanger config-
uration that you are setting up [176], [174]. These parameters are used to set up large
resistances in the two non-streamwise directions, effectively forcing the gas flow through
the core to be unidirectional.
In Equation 7.25-2, the core friction factor is defined as

fc = aRebmin (7.25-3)

where
a = core friction coefficient
b = core friction exponent
Remin = Reynolds number for velocity at the minimum flow area
a and b are empirical quantities obtained from experimental data. You will need to
specify the core friction coefficient and exponent based on graphs that are closest to the
heat exchanger models that you set up [176], [174].
The Reynolds number in Equation 7.25-3 is defined as

ρm UAmin Dh
Remin = (7.25-4)
µm

where
ρm = mean gas density
µm = mean gas viscosity
Dh = hydraulic diameter
UAmin = gas velocity at the minimum flow area
For a heat exchanger core, the hydraulic diameter can be defined as

Ac
 
Dh = 4L (7.25-5)
A
where L is the flow length of the heat exchanger. If the tubes are normal to the primary
fluid flow, then L is the length in the primary fluid flow direction. Note that UAmin can
be calculated from

U
UAmin = (7.25-6)
σ
where U is the gas velocity and σ is the minimum flow to face area ratio.

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Boundary Conditions

Heat Transfer Effectiveness

For the simple-effectiveness-model, the heat-exchanger effectiveness, , is defined as the
ratio of actual rate of heat transfer from the hot to cold fluid to the maximum possible
rate of heat transfer. The maximum possible heat transfer is given by

qmax = Cmin (Tin,hot − Tin,cold ) (7.25-7)

where Tin,hot and Tin,cold are the inlet temperatures of the hot and cold fluids and

Cmin = min[(ṁcp )hot , (ṁcp )cold ] (7.25-8)

Thus, the actual rate of heat transfer, q, is defined as

q = Cmin (Tin,hot − Tin,cold ) (7.25-9)

The value of  depends on the heat exchanger geometry and flow pattern (parallel flow,
counter flow, cross flow, etc.). Though the effectiveness is defined for a complete heat
exchanger, it can be applied to a small portion of the heat exchanger represented by a
computational cell.
For the ntu-model, FLUENT calculates the effectiveness from the ratio of heat capacity
and the number of transfer units using the relation

1 0.22
 
0.78
 = 1 − exp − Ntu (1 − e−Cr Ntu ) (7.25-10)
Cr

where Cr is the ratio of Cmin to Cmax .

Ntu should be specified for various gas flow rates (for a single auxiliary fluid flow rate) as
an input to the model. This Ntu for the heat exchanger is scaled for each macro in the
ratio of their areas.
For each macro, the gas inlet temperature is calculated using the mass average of the
incoming gas temperatures at the boundaries. This automatically takes into account any
reverse flow of the gas at the boundaries.

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 7.25 Heat Exchanger Models

Heat Rejection
Heat rejection is computed for each cell within a macro and added as a source term to
the energy equation for the gas flow. Note that heat rejection from the auxiliary fluid to
gas can be either positive or negative.
For the simple-effectiveness-model, the heat transfer for a given cell is computed from

qcell = (ṁcp )g (Tin,auxiliaryfluid − Tcell ) (7.25-11)

where
 = heat exchanger effectiveness
(ṁcp )g = gas capacity rate (flow rate × specific heat)
Tin,auxiliaryfluid = auxiliary fluid inlet temperature of macro containing the cell
Tcell = cell temperature

For the simple-effectiveness-model, the heat rejection from a macro is calculated by sum-
ming the heat transfer of all the cells contained within the macro

X
qmacro = qcell (7.25-12)
all cells in macro

For the ntu-model, the heat transfer for a macro is calculated from

qmacro = Cmin (Tin,auxiliaryfluid − Tin,gas ) (7.25-13)

where
 = macro effectiveness
Tin,auxiliaryfluid = macro auxiliary fluid inlet temperature
Tin,gas = macro gas inlet temperature

For the ntu-model, the heat transfer for a given cell is computed from

Vcell
qcell = qmacro (7.25-14)
Vmacro

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Boundary Conditions

For both heat exchanger models, the total heat rejection from the heat exchanger core is
computed as the sum of the heat rejection from all the macros:

X
qtotal = qmacro (7.25-15)
all macros

The auxiliary fluid inlet temperature to each macro (Tin,auxiliaryfluid in Equations 7.25-11
and 7.25-13) is computed based on the energy balance of the auxiliary fluid flow. For a
given macro,

qmacro = (ṁ)auxiliaryfluid (hout − hin ) (7.25-16)

where hin and hout are the inlet and outlet enthalpies of the auxiliary fluid in the macro.
The auxiliary fluid outlet temperature from the macro is calculated as

 hout

 cp,auxiliaryfluid
constant specific heat method
Tout =  (7.25-17)
f (hout , p) UDF method


where
f = user-defined function
p = auxiliary fluid pressure

The values of hout and Tout then become the inlet conditions to the next macro.
The first row of macros (Macros 0, 1, and 2 in Figure 7.25.1) are assumed to be where
the auxiliary fluid enters the heat exchanger core. When the fixed total heat rejection
from the heat exchanger core is specified, the inlet temperature to the first row of macros
is iteratively computed, so that all of the equations are satisfied simultaneously. When
a fixed auxiliary fluid inlet temperature is specified, the heat transfer for the first row of
macros are used to calculate their exit enthalpy, which becomes the inlet condition for
the next row macros. At the end of each pass, the outlet enthalpy of each macro (in the
last row) is mass averaged to obtain the inlet condition for the next pass macros.

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 7.25 Heat Exchanger Models

Heat Exchanger Group Connectivity

If the optional heat exchanger group is used, a single heat exchanger may be comprised
of multiple fluid zones. In this case, the auxiliary fluid is assumed to flow through
these zones in parallel. Thus, after taking into account any auxiliary stream effects, the
auxiliary fluid inlet mass flow rate is automatically apportioned to each zone in the group
as follows:

P !
Vi,k
k
ṁi = P P ṁ (7.25-18)
i k Vi,k

where ṁi is the total auxiliary mass flow rate for the heat exchanger group. Vi,k refers
to the volume of the kth finite volume cell within the ith fluid zone. Within each zone,
the auxiliary fluid flows through each macro in series as usual.
At the outlet end of the group, the parallel auxiliary fluid streams through the individual
zones are recombined, and the outlet auxiliary fluid enthalpy is calculated on a mass-
averaged basis:

P !
iṁi hi
h̄ = P (7.25-19)
i ṁi

With user-defined functions, the simple-effectiveness-model allows you to simulate two-

phase auxiliary fluid flows and other complex auxiliary fluid enthalpy relationships of the
form

h = h(T, p, x) (7.25-20)

where p is the absolute pressure and x is the quality (mass fraction of vapor) of a two-
phase vapor-liquid mixture. When pressure-dependent auxiliary fluid properties are used,
the mean pressure within each macro is calculated and passed to the user-defined function
as

1 ∆p
 
p̄j = pin + j + (7.25-21)
2 N

where
j = macro row index
pin = inlet auxiliary fluid pressure
∆p = overall pressure drop across a heat exchanger group
N = number of rows per pass × number of passes.

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Boundary Conditions

7.25.3 Using the Heat Exchanger Model

The heat exchanger model settings may be written into and read from the boundary
conditions file (Section 4.6: Reading and Writing Boundary Conditions) using the text
commands, file/write-bc and file/read-bc, respectively. Otherwise, the steps for
setting up the heat exchanger models are as follows:

1. Enable the calculation of energy in the Energy panel.

Define −→ Models −→Energy...
2. Specify the inputs to the heat exchanger model, using the Heat Exchanger Model
panel (Figure 7.25.2).
Define −→ User-Defined −→Heat Exchanger...

Figure 7.25.2: The Heat Exchanger Model Panel Displaying the Model Data
Tab

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 7.25 Heat Exchanger Models

(a) In the Fluid Zone drop-down list, select the fluid zone representing the heat
exchanger core.
(b) Under the Model Data tab, choose Fixed Heat Rejection or Fixed Inlet Temper-
ature, as required (Figure 7.25.2).
(c) Specify the heat exchanger model as either the default ntu-model or the simple-
effectiveness-model.
(d) Specify the Core Porosity Model if needed.
(e) If the ntu-model is chosen, a Heat Transfer Data... button will appear under
Heat Exchanger Performance Data. Clicking on the Heat Transfer Data... button
will open up the Heat Transfer Data Table panel with information on the fluid
flow rates and heat transfer data (Figure 7.25.3).

Figure 7.25.3: The Heat Transfer Data Table Panel for the NTU Model

(f) Enter the Auxiliary Fluid Temperature and the Primary Fluid Temperature for
the ntu-model.
(g) If the simple-effectiveness-model is chosen, then clicking on the Velocity Effec-
tiveness Curve... button, under the Heat Exchanger Performance Data, allows
you to set the velocity vs effectiveness curve.
(h) Under the Geometry tab, define the macro grid using the Number of Passes,
the Number of Rows/Pass, and the Number of Columns/Pass fields.

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Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.25.4: The Heat Exchanger Model Panel Displaying the Geometry Tab

(i) In the Auxiliary Fluid tab, specify the auxiliary fluid properties and conditions
(Auxiliary Fluid Flow Rate, Inlet Temperature, and Auxiliary Fluid Specific Heat).
(j) In the Auxiliary Fluid tab, specify the Auxiliary Fluid Properties Method, either
as a constant-specific-heat or as a user-defined-enthalpy.
(k) Auxiliary Fluid Flow Rate, Heat Rejection, Inlet Temperature, and Inlet Pressure
can be provided as a constant, polynomial or piecewise-linear profile that is a
function of time.
(l) Click Apply in the Heat Exchanger panel to save all the settings.
(m) Repeat steps (a)–(l) for any other heat exchanger fluid zones.

To use multiple fluid zones to define a single heat exchanger, or to connect the auxil-
iary fluid flow path among multiple heat exchangers, see Section 7.25.4: Using the Heat
Exchanger Group.

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Figure 7.25.5: The Heat Exchanger Model Panel Displaying the Auxiliary Fluid
Tab

Selecting the Zone for the Heat Exchanger

Choose the fluid zone for which you want to define a heat exchanger in the Fluid Zone
drop-down list.

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Boundary Conditions

Specifying Heat Exchanger Performance Data

Based on the heat transfer model you choose in the Model Data tab, some performance
data must be entered for the heat exchanger.

• ntu-model: For the ntu-model you will provide the heat transfer for different primary
and auxiliary fluid flow rates. Click the Heat Transfer Data... to open up a tabular
panel. Set the Number of auxiliary flow rates and primary fluid flow rates. The
panel will resize itself accordingly. You will need to provide various primary fluid
flow rates and auxiliary fluid flow rates and the corresponding heat transfer values.
You may write this data to a file that can be read later.

• simple-effectiveness-model: For this model, you will need to provide velocity versus
effectiveness data. To provide this you can click the Velocity Effectiveness Curve...
button. This will open up a tabular panel. In this panel, you can set the number of
points in the curve, then you can provide velocities and corresponding effectiveness
values. This data can be written to a file and read back.

Specifying the Auxiliary Fluid Inlet and Pass-to-Pass Directions

To define the auxiliary fluid direction and flow path, you will specify direction vectors
for the Auxiliary Fluid Inlet Direction and the Pass-to-Pass Direction in the Geometry tab.
Figure 7.25.6 shows these directions relative to the macros.
For some problems in which the principal axes of the heat exchanger core are not aligned
with the coordinate axes of the domain, you may not know the auxiliary fluid inlet and
pass-to-pass direction vectors a priori. In such cases, you can use the plane tool as follows
to help you to determine these direction vectors.

1. “Snap” the plane tool onto the boundary of the heat exchanger core. (Follow the
instructions in Section 27.6.1: Initializing the Plane Tool for initializing the tool to
a position on an existing surface.)

2. Translate and rotate the axes of the tool appropriately until they are aligned with
the principal directions of the heat exchanger core. The depth direction is de-
termined by the red axis, the height direction by the green axis, and the width
direction by the blue axis.

3. Once the axes are aligned, click on the Update From Plane Tool button in the Heat
Exchanger Model panel. The directional vectors will be set automatically. (Note
that the Update from Plane Tool button will also set the height, width, and depth
of the heat exchanger core.)

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Defining the Macros

As discussed in Section 7.25.1: Overview and Restrictions of the Heat Exchanger Models,
the fluid zone representing the heat exchanger core is split into macros. Macros are
constructed based on the specified number of passes, the number of macro rows per pass,
the number of macro columns per pass, and the corresponding auxiliary fluid inlet and
pass-to-pass directions (see Figure 7.25.6). Macros are numbered from 0 to (n − 1) in the
direction of auxiliary fluid flow, where n is the number of macros.

width

Coolant Inlet Direction

(1 Macro Column/Pass)

(4 Macro Rows/Pass) height

Pass-to-Pass Direction

(3 Passes)

Figure 7.25.6: 1 × 4×3 Macros

In the Heat Exchanger Model panel, in the Geometry tab, specify the Number of Passes, the
Number of Rows/Pass, and the Number of Columns/Pass. The model will automatically
extrude the macros to the depth of the heat exchanger core. For each pass, the Number
of Rows/Pass are defined in the direction of the auxiliary flow inlet direction and the
Number of Columns/Pass are defined in the direction of the pass-to-pass direction.

i The Number of Rows/Pass, as well as the Number of Columns/Pass must be

divisible by the number of cells in their respective directions.

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Boundary Conditions

Viewing the Macros

You can view the auxiliary fluid path by displaying the macros. To view the macros for
your specified Number of Passes, Number of Rows/Pass, and Number of Columns/Pass,
click the Apply button at the bottom of the panel. Then click View Passes to display it.
The path of the auxiliary fluid is color-coded in the display: macro 0 is red and macro
n − 1 is blue.
For some problems, especially complex geometries, you may want to include portions
of the computational-domain grid in your macros plot as spatial reference points. For
example, you may want to show the location of an inlet and an outlet along with the
macros. This is accomplished by turning on the Draw Grid option. The Grid Display panel
will appear automatically when you turn on the Draw Grid option, and you can set the
grid display parameters there. When you click on View Passes in the Heat Exchanger
Model panel, the grid display, as defined in the Grid Display panel, will be included in the
macros plot (see Figure 7.25.7).

5.00e+00

4.00e+00

3.00e+00

2.00e+00

1.00e+00

Y
Z X
0.00e+00

Macros

Figure 7.25.7: Grid Display With Macros

Selecting the Heat Exchanger Model

You can specify the model for your heat exchanger by selecting the ntu-model or the
simple-effectiveness-model from the Heat Transfer Model drop-down list in the Model Data
tab.

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Specifying the Auxiliary Fluid Properties and Conditions

To define the auxiliary fluid properties and conditions, you will specify the Auxiliary Fluid
Flow Rate (ṁ) in the Auxiliary Fluid tab. The properties of the auxiliary fluid can be
specified using the Auxiliary Fluid Properties Method drop-down list. You can choose a
Constant Specific Heat (cp ) and set the value in the Auxiliary Fluid Specific Heat field below,
or as a user-defined function for the enthalpy using the User Defined Enthalpy option and
selecting the corresponding UDF from the Auxiliary Fluid Enthalpy UDF drop-down list.

• If you want FLUENT to compute the auxiliary fluid inlet temperature for a specified
heat rejection, follow the steps below:
1. Enable the Fixed Heat Rejection option in the Model Data tab.
2. Specify the Heat Rejection (qtotal in Equation 7.25-15) in the Auxiliary Fluid
tab.
3. Specify the Initial Temperature, which will be used by FLUENT as an initial
guess for the inlet temperature (Tin in Equations 7.25-11 and 7.25-16).
• If you want FLUENT to compute the total heat rejection of the core for a given
inlet auxiliary fluid temperature, follow the steps below:
1. Enable the Fixed Inlet Temperature option in the Model Data tab.
2. Specify the Inlet Temperature (Tin in Equations 7.25-11 and 7.25-16) in the
Auxiliary Fluid tab.
• If you enable the User Defined Enthalpy option under the Auxiliary Fluid Properties
Method, you must also specify the Inlet Pressure (pin in Equation 7.25-21) and Inlet
Quality (x in Equation 7.25-20).

Setting the Pressure-Drop Parameters and Effectiveness

The pressure drop parameters and effectiveness define the Core Porosity Model. If you
would like FLUENT to set the porosity of this a heat exchanger zone using a particular
core model, you can select the appropriate model. This will automatically set the porous
media inputs. There are three ways to specify the Core Porosity Model parameters:

• Use the values in FLUENT’s default model.

• Define a new core porosity model with your own values.
• Read a core porosity model from an external file.

If you do not choose a core porosity model, you will need to set the porosity parameters
in the boundary conditions panel for the heat exchanger zone(s). To do this, follow the
procedures described in Section 7.19.6: User Inputs for Porous Media.
The models you define will be saved in the case file.

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Boundary Conditions

Using the Default Core Porosity Model

FLUENT provides a default model for a typical heat exchanger core. To use these values,
simply retain the selection of default-model in the Core Porosity Model drop-down list
in the Heat Exchanger Model panel. (You can view the default parameters in the Heat
Exchanger Model panel, as described below.)
The default-model core porosity model is a list of constant values from the Heat Exchanger
Model panel. These constants are used for setting the porous media parameters.

Defining a New Core Porosity Model

If you want to define pressure-drop and effectiveness parameters that are different from
those in the default core porosity model, you can create a new model. The steps for
creating a new model are as follows:

1. Click the Edit... button to the right of the Core Porosity Model drop-down list, for
which default-model should have been selected. This will open the Core Porosity
Model panel (Figure 7.25.8).

Figure 7.25.8: The Core Porosity Model Panel

2. Enter the name of your new model in the Name box at the top of the panel.

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3. Under Gas-Side Pressure Drop, specify the following parameters used in Equa-
tion 7.25-2:
Minimum Flow to Face Area Ratio (σ)
Entrance Loss Coefficient (Kc )
Exit Loss Coefficient (Ke )
Gas-Side Surface Area (A)
Minimum Cross Section Flow Area (Ac )
and the Core Friction Coefficient and Core Friction Exponent (a and b, respectively,
in Equation 7.25-3).

4. Click the Change/Create button. This will add your new model to the database.

Reading Heat Exchanger Parameters from an External File

You can read parameters for your Core Porosity Model from an external file. A sample
file is shown below:

("modelname"
(0.73 0.43 0.053 5.2 0.33 9.1 0.66))

The first entry in the file is the name of the model (e.g., modelname). The second set of
numbers contains the gas-side pressure drop parameters:
(σ Kc Ke A Ac a b)
To read an external heat exchanger file, you will follow these steps:

1. In the Core Porosity Model panel, click on the Read... button.

2. In the resulting Select File dialog box, specify the HXC Parameters File name and
click OK. FLUENT will read the core porosity model parameters, and add the new
model to the database.

Viewing the Parameters for an Existing Core Model

To view the parameters associated with a core porosity model that you have already
defined, select the model name in the Database drop-down list (in the Core Porosity
Model panel). The values for that model from the database will be displayed in the Core
Porosity Model panel.

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Boundary Conditions

7.25.4 Using the Heat Exchanger Group

To define a single heat exchanger that uses multiple fluid zones, or to connect the auxiliary
fluid flow path among multiple heat exchangers, you can use heat exchanger groups. To
use heat exchanger groups, perform the following steps:

1. Enable the calculation of energy in the Energy panel.

Define −→ Models −→Energy...
2. Specify the inputs to the heat exchanger group model, using the Heat Exchanger
Group panel (Figure 7.25.9).
Define −→ User-Defined −→Heat Exchanger Group...
(a) Under Name, enter the name of the heat exchanger group.
(b) Under Fluid Zones, select the fluid zones that you want to define in the heat
exchanger group.
(c) Click on the Model Data tab.
i. Under Connectivity, select the Upstream heat exchanger group if such a
connection exists.
ii. Under Primary Fluid Flow Direction, specify the gas flow direction as either
Width, Height, or Depth.
iii. In the Heat Transfer Model drop-down list, choose either the ntu-model or
the simple-effectiveness-model.
iv. From the Core Porosity Model drop-down list, specify the core model that
should be used to calculate the porous media parameters for the zones in
the group.
v. Provide the Heat Exchanger Performance Data according to the chosen
model.
(d) Click on the Geometry tab (Figure 7.25.10).
i. Define the macro grid by specifying the Number of Passes, the Number of
Rows/Pass, and the Number of Columns/Pass.
ii. Specify the Auxiliary Fluid Inlet Direction and Pass-to-Pass Direction.
(e) Click the Auxiliary Fluid tab (Figure 7.25.11) to specify the auxiliary fluid
operating conditions.
i. Specify the Specific Heat as either a constant-specific-heat or as a user-
defined-enthalpy.
ii. Auxiliary Fluid Flow Rate, Initial Temperature, and Inlet Pressure can be pro-
vided as a constant, polynomial or piecewise-linear profile that is a function
of time.

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 7.25 Heat Exchanger Models

Figure 7.25.9: The Heat Exchanger Group Panel

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Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.25.10: The Heat Exchanger Group Panel - Geometry Tab

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Figure 7.25.11: The Heat Exchanger Group Panel - Auxiliary Fluid Tab

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Boundary Conditions

(f) If a supplementary auxiliary stream is to be modeled, click the Supplementary

Auxiliary Fluid Stream tab.

Figure 7.25.12: The Heat Exchanger Group Panel - Supplementary Auxiliary

Fluid Stream Tab

i. You can specify the Supplementary Mass Flow Rate as a constant, polyno-
mial or piecewise-linear profile that is a function of time.
ii. You can specify the Supplementary Flow Temperature as a constant, poly-
nomial or piecewise-linear profile that is a function of time.

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(g) Click Create or Replace in the Heat Exchanger Group panel to save all the
settings. Replace changes the parameters of the already existing group that is
selected in the HX Groups list.

i Creating or replacing any heat exchanger group initializes any previously

calculated values for temperature and enthalpy for all macros.
3. If a heat exchanger group is comprised of multiple fluid zones and you wish to
override any of the inputs defined in the previous steps, click on the Set... button
to open the Heat Exchanger Model panel (Figure 7.25.2). Select the particular fluid
zone as usual. Notice that the individual heat exchanger inherits the properties of
the group by default. You may override any of the following:
• Number of Passes, Number of Rows/Pass, and Number of Columns/Pass
• Auxiliary Fluid Inlet Direction and the Pass-to-Pass Direction
• Core Porosity Model

Selecting the Fluid Zones for the Heat Exchanger Group

Select the fluid zones that you want to define in the heat exchanger group in the Fluid
Zones drop-down list. The auxiliary fluid flow in all these zones will be in parallel. Note
that one zone cannot be included in more than one heat exchanger group.

Selecting the Upstream Heat Exchanger Group

If you want to connect the current group in series with another group, choose the up-
stream heat exchanger group. Note that any group can have at most one upstream and
one downstream group. Also, a group cannot be connected to itself. Select a heat ex-
changer group from the Upstream drop-down list under Connectivity in the Model Data
tab of the Heat Exchanger Group panel.

i Connecting to an upstream heat exchanger group can be done only while

creating a heat exchanger group. The connection will persist even if the
connection is later changed and the Replace button is clicked. To change
a connection to an upstream heat exchanger group, you need to delete the
connecting group and create a new heat exchanger group with the proper
connection.

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Boundary Conditions

Specifying the Auxiliary Fluid Inlet and Pass-to-Pass Directions

The Auxiliary Fluid Inlet Direction and Pass-to-Pass Direction, in the Geometry tab can be
specified as directed in Section 7.25.3: Specifying the Auxiliary Fluid Inlet and Pass-to-
Pass Directions in the Heat Exchanger Model panel. Note that the Update from Plane
Tool will set the height, width, and depth as the average of the fluid zones selected in
the Fluid Zones.

Specifying the Auxiliary Fluid Properties

The auxiliary fluid can be specified as having a constant-specific-heat, or a user-defined
function can be written to calculate the enthalpy. The function should return a single
value depending on the index:

• Enthalpy for given values of temperature, pressure, and quality.

• Temperature for given values of enthalpy and pressure

• Specific heat for given values of temperature and pressure

The user-defined function should be of type

DEFINE_SOURCE(udf_name, cell_t c, Thread *t, real d[n], int index).

where n in the expression d[n] would be 0 for temperature, 1 for pressure, or 2 for
quality. The variable index is 0 for enthalpy, 1 for temperature, or 2 for specific heat.
This user-defined function should return

real value; /* (temperature or enthalpy or Cp depending on index). */

Specifying Supplementary Auxiliary Fluid Streams

The addition or removal of a supplementary auxiliary fluid is allowed in any of the heat
exchanger groups. Note that auxiliary streams are not allowed for individual zones. You
will input the mass flow rate, temperature, and quality of the supplementary auxiliary
fluid. You will also need to specify the heat transfer for various flow rates of primary and
auxiliary flows. The auxiliary stream has the following assumptions:

• The magnitude of a negative auxiliary stream must be less than the primary aux-
iliary fluid inlet flow rate of the heat exchanger group.

• Added streams will be assumed to have the same fluid properties as the primary
inlet auxiliary fluid.

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Initializing the Auxiliary Fluid Temperature

When the heat exchanger group is connected to an upstream heat exchanger group,
FLUENT will automatically set the initial guess for the auxiliary fluid inlet temperature,
Tin , to be equal to the Tin of the upstream heat exchanger group. Thus the boundary
condition Tin for the first heat exchanger group in a connected series will automatically
propagate as an initial guess for every other heat exchanger group in the series. However,
when it is necessary to further improve convergence properties, you will be allowed to
override Tin for any connected heat exchanger group by providing a value in the Initial
Temperature field. Whenever such an override is supplied, FLUENTwill automatically
propagate the new Tin to any heat exchanger groups further downstream in the series.
Similarly, every time the Tin boundary condition for the first heat exchanger group is
modified, FLUENT will correspondingly update every downstream heat exchanger group.
If you want to impose a non-uniform initialization on the auxiliary fluid temperature
field, first connect the heat exchanger groups and then set Tin for each heat exchanger
group in streamwise order.
All heat exchangers included in a group must use the fixed Tin option. All heat exchangers
within a heat exchanger group must have the same Tin . In other words, no local override
of this setting is possible through the Heat Exchanger panel.

7.25.5 Postprocessing for the Heat Exchanger Model

To view the computed values of total heat rejection, outlet temperature, and inlet tem-
perature for the entire heat exchanger, excluding any macros, you can use the following
text command:
define −→ user-defined −→ heat-exchanger −→heat-exchanger-report
When prompted, specify the fluid zone id/name for which you want to report the results.
To report the results for the macros, you can use the following text command:
define −→ user-defined −→ heat-exchanger −→heat-exchanger-macro-report
Specify the fluid zone id/name for which you want to obtain information.
To view the connectivity of the heat exchanger groups, use the text command

(report-connectivity)

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Boundary Conditions

7.26 Boundary Profiles

FLUENT provides a very flexible boundary profile definition mechanism. This feature al-
lows you to use experimental data, data calculated by an external program, or data
written from a previous solution using the Write Profile panel (as described in Sec-
tion 4.5: Reading and Writing Profile Files) as the boundary condition for a variable.
Information about boundary profiles is presented in the following subsections:

• Section 7.26.1: Boundary Profile Specification Types

• Section 7.26.2: Boundary Profile File Format
• Section 7.26.3: Using Boundary Profiles
• Section 7.26.4: Reorienting Boundary Profiles

7.26.1 Boundary Profile Specification Types

Five types of profiles are provided:

• Point profiles are specified by an unordered set of n points: (xi , yi , vi ) for 2D prob-
lems or (xi , yi , zi , vi ) for 3D problems, where 1 ≤ i ≤ n. Profiles written using the
Write Profile panel and profiles of experimental data in random order are examples
of point profiles.
FLUENT will interpolate the point cloud as needed to obtain values at the boundary
faces. The interpolation method for unstructured point data is zero order. In other
words, for each cell face at the boundary, the solver uses the value from the profile
file located closest to the cell. Therefore, if you wish an accurate specification of
an inlet profile, your profile file should contain a sufficiently high point density.
• Line profiles are specified for 2D problems by an ordered set of n points: (xi , yi , vi ),
where 1 ≤ i ≤ n. Zero-order interpolation is performed between the points. An
example of a line profile is a profile of data obtained from an external program that
calculates a boundary-layer profile.
• Mesh profiles are specified for 3D problems by an m by n mesh of points: (xij , yij ,
zij , vij ), where 1 ≤ i ≤ m and 1 ≤ j ≤ n. Zero-order interpolation is performed
between the points. Examples of mesh profiles are profiles of data from a structured
mesh solution and experimental data in a regular array.
• Radial profiles are specified for 2D and 3D problems by an ordered set of n points:
(ri , vi ), where 1 ≤ i ≤ n. The data in a radial profile are a function of radius
only. Linear interpolation is performed between the points, which must be sorted
in ascending order of the r field. The axis for the cylindrical coordinate system is
determined as follows:

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 7.26 Boundary Profiles

– For 2D problems, it is the z-direction vector through (0,0).

– For 2D axisymmetric problems, it is the x-direction vector through (0,0).
– For 3D problems involving a swirling fan, it is the fan axis defined in the Fan
panel (unless you are using local cylindrical coordinates at the boundary, as
described below).
– For 3D problems without a swirling fan, it is the rotation axis of the adjacent
fluid zone, as defined in the Fluid panel (unless you are using local cylindrical
coordinates at the boundary, as described below).
– For 3D problems in which you are using local cylindrical coordinates to specify
conditions at the boundary, it is the axis of the specified local coordinate
system.

• Axial profiles are specified for 3D problems by an ordered set of n points: (zi , vi ),
where 1 ≤ i ≤ n. The data in an axial profile are a function of the axial direction.
Linear interpolation is performed between the points, which must be sorted in
ascending order of the z field.

7.26.2 Boundary Profile File Format

The format of the profile files is fairly simple. The file can contain an arbitrary number
of profiles. Each profile consists of a header that specifies the profile name, profile type
(point, line, mesh, radial, or axial), and number of defining points, and is followed
by an arbitrary number of named “fields”. Some of these fields contain the coordinate
points and the rest contain boundary data.

i All quantities, including coordinate values, must be specified in SI units

because FLUENT does not perform unit conversion when reading profile
files.
Parentheses are used to delimit profiles and the fields within the profiles. Any combina-
tion of tabs, spaces, and newlines can be used to separate elements.

i In the general format description below, “|” indicates that you should input
only one of the items separated by |’s and “...” indicates a continuation
of the list.

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Boundary Conditions

((profile1-name point|line|radial n)
(field1-name a1 a2 ... an)
(field2-name b1 b2 ... bn)
.
.
.
(fieldf-name f1 f2 ... fn))

((profile2-name mesh m n)
(field1-name a11 a12 ... a1n
a21 a22 ... a2n
.
.
.
am1 am2 ... amn)
.
.
.
(fieldf-name f11 f12 ... f1n
f21 f22 ... f2n
.
.
.
fm1 fm2 ... fmn))

Boundary profile names must have all lowercase letters (e.g., name). Uppercase letters
in boundary profile names are not acceptable. Each profile of type point, line, and
mesh must contain fields with names x, y, and, for 3D, z. Each profile of type radial
must contain a field with name r. Each profile of type axial must contain a field with
name z. The rest of the names are arbitrary, but must be valid Scheme symbols. For
compatibility with old-style profile files, if the profile type is missing, point is assumed.

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Example
A typical usage of a boundary profile file is to specify the profile of the boundary layer
at an inlet. For a compressible flow calculation, this will be done using profiles of total
pressure, k, and . For an incompressible flow, it might be preferable to specify the inlet
value of streamwise velocity, together with k and .
Below is an example of a profile file that does this:

((turb-prof point 8)
(x
4.00000E+00 4.00000E+00 4.00000E+00 4.00000E+00
4.00000E+00 4.00000E+00 4.00000E+00 4.00000E+00 )
(y
1.06443E-03 3.19485E-03 5.33020E-03 7.47418E-03
2.90494E-01 3.31222E-01 3.84519E-01 4.57471E-01 )
(u
5.47866E+00 6.59870E+00 7.05731E+00 7.40079E+00
1.01674E+01 1.01656E+01 1.01637E+01 1.01616E+01 )
(tke
4.93228E-01 6.19247E-01 5.32680E-01 4.93642E-01
6.89414E-03 6.89666E-03 6.90015E-03 6.90478E-03 )
(eps
1.27713E+02 6.04399E+01 3.31187E+01 2.21535E+01
9.78365E-03 9.79056E-03 9.80001E-03 9.81265E-03 )
)

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Boundary Conditions

7.26.3 Using Boundary Profiles

The procedure for using a boundary profile to define a particular boundary condition is
outlined below.

1. Create a file that contains the desired boundary profile, following the format de-
scribed in Section 7.26.2: Boundary Profile File Format.

2. Read the boundary profile using the Read... button in the Boundary Profiles panel
(Figure 7.26.1) or the File/Read/Profile... menu item.
Define −→Profiles...
File −→ Read −→Profile...

3. In the boundary conditions panels (e.g., the Velocity Inlet and Pressure Inlet panels),
the fields defined in the profile file (and those defined in any other profile file that
you have read in) will appear in the drop-down list to the right of or below each
parameter for which profile specification is allowed. To use a particular profile,
select it in the list.

i Boundary profiles cannot be used to define volumetric source terms. If

you want to define a non-constant source term, you will need to use a
user-defined function.
For more information on UDFs, refer to the separate UDF Manual.
Note that if you use the Boundary Profiles panel to read a file, and a profile in the file has
the same name as an existing profile, the old profile will be overwritten.

Checking and Deleting Profiles

Each profile file contains one or more profiles, and each profile has one or more fields
defined in it. Once you have read in a profile file, you can check which fields are defined
in each profile, and you can also delete a particular profile. These tasks are accomplished
in the Boundary Profiles panel (Figure 7.26.1).
Define −→Profiles...
To check which fields are defined in a particular profile, select the profile name in the Pro-
file list. The available fields in that file will be displayed in the Fields list. In Figure 7.26.1,
the profile fields from the profile file of Section 7.26.2: Example are shown.
To delete a profile, select it in the Profiles list and click on the Delete button. When a
profile is deleted, all fields defined in it will be removed from the Fields list.

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 7.26 Boundary Profiles

Figure 7.26.1: The Boundary Profiles Panel

Example
For the example given in Section 7.26.2: Example, the profiles are used for inlet values
of x velocity, turbulent kinetic energy, and turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rate, as
illustrated in Figure 7.26.2. (The y velocity is set to a constant value of zero, since it is
assumed negligible. However, a profile of y velocity could also be used.)
Once the profiles have been specified, the boundary conditions have been saved (OK’d),
and the flow solution has been initialized, you can view the inlet profile as follows:

• For 2D calculations, open the Solution XY Plot panel. Select the appropriate bound-
ary zone in the Surfaces list, the variable of interest in the Y Axis Function drop-down
list, and the desired Plot Direction. Ensure that the Node Values check button is
turned on, and then click Plot. You should then see the inlet profile plotted. If the
data plotted do not agree with your specified profile, this means that there is an
error in the profile file.

• For 3D calculations, use the Contours panel to display contours on the appropriate
boundary zone surface. The Node Values check button must be turned on in order
for you to view the profile data. If the data shown in the contour plot do not agree
with your specified profile, this means that there is an error in the profile file.

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Boundary Conditions

Figure 7.26.2: Example of Using Profiles as Boundary Conditions

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 7.26 Boundary Profiles

7.26.4 Reorienting Boundary Profiles

For 3D cases only, FLUENT allows you to change the orientation of an existing boundary
profile so that it can be used at a boundary positioned arbitrarily in space. This allows
you, for example, to take experimental data for an inlet with one orientation and apply
it to an inlet in your model that has a different spatial orientation. Note that FLUENT
assumes that the profile and the boundary are planar.

Steps for Changing the Profile Orientation

The procedure for orienting the boundary profile data in the principal directions of a
boundary is outlined below:

1. Define and read the boundary profile as described in Section 7.26.3: Using Boundary
Profiles.

2. In the Boundary Profiles panel, select the profile in the Profile list, and then click
on the Orient... button. This will open the Orient Profile panel (Figure 7.26.3).

Figure 7.26.3: The Orient Profile Panel

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Boundary Conditions

3. In the Orient Profile panel, enter the name of the new profile you want to create in
the New Profile box.

4. Specify the number of fields you want to create using the up/down arrows next to
the New Fields box. The number of new fields is equal to the number of vectors
and scalars to be defined plus 1 (for the coordinates).

5. Define the coordinate field.

(a) Enter the names of the three coordinates (x, y, z) in the first row under New
Field Names.

i Ensure that the coordinates are named x, y, and z only. Do not use any
other names or upper case letters in this field.
(b) Select the appropriate local coordinate fields for x, y, and z from the drop-
down lists under Compute From.... (A selection of 0 indicates that the coordi-
nate does not exist in the original profile; i.e., the original profile was defined
in 2D.)

6. Define the vector fields in the new profile.

(a) Enter the names of the 3 components in the directions of the coordinate axes
of the boundary under New Field Names.

i Do not use upper case letters in these fields.

(b) Select the names of the 3 components of the vector in the local x, y, and z
directions of the boundary profile from the drop-down lists under Compute
From....

7. Define the scalar fields in the new profile.

(a) Enter the name of the scalar in the first column under New Field Names.

i Do not use upper case letters in these fields.

(b) Click on the button under Treat as Scalar Quantity in the same row.
(c) Select the name of the scalar in the corresponding drop-down list under Com-
pute From....

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 7.26 Boundary Profiles

8. Under Orient To..., specify the rotational matrix RM under the Rotation Matrix
[RM]. The rotational matrix used here is based on Euler angles (γ, β, and α) that
define an orthogonal system x0 y 0 z 0 as the result of the three successive rotations
from the original system xyz. In other words,

x0
   
x
 0 
 y  = [RM ]  y  (7.26-1)
 

z0 z

RM = [C][B][A] (7.26-2)

where C, B, and A are the successive rotations around the z, y, and x axes, respec-
tively.
Rotation around the z axis:
 
cos γ − sin γ 0
C =  sin γ cos γ 0  (7.26-3)
 

0 0 1

Rotation around the y axis:

 
cos β 0 sin β
B=

0 1 0   (7.26-4)
− sin β 0 cos β

Rotation around the x axis:

 
1 0 0
A =  0 cos α − sin α  (7.26-5)
 

0 sin α cos α

9. Under Orient To..., specify the Direction Vector. The Direction Vector is the vector
that translates a boundary profile to the new position, and is defined between the
centers of the profile fields.

i Note that depending on your case, it may be necessary to perform only

a rotation, only a translation, or a combination of a translation and a
rotation.
10. Click the Create button in the Orient Profile panel, and your new profile will be
created. Its name, which you entered in the New Profile box, will now appear in
the Boundary Profiles panel and will be available for use at the desired boundary.

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Boundary Conditions

Profile Orienting Example

Consider the domain with a square inlet and outlet, shown in Figure 7.26.4. A scalar
profile at the outlet is written out to a profile file. The purpose of this example is to
impose this outlet profile on the inlet boundary via a 90◦ rotation about the x axis.
However, the rotation will locate the profile away from the inlet boundary. To align the
profile to the inlet boundary, a translation via a directional vector needs to be performed.

1.99e+01
1.89e+01 Outlet
1.79e+01
1.69e+01
1.59e+01
1.49e+01
1.39e+01
1.29e+01
1.19e+01
1.09e+01
9.94e+00
8.94e+00
7.95e+00 Inlet
6.96e+00
5.96e+00
4.97e+00
3.97e+00
2.98e+00
1.99e+00 Y
X Z
9.94e-01
0.00e+00

Contours of Velocity Magnitude (m/s)

Figure 7.26.4: Scalar Profile at the Outlet

The problem is shown schematically in Figure 7.26.5. Φout is the scalar profile of the
outlet. Φ0out is the image of the Φout rotated 90◦ around the x axis. In this example, since
γ = β = 0, then C = B = I, where I is the identity matrix, and the rotation matrix is
   
1 0 0 1 0 0
◦ ◦ 
RM = [C][B][A] =  0 cos 90 − sin 90  =  0 0 −1  (7.26-6)
  

0 sin 90◦ cos 90◦ 0 1 0

To overlay the outlet profile on the inlet boundary, a translation will be performed. The
directional vector is the vector that translates Φ0out to Φin . In this example, the directional
vector is (0, 15, −10)T . The appropriate inputs for the Orient Profile panel are shown in
Figure 7.26.3.
Note that if the profile being imposed on the inlet boundary was due to a rotation of
-90◦ about the x axis, then the rotational matrix RM must be found for γ = β = 0
and α = −90◦ , and a new directional vector must be found to align the profile to the
boundary.

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 7.26 Boundary Profiles

  


 

 

 

 10

 

 

 

 

   

  


5  



Φout

Rotation 90
30

 

5







10
Φin
y









   


x




z 10  5




Directional
vector
(0, 15, −10) T Φ’out






Figure 7.26.5: Problem Specification

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Boundary Conditions

7.27 Fixing the Values of Variables

The option to fix values of variables in FLUENT allows you to set the value of one or
more variables in a fluid or solid zone, essentially setting a boundary condition for the
variables within the cells of the zone. When a variable is fixed in a given cell, the transport
equation for that variable is not solved in the cell (and the cell is not included when the
residual sum is computed for that variable). The fixed value is used for the calculation of
face fluxes between the cell and its neighbors. The result is a smooth transition between
the fixed value of a variable and the values at the neighboring cells.

i You can fix values for temperature and species mass fractions only if you
are using the pressure-based solver. You can fix values for velocity compo-
nents only if you are using the pressure-based segregated solver. (Refer to
Section 25.1.1: Pressure-Based Solver for information about the pressure-
based segregated solver.)

7.27.1 Overview of Fixing the Value of a Variable

The ability to fix the value of a variable has a wide range of applications. The velocity
fixing method is often used to model the flow in stirred tanks. This approach provides
an alternative to the use of a rotating reference frame (solution in the reference frame
of the blade) and can be used to model baffled tanks. In both 2D and 3D geometries, a
fluid cell zone may be used in the impeller regions, and velocity components can be fixed
based on measured data.
Although the actual impeller geometry can be modeled and the flow pattern calculated
using the sliding mesh model, experimental data for the velocity profile in the outflow
region are available for many impeller types. If you do not need to know the details of
the flow around the blades for your problem, you can model the impeller by fixing the
experimentally-obtained liquid velocities in its outflow zone. The velocities in the rest of
the vessel can then be calculated using this fixed velocity profile as a boundary condition.
Figure 7.27.1 shows an example of how this method is used to model the flow pattern
created by a disk-turbine in an axisymmetric stirred vessel.

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 7.27 Fixing the Values of Variables

Figure 7.27.1: Fixing Values for the Flow in a Stirred Tank

Variables That Can Be Fixed

The variables that can be fixed include velocity components (pressure-based segregated
solver only), turbulence quantities, temperature (pressure-based solver only), enthalpy,
species mass fractions (pressure-based solver only), and user-defined scalars. For turbu-
lence quantities, different values can be set depending on your choice of turbulence model.
You can fix the value of the temperature in a fluid or solid zone if you are solving the
energy equation. If you are using the non-premixed combustion model, you can fix the
enthalpy in a fluid zone. If you have more than one species in your model, you can spec-
ify fixed values for the species mass fractions for each individual species except the last
one you defined. See the separate UDF Manual for details about defining user-defined
scalars.
If you are using the Eulerian multiphase model, you can fix the values of velocity compo-
nents and (depending on which multiphase turbulence model you are using) turbulence
quantities on a per-phase basis. See Section 23.9.8: Eulerian Model for details about
setting boundary conditions for Eulerian multiphase calculations.

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Boundary Conditions

7.27.2 Procedure for Fixing Values of Variables in a Zone

To fix the values of one or more variables in a cell zone, follow these steps (remembering
to use only SI units):

1. In the Fluid panel or Solid panel, turn on the Fixed Values option.

2. Fix the values for the appropriate variables, noting the comments below.
• To specify a constant value for a variable, choose constant in the drop-down
list next to the relevant field and then enter the constant value in the field.
• To specify a non-constant value for a variable, you can use a boundary profile
(see Section 7.26: Boundary Profiles) or a user-defined function for a boundary
profile (see the separate UDF Manual). Select the appropriate profile or UDF
in the drop-down list next to the relevant field.
If you specify a radial-type boundary profile (see Section 7.26.1: Boundary
Profile Specification Types) for temperature, enthalpy, species mass fractions,
or turbulence quantities for the k-, Spalart-Allmaras, or k-ω model, the local
coordinate system upon which the radial profile is based is defined by the
Rotation-Axis Origin and Rotation-Axis Direction for the fluid zone. See Sec-
tion 7.17.1: Specifying the Rotation Axis for information about setting these
parameters. (Note that it is acceptable to specify the rotation axis and direc-
tion for a non-rotating zone. This will not cause the zone to rotate; it will not
rotate unless it has been explicitly defined as a moving zone.)
• If you do not want to fix the value for a variable, choose (or keep) none in the
drop-down list next to the relevant field. This is the default for all variables.

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 7.27 Fixing the Values of Variables

Fixing Velocity Components

To fix the velocity components, you can specify X, Y, and (in 3D) Z Velocity values, or,
for axisymmetric cases, Axial, Radial, and (for axisymmetric swirl) Swirl Velocity values.
The units for a fixed velocity are m/s.
For 3D cases, you can choose to specify cylindrical velocity components instead of Carte-
sian components. Turn on the Local Coordinate System For Fixed Velocities option, and
then specify the Axial, Radial, and/or Tangential Velocity values. The local coordinate
system is defined by the Rotation-Axis Origin and Rotation-Axis Direction for the fluid
zone. See Section 7.17.1: Specifying the Rotation Axis for information about setting
these parameters. (Note that it is acceptable to specify the rotation axis and direction
for a non-rotating zone. This will not cause the zone to rotate; it will not rotate unless
it has been explicitly defined as a moving zone.)

i You can fix values for velocity components only if you are using the
pressure-based segregated solver. (Refer to Section 25.1.1: Pressure-Based
Solver for information about the pressure-based segregated solver.)

Fixing Temperature and Enthalpy

If you are solving the energy equation, you can fix the temperature in a zone by specifying
the value of the Temperature. The units for a fixed temperature are K.
If you are using the non-premixed combustion model, you can fix the enthalpy in a zone
by specifying the value of the Enthalpy. The units for a fixed enthalpy are m2 /s2 .
If you specify a radial-type boundary profile (see Section 7.26.1: Boundary Profile Speci-
fication Types) for temperature or enthalpy, the local coordinate system upon which the
radial profile is based is defined by the Rotation-Axis Origin and Rotation-Axis Direction
for the fluid zone. See above for details.

i You can fix the value of temperature only if you are using the pressure-
based solver.

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Boundary Conditions

Fixing Species Mass Fractions

If you are using the species transport model, you can fix the values of the species mass
fractions for individual species. FLUENT allows you to fix the species mass fraction for
each species (e.g., h2, o2) except the last one you defined.
If you specify a radial-type boundary profile (see Section 7.26.1: Boundary Profile Spec-
ification Types) for a species mass fraction, the local coordinate system upon which the
radial profile is based is defined by the Rotation-Axis Origin and Rotation-Axis Direction
for the fluid zone. See above for details.

i You can fix values for species mass fractions only if you are using the
pressure-based solver.

Fixing Turbulence Quantities

To fix the values of k and  in the k- equations, specify the Turbulence Kinetic Energy
and Turbulence Dissipation Rate values. The units for k are m2 /s2 and those for  are
m2 /s3 .
To fix the value of the modified turbulent viscosity (ν̃) for the Spalart-Allmaras model,
specify the Modified Turbulent Viscosity value. The units for the modified turbulent
viscosity are m2 /s.
To fix the values of k and ω in the k-ω equations, specify the Turbulence Kinetic Energy
and Specific Dissipation Rate values. The units for k are m2 /s2 and those for ω are 1/s.
To fix the value of k, , or the Reynolds stresses in the RSM transport equations, spec-
ify the Turbulence Kinetic Energy, Turbulence Dissipation Rate, UU Reynolds Stress, VV
Reynolds Stress, WW Reynolds Stress, UV Reynolds Stress, VW Reynolds Stress, and/or
UW Reynolds Stress. The units for k and the Reynolds stresses are m2 /s2 , and those for
 are m2 /s3 .
If you specify a radial-type boundary profile (see Section 7.26.1: Boundary Profile Speci-
fication Types) for k, , ω, or ν̃, the local coordinate system upon which the radial profile
is based is defined by the Rotation-Axis Origin and Rotation-Axis Direction for the fluid
zone. See above for details. Note that you cannot specify radial-type profiles for the
Reynolds stresses.

Fixing User-Defined Scalars

To fix the value of a user-defined scalar, specify the User defined scalar-n value. (There
will be one for each user-defined scalar you have defined.) The units for a user-defined
scalar will be the appropriate SI units for the scalar quantity. See the separate UDF
Manual for information on user-defined scalars.

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 7.28 Defining Mass, Momentum, Energy, and Other Sources

7.28 Defining Mass, Momentum, Energy, and Other Sources

You can define volumetric sources of mass (for single or multiple species), momentum,
energy, turbulence, and other scalar quantities in a fluid zone, or a source of energy for
a solid zone. This feature is useful when you want to input a known value for these
sources. (For more complicated sources with functional dependency, you can create a
user-defined function as described in the separate UDF Manual.) To add source terms
to a cell or group of cells, you must place the cell(s) in a separate zone. The sources are
then applied to that cell zone. Typical uses for this feature are listed below:

• A flow source that cannot be represented by an inlet, e.g., due to an issue of scale.
If you need to model an inlet that is smaller than a cell, you can place the cell where
the tiny “inlet” is located in its own fluid zone and then define the mass, momentum,
and energy sources in that cell zone. For the example shown in Figure 7.28.1, you
should set a mass source of ṁ V
= ρj AVj vj and a momentum source of ṁv
V
= ṁv
V
j
, where
V is the cell volume.

• Heat release due to a source (e.g., fire) that is not explicitly defined in your model.
For this case, you can place the cell(s) into which the heat is originally released in
its own fluid zone and then define the energy source in that cell zone.

• An energy source in a solid zone, for conjugate heat transfer applications. For this
case, you can place the cell(s) into which the heat is originally released in its own
solid zone and then define the energy source in that cell zone.

• A species source due to a reaction that is not explicitly included in the model. In
the above example of simulating a fire, you might need to define a source for a
species representing smoke generation.

i Note that if you define a mass source for a cell zone, you should also
define a momentum source and, if appropriate for your model, energy and
turbulence sources. If you define only a mass source, that mass enters the
domain with no momentum or thermal heat. The mass will therefore have
to be accelerated and heated by the flow and, consequently, there may be a
drop in velocity or temperature. This drop may or may not be perceptible,
depending on the size of the source. (Note that defining only a momentum,
energy, or turbulence source is acceptable.)

Sign Conventions and Units

All positive source terms indicate sources, and all negative source terms indicate sinks.
All sources must be specified in SI units.

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Boundary Conditions

v
j

Aj

Figure 7.28.1: Defining a Source for a Tiny Inlet

7.28.1 Procedure for Defining Sources

To define one or more source terms for a zone, follow these steps (remembering to use
only SI units):

1. In the Fluid panel or Solid panel, turn on the Source Terms option.

2. Set the appropriate source terms under the Source Terms tab, noting the comments
below.
• To specify a source, click the Edit... button next to the mass, momentum,
energy, or other source. The sources panel will open where you will define the
number of sources. For each source, choose constant, user-defined, or none in
the drop-down list.
• To specify a constant source, choose constant in the drop-down list and then
enter the constant value in the field.
• To specify a temperature-dependent or other functional source, you can use a
user-defined function (see the separate UDF Manual).
• If you do not want to specify a source term for a variable, choose (or keep)
none in the drop-down list next to the relevant field. This is the default for
all variables.

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 7.28 Defining Mass, Momentum, Energy, and Other Sources

• Remember that you should not define just a mass source without defining the
other sources, as described above.
• Since the sources you specify are defined per unit volume, to determine the
appropriate value of your source term you will often need to first determine
the volume of the cell(s) in the zone for which you are defining the source. To
do this, you can use the Volume Integrals panel.

Mass Sources
If you have only one species in your problem, you can simply define a Mass source for
that species. The units for the mass source are kg/m3 -s. In the continuity equation
(Equation 9.2-1), the defined mass source will appear in the Sm term.
If you have more than one species, you can specify mass sources for each individual
species. There will be a total Mass source term as well as a source term listed explicitly
for each species (e.g., h2, o2) except the last one you defined. If the total of all species
mass sources (including the last one) is 0, then you should specify a value of 0 for the
Mass source, and also specify the values of the non-zero individual species mass sources.
Since you cannot specify the mass source for the last species explicitly, FLUENT will
compute it by subtracting the sum of all other species mass sources from the specified
total Mass source.
For example, if the mass source for hydrogen in a hydrogen-air mixture is 0.01, the mass
source for oxygen is 0.02, and the mass source for nitrogen (the last species) is 0.015, you
will specify a value of 0.01 in the h2 field, a value of 0.02 in the o2 field, and a value of
0.045 in the Mass field. This concept also applies within each cell if you use user-defined
functions for species mass sources.
The units for the species mass sources are kg/m3 -s. In the conservation equation for a
chemical species (Equation 14.1-1), the defined mass source will appear in the Si term.

Momentum Sources
To define a source of momentum, specify the X Momentum, Y Momentum, and/or Z
Momentum term. The units for the momentum source are N/m3 . In the momentum
equation (Equation 9.2-3), the defined momentum source will appear in the F~ term.

Energy Sources
To define a source of energy, specify an Energy term. The units for the energy source are
W/m3 . In the energy equation (Equation 13.2-1), the defined energy source will appear
in the Sh term.

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Boundary Conditions

Turbulence Sources
Turbulence Sources for the k- Model

To define a source of k or  in the k- equations, specify the Turbulence Kinetic Energy or
Turbulence Dissipation Rate term. The units for the k source are kg/m-s3 and those for 
are kg/m-s4 .
The defined k source will appear in the Sk term on the right-hand side of the turbulent
kinetic energy equation (e.g., Equation 12.4-1).
The defined  source will appear in the S term on the right-hand side of the turbulent
dissipation rate equation (e.g., Equation 12.4-2).

Turbulence Sources for the Spalart-Allmaras Model

To define a source of modified turbulent viscosity, specify the Modified Turbulent Viscosity
term. The units for the modified turbulent viscosity source are kg/m-s2 . In the trans-
port equation for the Spalart-Allmaras model (Equation 12.3-1), the defined modified
turbulent viscosity source will appear in the Sν̃ term.

Turbulence Sources for the k-ω Model

To define a source of k or ω in the k-ω equations, specify the Turbulence Kinetic Energy
or Specific Dissipation Rate term. The units for the k source are kg/m-s3 and those for ω
are kg/m3 -s2 .
The defined k source will appear in the Sk term on the right-hand side of the turbulent
kinetic energy equation (Equation 12.5-1).
The defined ω source will appear in the Sω term on the right-hand side of the specific
turbulent dissipation rate equation (Equation 12.5-2).

Turbulence Sources for the Reynolds Stress Model

To define a source of k, , or the Reynolds stresses in the RSM transport equations,

specify the Turbulence Kinetic Energy, Turbulence Dissipation Rate, UU Reynolds Stress,
VV Reynolds Stress, WW Reynolds Stress, UV Reynolds Stress, VW Reynolds Stress, and/or
UW Reynolds Stress terms. The units for the k source and the sources of Reynolds stress
are kg/m-s3 , and those for  are kg/m-s4 .
The defined Reynolds stress sources will appear in the Suser term on the right-hand side
of the Reynolds stress transport equation (Equation 12.7-1).
The defined k source will appear in the Sk term on the right-hand side of Equation 12.7-29.
The defined  will appear in the S term on the right-hand side of Equation 12.7-32.

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 7.28 Defining Mass, Momentum, Energy, and Other Sources

Mean Mixture Fraction and Variance Sources

To define a source of the mean mixture fraction or its variance for the non-premixed
combustion model, specify the Mean Mixture Fraction or Mixture Fraction Variance term.
The units for the mean mixture fraction source are kg/m3 -s, and those for the mixture
fraction variance source are kg/m3 -s.
The defined mean mixture fraction source will appear in the Suser term in the transport
equation for the mixture fraction (Equation 15.2-4).
The defined mixture fraction variance source will appear in the Suser term in the transport
equation for the mixture fraction variance (Equation 15.2-5).
If you are using the two-mixture-fraction approach, you can also specify sources of the
Secondary Mean Mixture Fraction and Secondary Mixture Fraction Variance.

P-1 Radiation Sources

To define a source for the P-1 radiation model, specify the P1 term. The units for
the radiation source are W/m3 , and the defined source will appear in the SG term in
Equation 13.3-5.
Note that, if the source term you are defining represents a transfer from internal energy
to radiative energy (e.g., absorption or emission), you will need to specify an Energy
source of the same magnitude as the P1 source, but with the opposite sign, in order to
ensure overall energy conservation.

Progress Variable Sources

To define a source of the progress variable for the premixed combustion model, specify
the Progress Variable term. The units for the progress variable source are kg/m3 -s, and
the defined source will appear in the ρSc term in Equation 16.2-1.

NO, HCN, and NH3 Sources for the NOx Model

To define a source of NO, HCN, or NH3 for the NOx model, specify the no, hcn, or nh3
term. The units for these sources are kg/m3 -s, and the defined sources will appear in the
SNO , SHCN , and SNH3 terms of Equations 20.1-1, 20.1-2, and 20.1-3.

User-Defined Scalar (UDS) Sources

You can specify source term(s) for each UDS transport equation you have defined in your
model. See Section 9.3.3: Setting Up UDS Equations in FLUENT for details.

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Boundary Conditions

7.29 Coupling Boundary Conditions with GT-Power

GT-Power users can define time-dependent boundary conditions in FLUENT based on
information from GT-Power. During the FLUENT simulation, FLUENT and GT-Power
are coupled together and information about the boundary conditions at each time step
is transferred between them.

7.29.1 Requirements and Restrictions

Note the following requirements and restrictions for the GT-Power coupling:

• The flow must be unsteady.

• The compressible ideal gas law must be used for density.

• Each boundary zone for which you plan to define conditions using GT-Power must
be a flow boundary of one of the following types:
– velocity inlet
– mass flow inlet
– pressure inlet
– pressure outlet
Also, a maximum of 20 boundary zones can be coupled to GT-Power.

• If a mass flow inlet or pressure inlet is coupled to GT-Power, you must select Normal
to Boundary as the Direction Specification Method in the Mass-Flow Inlet or Pressure
Inlet panel. For a velocity inlet, you must select Magnitude, Normal to Boundary as
the Velocity Specification Method in the Velocity Inlet panel.

• Boundary conditions for the following variables can be obtained from GT-Power:
– velocity
– temperature
– pressure
– density
– species mass fractions
– k and  (Note that it is recommended that you define these conditions in
FLUENT yourself, rather than using the data provided by GT-Power, since
the GT-Power values are based on a 1D model.)

• Make sure that the material properties you set in FLUENT are the same as those
used in GT-Power, so that the boundary conditions will be valid for your coupled
simulation.

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 7.29 Coupling Boundary Conditions with GT-Power

• If your model includes species, make sure that the name of each species in GT-Power
corresponds to the Chemical Formula for that species material in the Materials panel.
Also, recall that FLUENT can handle a maximum of 50 species.

• You can install the GT-Power libraries in a directory other than the default location.
If the GT-Power libraries are loaded into a non-default location, you need to set
the following environment variables:
– FLUENT GTIHOME - the GTI installation directory where GT-Power is installed
– FLUENT GTIVERSION - the current version of the GTI installation

i GTI is not backwards compatible.

7.29.2 User Inputs

The procedure for setting up the GT-Power coupling in FLUENT is presented below.

1. Read in the mesh file and define the models, materials, and boundary zone types
(but not the actual boundary conditions), noting the requirements and restrictions
listed in Section 7.29.1: Requirements and Restrictions.

2. Specify the location of the GT-Power data and have FLUENT use them to generate
user-defined functions for the relevant boundary conditions (using the 1D Simulation
Library panel, shown in Figure 7.29.1).
Define −→ User-Defined −→1D Coupling...

Figure 7.29.1: The 1D Simulation Library Panel

(a) Select GTpower in the 1D Library drop-down list.

(b) Specify the name of the GT-Power input file in the 1D Input File Name field.
(c) Click the Start button.

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Boundary Conditions

When you click Start, GT-Power will start up and FLUENT user-defined functions
for each boundary in the input file will be generated.

3. Set boundary conditions for all zones. For flow boundaries for which you are using
GT-Power data, select the appropriate UDFs as the conditions.

i Note that you must select the same UDF for all conditions at a particular
boundary zone (as shown, for example, in Figure 7.29.2); this UDF contains
all of the conditions at that boundary.

Figure 7.29.2: Using GT-Power Data for Boundary Conditions

4. If you plan to continue the simulation at a later time, starting from the final data
file of the current simulation, specify how often you want to have the case and data
files saved automatically.
File −→ Write −→Autosave...
To use a GT-Power restart file to restart a FLUENT calculation, you must edit the
GT-Power input data file. See the GT-Power User’s Guide for instructions.

5. Continue the problem setup and calculate a solution in the usual manner.

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 7.30 Coupling Boundary Conditions with WAVE

7.30 Coupling Boundary Conditions with WAVE

WAVE users can define time-dependent boundary conditions in FLUENT based on infor-
mation from WAVE. During the FLUENT simulation, FLUENT and WAVE are coupled
together and information about the boundary conditions at each time step is transferred
between them.

7.30.1 Requirements and Restrictions

Note the following requirements and restrictions for the WAVE coupling:

• WAVE needs to be installed and licensed.

• There are always five species that must be modeled in FLUENT just as they are
defined in WAVE (F1, F2, F3, F4, and F5). It is recommended that realistic material
properties be assigned to each of the five species.

• The flow must be unsteady.

• The compressible ideal gas law must be used for density.

• Each boundary zone for which you plan to define conditions using WAVE must be
a flow boundary of one of the following types:
– velocity inlet
– mass flow inlet
– pressure inlet
– pressure outlet
Also, a maximum of 20 boundary zones can be coupled to WAVE.

• If a mass flow inlet or pressure inlet is coupled to WAVE, you must select Normal
to Boundary as the Direction Specification Method in the Mass-Flow Inlet or Pressure
Inlet panel. For a velocity inlet, you must select Magnitude, Normal to Boundary as
the Velocity Specification Method in the Velocity Inlet panel.

• Boundary conditions for the following variables can be obtained from WAVE:
– velocity
– temperature
– pressure
– density

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Boundary Conditions

– species mass fractions

– k and  (Note that you are required to define these conditions in FLUENT
yourself, since WAVE does not calculate them.)

• Make sure that the material properties you set in FLUENT are the same as those
used in WAVE, so that the boundary conditions will be valid for your coupled
simulation.

• If your model includes species, make sure that the name of each species in WAVE
corresponds to the Chemical Formula for that species material in the Materials panel.
Also, recall that FLUENT can handle a maximum of 50 species.

7.30.2 User Inputs

The procedure for setting up the WAVE coupling in FLUENT is presented below.

1. Read in the mesh file and define the models, materials, and boundary zone types.

2. Specify the location of the WAVE data and have FLUENT use them to generate
user-defined functions for the relevant boundary conditions (using the 1D Simulation
Library panel, shown in Figure 7.30.1).
Define −→ User-Defined −→1D Coupling...

Figure 7.30.1: The 1D Simulation Library Panel with WAVE Selected

(a) Select WAVE in the 1D Library drop-down list.

(b) Specify the name of the WAVE input file in the 1D Input File Name field.
(c) Click the Start button.
When you click Start, WAVE will start up and FLUENT user-defined functions for
each boundary in the input file will be generated.

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 7.30 Coupling Boundary Conditions with WAVE

3. Set boundary conditions for all zones. For flow boundaries for which you are using
WAVE data, select the appropriate UDFs as the conditions.

i Note that you must select the same UDF for all conditions at a particular
boundary zone (as shown, for example, in Figure 7.30.2); this UDF contains
all of the conditions at that boundary.

Figure 7.30.2: Using WAVE Data for Boundary Conditions

4. If you plan to continue the simulation at a later time, restarting from the final data
file of the current simulation, you need to instruct both FLUENT and WAVE how
often that you want to automatically save your data. You should instruct FLUENT
to automatically save case and data files at specified intervals using the autosave
feature.
File −→ Write −→Autosave...

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Boundary Conditions

In addition, you should instruct WAVE as to how often it should generate its own
restart files. See the WAVE User’s Guide for instructions on this feature.

i To use the restart feature, the time interval for writing data files must be
set to the same value in both FLUENT and WAVE. For example, if FLUENT
has set the autosave feature to 100, then WAVE must also set the restart
file write frequency to 100 as well.
5. Continue the problem setup and calculate a solution in the usual manner.

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Chapter 8. Physical Properties

This chapter describes how to define materials, the physical equations used to compute
material properties, and the methods you can use for each property input. Each prop-
erty is described in detail in the following sections. If you are using one of the general
multiphase models (VOF, mixture, or Eulerian), see Section 23.9.3: Defining the Phases
for information about how to define the individual phases and their material properties.

• Section 8.1: Defining Materials

• Section 8.2: Defining Properties Using Temperature-Dependent Functions

• Section 8.3: Density

• Section 8.4: Viscosity

• Section 8.5: Thermal Conductivity

• Section 8.6: User-Defined Scalar (UDS) Diffusivity

• Section 8.7: Specific Heat Capacity

• Section 8.8: Radiation Properties

• Section 8.9: Mass Diffusion Coefficients

• Section 8.10: Standard State Enthalpies

• Section 8.11: Standard State Entropies

• Section 8.12: Molecular Heat Transfer Coefficient

• Section 8.13: Kinetic Theory Parameters

• Section 8.14: Operating Pressure

• Section 8.15: Reference Pressure Location

• Section 8.16: Real Gas Models

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Physical Properties

8.1 Defining Materials

An important step in the setup of the model is to define the materials and their physical
properties. Material properties are defined in the Materials panel, where you can enter
values for the properties that are relevant to the problem scope you have defined in the
Models panel. These properties may include the following:

• density and/or molecular weights

• viscosity

• heat capacity

• thermal conductivity

• UDS diffusion coefficients

• mass diffusion coefficients

• standard state enthalpies

• kinetic theory parameters

Properties may be temperature-dependent and/or composition-dependent, with temper-

ature dependence based on a polynomial, piecewise-linear, or piecewise-polynomial func-
tion and individual component properties either defined by you or computed via kinetic
theory.
The Materials panel will show the properties that need to be defined for the active phys-
ical models. If any property you define requires the energy equation to be solved (e.g.,
ideal gas law for density, temperature-dependent profile for viscosity), FLUENT will au-
tomatically activate the energy equation. Then you have to define the thermal boundary
conditions and other parameters yourself.

Physical Properties for Solid Materials

For solid materials, only density, thermal conductivity, and heat capacity are defined.
If you are modeling semi-transparent media, case radiation properties are also defined.
You can specify a constant value, a temperature-dependent function, or a user-defined
function for thermal conductivity; a constant value or temperature-dependent function
for heat capacity; and a constant value for density.
If you are using the pressure-based solver, density and heat capacity for a solid material
are not required unless you are modeling unsteady flow or moving solid zones. Heat
capacity will appear in the list of solid properties for steady flows as well. The value will
be used just for postprocessing enthalpy; not in the calculation.

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 8.1 Defining Materials

8.1.1 Material Types and Databases

In FLUENT, you can define six types of materials: fluids, solids, mixtures, combusting-
particles, droplet-particles, and inert-particles. Physical properties of fluids and solids
are associated with named materials. These materials are then assigned as boundary
conditions for zones.
When you model species transport, define a mixture material, consisting of the various
species involved in the problem. Properties will be defined for the mixture, as well as
for the constituent species, which are fluid materials. The mixture material concept is
discussed in detail in Section 14.1.2: Mixture Materials. Combusting-particles, droplet-
particles, and inert-particles are available for the discrete-phase model, as described in
Section 22.14.2: The Concept of Discrete-Phase Materials.
FLUENT provides a built-in global database of approximately 675 predefined materials
along with their properties and default values for each property. To define a material in
the problem setup, you can copy materials from this global (site-wide) database and use
the default properties or define new materials by editing their properties. The FLUENT
materials database is located in the following file:

⇓
path/Fluent.Inc/fluent6.x/cortex/lib/propdb.scm

where path is the directory in which you have installed FLUENT and the variable x
corresponds to your release version, e.g., 2 for fluent6.2.
In addition to using the FLUENT materials database, you can also create your own
database and materials, and use it to define the materials in your problem setup. See
Section 8.1.3: Using a User-Defined Materials Database for information about creating
and using user-defined custom material databases.

i All the materials that exist in your local materials list will be saved in
the case file (when you write one). The materials specified by you will be
available to you if you read this case file into a new solver session.

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Physical Properties

8.1.2 Using the Materials Panel

The Materials panel (Figure 8.1.1) allows you to define the materials and their properties
in your problem setup using either the Fluent Database or a User-Defined Database. It
allows you to copy materials from a database, create new materials, and modify material
properties.
These generic functions are described in this section. The inputs for temperature-
dependent properties are explained in Section 8.2: Defining Properties Using Temperature-
Dependent Functions. The specific inputs for each material property are discussed in the
remaining sections of this chapter.
Define −→Materials...

Figure 8.1.1: The Materials Panel

By default, your local materials list (i.e., in the solver session) will include a single
fluid material (air) and a single solid material (aluminum). If the fluid involved in your
problem is air, you can use the default properties for air or modify the properties. If the
fluid in your problem is water, you can either copy water from the FLUENT database or
create a new “water” material from scratch. If you copy water from the database, you
can still make modifications to the properties of your local copy of water.

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 8.1 Defining Materials

Mixture materials will not exist in your local list unless you have enabled species trans-
port (see Chapter 14: Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry). Similarly,
inert, droplet, and combusting particle materials will not be available unless you have
created a discrete phase injection of these particle types (see Chapter 22: Modeling Dis-
crete Phase). When a mixture material is copied from the database, all of its constituent
fluid materials (species) will automatically be copied over as well.

Modifying Properties of an Existing Material

Probably, the most common operation you will perform in the Materials panel is the
modification of properties for an existing material. The steps for this procedure are as
follows:

1. Select the type of material (fluid, solid, etc.) in the Material Type drop-down list.

2. Choose the material for which you want to modify properties, in the Fluent Fluid
Materials drop-down list, Fluent Solid Materials list, or other similarly named list.
The name of the list will be the same as the material type you selected in step 1.

3. Make the required changes to the properties listed in the Properties section of the
panel. You can use the scroll bar to the right of the Properties section to scroll
through the listed items.

4. Click on the Change/Create button to change the properties of the selected material
to your new property settings.

To change the properties of an additional material, repeat the process described above.
Click the Change/Create button after making changes to the properties for each material.

Renaming an Existing Material

Each material is identified by a name and a chemical formula (if one exists). You can
change the name of a material, but not its chemical formula (unless you are creating a
new material). The procedure for renaming a material is as follows:

1. Select the type of material (fluid, solid, etc.) in the Material Type drop-down list.

2. Choose the material for which you want to modify properties, in the Fluent Fluid
Materials list, Fluent Solid Materials list, or other similarly named list. The name of
the list will be the same as the material type you selected in step 1.

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Physical Properties

3. Enter the new name in the Name field at the top of the panel.

i The maximum character length you can enter in the Name field is 29. If
you enter a material name that is more than 29 characters long, FLUENT
will print an error message in the console window.

4. Click on the Change/Create button.

A Question dialog box will appear, asking you if the original material should be
overwritten.
If you are renaming the original material, click Yes to overwrite it. If you were
creating a new material, click No to retain the original material.

To rename another material, repeat the process described above. Click the Change/Create
button after renaming each material.

Copying Materials from the FLUENT Database

The global (site-wide) materials database contains many commonly used fluid, solid, and
mixture materials, with property data from several different sources [233, 310, 399, 148].
To use one of these materials in your problem, copy it from the FLUENT database to
your local materials list. The procedure for copying a material is as follows:

1. Click on the Fluent Database... button in the Materials panel to open the Fluent
Database Materials panel (Figure 8.1.2).

2. Select the type of material (fluid, solid, etc.) in the Material Type drop-down list.

3. In the Fluent Fluid Materials list, Fluent Solid Materials list, or other similarly named
list, choose the materials you wish to copy by clicking on them. The properties of
the selected material will be displayed in the Properties area.

4. To check the material properties, use the scroll bar to the right of the Properties
area to scroll through the listed items. For some properties, temperature-dependent
functions are available in addition to the constant values. Select one of the function
types in the drop-down list to the right of the property and the relevant parameters
will be displayed. You cannot edit these values, but the panels in which they are
displayed function in the same way as those used for setting temperature-dependent
property functions (Section 8.2: Defining Properties Using Temperature-Dependent
Functions).
The inactive buttons in the Fluent Database Materials panel are operations that are
applicable only for a user-defined database. These operations will be available when
you click the User-Defined Database... button in the Materials panel.

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 8.1 Defining Materials

Figure 8.1.2: Fluent Database Materials Panel

5. Click Copy. The materials and their properties will be downloaded from the
database into your local list, and your copy of properties will now be displayed
in the Materials panel.

6. Close the Fluent Database Materials panel.

After copying a material from the database, you can modify its properties or change its
name, as described earlier in this section. The original material in the database will not
be affected by any changes made to your local copy of the material.

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Physical Properties

Creating a New Material

If the material you want to use is not available in the database, you can easily create a
new material for the local list. This material will be available for use only for the current
problem and will not be saved in the FLUENT database. The procedure for creating a
new material is as follows:

1. Select the new material type (fluid, solid, etc.) in the Material Type drop-down list.
It does not matter which material is selected in the Fluent Fluid Materials, Fluent
Solid Materials, or other similarly named list.

2. Enter the new material name in the Name field.

i The maximum character length you can enter in the Name field is 29. If
you enter a material name that is more than 29 characters long, FLUENT
will print an error message in the console window.
3. Set the material’s properties in the Properties area. If there are many properties
listed, you may use the scroll bar to the right of the Properties area to scroll through
the listed items.

4. Click on the Change/Create button. A Question dialog box will appear, asking you
if the original material should be overwritten.
(a) Click on No to retain the original material and add your new material to the
list. A panel will appear asking you to enter the chemical formula of your new
material.
(b) Enter the formula if it is known, and click OK. Else, leave the formula blank
and click on OK.
The Materials panel will be updated to show the new material name and
chemical formula in the Fluid Materials list (or Fluent Solid Materials or other
similarly named list).

Saving Materials and Properties

All the materials and properties in your local list are saved in the case file when it is
written. If you read this case file into a new solver session, all of your materials and
properties will be available for use in the new session.

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 8.1 Defining Materials

Deleting a Material
If there are materials in your local materials list that you no longer need, you can delete
them:

1. Select the type of material (fluid, solid, etc.) in the Material Type drop-down list.

2. Choose the material to be deleted in the Fluent Fluid Materials drop-down list, Fluent
Solid Materials list, or other similarly named list. The list’s name will be the same
as the material type you selected in step 1.

3. Click on the Delete button.

Deleting materials from your local list will have no effect on the materials contained in
the global database.

Changing the Order of the Materials List

By default, the materials in your local list and those in the database are listed alpha-
betically by name (e.g., air, atomic-oxygen (o), carbon-dioxide (co2)). If you prefer to
list them alphabetically by chemical formula, select the Chemical Formula option under
Order Materials By. The example materials listed, will now be in the order of: air, co2
(carbon-dioxide), o (atomic-oxygen). To change back to the alphabetical listing by name,
choose the Name option under Order Materials By.
You may specify the ordering method separately for the Materials and Fluent Database
Materials panels. For example, you can order the database materials by chemical formula
and the local materials list by name. Each panel has its own Order Materials By options.

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Physical Properties

8.1.3 Using a User-Defined Materials Database

In addition to the Fluent Materials Database, you can also use or create a user-defined
materials database using the User-Defined Materials Database panel. You can browse and
do the following:

• select from existing user-defined databases

• copy materials from a user-defined database

• create a new database, create new materials

• add them to the user-defined database

• delete materials from the database

• copy materials from a case to a user-defined database

• view the database

The following sections will address each of these functionalities in detail.

Opening a User-Defined Database

If you have a database of custom materials as .scm files with data saved in the specified
format you can open these databases in FLUENT and use them to define the materials
in your problem setup.
Examples:
The prescribed format for saving material properties information is shown here for air and
aluminum. These files can be created in a text editor and saved with a .scm extension.

(air
fluid
(chemical-formula . #f)
(density (constant . 1.225)
(premixed-combustion 1.225 300))
(specific-heat (constant . 1006.43))
(thermal-conductivity (constant . 0.0242))
(viscosity (constant . 1.7894e-05)
(sutherland 1.7894e-05 273.11 110.56)
(power-law 1.7894e-05 273.11 0.666))
(molecular-weight (constant . 28.966))
)

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 8.1 Defining Materials

(aluminum
solid
(chemical-formula . al)
(density (constant . 2719))
(specific-heat (constant . 871))
(thermal-conductivity (constant . 202.4))
(formation-entropy (constant . 164448.08))
)

To select a user-defined database, click the User-Defined Database... button in the Mate-
rials panel. This will open the Open Database panel.

Figure 8.1.3: Open Database Panel

Click the Browse... button, select the database in the Select File dialog box that opens
and click OK. Click OK in the Open Database panel to open the User-Defined Database
Materials panel.

Viewing Materials in a User-Defined Database

When an existing user-defined database is opened, the materials present in the database
are listed in the User-Defined Database Materials panel. You can select the material type
in the Material Type drop-down list and the corresponding materials will appear in the
User-Defined Liquid Materials, User-Defined Solid Materials or other similarly named list
(the list’s name will be the same as the material type you selected).

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Physical Properties

Figure 8.1.4: User-Defined Database Materials Panel

The properties of the selected material will appear in the Properties section of the panel.
This panel is similar to the Fluent Database Materials panel in function and operation.

Copying Materials from a User-Defined Database

The procedure for copying a material from a custom database is as follows:

1. In the Materials panel, click the User-Defined Database... button and open the
database from which you want to copy the material.
2. In the User-Defined Database Materials panel of the selected database, select the
type of material (fluid, solid, etc.) in the Material Type drop-down list.
3. In the User-Defined Fluid Materials list, User-Defined Solid Materials list, or other
similarly named list (the list’s name will be the same as the material type you
selected in step 2), choose the materials you wish to copy by clicking on them. The
properties are displayed in the Properties area.

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 8.1 Defining Materials

4. If you want to check the material properties, use the scroll bar to the right of the
Properties area to scroll through the listed items.
5. Click on the Copy button. The selected materials and their properties will be copied
from the database into your local list, and your copy of the properties will now be
displayed in the Materials panel.
To copy all the materials from the database in one step, click the shaded icon to the
right of the User-Defined Materials title and click Copy.
If a material with the same name is already defined in the case, FLUENT will
prompt you to enter a new name and formula in the New Material Name panel.
Enter a new name and formula in the respective fields and click OK to make a local
copy of the material.

Figure 8.1.5: New Material Name Panel

6. Close the User-Defined Database Materials panel.

After copying a material from the database, you may modify its properties or change
its name, as described earlier in Section 8.1.2: Using the Materials Panel. The material
in the database will not be affected by any changes you make to your local copy of the
material.

Copying Materials from the Case to a User-Defined Database

You can copy materials that are defined in your problem setup to an existing or new
material database. The procedure for copying materials from the case file to a database
is as follows:

1. In the Materials panel, click User-Defined Database....

2. In the Open Database panel, select the database to which you want to copy the
material. If you want to create a new database, enter the name of the new database
in the Database Name field and click OK. A Question dialog box will ask you to
confirm if you want to create a new file. Click Yes to confirm.

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Physical Properties

3. In the User-Defined Database Materials panel, click Copy Materials From Case.....
This will open the Copy Case Material panel.

Figure 8.1.6: Copy Case Material Panel

(a) In the Copy Case Material panel, select the materials that you want to copy.
To select all the materials, click on the shaded icon to the right of the Case
Materials title. Clicking on the unshaded icon will deselect the selections in the
list.
(b) Click Copy and close the panel.
Note: Do not copy materials one by one. This will result in previously copied
materials getting overwritten by the new ones. Instead, select all the ma-
terials to be copied at once and click Copy.

Modifying Properties of an Existing Material

You can modify the properties of an existing material and use the modified material in
the problem setup and save the modified material to the materials database.

1. In the Materials panel, click on the User-Defined Database... button and open the
database that you want to use.
(a) In the User-Defined Database Materials panel of the selected database, select
the type of material (fluid, solid, etc.) in the Material Type drop-down list.
(b) In the User-Defined Fluid Materials list, User-Defined Solid Materials list, or other
similarly named list. The name of the list will be the same as the material
type you selected in step (a). Select the material to be modified.

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 8.1 Defining Materials

(c) Click Edit... to open the Material Properties panel.

i. In the Material Properties list, select the property to be modified and click
Edit... to open the Edit Property Methods panel.
ii. Select the method to be modified in the Material Properties list of the Edit
Property Methods panel and click Edit... under Edit Properties, in order to
modify the properties.
iii. Make the changes in the corresponding method panel and click OK.
iv. Click Apply in the Material Properties panel.
(d) To use the modified material in the problem setup, click Copy in the User-
Defined Database Materials panel and close the panel.
(e) To save the modified material to the database, click Save.

Creating a New Materials Database and Materials

Using the User-Defined Database Materials panel, you can create a new materials database,
copy materials to this database, and also create new materials from scratch. The proce-
dure for creating a new database and add new materials to the database is as follows:

1. In the Materials panel, click User-Defined Database....

2. In the Open Database panel, enter the name of the database that you are creating
and click OK.

3. A dialog box will appear asking you confirm the creation of a new file. Click Yes
to confirm.
This will open a blank User-Defined Database Materials (Figure 8.1.7) panel.

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Physical Properties

Figure 8.1.7: User-Defined Database Materials Panel: Blank

4. Click New... in the User-Defined Database Materials panel. This will open a blank
Material Properties panel.
(a) In the Material Properties panel, under Types, select the material type. You
can select from fluid, solid, inert-particle, droplet-particle, combusting-particle,
and mixture materials.
(b) Enter the name and formula (if required) of the material that you are creating
in the Name and Formula fields.
(c) Depending on the type of material selected in the Types list, properties appli-
cable to that material type will appear in the Available Properties list. Select
the properties that are applicable for the material that you are defining by
clicking on them.
(d) Click the  button to move these properties to the Material Properties list on
the right and click Apply. You can use the  button to move the property
from the Material Properties list to the Available Properties list.

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 8.1 Defining Materials

Figure 8.1.8: Material Properties Panel: Blank

5. To edit the parameters that define a property, select the property in the Material
Properties list and click Edit.... This opens the Edit Property Methods panel.
(a) The methods that can be used to define the selected property are listed in the
Available Properties list. You can select one or more methods and specify them
for the material that you are defining, by selecting and moving them to the
Material Properties list.
(b) To modify each of these methods, you can select the method in the Edit Proper-
ties drop-down list and click Edit.... This will open the corresponding property
panel, where you can modify the parameters used by the property method.
Refer to Sections 8.2 to 8.16 for details of these properties, methods used to
define the properties and the parameters for each method.
(c) Click OK in the Edit Property Methods panel.

6. Click Apply in the Material Properties panel.

7. Click Save in the User-Defined Database Materials panel to save the changes to the
new materials database.

Similarly, you can also append new materials to an existing database. Select the existing
database in the Open Database panel. Create new materials and click save to append
these materials to the existing database.

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Physical Properties

Figure 8.1.9: Edit Property Methods Panel

Deleting Materials from a Database

To delete a material from a database, click the User-Defined Database button in the
Materials panel. Select the database in the Open Database panel and click OK. Select the
Material Type and the materials that you want to delete in the User-Defined Materials list
and click Delete. Click Save to save the database.

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 8.2 Defining Properties Using Temperature-Dependent Functions

8.2 Defining Properties Using Temperature-Dependent Functions

Material properties can be defined as functions of temperature. For most properties, you
can define a polynomial, piecewise-linear, or piecewise-polynomial function of tempera-
ture:

• polynomial:

φ(T ) = A1 + A2 T + A3 T 2 + ... (8.2-1)

• piecewise-linear:

φn+1 − φn
φ(T ) = φn + (T − Tn ) (8.2-2)
Tn+1 − Tn
where 1 ≤ n ≤ N and N is the number of segments

• piecewise-polynomial:

for Tmin,1 ≤ T < Tmax,1 : φ(T ) = A1 + A2 T + A3 T 2 + ...

for Tmin,2 ≤ T < Tmax,2 : φ(T ) = B1 + B2 T + B3 T 2 + ... (8.2-3)

In the equations above, φ is the property.

i If you define a polynomial or piecewise-polynomial function of temperature,

the temperature in the function is always in units of Kelvin or Rankine.
If you use Celsius or Kelvin as the temperature unit, then polynomial
coefficient values must be entered in terms of Kelvin. If you use Fahrenheit
or Rankine as the temperature unit, enter the values in terms of Rankine.
Some properties have additional functions available and for some only a subset of these
three functions can be used. See the section on the property in question to determine
which temperature-dependent functions you can use.

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Physical Properties

8.2.1 Inputs for Polynomial Functions

To define a polynomial function of temperature for a material property, do the following:

1. In the Materials panel, choose polynomial in the drop-down list to the right of the
property name (e.g., Density). The Polynomial Profile panel (Figure 8.2.1) will open
automatically.

Figure 8.2.1: The Polynomial Profile Panel

Note: Since this is a modal panel, the solver will not allow you to do anything else
until you perform the following steps.
(a) Specify the number of Coefficients up to 8 coefficients are available. The num-
ber of coefficients defines the order of the polynomial. The default of 1 defines
a polynomial of order 0. The property will be constant and equal to the single
coefficient A1 . An input of 2 defines a polynomial of order 1 and the property
will vary linearly with temperature and so on.
(b) Define the coefficients. Coefficients 1, 2, 3,... correspond to A1 ,A2 , A3 ,... in
Equation 8.2-1. The panel in Figure 8.2.1 shows the inputs for the following
function:

ρ(T ) = 1000 − 0.02T (8.2-4)

i Note the restriction on the units for temperature, as described above.

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 8.2 Defining Properties Using Temperature-Dependent Functions

8.2.2 Inputs for Piecewise-Linear Functions

To define a piecewise-linear function of temperature for a material property, do the
following:

1. In the Materials panel, choose piecewise-linear in the drop-down list to the right of
the property name (e.g., Viscosity).The Piecewise-Linear Profile panel(Figure 8.2.2)
will open automatically.

Figure 8.2.2: The Piecewise-Linear Profile Panel

Since this is a modal panel, the solver will not allow you to do anything else until
you perform the following steps.
(a) Set the number of Points defining the piecewise distribution.
(b) Under Data Points, enter the data pairs for each point. First enter the in-
dependent and dependent variable values for Point 1, then increase the Point
number and enter the appropriate values for each additional pair of variables.
The pairs of points must be supplied in the order of increasing value of tem-
perature. The solver will not sort them for you. A maximum of 30 piecewise
points can be defined for each property. The panel in Figure 8.2.2 shows the
final inputs for the profile depicted in Figure 8.2.3.

i If the temperature exceeds the maximum Temperature (Tmax ) you have

specified for the profile, FLUENT will use the Value corresponding to Tmax .
If the temperature falls below the minimum Temperature (Tmin ) specified
for your profile, FLUENT will use the Value corresponding to Tmin .

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Physical Properties

Viscosity, µ × 10 5 (Pa-sec)
(440, 2.445 × 10-5 )
•

2
• -5
(360, 2.117 × 10 )
• -5
• (300, 1.846 × 10 )
(250, 1.599 × 10 -5 )

250 300 350 400 450

Temperature, T (K)

Figure 8.2.3: Piecewise-Linear Definition of Viscosity as µ(T )

8.2.3 Inputs for Piecewise-Polynomial Functions

To define a piecewise-polynomial function of temperature for a material property, follow
these steps:

1. In the Materials panel, choose piecewise-polynomial in the drop-down list to the

right of the property name (e.g., Cp). The Piecewise-Polynomial Profile panel (Fig-
ure 8.2.4) will open automatically. Since this is a modal panel, first perform the
following steps.

Figure 8.2.4: The Piecewise-Polynomial Profile Panel

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 8.2 Defining Properties Using Temperature-Dependent Functions

2. Specify the number of Ranges. For the example of Equation 8.2-5, two ranges of
temperatures are defined:



 for 300 ≤ T < 1000 :
−3 2 −6 3 −10 4

 429.929 + 1.874T − 1.966 × 10 T + 1.297 × 10 T − 4.000 × 10 T



cp (T ) =
for 1000 ≤ T < 5000 :





841.377 + 0.593T − 2.415 × 10−4 T 2 + 4.523 × 10−8 T 3 − 3.153 × 10−12 T 4


(8.2-5)
You may define up to three ranges. The ranges must be supplied in the order of
increasing value of temperature. The solver will not sort them for you.

3. For the first range (Range = 1), specify the Minimum and Maximum temperatures,
and the number of Coefficients. (Up to eight coefficients are available.) The number
of coefficients defines the order of the polynomial. The default of 1 defines a
polynomial of order 0. The property will be constant and equal to the single
coefficient A1 . An input of 2 defines a polynomial of order 1. The property will
vary linearly with temperature and so on.

4. Define the coefficients. Coefficients 1, 2, 3,... correspond to A1 ,A2 , A3 ,... in Equa-

tion 8.2-3. The panel in Figure 8.2.4 shows the inputs for the first range of Equa-
tion 8.2-5.

5. Increase the value of Range and enter the Minimum and Maximum temperatures,
number of Coefficients, and the Coefficients (B1 ,B2 , B3 ,...) for the next range.
Repeat if there is a third range.

8.2.4 Checking and Modifying Existing Profiles

If you want to check or change the coefficients, data pairs, or ranges for a previously-
defined profile, click on the Edit... button to the right of the property name. The
appropriate panel will open, and you can check or modify the inputs as desired.

i In the Fluent Database Materials panel, you cannot edit the profiles, but
you can examine them by clicking on the View... button (instead of the
Edit... button.)

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Physical Properties

8.3 Density
FLUENT provides several options for definition of the fluid density:

• constant density

• temperature and/or composition dependent density

Each of these input options and the governing physical models are explained in the
following sections. In all cases, you will define the Density in the Materials panel.
Define −→Materials...

8.3.1 Defining Density for Various Flow Regimes

The selection of density in FLUENT is very important. Set the density relationship based
on your flow regime.

• For compressible flows, the ideal gas law is the appropriate density relationship.

• For incompressible flows, you may choose one of the following methods:
– Constant density, if you do not want density to be a function of temperature.
– The incompressible ideal gas law, when pressure variations are small enough
that the flow is fully incompressible but you wish to use the ideal gas law to
express the relationship between density and temperature (e.g., for a natural
convection problem).
– Density as a polynomial, piecewise-linear, or piecewise-polynomial function
of temperature, when the density is a function of temperature only, as in a
natural convection problem.
– The Boussinesq model, for natural convection problems involving small changes
in temperature.

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 8.3 Density

Mixing Density Relationships in Multiple-Zone Models

If your model has multiple fluid zones that use different materials, you should be aware
of the following:

• For calculations with the pressure-based solver that do not use one of the general
multiphase models, the compressible ideal gas law cannot be mixed with any other
density methods. This means that if the compressible ideal gas law is used for one
material, it must be used for all materials.
This restriction does not apply to the density-based solvers.

• There is only one specified operating pressure and one specified operating tempera-
ture. This means that if you are using the ideal gas law for more than one material,
they will share the same operating pressure. If you are using the Boussinesq model
for more than one material, they will share the same operating temperature.

8.3.2 Input of Constant Density

If you want to define the density of the fluid as a constant, select constant in the Density
drop-down list under Properties in the Materials panel. Enter the value of density for the
material.
For the default fluid (air), the density is 1.225 kg/m3 .

8.3.3 Inputs for the Boussinesq Approximation

To enable the Boussinesq approximation for density, choose boussinesq from the Density
drop-down list in the Materials panel and specify a constant value for Density. You will
also need to set the Thermal Expansion Coefficient, as well as relevant operating conditions,
as described in Section 13.2.5: The Boussinesq Model.

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Physical Properties

8.3.4 Density as a Profile Function of Temperature

If you are modeling a problem that involves heat transfer, you can define the density as
a function of temperature. Three types of functions are available:

• piecewise-linear:

ρn+1 − ρn
ρ(T ) = ρn + (T − Tn ) (8.3-1)
Tn+1 − Tn
• piecewise-polynomial:

for Tmin,1 ≤ T < Tmax,1 : ρ(T ) = A1 + A2 T + A3 T 2 + ... (8.3-2)

for Tmin,2 ≤ T < Tmax,2 : ρ(T ) = B1 + B2 T + B3 T 2 + ... (8.3-3)

• polynomial:

ρ(T ) = A1 + A2 T + A3 T 2 + ... (8.3-4)

For one of the these methods, select piecewise-linear, piecewise-polynomial, or polynomial in

the Density drop-down list. You can enter the data pairs (Tn , ρn ), ranges and coefficients,
or coefficients that describe these functions using the Materials panel, as described in
Section 8.2: Defining Properties Using Temperature-Dependent Functions.

8.3.5 Incompressible Ideal Gas Law

In FLUENT, if you choose to define the density using the ideal gas law for an incompress-
ible flow, the solver will compute the density as

pop
ρ= R (8.3-5)
Mw
T

where,
R = the universal gas constant
Mw = the molecular weight of the gas
pop = Operating Pressure
In this form, the density depends only on the operating pressure and not on the local
relative pressure field.

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 8.3 Density

Density Inputs for the Incompressible Ideal Gas Law

The inputs for the incompressible ideal gas law are as follows:

1. Enable the ideal gas law for an incompressible fluid by choosing incompressible-ideal-
gas from the drop-down list to the right of Density in the Materials panel.
Specify the incompressible ideal gas law individually for each material that you
want to use it for. See Section 8.3.7: Composition-Dependent Density for Multi-
component Mixtures for information on specifying the incompressible ideal gas law
for mixtures.

2. Set the operating pressure by defining the Operating Pressure in the Operating Con-
ditions panel.
Define −→Operating Conditions...

i By default, operating pressure is set to 101325 Pa. The input of the oper-
ating pressure is of great importance when you are computing density with
the ideal gas law. See Section 8.14: Operating Pressure for recommenda-
tions on setting appropriate values for the operating pressure.

3. Set the molecular weight of the homogeneous or single-component fluid (if no chem-
ical species transport equations are to be solved), or the molecular weights of each
fluid material (species) in a multicomponent mixture. For each fluid material, enter
the value of the Molecular Weight in the Materials panel.

8.3.6 Ideal Gas Law for Compressible Flows

For compressible flows, the gas law is as following:

pop + p
ρ= R (8.3-6)
Mw
T

where,
p = the local relative (or gauge) pressure predicted by FLUENT
pop = the Operating Pressure

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Physical Properties

Density Inputs for the Ideal Gas Law for Compressible Flows
The inputs for the ideal gas law are as follows:

1. Enable the ideal gas law for a compressible fluid by choosing ideal-gas from the
drop-down list to the right of Density in the Materials panel.
Specify the ideal gas law individually for each material that you want to use it for.
See Section 8.3.7: Composition-Dependent Density for Multicomponent Mixtures
for information on specifying the ideal gas law for mixtures.

2. Set the operating pressure by defining the Operating Pressure in the Operating Con-
ditions panel.
Define −→Operating Conditions...

i The input of the operating pressure is of great importance when you are
computing density with the ideal gas law. Equation 8.3-6 notes that the
operating pressure is added to the relative pressure field computed by the
solver, yielding the absolute static pressure. See Section 8.14: Operating
Pressure for recommendations on setting appropriate values for the oper-
ating pressure. By default, Operating pressure is set to 101325 Pa.

3. Set the molecular weight of the homogeneous or single-component fluid (if no chem-
ical species transport equations are to be solved), or the molecular weights of each
fluid material (species) in a multicomponent mixture. For each fluid material, enter
the value of the Molecular Weight in the Materials panel.

8.3.7 Composition-Dependent Density for Multicomponent Mixtures

If you are solving species transport equations, set properties for the mixture material and
for the constituent fluids (species), as described in detail in Section 14.1.4: Defining Prop-
erties for the Mixture and Its Constituent Species. To define a composition-dependent
density for a mixture, do the following:

1. Select the density method:

• For non-ideal-gas mixtures, select the volume-weighted-mixing-law method for
the mixture material in the drop-down list to the right of Density in the Ma-
terials panel.
• If you are modeling compressible flow, select ideal-gas for the mixture material
in the drop-down list to the right of Density in the Materials panel.

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 8.3 Density

• If you are modeling incompressible flow using the ideal gas law, select
incompressible-ideal-gas for the mixture material in the Density drop-down list
in the Materials panel.
• If you have a user-defined function that you want to use to model the density,
you can choose either the user-defined method or the user-defined-mixing-law
method for the mixture material in the drop-down list.
The only difference between the user-defined-mixing-law and the user-defined option
for specifying density, viscosity and thermal conductivity of mixture materials,
is that with the user-defined-mixing-law option, the individual properties of the
species materials can also be specified. (Note that only the constant, the polynomial
methods and the user-defined methods are available.)

2. Click Change/Create.

3. If you have selected volume-weighted-mixing-law, define the density for each of the
fluid materials that comprise the mixture. You may define constant or (if applica-
ble) temperature-dependent densities for the individual species.

4. If you selected user-defined-mixing-law, define the density for each of the fluid
materials that comprise the mixture. You may define constant, or (if applica-
ble) temperature-dependent densities, or user-defined densities for the individual
species. For more information on defining properties with user-defined functions,
see the separate UDF Manual .

If you are modeling a non-ideal-gas mixture, FLUENT will compute the mixture density
as

1
ρ = P Yi (8.3-7)
i ρi

where Yi is the mass fraction and ρi is the density of species i.

For compressible flows, the gas law has the following form:

pop + p
ρ= (8.3-8)
RT i MYw,i
P i

where,
p = the local relative (or gauge) pressure predicted by FLUENT
R = the universal gas constant
Yi = the mass fraction of species i
Mw,i = the molecular weight of species i
pop = the Operating Pressure

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Physical Properties

In FLUENT, if you choose to define the density using the ideal gas law for an incompress-
ible flow, the solver will compute the density as

pop
ρ= P Yi (8.3-9)
RT i Mw,i

where,
R = the universal gas constant
Yi = the mass fraction of species i
Mw,i = the molecular weight of species i
pop = the Operating Pressure

8.4 Viscosity
FLUENT provides several options for definition of the fluid viscosity:

• constant viscosity

• temperature dependent and/or composition dependent viscosity

• kinetic theory

• non-Newtonian viscosity

• user-defined function

Each of these input options and the governing physical models are detailed in this section.
(User-defined functions are described in the separate UDF Manual.) In all cases, define
the Viscosity in the Materials panel.
Define −→Materials...
Viscosities are input as dynamic viscosity (µ) in units of kg/m-s in SI units or lbm /ft-s
in British units. FLUENT does not ask for input of the kinematic viscosity (ν).

8.4.1 Input of Constant Viscosity

If you want to define the viscosity of your fluid as a constant, select constant in the
Viscosity drop-down list in the Materials panel, and enter the value of viscosity for the
fluid.
For the default fluid (air), the viscosity is 1.7894 × 10−5 kg/m-s.

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 8.4 Viscosity

8.4.2 Viscosity as a Function of Temperature

If you are modeling a problem that involves heat transfer, you can define the viscosity as
a function of temperature. Five types of functions are available:

• piecewise-linear:

µn+1 − µn
µ(T ) = µn + (T − Tn ) (8.4-1)
Tn+1 − Tn
• piecewise-polynomial:

for Tmin,1 ≤ T < Tmax,1 : µ(T ) = A1 + A2 T + A3 T 2 + ... (8.4-2)

for Tmin,2 ≤ T < Tmax,2 : µ(T ) = B1 + B2 T + B3 T 2 + ... (8.4-3)

• polynomial:

µ(T ) = A1 + A2 T + A3 T 2 + ... (8.4-4)

• Sutherland’s law

• power law

i The power law described here is different from the non-Newtonian power
law described in Section 8.4.5: Viscosity for Non-Newtonian Fluids.
For one of the first three, select piecewise-linear, piecewise-polynomial, polynomial in the Vis-
cosity drop-down list and then enter the data pairs (Tn , µn ), ranges and coefficients, or co-
efficients that describe these functions Section 8.2: Defining Properties Using Temperature-
Dependent Functions. For Sutherland’s law or the power law, choose sutherland or power-
law respectively in the drop-down list and enter the parameters.

Sutherland Viscosity Law

Sutherland’s viscosity law resulted from a kinetic theory by Sutherland (1893) using
an idealized intermolecular-force potential. The formula is specified using two or three
coefficients.

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Physical Properties

Sutherland’s law with two coefficients has the form

C1 T 3/2
µ= (8.4-5)
T + C2

where,
µ = the viscosity in kg/m-s
T = the static temperature in K
C1 and C2 = the coefficients
Yi = the mass fraction of species i
Mw,i = the molecular weight of species i
pop = the Operating Pressure
For air at moderate temperatures and pressures, C1 = 1.458 × 10−6 kg/m-s-K1/2 , and
C2 = 110.4 K.
Sutherland’s law with three coefficients has the form

3/2
T T0 + S

µ = µ0 (8.4-6)
T0 T +S

where,
µ = the viscosity in kg/m-s
T = the static temperature in K
µ0 = reference value in kg/m-s
T0 = reference temperature in K
S = an effective temperature in K (Sutherland constant)
For air at moderate temperatures and pressures, µ0 = 1.716×10−5 kg/m-s, T0 = 273.11 K,
and S = 110.56 K.

Inputs for Sutherland’s Law

To use Sutherland’s law, choose sutherland in the drop-down list to the right of Viscosity.
The Sutherland Law panel will open, and you can enter the coefficients as follows:

1. Select the Two Coefficient Method or the Three Coefficient Method.

i Use SI units if you choose the two-coefficient method.

2. For the Two Coefficient Method, set C1 and C2. For the Three Coefficient Method,
set the Reference Viscosity µ0 , the Reference Temperature T0 , and the Effective Tem-
perature S.

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 8.4 Viscosity

Power-Law Viscosity Law

Another common approximation for the viscosity of dilute gases is the power-law form.
For dilute gases at moderate temperatures, this form is considered to be slightly less
accurate than Sutherland’s law.
A power-law viscosity law with two coefficients has the form

µ = BT n (8.4-7)

where µ is the viscosity in kg/m-s, T is the static temperature in K, and B is a dimensional

coefficient. For air at moderate temperatures and pressures, B = 4.093 × 10−7 , and
n = 2/3.
A power-law viscosity law with three coefficients has the form

n
T

µ = µ0 (8.4-8)
T0

where µ is the viscosity in kg/m-s, T is the static temperature in K, T0 is a reference

value in K, µ0 is a reference value in kg/m-s. For air at moderate temperatures and
pressures, µ0 = 1.716 × 10−5 kg/m-s, T0 = 273 K, and n = 2/3.

i The non-Newtonian power law for viscosity is described in Sec-

tion 8.4.5: Viscosity for Non-Newtonian Fluids.

Inputs for the Power Law

To use the power law, choose power-law in the drop-down list to the right of Viscosity.
The Power Law panel will open, and you can enter the coefficients as follows:

1. Select the Two Coefficient Method or the Three Coefficient Method.

i Note that you must use SI units if you choose the two-coefficient method.

2. For the Two Coefficient Method, set B and the Temperature Exponent n. For the
Three Coefficient Method, set the Reference Viscosity µ0 , the Reference Temperature
T0 , and the Temperature Exponent n.

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Physical Properties

8.4.3 Defining the Viscosity Using Kinetic Theory

If you are using the gas law (as described in Section 8.3: Density), you have the option
to define the fluid viscosity using kinetic theory as
√
−6 Mw T
µ = 2.67 × 10 (8.4-9)
σ 2 Ωµ

where µ is in units of kg/m-s, T is in units of Kelvin, σ is in units of Angstroms, and

Ωµ = Ωµ (T ∗ ) where

T
T∗ = (8.4-10)
(/kB )

The Lennard-Jones parameters, σ and /kB , are inputs to the kinetic theory calculation
that you supply by selecting kinetic-theory from the drop-down list to the right of Viscosity
in the Materials panel. The solver will use these kinetic theory inputs in Equation 8.4-9
to compute the fluid viscosity. See Section 8.13: Kinetic Theory Parameters for details
about these inputs.

8.4.4 Composition-Dependent Viscosity for Multicomponent Mixtures

If you are modeling a flow that includes more than one chemical species (multicompo-
nent flow), you have the option to define a composition-dependent viscosity. (Note that
you can also define the viscosity of the mixture as a constant value or a function of
temperature.)
To define a composition-dependent viscosity for a mixture, follow these steps:

1. For the mixture material, choose mass-weighted-mixing-law or, if you are using the
ideal gas law for density, ideal-gas-mixing-law in the drop-down list to the right of
Viscosity. If you have a user-defined function that you want to use to model the
viscosity, you can choose either the user-defined method or the user-defined-mixing-
law method for the mixture material in the drop-down list.

2. Click Change/Create.

3. Define the viscosity for each of the fluid materials that comprise the mixture. You
may define constant or (if applicable) temperature-dependent viscosities for the
individual species. You may also use kinetic theory for the individual viscosities,
or specify a non-Newtonian viscosity, if applicable.

4. If you selected user-defined-mixing-law, define the viscosity for each of the fluid
materials that comprise the mixture. You may define constant, or (if applica-
ble) temperature-dependent viscosities, or user-defined viscosities for the individual

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 8.4 Viscosity

species. For more information on defining properties with user-defined functions,

see the separate UDF Manual .
The only difference between the user-defined-mixing-law and the user-defined option
for specifying density, viscosity and thermal conductivity of mixture materials,
is that with the user-defined-mixing-law option, the individual properties of the
species materials can also be specified. (Note that only the constant, the polynomial
methods and the user-defined methods are available.)

If you are using the ideal gas law, the solver will compute the mixture viscosity based on
kinetic theory as

X Xi µi
µ= P (8.4-11)
i j Xi φij

where

  1/2  1/4 2
µi Mw,j
1+ µj Mw,i
φij = h  i1/2 (8.4-12)
Mw,i
8 1+ Mw,j

and Xi is the mole fraction of species i.

For non-ideal gas mixtures, the mixture viscosity is computed based on a simple mass
fraction average of the pure species viscosities:

X
µ= Yi µi (8.4-13)
i

8.4.5 Viscosity for Non-Newtonian Fluids

For incompressible Newtonian fluids, the shear stress is proportional to the rate-of-
deformation tensor D:

τ = µD (8.4-14)

where D is defined by
!
∂uj ∂ui
D= + (8.4-15)
∂xi ∂xj

and µ is the viscosity, which is independent of D.

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Physical Properties

For some non-Newtonian fluids, the shear stress can similarly be written in terms of a
non-Newtonian viscosity η:

 
τ =η D D (8.4-16)

In general, η is a function of all three invariants of the rate-of-deformation tensor D.

However, in the non-Newtonian models available in FLUENT, η is considered to be a
function of the shear rate γ̇ only. γ̇ is related to the second invariant of D and is defined
as
s
1
γ̇ = D:D (8.4-17)
2

FLUENT provides four options for modeling non-Newtonian flows:

• power law

• Carreau model for pseudo-plastics

• Cross model

• Herschel-Bulkley model for Bingham plastics

i Note that the non-Newtonian power law described below is different from
the power law described in Section 8.4.2: Power-Law Viscosity Law.

Note: Non-newtonian model for single phase is available for the mixture model and it is
recommended that this should be attached to the primary phase.

Appropriate values for the input parameters for these models can be found in the litera-
ture (e.g., [368]).

Power Law for Non-Newtonian Viscosity

If you choose non-newtonian-power-law in the drop-down list to the right of Viscosity,
non-Newtonian flow will be modeled according to the following power law for the non-
Newtonian viscosity:

η = k γ̇ n−1 eT0 /T (8.4-18)

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 8.4 Viscosity

FLUENT allows you to place upper and lower limits on the power law function, yielding
the following equation:

ηmin < η = k γ̇ n−1 eT0 /T < ηmax (8.4-19)

where k, n, T0 , ηmin , and ηmax are input parameters. k is a measure of the average
viscosity of the fluid (the consistency index); n is a measure of the deviation of the
fluid from Newtonian (the power-law index), as described below; T0 is the reference
temperature; and ηmin and ηmax are, respectively, the lower and upper limits of the power
law. If the viscosity computed from the power law is less than ηmin , the value of ηmin will
be used instead. Similarly, if the computed viscosity is greater than ηmax , the value of
ηmax will be used instead. Figure 8.4.1 shows how viscosity is limited by ηmin and ηmax
at low and high shear rates.

η max

log η
η min

.
log γ

Figure 8.4.1: Variation of Viscosity with Shear Rate According to the Non-
Newtonian Power Law

The value of n determines the class of the fluid:

n=1 → Newtonian fluid
n>1 → shear-thickening (dilatant fluids)
n<1 → shear-thinning (pseudo-plastics)

Inputs for the Non-Newtonian Power Law

To use the non-Newtonian power law, choose non-newtonian-power-law in the drop-down

list to the right of Viscosity. The Non-Newtonian Power Law panel will open, and you can
enter the Consistency Index k, Power-Law Index n, Reference Temperature T0 , Minimum
Viscosity Limit ηmin , and Maximum Viscosity Limit ηmax . For temperature-independent
viscosity, the value of T0 should be set to zero. If the energy equation is not being solved,
FLUENT uses a default value of T =273 K in Equation 8.4-18.

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Physical Properties

The Carreau Model for Pseudo-Plastics

The power law model described in Equation 8.4-18 results in a fluid viscosity that varies
with shear rate. For γ̇ → 0, η → η0 , and for γ̇ → ∞, η → η∞ , where η0 and η∞ are,
respectively, the upper and lower limiting values of the fluid viscosity.
The Carreau model attempts to describe a wide range of fluids by the establishment of
a curve-fit to piece together functions for both Newtonian and shear-thinning (n < 1)
non-Newtonian laws. In the Carreau model, the viscosity is

η = η∞ + (η0 − η∞ )[1 + (H(T )γ̇λ)2 ](n−1)/2 (8.4-20)

where
1 1
  
H(T ) = exp α − (8.4-21)
T − T0 Tα − T0

and the parameters n, λ, Tα , η0 , and η∞ are dependent upon the fluid. λ is the time
constant, n is the power-law index (as described above for the non-Newtonian power law),
T0 is set to zero by default, while Tα is the reference temperature at which H(T ) = 1.
T and Tα are the absolute temperatures and η0 and η∞ are, respectively, the zero- and
infinite-shear viscosities, and α is the activation energy. Figure 8.4.2 shows how viscosity
is limited by η0 and η∞ at low and high shear rates.

η0

log η
η∞

.
log γ

Figure 8.4.2: Variation of Viscosity with Shear Rate According to the Car-
reau Model

Inputs for the Carreau Model

To use the Carreau model, choose carreau in the drop-down list to the right of Viscosity.
The Carreau Model panel will open, and you can enter the Time Constant λ, Power-Law
Index n, Reference Temperature Tα , Zero Shear Viscosity η0 , Infinite Shear Viscosity η∞ , and
Activation Energy α.

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 8.4 Viscosity

Figure 8.4.3: The Carreau Model Panel

Cross Model
The Cross model for viscosity is

η0
η= (8.4-22)
1 + (λγ̇)1−n

where η0 = zero-shear-rate viscosity

λ = natural time (i.e., inverse of the shear rate
at which the fluid changes from Newtonian to
power-law behavior)
n = power-law index
The Cross model is commonly used when it is necessary to describe the low-shear-rate
behavior of the viscosity.

Inputs for the Cross Model

To use the Cross model, choose cross in the drop-down list to the right of Viscosity. The
Cross Model panel will open, and you can enter the Zero Shear Viscosity η0 , Time Constant
λ, and Power-Law Index n .

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Physical Properties

Herschel-Bulkley Model for Bingham Plastics

The power law model described above is valid for fluids for which the shear stress is zero
when the strain rate is zero. Bingham plastics are characterized by a non-zero shear
stress when the strain rate is zero:

τ = τ 0 + ηD (8.4-23)

where τ0 is the yield stress:

• For τ < τ0 , the material remains rigid.

• For τ > τ0 , the material flows as a power-law fluid.

The Herschel-Bulkley model combines the effects of Bingham and power-law behavior in
a fluid. For low strain rates (γ̇ < τ0 /µ0 ), the “rigid” material acts like a very viscous
fluid with viscosity µ0 . As the strain rate increases and the yield stress threshold, τ0 , is
passed, the fluid behavior is described by a power law.

τ0 + k[γ̇ n − (τ0 /µ0 )n ]

η= (8.4-24)
γ̇

where k is the consistency factor, and n is the power-law index.

Figure 8.4.4 shows how shear stress (τ ) varies with shear rate (γ̇) for the Herschel-Bulkley
model.
n>1
Bingham (n=1)
0<n<1

τ0

. .
γ0
γ

Figure 8.4.4: Variation of Shear Stress with Shear Rate According to the
Herschel-Bulkley Model

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 8.5 Thermal Conductivity

If you choose the Herschel-Bulkley model for Bingham plastics, Equation 8.4-24 will be
used to determine the fluid viscosity.
The Herschel-Bulkley model is commonly used to describe materials such as concrete,
mud, dough, and toothpaste, for which a constant viscosity after a critical shear stress is a
reasonable assumption. In addition to the transition behavior between a flow and no-flow
regime, the Herschel-Bulkley model can also exhibit a shear-thinning or shear-thickening
behavior depending on the value of n.

Inputs for the Herschel-Bulkley Model

To use the Herschel-Bulkley model, choose herschel-bulkley in the drop-down list to the
right of Viscosity. The Herschel-Bulkley panel will open, and you can enter the Consistency
Index k, Power-Law Index n, Yield Stress Threshold τ0 , and Yielding Viscosity µ0 .

8.5 Thermal Conductivity

The thermal conductivity must be defined when heat transfer is active. You will need to
define thermal conductivity when you are modeling energy and viscous flow.
FLUENT provides several options for definition of the thermal conductivity:

• constant thermal conductivity

• temperature- and/or composition-dependent thermal conductivity

• kinetic theory

• anisotropic (anisotropic, biaxial, orthotropic, cylindrical orthotropic) (for solid ma-

terials only)

• user-defined

Each of these input options and the governing physical models are detailed in this section.
User-defined functions (UDFs) are described in the separate UDF Manual.

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Physical Properties

In all cases, you will define the Thermal Conductivity in the Materials panel (Figure 8.5.1).
Define −→Materials...

Figure 8.5.1: The Materials Panel

Thermal conductivity is defined in units of W/m-K in SI units or BTU/hr-ft-◦ R in British

units.

8.5.1 Constant Thermal Conductivity

If you want to define the thermal conductivity as a constant, check that constant is
selected in the drop-down list to the right of Thermal Conductivity in the Materials panel
(Figure 8.5.1), and enter the value of thermal conductivity for the material.
For the default fluid (air), the thermal conductivity is 0.0242 W/m-K.

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 8.5 Thermal Conductivity

8.5.2 Thermal Conductivity as a Function of Temperature

You can also choose to define the thermal conductivity as a function of temperature.
Three types of functions are available:

• piecewise-linear:

kn+1 − kn
k(T ) = kn + (T − Tn ) (8.5-1)
Tn+1 − Tn
• piecewise-polynomial:

for Tmin,1 ≤ T < Tmax,1 : k(T ) = A1 + A2 T + A3 T 2 + ... (8.5-2)

for Tmin,2 ≤ T < Tmax,2 : k(T ) = B1 + B2 T + B3 T 2 + ... (8.5-3)

• polynomial:

k(T ) = A1 + A2 T + A3 T 2 + ... (8.5-4)

You can input the data pairs (Tn , kn ), ranges and coefficients Ai and Bi , or coefficients Ai
that describe these functions using the Materials panel, as described in Section 8.2: Defin-
ing Properties Using Temperature-Dependent Functions.

8.5.3 Thermal Conductivity Using Kinetic Theory

If you are using the gas law (as described in Section 8.3: Density), you have the option
to define the thermal conductivity using kinetic theory as

15 R 4 c p Mw 1
 
k= µ + (8.5-5)
4 Mw 15 R 3

where R is the universal gas constant, Mw is the molecular weight, µ is the material’s
specified or computed viscosity, and cp is the material’s specified or computed specific
heat capacity.
To enable the use of this equation for calculating thermal conductivity, select kinetic-
theory from the drop-down list to the right of Thermal Conductivity in the Materials panel.
The solver will use Equation 8.5-5 to compute the thermal conductivity.

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Physical Properties

8.5.4 Composition-Dependent Thermal Conductivity for Multicomponent

Mixtures
If you are modeling a flow that includes more than one chemical species (multicomponent
flow), you have the option to define a composition-dependent thermal conductivity. (Note
that you can also define the thermal conductivity of the mixture as a constant value or
a function of temperature, or using kinetic theory.)
To define a composition-dependent thermal conductivity for a mixture, follow these steps:

1. For the mixture material, choose mass-weighted-mixing-law or, if you are using the
ideal gas law, ideal-gas-mixing-law in the drop-down list to the right of Thermal
Conductivity. If you have a user-defined function that you want to use to model
the thermal conductivity, you can choose either the user-defined method or the
user-defined-mixing-law method for the mixture material in the drop-down list.
The only difference between the user-defined-mixing-law and the user-defined option
for specifying density, viscosity and thermal conductivity of mixture materials,
is that with the user-defined-mixing-law option, the individual properties of the
species materials can also be specified. (Note that only the constant, the polynomial
methods and the user-defined methods are available.)

i If you use ideal-gas-mixing-law for the thermal conductivity of a mixture,

you must use ideal-gas-mixing-law or mass-weighted-mixing-law for viscosity,
because these two viscosity specification methods are the only ones that
allow specification of the component viscosities, which are used in the ideal
gas law for thermal conductivity (Equation 8.5-6).

2. Click Change/Create.

3. Define the thermal conductivity for each of the fluid materials that comprise the
mixture. You may define constant or (if applicable) temperature-dependent thermal
conductivities for the individual species. You may also use kinetic theory for the
individual thermal conductivities, if applicable.

4. If you selected user-defined-mixing-law, define the thermal conductivity for each of

the fluid materials that comprise the mixture. You may define constant, or (if
applicable) temperature-dependent thermal conductivities, or user-defined thermal
conductivities for the individual species. For more information on defining proper-
ties with user-defined functions, see the separate UDF Manual.

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 8.5 Thermal Conductivity

If you are using the ideal gas law, the solver will compute the mixture thermal conduc-
tivity based on kinetic theory as

X Xi ki
k= P (8.5-6)
i j Xj φij

where

  1/2  1/4 2
µi Mw,j
1+ µj Mw,i
φij = h  i1/2 (8.5-7)
Mw,i
8 1+ Mw,j

and Xi is the mole fraction of species i.

For non-ideal gases, the mixture thermal conductivity is computed based on a simple
mass fraction average of the pure species conductivities:

X
k= Yi k i (8.5-8)
i

8.5.5 Anisotropic Thermal Conductivity for Solids

The anisotropic conductivity option in FLUENT solves the conduction equation in solids
with the thermal conductivity specified as a matrix. The heat flux vector is written as

∂T
qi = −kij (8.5-9)
∂xj

The following options are available for defining anisotropic thermal conductivity in FLU-
ENT. These are discussed below.

• anisotropic

• biaxial

• orthotropic

• cylindrical orthotropic

i Note that the anisotropic conductivity options are available only with the
pressure-based solver; you cannot use them with the density-based solvers.

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Physical Properties

Anisotropic Thermal Conductivity

For anisotropic diffusion, the thermal conductivity matrix (Equation 8.5-9) is specified
as

kij = kêij (8.5-10)

where k is the conductivity and êij is a matrix (2 × 2 for two dimensions and 3 × 3 for
three-dimensional problems. Note that êij can be a non-symmetric matrix.
To define anisotropic thermal conductivity for a solid material, select anisotropic for
Thermal Conductivity in the Materials panel (Figure 8.5.1). This will open the Anisotropic
Conductivity panel (Figure 8.5.2).

Figure 8.5.2: The Anisotropic Conductivity Panel

In the Anisotropic Conductivity panel, enter the Matrix Components of matrix êij and then
select the Conductivity (k in Equation 8.5-10) to be a constant, polynomial function of
temperature (polynomial, piecewise-linear, piecewise-polynomial), or user-defined function.
See Sections 8.5.1 and 8.5.2 for details on constants and thermal polynomial functions.
When you select the user-defined option, the User-Defined Functions panel will open allow-
ing you to hook a DEFINE PROPERTY UDF only if you have previously loaded a compiled
UDF library or interpreted the UDF. Otherwise, you will get an error message. Refer to
the separate UDF Manual.

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 8.5 Thermal Conductivity

Biaxial Thermal Conductivity

Biaxial thermal conductivity is mainly applicable to solid materials used for the wall
shell conduction model. To define a biaxial thermal conductivity, select biaxial in the
drop-down list for Thermal Conductivity in the Materials panel. This opens the Biaxial
Conductivity panel (Figure 8.5.3).

Figure 8.5.3: The Biaxial Conductivity Panel

In the Biaxial Conductivity panel, both the conductivity normal to the surface of the solid
region (Transverse Conductivity) and the conductivity within the shell or solid region
(Planar Conductivity) can be defined as constant, polynomial, piecewise-linear, or piecewise-
polynomial. See Sections 8.5.1 and 8.5.2 for details on these parameters. Within the shell,
however, the conductivity is isotropic. See Section 7.13.1: Shell Conduction in Thin-Walls
for more information about shell conduction in walls.

Orthotropic Thermal Conductivity

When the orthotropic thermal conductivity is used, the thermal conductivities (kξ , kη , kζ )
in the principal directions (êξ , êη , êζ ) are specified. The conductivity matrix is then
computed as

kij = kξ eξi eξj + kη eηi eηj + kζ eζi eζj (8.5-11)

To define an orthotropic thermal conductivity in solids, select orthotropic in the drop-

down list for Thermal Conductivity in the Materials panel. This opens the Orthotropic
Conductivity panel (Figure 8.5.4).

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Physical Properties

Figure 8.5.4: The Orthotropic Conductivity Panel

Since the directions (êξ , êη , êζ ) are mutually orthogonal, only the first two need to be
specified for three-dimensional problems. êξ is defined using X,Y,Z under Direction 0
Components, and êη is defined using X,Y,Z under Direction 1 Components. You can define
Conductivity 0 (kξ ), Conductivity 1 (kη ), and Conductivity 2 (kζ ) as constant, polynomial,
piecewise-linear, piecewise-polynomial functions of temperature, or user-defined. See Sec-
tions 8.5.1 for and 8.5.2 for details on constant and temperature profile functions.
When you select the user-defined option, the User-Defined Functions panel will open allow-
ing you to hook a DEFINE PROPERTY UDF only if you have previously loaded a compiled
UDF library or interpreted the UDF. Otherwise, you will get an error message. Refer to
the separate UDF Manual.

i For two-dimensional problems, only the functions (kξ , kη ) and the unit
vector (êξ ) need to be specified.

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 8.5 Thermal Conductivity

Cylindrical Orthotropic Thermal Conductivity

The orthotropic conductivity of solids can be specified in cylindrical coordinates. To de-
fine the orthotropic thermal conductivity in cylindrical coordinates, select cyl-orthotropic
in the drop-down list for Thermal Conductivity in the Materials panel. This opens the
Cylindrical Orthotropic Conductivity panel (Figure 8.5.5).

Figure 8.5.5: The Cylindrical Orthotropic Conductivity Panel

In three-dimensional cases, the origin and the direction of the cylindrical coordinate
system must be specified along with the radial, tangential, and axial direction conductiv-
ities. In two-dimensional cases, the origin of the cylindrical coordinate system must be
specified along with the radial and tangential direction conductivities. Note that in two-
dimensional cases, the direction is always along the +z axis. FLUENT will automatically
compute the anisotropic conductivity matrix at each cell from this input. The calculation
is based on the location of the cell in the cylindrical coordinate system specified.

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Physical Properties

You can define the Radial Conductivity, Tangential Conductivity, and Axial Conductivity as
constant, polynomial, piecewise-linear, piecewise-polynomial, or as user-defined functions of
temperature. See Sections 8.5.1 and 8.5.2 for details on constant and thermal profile
functions.
When you select the user-defined option, the User-Defined Functions panel will open allow-
ing you to hook a DEFINE PROPERTY UDF only if you have previously loaded a compiled
UDF library or interpreted the UDF. Otherwise, you will get an error message. Refer to
the separate UDF Manual.

i For conductivity calculations near the wall, the cell next to the wall is
chosen for computing the conductivity matrix instead of the wall itself.

8.6 User-Defined Scalar (UDS) Diffusivity

There are two types of UDS diffusivity that you can specify in FLUENT: isotropic and
anisotropic. Diffusion is isotropic when it is the same in all directions. Isotropic diffusion
coefficients can be specified in two ways: either as a single user-defined that applies to all
UDS transport equations defined for your model; or on a per-scalar basis as constants,
polynomial functions of temperature, or user-defined functions.
Diffusion is anisotropic when the diffusion coefficients are different in different directions.
Anisotropic diffusion can be specified by a tensor diffusion coefficient matrix Γ (Equa-
tion 8.6-1) for each UDS (in both fluid and solid zones) in four different ways: general
anisotropic, orthotropic, cyl-orthotropic, and user-defined-anisotropic. All UDS diffusivity
parameters are set from the Materials panel and are discussed below. Note that de-
tails about how to define and use UDFs in UDS transport equations is discussed in the
separate UDF Manual.
The second-order diffusion term in the most general form is

∇ · (Γ · ∇φk ) (8.6-1)

where Γ is a 3 × 3 tensor in 3D.

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 8.6 User-Defined Scalar (UDS) Diffusivity

8.6.1 Isotropic Diffusion

For isotropic diffusion, Γ in Equation 8.6-1 is equal to a scalar Γ times the identity matrix
and the equation reduces to

∇ · (Γ∇φk ) (8.6-2)

You can specify isotropic diffusivity as a single user-defined function that applies to all
UDS transport equations. For this case, choose user-defined from the drop-down list for
UDS Diffusivity in the Materials panel (Figure 8.6.1).
Define −→Materials...

Figure 8.6.1: The Materials Panel

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Physical Properties

If you have previously loaded a compiled UDF library or have interpreted the UDF, then
the User-Defined Functions panel will open, allowing you to hook the DEFINE DIFFUSIVITY
UDF to FLUENT. If no functions have been loaded, you will get an error message. Refer
to the separate UDF Manual.
Isotropic diffusion coefficients can also be defined on a per-scalar basis by selecting
defined-per-uds from the drop-down list for UDS Diffusivity in the Materials panel (Fig-
ure 8.6.2). This will open the UDS Diffusion Coefficients panel (Figure 8.6.3).

Figure 8.6.2: The Materials Panel

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 8.6 User-Defined Scalar (UDS) Diffusivity

Figure 8.6.3: The UDS Diffusion Coefficients Panel

In the UDS Diffusion Coefficients panel, select a scalar equation (e.g., uds-0) and then
choose a constant, polynomial, or user-defined function from the Coefficient drop-down list.
(For the default fluid (air), the constant diffusion coefficient is 1 kg/m-s.) If you choose
polynomial, the Polynomial Profile panel will open and you can specify your coefficients as
a function of temperature. See Section 8.2.1: Inputs for Polynomial Functions for details.
When you select the user-defined option, the User-Defined Functions panel will open al-
lowing you to hook a DEFINE DIFFUSIVITY UDF only if you have previously loaded a
compiled UDF library or interpreted a UDF. Otherwise, you will get an error message.
Refer to the separate UDF Manual.

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Physical Properties

8.6.2 Anisotropic Diffusion

You can specify anisotropic diffusion coefficients in both fluid and solid zones by defining
the tensor diffusion coefficient matrix Γ (Equation 8.6-1) on a per-scalar basis. You can
use anisotropic diffusivity for UDS scalar transport equations to model species trans-
port equations in porous media and in solids where species diffusion shows anisotropic
behavior.

i Note that the anisotropic diffusion options discussed in the following sec-
tions are available with the pressure-based solver and the density-based
solvers.

i UDS diffusion coefficients can be postprocessed only in those cells which

have isotropic diffusivity. In all other cells, the diffusion coefficient will be
zero.
In all cases, you enable anisotropic diffusion by selecting defined-per-uds under UDS Dif-
fusivity in the Materials panel (Figure 8.6.2). This will open the UDS Diffusion Coefficients
panel (Figure 8.6.3).
Define −→Materials...
In the UDS Diffusion Coefficient panel, select a scalar equation (e.g., uds-0) and then
choose one of the following methods under Coefficients to specify the anisotropic diffusion
coefficient. These methods are described in detail below.

• anisotropic

• orthotropic

• cylindrical orthotropic

• user-defined anisotropic

Anisotropic Diffusivity
For anisotropic diffusivity, you can specify Γ in Equation 8.6-1 in the form KΓ where K
is a constant 3x3 matrix in 3D and Γ is a scalar multiplier.
The diffusion coefficient matrix is specified as

kij = kêij (8.6-3)

where k is the diffusivity and êij is a matrix (2 × 2 for two dimensions and 3 × 3 for
three-dimensional problems). Note that êij can be a non-symmetric matrix.

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 8.6 User-Defined Scalar (UDS) Diffusivity

To specify anisotropic diffusion coefficients, first select a scalar equation (e.g., uds-0) from
the User-Defined Scalar Diffusion list in the UDS Diffusion Coefficients panel (Figure 8.6.3).
Then choose anisotropic in the drop-down list under Coefficient. This will open the
Anisotropic UDS Diffusivity panel (Figure 8.6.4).

Figure 8.6.4: The Anisotropic UDS Diffusivity Panel

In the Anisotropic UDS Diffusivity panel, enter the Matrix Components and then select the
Diffusivity to be a constant, polynomial function of temperature (polynomial, piecewise-
linear, piecewise-polynomial), or user-defined. See Sections 8.2.1, 8.2.2, and 8.2.3 for details
on polynomial temperature functions.
When you select the user-defined option, the User-Defined Functions panel will open al-
lowing you to hook a DEFINE DIFFUSIVITY UDF only if you have previously loaded a
compiled UDF library or interpreted a UDF. Otherwise, you will get an error message.
Refer to the separate UDF Manual.

Orthotropic Diffusivity
For orthotropic diffusivity, you can specify Γ in Equation 8.6-1 through ’principal’ direc-
tion vectors and diffusion coefficients along these directions. FLUENT, in turn, computes
Γ from parameters that you supply. The principal directions are the same everywhere,
but each of he directional diffusion coefficients can be specified as a constant, polynomial
function of temperature, or through user-defined functions.

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Physical Properties

When orthotropic diffusivity is used, the diffusion coefficients (kξ , kη , kζ ) in the principal
directions (êξ , êη , êζ ) are specified. The diffusivity matrix is then computed as

kij = kξ eξi eξj + kη eηi eηj + kζ eζi eζj (8.6-4)

i For two-dimensional problems, only the functions (kξ , kη ) and the unit
vector (êξ ) need to be specified.
To specify orthotropic diffusion coefficients, first select a scalar equation (e.g., uds-0) from
the User-Defined Scalar Diffusion list in the UDS Diffusion Coefficients panel (Figure 8.6.3).
Then choose orthotropic in the drop-down list under Coefficient. This will open the
Orthotropic UDS Diffusivity panel (Figure 8.6.5).

Figure 8.6.5: The Orthotropic UDS Diffusivity Panel

Since the directions (êξ , êη , êζ ) are mutually orthogonal, only the first two need to be
specified for three-dimensional problems. êξ is defined using X,Y,Z under Direction 0
Components, and êη is defined using X,Y,Z under Direction 1 Components. You can define
Diffusivity 0 (kξ ), Diffusivity 1 (kη ), and Diffusivity 2 (kζ ) as constant, polynomial, piecewise-
linear, piecewise-polynomial functions of temperature, or user-defined. See Sections 8.2.1,
8.2.2, and 8.2.3 for details on polynomial temperature functions.

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 8.6 User-Defined Scalar (UDS) Diffusivity

When you select the user-defined option, the User-Defined Functions panel will open al-
lowing you to hook a DEFINE DIFFUSIVITY UDF only if you have previously loaded a
compiled UDF library or interpreted a UDF. If no functions have been loaded, you will
get an error message. Refer to the separate UDF Manual.

Cylindrical Orthotropic Diffusivity

Orthotropic UDS diffusivity can also be specified on a per-scalar basis in cylindrical
coordinates. This method is similar to orthotropic UDS diffusivity, except that the
principal directions are specified as radial, tangential, and axial.
To specify cylindrical orthotropic diffusion coefficients, first select a scalar equation (e.g.,
uds-0) from the User-Defined Scalar Diffusion list in the UDS Diffusion Coefficients panel
(Figure 8.6.3). Then choose cyl-orthotropic in the drop-down list under Coefficient. This
will open the Cylindrical Orthotropic UDS Diffusivity panel (Figure 8.6.6).

Figure 8.6.6: The Cylindrical Orthotropic UDS Diffusivity Panel

In three-dimensional cases, the origin and the direction of the cylindrical coordinate
system must be specified along with the radial, tangential, and axial direction conductiv-
ities. In two-dimensional cases, the origin of the cylindrical coordinate system must be
specified along with the radial and tangential direction conductivities. Note that in two-
dimensional cases, the direction is always along the +z axis. FLUENT will automatically
compute the anisotropic diffusivity matrix at each cell from this input. The calculation
is based on the location of the cell in the cylindrical coordinate system specified.

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Physical Properties

You can define the Radial Diffusivity, Tangential Diffusivity, and Axial Diffusivity as constant,
polynomial, piecewise-linear, piecewise-polynomial, or as user-defined functions of tempera-
ture, using the drop-down list below each of the diffusivities. See Sections 8.2.1, 8.2.2,
and 8.2.3 for details on polynomial temperature functions.
When you select the user-defined option, the User-Defined Functions panel will open al-
lowing you to hook a DEFINE DIFFUSIVITY UDF only if you have previously loaded a
compiled UDF library or interpreted a UDF. If no functions have been loaded, you will
get an error message. Refer to the separate UDF Manual.

8.6.3 User-Defined Anisotropic Diffusivity

You can specify Γ in Equation 8.6-1 on a per-scalar basis, directly, through user-defined
functions (UDFs).
To specify a UDF for anisotropic diffusivity on a per-scalar basis, first select a scalar
equation (e.g., uds-0) from the User-Defined Scalar Diffusion list in the UDS Diffusion
Coefficients panel (Figure 8.6.7).

Figure 8.6.7: The UDS Diffusion Coefficients Panel

Then choose user-defined-anisotropic in the drop-down list under Coefficient. The User-
Defined Functions panel will open allowing you to hook a DEFINE ANISOTROPIC DIFFUSIVITY
UDF only if you have previously loaded a compiled UDF library or interpreted a UDF.
Otherwise, you will get an error message.
Refer to the separate UDF Manual for details.

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 8.7 Specific Heat Capacity

8.7 Specific Heat Capacity

The specific heat capacity must be defined when the energy equation is active. FLUENT
provides several options for definition of the heat capacity:

• constant heat capacity

• temperature- and/or composition-dependent heat capacity

• kinetic theory

Each of these input options and the governing physical models are detailed in this section.
In all cases, you will define the Cp in the Materials panel.
Define −→Materials...
Specific heat capacity is input in units of J/kg-K in SI units or BTU/lbm-◦ R in British
units.

i For combustion applications, a temperature-dependent specific heat is rec-

ommended.

8.7.1 Input of Constant Specific Heat Capacity

If you want to define the heat capacity as a constant, check that constant is selected in
the drop-down list to the right of Cp in the Materials panel, and enter the value of heat
capacity.
The specific heat for the default fluid (air) is 1006.43 J/kg-K.

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Physical Properties

8.7.2 Specific Heat Capacity as a Function of Temperature

You can also choose to define the specific heat capacity as a function of temperature.
Three types of functions are available:

• piecewise-linear:

cpn+1 − cpn
cp (T ) = cpn + (T − Tn ) (8.7-1)
Tn+1 − Tn
• piecewise-polynomial:

for Tmin,1 ≤ T < Tmax,1 : cp (T ) = A1 + A2 T + A3 T 2 + ... (8.7-2)

for Tmin,2 ≤ T < Tmax,2 : cp (T ) = B1 + B2 T + B3 T 2 + ... (8.7-3)

• polynomial:

cp (T ) = A1 + A2 T + A3 T 2 + ... (8.7-4)

You can input the data pairs (Tn , cpn ), ranges and coefficients Ai and Bi , or coefficients Ai
that describe these functions using the Materials panel, as described in Section 8.2: Defin-
ing Properties Using Temperature-Dependent Functions.

8.7.3 Defining Specific Heat Capacity Using Kinetic Theory

If you are using the gas law (as described in Section 8.3: Density), you have the option
to define the specific heat capacity using kinetic theory as

1 R
cp,i = (fi + 2) (8.7-5)
2 Mw,i

where fi is the number of modes of energy storage (degrees of freedom) for the gas species
i which you can input by selecting kinetic-theory from the drop-down list to the right of
Cp in the Materials panel. The solver will use your kinetic theory inputs in Equation 8.7-5
to compute the specific heat capacity. See Section 8.13: Kinetic Theory Parameters for
details about kinetic theory inputs.

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 8.8 Radiation Properties

8.7.4 Specific Heat Capacity as a Function of Composition

If you are modeling a flow that includes more than one chemical species (multicomponent
flow), you have the option to define a composition-dependent specific heat capacity. (Note
that you can also define the heat capacity of the mixture as a constant value or a function
of temperature, or using kinetic theory.)
To define a composition-dependent specific heat capacity for a mixture, follow these steps:

1. For the mixture material, choose mixing-law in the drop-down list to the right of
Cp.
2. Click Change/Create.
3. Define the specific heat capacity for each of the fluid materials that comprise the
mixture. You may define constant or (if applicable) temperature-dependent heat
capacities for the individual species. You may also use kinetic theory for the indi-
vidual heat capacities, if applicable.

The solver will compute the mixture’s specific heat capacity as a mass fraction average
of the pure species heat capacities:

X
cp = Yi cp,i (8.7-6)
i

8.8 Radiation Properties

When you have activated one of the radiation models (except for the surface-to-surface
model, which requires no additional properties), there will be additional properties for
you to set in the Materials panel:

• For the P-1 model, you will need to set the radiation Absorption Coefficient and
Scattering Coefficient (a and σs in Equation 13.3-2).
• For the Rosseland radiation model, you will also need to set the Absorption Coeffi-
cient and Scattering Coefficient (a and σs in Equation 13.3-3).
• For the DTRM, only the Absorption Coefficient is required (a in Equation 13.3-30).
• For the DO model, you will set both the Absorption Coefficient and the Scatter-
ing Coefficient (a and σs in Equation 13.3-37). In addition, if you are modeling
semi-transparent media, you can specify the Refractive Index (na or nb in Equa-
tion 13.3-56). Note that with the DO model, you can specify radiation properties
for solid materials, to be used when semi-transparent media are modeled.

Information about defining each of these properties is provided in the following sections.

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Physical Properties

8.8.1 Absorption Coefficient

To define the absorption coefficient, you can specify a constant value, a temperature-
dependent function (see Section 8.2: Defining Properties Using Temperature-Dependent
Functions), a composition-dependent function, or a user-defined function. The absorbing
and emitting parts of the radiative transfer equation (RTE), Equation 13.3-1, is a function
of the absorption coefficient. The absorbing or emitting effects depend on the chosen
radiation model. If there are only absorption effects,then Lambert’s Law of absorption
applies
I = Io exp (−ax) (8.8-1)

where I is the radiation intensity, a is the absorption coefficient, and x is the distance
through the material.
If you are modeling non-gray radiation with the DO radiation model, you also have the
option to specify a constant absorption coefficient in each of the gray bands. The absorp-
tion coefficient is requested in units of 1/length. Along with the scattering coefficient, it
describes the change in radiation intensity per unit length along the path through the
fluid medium. Absorption coefficients can be computed using tables of emissivity for
CO2 and H2 O, which are generally available in textbooks on radiation heat transfer.

Inputs for a Constant Absorption Coefficient

To define a constant absorption coefficient, simply enter the value in the field next to
Absorption Coefficient in the Materials panel. (Select constant in the drop-down list first
if it is not already selected.)

Inputs for a Composition-Dependent Absorption Coefficient

FLUENT also allows you to input a composition-dependent absorption coefficient, with
the local value of a a function of the local mass fractions of water vapor and carbon
dioxide. This modeling option can be useful for simulation of radiation in combustion
applications. The variable-absorption-coefficient model used by FLUENT is the weighted-
sum-of-gray-gases model (WSGGM) described in Section 13.3.8: Radiation in Combust-
ing Flows. To activate it, select wsggm-cell-based, wsggm-domain-based, or wsggm-user-
specified in the drop-down list to the right of Absorption Coefficient in the Materials panel.
The three WSGGM options differ in the method used to compute the path length, as
described below.
(Remember that you must first enable the species calculation in order to see the wsggm
choices in the list, and CO2 and H2 O must be present in the mixture.)

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 8.8 Radiation Properties

Path Length Inputs

When the WSGGM is used to compute the absorption coefficient, you will have a choice
of methods used to calculate the path length s in Equation 13.3-81. You can use the
characteristic cell size or the mean beam length (computed by the solver or defined by
you). See Section 13.3.8: Radiation in Combusting Flows to determine which method is
appropriate for your case.
You will select the path length method when you choose the property input method for
Absorption Coefficient as described above.

• If you choose wsggm-cell-based, the characteristic-cell-size approach will be used

and no further inputs are required.

• If you choose wsggm-domain-based, the mean-beam-length approach will be used

for the calculation of a and FLUENT will compute the mean beam length based on
an average dimension of the domain; no further inputs are required.

• If you choose wsggm-user-specified, the mean-beam-length approach will be used,

but you will set the mean beam length yourself in the Path Length field in the
WSGGM User Specified panel. This panel will open when you choose wsggm-user-
specified, and since it is a modal panel, you must tend to it immediately.

Inputs for a Non-Gray Radiation Absorption Coefficient

If you are using the non-gray DO model (see Sections 13.3.6 and 13.3.13), you can specify
a different constant absorption coefficient for each of the bands used by the gray-band
model. Select gray-band in the Absorption Coefficient drop-down list, and then define the
absorption coefficient for each band in the Gray-Band Absorption Coefficient panel. (Note
that, since this is a modal panel, you must tend to it immediately.)

Effect of Particles and Soot on the Absorption Coefficient

FLUENT will include the effect of particles on the absorption coefficient if you have turned
on the Particle Radiation Interaction option in the Discrete Phase Model panel (only for
the P-1 and DO radiation models).
If you are modeling soot formation and you want to include the effect of soot formation
on the absorption coefficient, turn on the Generalized Model for Soot-Radiation Interaction
in the Soot Model panel. The soot effects can be included for any of the radiation models,
as long as you are using the WSGGM to compute a composition-dependent absorption
coefficient.

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Physical Properties

8.8.2 Scattering Coefficient

The scattering coefficient is, by default, set to zero, and it is assumed to be isotropic. You
can specify a constant value, a temperature-dependent function (see Section 8.2: Defining
Properties Using Temperature-Dependent Functions), or a user-defined function. You
can also specify a non-isotropic phase function.
The scattering coefficient is requested in units of 1/length. Along with the absorption
coefficient, it describes the change in radiation intensity per unit length along the path
through the fluid medium. You may wish to increase the scattering coefficient in com-
bustion systems, where particulates may be present.

Inputs for a Constant Scattering Coefficient

To define a constant scattering coefficient, simply enter the value in the field next to
Scattering Coefficient in the Materials panel. (Select constant in the drop-down list first if
it is not already selected.)

Inputs for the Scattering Phase Function

Scattering is assumed to be isotropic, by default, but you can also specify a linear-
anisotropic scattering function. If you are using the DO model, Delta-Eddington and
user-defined scattering functions are also available.

Isotropic Phase Function

To model isotropic scattering, select isotropic in the Scattering Phase Function drop-down
list. No further inputs are necessary. This is the default setting in FLUENT.

Linear-Anisotropic Phase Function

To model anisotropic scattering, select linear-anisotropic in the Scattering Phase Function

drop-down list and set the value of the phase function coefficient (C in Equation 13.3-3).

Delta-Eddington Phase Function

To use a Delta-Eddington phase function, select delta-eddington in the Scattering Phase

Function drop-down list. This will open the Delta-Eddington Scattering Function panel,in
which you can specify the Forward Scattering Factor and Asymmetry Factor (f and C in
Equation 13.3-46). Note that, since this is a modal panel, you must tend to it immedi-
ately.

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 8.9 Mass Diffusion Coefficients

User-Defined Phase Function

To use a user-defined phase function, select user-defined in the Scattering Phase Function
drop-down list. The user-defined function must contain specifications for Φ∗ and f in
Equation 13.3-47. See the separate UDF Manual for information about user-defined
functions.

8.8.3 Refractive Index

The refractive index is, by default, set to 1. It is used only if you are modeling semi-
transparent media with the DO radiation model. You can specify a constant value in the
field next to Refractive Index.

8.8.4 Reporting the Radiation Properties

You can display the computed local values for a and σs using the Absorption Coefficient
and Scattering Coefficient items in the Radiation... category of the variable selection drop-
down list that appears in postprocessing panels. You will also find the Refractive Index
in the Radiation... category.

8.9 Mass Diffusion Coefficients

For species transport calculations, there are two ways to model the diffusion of chemical
species. For most applications the Fick’s law approximation is adequate, but for some
applications (e.g., diffusion-dominated laminar flows such as chemical vapor deposition),
the full multicomponent diffusion model is recommended.

i The full multicomponent diffusion model is enabled in the Species Model

panel. Also, note that the full multicomponent diffusion model is compu-
tationally expensive.

8.9.1 Fickian Diffusion

Mass diffusion coefficients are required whenever you are solving species transport equa-
tions in multi-component flows. Mass diffusion coefficients are used to compute the
diffusion flux of a chemical species in a laminar flow using (by default) Fick’s law:

∇T
Ji = −ρDi,m ∇Yi − DT,i (8.9-1)
T
where Di,m is the mass diffusion coefficient for species i in the mixture and DT,i is the
thermal (Soret) diffusion coefficient.

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Physical Properties

Equation 8.9-1 is strictly valid when the mixture composition is not changing, or when
Di,m is independent of composition. This is an acceptable approximation in dilute mix-
tures when Yi << 1, for all i except the carrier gas. FLUENT can also compute the
transport of non-dilute mixtures in laminar flows by treating such mixtures as multicom-
ponent systems. Within FLUENT, Di,m can be specified in a variety of ways, including
by specifying Dij , the binary mass diffusion coefficient of component i in component j.
Dij is not used directly, however; instead, the diffusion coefficient in the mixture, Di,m ,
is computed as

1 − Xi
Di,m = X (8.9-2)
(Xj /Dij )
j,j6=i

where Xi is the mole fraction of species i. You can input Di,m or Dij for each chemical
species, as described in Section 8.9.4: Mass Diffusion Coefficient Inputs.
In turbulent flows, Equation 8.9-1 is replaced with the following form:

µt ∇T
Ji = −(ρDi,m + ) ∇Yi − DT,i (8.9-3)
Sct T

where Sct is the effective Schmidt number for the turbulent flow:

µt
Sct = (8.9-4)
ρDt

and Dt is the effective mass diffusion coefficient due to turbulence.

In turbulent flows your mass diffusion coefficient inputs consist of defining the molecular
contribution to diffusion Di,m using the same methods available for the laminar case,
with the added option to alter the default settings for the turbulent Schmidt number. As
seen from Equation 8.9-4, this parameter relates the effective mass diffusion coefficient
due to turbulence with the eddy viscosity µt . As discussed in Section 8.9.5: Mass Dif-
fusion Coefficient Inputs for Turbulent Flow, the turbulent diffusion coefficient normally
overwhelms the laminar diffusion coefficient, so the default constant value for the laminar
diffusion coefficient is usually acceptable.

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 8.9 Mass Diffusion Coefficients

8.9.2 Full Multicomponent Diffusion

A careful treatment of chemical species diffusion in the species transport and energy
equations is important when details of the molecular transport processes are significant
(e.g., in diffusion-dominated laminar flows). As one of the laminar-flow diffusion models,
FLUENT has the ability to model full multicomponent species transport.

General Theory
For multicomponent systems it is not possible, in general, to derive relations for the
diffusion fluxes containing the gradient of only one component (as described in Sec-
tion 8.9.1: Fickian Diffusion). Here, the Maxwell-Stefan equations will be used to obtain
the diffusive mass flux. This will lead to the definition of generalized Fick’s law diffusion
coefficients [371]. This method is preferred over computing the multicomponent diffusion
coefficients since their evaluation requires the computation of N 2 co-factor determinants
of size (N − 1) × (N − 1), and one determinant of size N × N [360], where N is the
number of chemical species.

Maxwell-Stefan Equations
From Merk [239], the Maxwell-Stefan equations can be written as

N N
!
Xi Xj   ∇T X Xi Xj DT,j DT,i
V~j − V~i = d~i −
X
− (8.9-5)
j=1
Dij T j=1 Dij ρj ρi
j6=i j6=i

where X is the mole fraction, V~ is the diffusion velocity, Dij is the binary mass diffusion
coefficient, and DT is the thermal diffusion coefficient.
For an ideal gas the Maxwell diffusion coefficients are equal to the binary diffusion coef-
ficients. If the external force is assumed to be the same on all species and that pressure
diffusion is negligible, then d~i = ∇Xi . Since the diffusive mass flux vector is J~i = ρi V~i ,
the above equation can be written as
 
N
J~ J~ N
!
X Xi Xj  j − i  = ∇Xi −
∇T X Xi Xj DT,j DT,i
− (8.9-6)
j=1
Dij ρj ρi T j=1 Dij ρj ρi
j6=i j6=i

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Physical Properties

After some mathematical manipulations, the diffusive mass flux vector, J~i , can be ob-
tained from

N −1
∇T
J~i = −
X
ρDij ∇Yj − DT,i (8.9-7)
j=1 T

where Yj is the mass fraction of species j. Other terms are defined as follows:

Dij = [D] = [A]−1 [B] (8.9-8)

 
N
 Xi Mw X Xj Mw 
Aii = −
 +  (8.9-9)
DiN Mw,N j=1 Dij Mw,i 
j6=i
!
1 Mw 1 Mw
Aij = Xi − (8.9-10)
Dij Mw,j DiN Mw,N
!
Mw Mw
Bii = − Xi + (1 − Xi ) (8.9-11)
Mw,N Mw,i
!
Mw Mw
Bij = Xi − (8.9-12)
Mw,j Mw,N

where [A] and [B] are (N − 1) × (N − 1) matrices and [D] is an (N − 1) × (N − 1) matrix

of the generalized Fick’s law diffusion coefficients Dij [371].

8.9.3 Thermal Diffusion Coefficients

The thermal diffusion coefficients can be defined as constants, polynomial functions,
user-defined functions, or using the following empirically-based composition-dependent
expression derived from [188]:
   
N
0.511
X
 0.511
  Mw,i Xi 
−7 0.659  Mw,i Xi
   
  i=1
DT,i = −2.59 × 10 T − Yi  · N (8.9-13)

 N 
X  X 
0.511 0.489

Mw,i Xi  
Mw,i Xi 
i=1 i=1

This form of the Soret diffusion coefficient will cause heavy molecules to diffuse less
rapidly, and light molecules to diffuse more rapidly, towards heated surfaces.

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 8.9 Mass Diffusion Coefficients

8.9.4 Mass Diffusion Coefficient Inputs

By default, the solver computes the species diffusion using Equation 8.9-1 (for laminar
flows) with your inputs for Di,m , the diffusion coefficient for species i in the mixture. For
turbulent flows, species diffusion is computed with Equation 8.9-3.
You can input the mass diffusion coefficients using one of the following methods:

• Constant dilute approximation (Fickian diffusion only): define one constant for all
Di,m .

• Dilute approximation (Fickian diffusion only): define each Di,m as a constant or as

a polynomial function of temperature (if heat transfer is enabled).

• Multicomponent method: define the binary diffusion of species i in each species j,

Dij as a constant or a polynomial function of temperature, or (for ideal gases only)
using kinetic theory.

• User-defined function (UDF): define a single function that will apply to all mass
diffusion coefficients. This is done using the DEFINE DIFFUSIVITY macro and is
explained in the separate UDF Manual.

You should choose to input Di,m (using one of the first two methods) if you are modeling
a dilute mixture, with chemical species present at low mass fraction in a “carrier” fluid
that is present at high concentration. You may wish to define the individual binary
mass diffusion coefficients, Dij , if you are modeling a non-dilute mixture. If you choose
to define Dij , the solver will compute the diffusion of species i in the mixture using
Equation 8.9-2, unless you have enabled full multicomponent diffusion.

i If you want to use the full multicomponent diffusion model described in

Section 8.9.2: Full Multicomponent Diffusion, turn on the Full Multicom-
ponent Diffusion option in the Species Model panel, and then select the
multicomponent method (the third method listed above) in the Materials
panel; the dilute approximation methods are not appropriate for the full
multicomponent diffusion model.
You will define Di,m or Dij for each chemical species using the Materials panel.
Define −→Materials...
The diffusion coefficients have units of m2 /s in SI units or ft2 /s in British units.

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Physical Properties

Constant Dilute Approximation Inputs

To use the constant dilute approximation method, follow these steps:

1. Select constant-dilute-appx in the drop-down list to the right of Mass Diffusivity.

2. Enter a single value of Di,m . The same value will be used for the diffusion coefficient
of each species in the mixture.

Dilute Approximation Inputs

To use the dilute approximation method, follow the steps below:

1. Select dilute-approx in the drop-down list to the right of Mass Diffusivity.

2. In the resulting Mass Diffusion Coefficients panel (Figure 8.9.1), select the species in
the Species Di list for which you are going to define the mass diffusion coefficient.

Figure 8.9.1: The Mass Diffusion Coefficients Panel for Dilute Approximation

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 8.9 Mass Diffusion Coefficients

3. You can define Di,m for the selected species either as a constant value or (if heat
transfer is active) as a polynomial function of temperature:
• To define a constant diffusion coefficient, select constant (the default) in the
drop-down list below Coefficient, and then enter the value in the field below
the list.
• To define a temperature-dependent diffusion coefficient, choose polynomial in
the Coefficient drop-down list and then define the polynomial coefficients as
described in Section 8.2.1: Inputs for Polynomial Functions.

Di,m = A1 + A2 T + A3 T 2 + ... (8.9-14)

4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until you have defined diffusion coefficients for all species in
the Species Di list in the Mass Diffusion Coefficients panel.

Multicomponent Method Inputs

To use the multicomponent method, and define constant or temperature-dependent dif-
fusion coefficients, follow the steps below:

1. Select multicomponent in the drop-down list to the right of Mass Diffusivity.

2. In the resulting Mass Diffusion Coefficients panel (Figure 8.9.2), select the species
in the Species Di list and the Species Dj list for which you are going to define the
mass diffusion coefficient Dij for species i in species j.

3. You can define Dij for the selected pair of species as a constant value or as a
polynomial function of temperature (if heat transfer is active).
• To define a constant diffusion coefficient, select constant (the default) in the
drop-down list below Coefficient, and then enter the value in the field below
the list.
• To define a temperature-dependent diffusion coefficient, choose polynomial in
the Coefficient drop-down list and then define the polynomial coefficients as
described in Section 8.2.1: Inputs for Polynomial Functions.

Dij = A1 + A2 T + A3 T 2 + ... (8.9-15)

4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until you have defined diffusion coefficients for all pairs of
species in the Species Di and Species Dj lists in the Mass Diffusion Coefficients panel.

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Physical Properties

Figure 8.9.2: The Mass Diffusion Coefficients Panel for the Multicomponent
Method

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 8.9 Mass Diffusion Coefficients

To use the multicomponent method, and define the diffusion coefficient using kinetic
theory (available only when the ideal gas law is used), follow these steps:

1. Choose kinetic-theory in the drop-down list to the right of Mass Diffusivity.

2. Click Change/Create after completing other property definitions for the mixture
material.

3. Define the Lennard-Jones parameters, σi and (/kB )i , for each species (fluid mate-
rial), as described in Section 8.13: Kinetic Theory Parameters.

The solver will use a modification of the Chapman-Enskog formula [234] to compute the
diffusion coefficient using kinetic theory:

h  i1/2
1 1
T3 Mw,i
+ Mw,j
Dij = 0.00188 (8.9-16)
pabs σij2 ΩD

where pabs is the absolute pressure, and ΩD is the diffusion collision integral, which is
a measure of the interaction of the molecules in the system. ΩD is a function of the
quantity TD∗ , where

T
TD∗ = (8.9-17)
(/kB )ij

kB is the Boltzmann constant, which is defined as the gas constant, R, divided by Avo-
gadro’s number. (/kB )ij for the mixture is the geometric average:
q
(/kB )ij = (/kB )i (/kB )j (8.9-18)

For a binary mixture, σij is calculated as the arithmetic average of the individual σs:

1
σij = (σi + σj ) (8.9-19)
2

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Physical Properties

Thermal Diffusion Coefficient Inputs

If you have enabled thermal diffusion (in the Species Model panel), you can define the
thermal diffusion coefficients in the Materials panel as follows:

1. Select one of the following three methods in the drop-down list to the right of
Thermal Diffusion Coefficient:
• Choose kinetic-theory to have FLUENT compute the thermal diffusion coeffi-
cients using the empirically-based expression in Equation 8.9-13. No further
inputs are required for this option.
• Choose specified to input the coefficient for each species. The Thermal Diffusion
Coefficients panel (Figure 8.9.3) will open. Further inputs are described in the
next step.
• Choose user-defined to use a user-defined function. See the separate UDF
Manual for details.

2. If you choose specified, select the species in the Species Thermal Di list for which
you are going to define the thermal diffusion coefficient.

Figure 8.9.3: The Thermal Diffusion Coefficients Panel

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 8.9 Mass Diffusion Coefficients

3. Define DT,i for the selected species either as a constant value or as a polynomial
function of temperature:
• To define a constant diffusion coefficient, select constant (the default) in the
drop-down list below Coefficient, and then enter the value in the field below
the list.
• To define a temperature-dependent diffusion coefficient, choose polynomial in
the Coefficient drop-down list and then define the polynomial coefficients as
described in Section 8.2: Defining Properties Using Temperature-Dependent
Functions.

4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until you have defined diffusion coefficients for all species in
the Species Thermal Di list in the Thermal Diffusion Coefficients panel.

8.9.5 Mass Diffusion Coefficient Inputs for Turbulent Flow

When your flow is turbulent, you will define Di,m or Dij , as described for laminar flows in
Section 8.9.4: Mass Diffusion Coefficient Inputs, and you will also have the option to alter
the default setting for the turbulent Schmidt number, Sct , as defined in Equation 8.9-4.
Usually, in a turbulent flow, the mass diffusion is dominated by the turbulent transport as
determined by the turbulent Schmidt number (Equation 8.9-4). The turbulent Schmidt
number measures the relative diffusion of momentum and mass due to turbulence and is
on the order of unity in all turbulent flows. Because the turbulent Schmidt number is
an empirical constant that is relatively insensitive to the molecular fluid properties, you
will have little reason to alter the default value (0.7) for any species.
Should you wish to modify the Schmidt number, enter a new value for Turb. Schmidt
Number in the Viscous Model panel.
Define −→ Models −→Viscous...

i Note that the full multicomponent diffusion model described in Sec-

tion 8.9.2: Full Multicomponent Diffusion is not recommended for turbulent
flows.

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Physical Properties

8.10 Standard State Enthalpies

When you are solving a reacting flow using the finite-rate or eddy dissipation model, you
will need to define the standard state enthalpy (also known as the formation enthalpy or
heat of formation), h0j for each species j. These inputs are used to define the mixture
enthalpy as
" #
Z T
h0j
X
H= mj + cp,j dT (8.10-1)
j Tref,j

where Tref,j is the reference temperature at which h0j is defined. Standard state enthalpies
are input in units of J/kg mol in SI units or in units of Btu/lbm mol in British units.
For each species involved in the reaction (i.e., each fluid material contained in the mixture
material), you can set the Standard State Enthalpy and Reference Temperature in the
Materials panel.

8.11 Standard State Entropies

If you are using the finite-rate model with reversible reactions (see Section 14.1.1: The
Laminar Finite-Rate Model), you will need to define the standard state entropy, s0j for
each species j. These inputs are used to define the mixture entropy as
" #
Z T cp,j
mj s0j +
X
S= dT (8.11-1)
j Tref,j T

where Tref,j is the reference temperature at which s0j is defined. Standard state entropies
are input in units of J/kgmol-K in SI units or in units of Btu/lbm mol-◦ R in British units.
For each species involved in the reaction (i.e., each fluid material contained in the mix-
ture material), you can set the Standard State Entropy and Reference Temperature in the
Materials panel.

8.12 Molecular Heat Transfer Coefficient

If you are modeling premixed combustion (see Section 16: Modeling Premixed Combustion),
the fluid material in your domain should be assigned the properties of the unburned mix-
ture, including the molecular heat transfer coefficient (α in Equation 16.2-4), which is
also referred to as the thermal diffusivity. α is defined as k/ρcp , and values at standard
conditions can be found in combustion handbooks (e.g., [188]). To determine values at
non-standard conditions, you will need to use a third-party 1D combustion program with
detailed chemistry. You can set the Molecular Heat Transfer Coefficient in the Materials
panel.

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 8.13 Kinetic Theory Parameters

8.13 Kinetic Theory Parameters

You may choose to define the following properties using kinetic theory when the ideal
gas law is enabled:

• viscosity (for fluids)

• thermal conductivity (for fluids)

• specific heat capacity (for fluids)

• mass diffusion coefficients (for multi-species mixtures)

If you are using kinetic theory for a fluid’s viscosity (Equation 8.4-9), you will need to
input the kinetic theory parameters σ and /kB for that fluid. These parameters are the
Lennard-Jones parameters and are referred to by FLUENT as the “characteristic length”
and the “energy parameter” respectively.
When kinetic theory is applied to calculation of a fluid’s thermal conductivity only, no
inputs are required.
If you are going to calculate a fluid’s specific heat using kinetic theory (Equation 8.7-5),
you will need to input the degrees of freedom for the fluid material.
If you use kinetic theory to define a mixture material’s mass diffusivity (Equation 8.9-16),
you will need to input σi and (/kB )i for each chemical species i.

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Physical Properties

Inputs for Kinetic Theory

The procedure for using kinetic theory is as follows:

1. Select kinetic-theory as the property specification method for the Viscosity, Thermal
Conductivity, or heat capacity Cp of a fluid material, or for the Mass Diffusivity of a
mixture material.

2. If the material for which you have selected the kinetic theory method for one or
more properties is a fluid material, you must set the kinetic theory parameters for
that material. If you are using kinetic theory for the mass diffusivity of a mixture
material, you will define the kinetic theory parameters for each of the constituent
species (fluid materials).
The parameters to be set are as follows:
• L-J Characteristic Length
• L-J Energy Parameter
• Degrees of Freedom (only required if kinetic theory is used for specific heat)
See the beginning of this section to find out which parameters are required to
calculate each property using kinetic theory.

Characteristic length is defined in units of Angstroms. The energy parameter is defined

in units of absolute temperature. Degrees of freedom is a dimensionless input. All kinetic
theory parameters are set to zero by default. Appropriate values for different materials
can be found in the literature (e.g., [144]).

8.14 Operating Pressure

Specification of the operating pressure affects your calculation in different ways for dif-
ferent flow regimes. This section presents information about the operating pressure, its
relevance for different cases, and how to set it correctly.

8.14.1 The Effect of Numerical Roundoff on Pressure Calculation in

Low-Mach-Number Flow
In low-Mach-number compressible flow, the overall pressure drop is small compared to
the absolute static pressure, and can be significantly affected by numerical roundoff. To
understand why this is true, consider a compressible flow with M << 1. The pressure
changes, ∆p, are related to the dynamic head, 12 γpM2 , where p is the static pressure and
γ is the ratio of specific heats. This gives the simple relationship ∆p/p ∼ M2 , so that
∆p/p → 0 as M → 0. Therefore, unless adequate precaution is taken, low-Mach-number
flow calculations are very susceptible to roundoff error.

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 8.14 Operating Pressure

8.14.2 Operating Pressure, Gauge Pressure, and Absolute Pressure

FLUENT avoids the problem of roundoff error (discussed in Section 8.14.1: The Effect of
Numerical Roundoff on Pressure Calculation in Low-Mach-Number Flow) by subtracting
the operating pressure (generally a large pressure roughly equal to the average absolute
pressure in the flow) from the absolute pressure, and using the result (termed the gauge
pressure). The relationship between the operating pressure, gauge pressure, and absolute
pressure is shown below. The absolute pressure is simply the sum of the operating
pressure and the gauge pressure:

pabs = pop + pgauge (8.14-1)

All pressures that you specify and all pressures computed or reported by FLUENT are
gauge pressures.

8.14.3 Setting the Operating Pressure

The Significance of Operating Pressure
Operating pressure is significant for incompressible ideal gas flows because it directly
determines the density: the incompressible ideal gas law computes density as ρ = pRopT .
Mw
You must therefore be sure to set the operating pressure appropriately.
Operating pressure is significant for low-Mach-number compressible flows because of its
role in avoiding roundoff error problems, as described in Section 8.14.2: Operating Pres-
sure, Gauge Pressure, and Absolute Pressure. Again, you must be sure to set the op-
erating pressure appropriately. For time-dependent compressible flows, you may want
to specify a floating operating pressure instead of a constant operating pressure. See
Section 9.6.4: Floating Operating Pressure for details.
Operating pressure is less significant for higher-Mach-number compressible flows. The
pressure changes in such flows are much larger than those in low-Mach-number compress-
ible flows, so there is no real problem with roundoff error and there is therefore no real
need to use gauge pressure. In fact, it is common convention to use absolute pressures
in such calculations. Since FLUENT always uses gauge pressure, you can simply set the
operating pressure to zero, making gauge and absolute pressures equivalent.
If the density is assumed constant or if it is derived from a profile function of temperature,
the operating pressure is not used in the density calculation.
Note that the default operating pressure is 101325 Pa.

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Physical Properties

How to Set the Operating Pressure

The criteria for choosing a suitable operating pressure are based on the Mach-number
regime of the flow and the relationship that is used to determine density. For example,
if you use the ideal gas law in an incompressible flow calculation (e.g., for a natural
convection problem), you should use a value representative of the mean flow pressure.
To place this discussion in perspective, Table 8.14.1 shows the recommended approach for
setting operating pressures. Remember that the default operating pressure is 101325 Pa.

Table 8.14.1: Recommended Settings for Operating Pressure

Density Mach Number Operating

Relationship Regime Pressure
ideal gas law M > 0.1 0 or
≈ mean flow
pressure
ideal gas law M < 0.1 ≈ mean flow
pressure
profile function incompressible not used
of temperature
constant incompressible not used
incompressible incompressible ≈ mean flow
ideal gas law pressure

You will set the Operating Pressure in the Operating Conditions panel.
Define −→Operating Conditions...

8.15 Reference Pressure Location

For incompressible flows that do not involve any pressure boundaries, FLUENT adjusts
the gauge pressure field after each iteration to keep it from floating. This is done using
the pressure in the cell located at (or nearest to) the reference pressure location. The
pressure value in this cell is subtracted from the entire gauge pressure field; as a result, the
gauge pressure at the reference pressure location is always zero. If pressure boundaries
are involved, the adjustment is not needed and the reference pressure location is ignored.

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 8.16 Real Gas Models

The reference pressure location is, by default, the cell center at or closest to (0,0,0).
There may be cases in which you might want to move the reference pressure location,
perhaps locating it at a point where the absolute static pressure is known (e.g., if you
are planning to compare your results with experimental data). To change the location,
enter new (X,Y,Z) coordinates for Reference Pressure Location in the Operating Conditions
panel.
Define −→Operating Conditions...

8.15.1 Actual Reference Pressure Location

For cases that have do not have pressure-related boundary conditions (e.g., pressure
inlet, pressure outlet, pressure far-field, etc.), you need to specify the Reference Pressure
Location at a point in the problem domain. Internally, FLUENT sets the location of the
reference pressure at a slightly different nearby location. Thus, the actual location used
as the pressure reference is different than that of your input value. To report the actual
reference pressure location that FLUENT uses, use the following text command:
define −→ operating-conditions −→used-ref-pressure-location

i This text command is available only when the case is initialized and has
no pressure-related boundary zones.
Note that reporting the actual reference pressure location is not available through the
graphical user interface.

8.16 Real Gas Models

Some engineering problems involve fluids that do not behave as ideal gases. For example,
at very high-pressure or very low-temperature conditions (e.g., the flow of a refrigerant
through a compressor) the flow cannot typically be modeled accurately using the ideal-
gas assumption. Therefore, the real gas model allows you to solve accurately for the
fluid flow and heat transfer problems where the working fluid behavior deviate from the
ideal-gas assumption.
The FLUENT density-based solvers provide two real gas options for solving this type of
flows:

• Section 8.16.1: The NIST Real Gas Models

• Section 8.16.2: The User-Defined Real Gas Model

Both models allow the user to solve for either a single-species fluid flow or a multiple-
species mixture fluid flow.

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Physical Properties

Real Gas Models Limitations

The following limitations exist for the real gas models:

• The real gas models can be used only with the density-based solvers.

• When one of the real gas models is active, the access to the Materials panel is
restricted. Therefore, if solid properties have to be set and modified then it should
be done in the Materials panel before activating the real gas model.

• The real gas models assume that the fluid you will be using in your FLUENT
computation has the following characteristics:
– single phase
– superheated vapor

• When the real gas model is used, all fluid zones must contain the real gas; you
cannot include a real gas and another fluid in the same problem.

• Pressure-inlet, massflow-inlet, and pressure-outlet are the only inflow and outflow
boundaries available for use with the real gas models.

• Non-reflecting boundary conditions should not be used with the real gas models.

• The mixture flow does not permit reactions

Using the Real Gas Models

When you enable one of the real gas models (NIST or User Defined) and select a valid
material, FLUENT’s functionality remains the same as when you model fluid flow and
heat transfer using an ideal gas, with the exception of the Materials panel (see below).
The information displayed in the Materials panel is not used by the solver because control
of all relevant property evaluations is relinquished to the selected real gas model.
The general procedure for using the real gas model is as follows:

1. Enable one of the density-based solvers (whichever is appropriate for your case).

2. Activate one of the real gas models.

3. Set up and write your case file.

4. Calculate a solution and perform postprocessing.

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 8.16 Real Gas Models

Enabling the Density-Based Solver

You can enable the density-based solver in the Solver panel. The real gas models can be
used with either the implicit or the explicit formulation.
Define −→ Models −→Solver...

i The real gas models do not work with the pressure-based solvers.

Activating the Real Gas Models

When one of the density-based solvers is enabled, you will be able to activate one of the
real gas models listed after typing the following text command at the FLUENT console
prompt:
define −→ user-defined −→real-gas
The list of available real gas models will be displayed:

nist-real-gas-model
nist-multispecies-real-gas-model
user-defined-real-gas-model
user-defined-multispecies-real-gas-model

The next sections provide additional information about activating and using these mod-
els.

Writing Your Case File

When you save your completed real gas model to a case file, the linkage to the shared
library containing real gas properties will be saved to the case file (along with property
data for the material you selected in case of NIST the real gas model). Consequently,
whenever you read your case file in a later session, FLUENT will load and report this
information to the console during the read process.

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Physical Properties

Postprocessing

All postprocessing functions properly report and display the current thermodynamic and
transport properties of the selected real gas model. The thermodynamic and transport
properties controlled by the real gas models include the following:

• density

• enthalpy

• entropy

• gas constant

• molecular viscosity

• sound speed

• specific heat

• thermal conductivity

• any quantities that are derived from the properties listed above (e.g., total quanti-
ties, ratio of specific heats)

8.16.1 The NIST Real Gas Models

Overview and Limitations of the NIST Real Gas Models
The NIST real gas models are available in the density-based solvers. They use the
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Thermodynamic and Transport
Properties of Refrigerants and Refrigerant Mixtures Database Version 7.0 (REFPROP
v7.0) to evaluate thermodynamic and transport properties of approximately 39 pure fluids
or a mixture of these fluids.
The REFPROP v7.0 database is a shared library that is dynamically loaded into the
solver when you activate one of the NIST real gas models in a FLUENT session. Once the
NIST real gas model is activated, control of relevant property evaluations is relinquished
to the REFPROP database, and any information for a fluid that is displayed in the Ma-
terials panel is ignored by the solver. However, all postprocessing functions will properly
report and display the current thermodynamic and transport properties of the real gas.
The limitation on the real gas models listed in the previous section apply to NIST Real
gas model in addition to the following:

• You cannot modify material properties in the REFPROP database libraries, or add
custom materials to the NIST real gas model.

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 8.16 Real Gas Models

The REFPROP v7.0 Database

The NIST real gas model uses 39 pure fluids from the REFPROP v7.0 database. The
pure-fluid refrigerants and hydrocarbons that are supported by REFPROP v7.0 and used
in the NIST real gas model are listed in Table 8.16.1.
The REFPROP v7.0 database employs the most accurate pure-fluid equations of state
that are currently available from NIST. These equations are based on three models:

• modified Benedict-Webb-Rubin (MBWR) equation of state

• Helmholtz-energy equation of state

• extended corresponding states (ECS)

For fluid consists of multispecies-mixture the thermodynamic properties are computed

by employing mixing-rules applied to the Helmholtz energy of the mixture components.
For details about these thermodynamic models, refer to Appendix B in the web-based
REFPROP v7.0 User’s Guide that is accessible from the NIST web site at:
http://www.nist.gov/srd/nist23.htm

Table 8.16.1: Hydrocarbons and Refrigerants Supported by REFPROP v7.0

r23 r32 r41 r125 r134a

r143a r152a r227ea r236ea r236fa
r245ca r245fa r22 r123 r124
r141b r142b r11 r12 r13
r113 r114 r115 r116 r14
r218 rc318 ammonia carbon dioxide propane
isobutane propylene nitrogen oxygen argon
methane ethane butane water

Using the NIST Real Gas Models

When you enable one of the NIST real gas models (single-specie fluid or multiple-species
mixture) and select a valid material, FLUENT’s functionality remains the same as when
you model fluid flow and heat transfer using an ideal gas, with the exception of the
Materials panel (see below). The information displayed in the Materials panel is not used
by the solver because control of all relevant property evaluations is relinquished to the
REFPROP database.

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Physical Properties

Activating the NIST Real Gas Model

When the density-based solver is used, you will be able to activate one of the NIST real
gas models. Activating one of the NIST real gas models is a two-step process. First you
enable either the single-species NIST real gas model or the multi-species NIST real gas
model, and then you select the fluid material from the REFPROP database.

1. Enabling the appropriate NIST real gas model:

If you are solving for a single-specie flow then you should enable the single-specie
NIST real gas model by typing the following text command at the FLUENT console
prompt:

> define/user-defined/real-gas/nist-real-gas-model
use NIST real gas? [no] yes

On the other hand, if you are solving for multi-specie mixture then you should
enable the multi-species NIST real gas model by typing the following text command
at the FLUENT console prompt:

> define/user-defined/real-gas/nist-multispecies-real-gas-model
use multispecies NIST real gas? [no] yes

The list of available pure-fluid materials you can select from will be displayed:

ammonia.fld nitrogen.fld r116.fld r13.fld r227ea.fld r32.fld

argon.fld oxygen.fld r11.fld r141b.fld r22.fld r41.fld
butane.fld propane.fld r123.fld r142b.fld r236ea.fld rc318.fld
co2.fld propylen.fld r124.fld r143a.fld r236fa.fld water.fld
ethane.fld r113.fld r125.fld r14.fld r23.fld
isobutan.fld r114.fld r12.fld r152a.fld r245ca.fld
methane.fld r115.fld r134a.fld r218.fld r245fa.fld

2. Select material from the REFPROP database list:

If the single-specie real gas model is selected, then you need to enter the name of
one fluid material when prompted:

select real-gas data file [""] "r125.fld"

i You must enter the complete name of the material (including the .fld
suffix) contained within quotes (" ").

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 8.16 Real Gas Models

If the multiple-species real gas model is selected, then you need to enter the number
of species in the mixture:

Number of species [] 3

followed by the name of each fluid selected from the list shown above:

select real-gas data file [""] "nitrogen.fld"

select real-gas data file [""] "co2.fld"
select real-gas data file [""] "r22.fld"

Upon selection of a valid material (e.g., r125.fld), FLUENT will load data for that
material from a library of pure fluids supported by the REFPROP database, and
report that it is opening the shared library (librealgas.so) where the compiled
REFPROP database source code is located.

/usr/local/Fluent.Inc/fluent6.2/realgas/lib/r125.fld

Opening "/usr/local/Fluent.Inc/fluent6.2/realgas/
ultra/librealgas.so"...
Setting material "air" to a real-gas...

Matl name: "R125"

: "pentafluoroethane !full name"
: "354-33-6"
Mol Wt : 120.021

Critical properties:
Temperature : 339.173 (K)
Pressure : 3.6177e+06 (Pa)
Density : 4.779 (mol/L) 573.582 (kg/m^3)

Equation Of State (EOS) used:

Helmholtz Free Energy (FEQ)
EOS:"FEQ Helmholtz equation of state for R-125 of Lemmon and Jacobsen (2002)."

EOS Range of applicability

Min Temperature: 172.52 (K)
Max Temperature: 500 (K)
Max Density : 1691.1 (kg/m^3)
Max Pressure : 6e+07 (Pa)

Thermal conductivity Range of applicability

Min Temperature: 172.52 (K)
Max Temperature: 500 (K)
Max Density : 1691.1 (kg/m^3)
Max Pressure : 6e+07 (Pa)

Viscosity Range of applicability

Min Temperature: 172.52 (K)
Max Temperature: 500 (K)
Max Density : 1692.3 (kg/m^3)
Max Pressure : 6e+07 (Pa)

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Physical Properties

i Once the real gas model is activated, any information for a fluid that is
displayed in the Materials panel is ignored by FLUENT.

i For mixture flows, not all combinations of species mixtures are allowed.
This could be due to lack of data for one or more binary pairs. In such sit-
uation an error message generated by NIST will be returned and displayed
on the FLUENT console, and no real gas material is allowed to be created.
In some combinations the mixing data will be estimated, a warning mes-
sage will be displayed on the FLUENT console and the mixture material
allowed to be created.

Solution Strategies and Considerations for NIST Real Gas Model Simulation
The flow modeling of NIST real-gas flow is much more complex and challenging than sim-
ple ideal-gas flow. Therefore, you should expect the solution to converge at much slower
rate with real-gas flow than when running ideal-gas flow. Also due to the complexity
of the equations used in property evaluations, converging a solution with real-gas model
is in general done at much lower CFL (Courant-Friedrichs-Lewy) value. It is recom-
mended that you first attempt to converge your solution using first-order discretization
then switch to second-order discretizations and re-iterate to convergence.
It is important to realize that the real-gas properties in NIST are defined within a lim-
ited/bounded range. It is important that the flow conditions you are prescribing fall
within the range of the database. It is possible that you specify flow at a state that is
physically valid but otherwise not defined in the database. In this situation the solution
will diverge or immediately generate an error message on the FLUENT console as soon as
the state crosses the limit of the database. In some instances, the actual converged state
is just within the bounded defined database but only transitory outside the range. In this
situation the divergence can be avoided by lowering the CFL value so a less aggressive
convergence rate is adapted.
Finally, if you attempt to initialize the flow from an inlet flow conditions and an error
message is generated from one of the property routines, then this is a good indicator that
the flow conditions you have specified is not defined within the range of the database.

8.16.2 The User-Defined Real Gas Model

Overview and Limitations of the User-Defined Real Gas Model
The user-defined real gas model (UDRGM) has been developed for the FLUENT density-
based solvers to allow you to write your own custom real gas model to fit your particular
modeling needs. The user defined real gas model allow the user to simulate a single-specie
flow or multiple-species mixture flow.

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 8.16 Real Gas Models

The UDRGM requires a library of functions written in the C programming language.

Moreover,there are certain coding requirements that need to be followed when writing
these functions.Sample real gas function libraries are provided to assist you in writing
your own UDRGM. When UDRGM functions are compiled, they will be grouped in a
shared library which later will be loaded and linked with the FLUENT executable. The
procedure for using the UDRGM is defined below:

1. Define the real gas equation of state and all related thermodynamic and transport
property equations.

2. Create a C source code file that conforms to the format defined in this section.

3. Start FLUENT and set up your case file in the usual way.

4. Compile your UDRGM C library and build a shared library file (you can use the
available compiled UDF utilities in either the graphical user interface or the text
command interface).

5. Load your newly created UDRGM library via the text command menu:
If single-species UDRGM to be used, then the text command menu is:

> define/user-defined/real-gas/user-defined-real-gas-model
use user defined real gas? [no] yes

On the other hand, if you are simulating multiple-species UDRGM flow, then the
text command menu to use is:

> define/user-defined/real-gas/user-defined-multispecies-real-gas-model
use user multispecies defined real gas? [no] yes

Upon activating the UDRGM, the function library will now supply the fluid mate-
rial properties for your case.

6. Run your calculation.

When using the UDRGM the robustness of the solver and the speed of flow convergence
will largely depend on the complexity of the material properties you have defined in your
UDF. It is important to understand the operational range of the property functions you
are coding so you can simulate the flow within that range.

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Physical Properties

Writing the UDRGM C Function Library

Creating a UDRGM C function library is reasonably straightforward; however, your code
must make use of specific function names and macros, which will be described in detail
below. The basic library requirements are as follows:

• The code must contain the udf.h file inclusion directive at the beginning of the
source code. This allows the definitions for DEFINE macros and other FLUENT
functions to be accessible during the compilation process.

• The code must include at least one of the UDF’s DEFINE functions
(i.e. DEFINE ON DEMAND) to be able to use the compiled UDFs utility (see the
sample UDRGM codes provided below).

• Any values that are passed to the solver by the UDRGM or returned by the solver
to the UDRGM are assumed to be in SI units.

• You must use the principle set of functions listed below in your UDRGM library.
These functions are the mechanism by which your thermodynamic property data
are transferred to the FLUENT solver. Note that ANYNAME can be any string of
alphanumeric characters, and allows you to provide unique names to your library
functions.

Below, the UDRGM function names and argument lists are listed, followed by a short
description of the function. Function inputs from the FLUENT solver consist of one or
more of the following variables:
T = Temperature, K
p = Pressure, Pa
ρ = Density, kg/m3
Yi [] = Species mass fraction

i Yi [] return value of 1.0 for single-specie flow. while for multiple-species

flow return the species mass fractions in order defined by the user setup
function.

void ANYNAME error(int err, char *f, char *msg) prints error messages.

void ANYNAME Setup(Domain *domain, char *filename, int (*messagefunc)

(char *format, ...), void (*errorfunc)(char *format, ...))performs
model setup and initialization. Can be used to read data and parameters related to
your UDRGM. When writing UDF for multiple-species use this function to specify
the number of species and the name of the species as shown in the multiple-species
example.

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 8.16 Real Gas Models

double ANYNAME density(double T, double P, double yi[]) returns the value of

density as a function of temperature, pressure and species mass-fraction if applica-
ble. This is your equation of state.

i Since this function is called numerous times during each solver iteration,
it is important to make this function as numerically efficient as possible.
double ANYNAME specific heat(double T, double Rho, double yi[]) returns the
real gas specific heat at constant pressure as a function of temperature, density and
species mass-fraction if applicable.

double ANYNAME enthalpy(double T, double Rho, double yi[]) returns the en-
thalpy as a function of temperature, density and species mass-fraction if applicable.

double ANYNAME entropy(double T, double Rho, double yi[]) returns the en-
tropy as a function of temperature, density and species mass-fraction if applicable.

double ANYNAME mw(double yi[]) returns the fluid molecular weight.

double ANYNAME speed of sound(double T, double Rho, double yi[]) returns the
value of speed of sound as a function of temperature, density and species mass-
fraction if applicable.

double ANYNAME viscosity(double T, double Rho, double yi[]) returns the value
of dynamic viscosity as a function of temperature, density and species mass-fraction
if applicable.

double ANYNAME thermal conductivity(double T, double Rho, double yi[]) returns

the value of thermal conductivity as a function of temperature, density and species
mass-fraction if applicable.

double ANYNAME rho t(double T, double Rho, double yi[]) returns the value of
dρ
dT
at constant pressure as a function of temperature, density and species mass-
fraction if applicable.

double ANYNAME rho p(double T, double Rho, double yi[]) returns the value of
dρ
dp
at constant temperature as function of temperature, density and species mass-
fraction if applicable.

double ANYNAME enthalpy t(double T, double Rho, double yi[]) returns the value
dh
of dT at constant pressure as function of temperature, density and species mass-
fraction if applicable.

double ANYNAME enthalpy p(double T, double Rho, double yi[]) returns the value
of dh
dp
at constant temperature as function of temperature, density and species mass-
fraction if applicable.

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 8-91
Physical Properties

At the end of the code you must define a structure of type RGAS Function whose
members are pointers to the principle functions listed above. The structure is of type
RGAS Function and its name is RealGasFunctionList.

i It is imperative that the sequence of function pointers shown below be

followed. Otherwise, your real gas model will not load properly into the
FLUENT code.

UDF_EXPORT RGAS_Functions RealGasFunctionList =

{
ANYNAME_Setup, /* Setup initialize */
ANYNAME_density, /* density */
ANYNAME_enthalpy, /* enthalpy */
ANYNAME_entropy, /* entropy */
ANYNAME_specific_heat, /* specific_heat */
ANYNAME_mw, /* molecular_weight */
ANYNAME_speed_of_sound, /* speed_of_sound */
ANYNAME_viscosity, /* viscosity */
ANYNAME_thermal_conductivity, /* thermal_conductivity */
ANYNAME_rho_t, /* drho/dT |const p */
ANYNAME_rho_p, /* drho/dp |const T */
ANYNAME_enthalpy_t, /* dh/dT |const p */
ANYNAME_enthalpy_p /* dh/dp |const T */
};

The principle set of functions shown above are the only functions in the UDRGM that
will be interacting directly with the FLUENT code. In many cases, your model may
require further functions that will be called from the principle function set. For example,
when multiple-species real gas model UDF are written, the principle functions will return
the mixture thermodynamic properties based on some specified mixing-law. Therefore,
you may want to add further functions that will return the thermodynamic properties
for the individual species. These auxiliary functions will be called from the principle set
of functions. This strategy is clearly illustrated in the multiple-specie real gas model
example.

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 8.16 Real Gas Models

Compiling Your UDRGM C Functions and Building a Shared Library File

This section presents the steps you will need to follow to compile your UDRGM C code
and build a shared library file. This process requires the use of a C compiler. Most
UNIX operating systems provide a C compiler as a standard feature. If you are using
a PC, you will need to ensure that a C++ compiler is installed before you can proceed
(e.g., Microsoft Visual C++, v6.0 or higher). To use the UDRGM you will need to first
build the UDRGM library by compiling your UDRGM C code and then loading the
library into the FLUENT code. The UDRGM shared library is built in the same way
that the FLUENT executable itself is built. Internally, a script called Makefile is used
to invoke the system C compiler to build an object code library that contains the native
machine language translation of your higher-level C source code. This shared library is
then loaded into FLUENT (either at runtime or automatically when a case file is read)
by a process called dynamic loading. The object libraries are specific to the computer
architecture being used, as well as to the particular version of the FLUENT executable
being run. The libraries must, therefore, be rebuilt any time FLUENT is upgraded, when
the computer’s operating system level changes, or when the job is run on a different type
of computer. The general procedure for compiling UDRGM C code is as follows:

• Place the UDRGM C code in your working directory, i.e., where your case file
resides.

• Launch FLUENT.

• Read your case file into FLUENT.

• You can now compile your UDRGM C code and build a shared library file using
either the graphical interface or the text command interface.

i To build UDRGM library you will use the compiled UDF utilities. How-
ever, you will not use the UDF utilities to load the library. A separate
loading area for the UDRGM library will be used.

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 8-93
Physical Properties

Compiling the UDRGM Using the Graphical Interface

Please refer to the separate UDF Manual for information on compiled UDFs and building
libraries using the FLUENT graphical user interface.
If the build is successful, then the compiled library will be placed in the appropri-
ate architecture directory (e.g., ntx86/2d). By default the library name is libudf.so
(libudf.dll on Windows).

Compiling the UDRGM Using the Text Interface

The UDRGM library can be compiled in the text command interface as follows:

• Select the menu item define −→ user-defined −→compiled-functions.

• Select the compile option.

• Enter the compiled UDF library name.

i The name given here is the name of the directory where the shared library
(e.g., libudf) will reside. For example, if you hit <Enter> then a direc-
tory should exist with the name libudf, and this directory will contain
library file called libudf. If, however, you type a new library name such
as myrealgas, then a directory called myrealgas will be created and it
will contain the library libudf.

• Continue on with the procedure when prompted.

• Enter the C source file names.

i Ideally you should place all of your functions into a single file. However,
you can split them into separate files if desired.
• Enter the header file names, if applicable. If you do not have an extra header file
then hit <Enter> when prompted.

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 8.16 Real Gas Models

FLUENT will then start compiling the UDRGM C code and put it in the appropriate
architecture directory.
Example:

> define/user-defined/compiled-functions
load OR compile ? [load]> compile
Compiled UDF library name: ["libudf"] my_lib

Make sure that UDF source files are in the directory

that contains your case and data files. If you have
an existing libudf directory, please remove this
directory to ensure that latest files are used.

Continue?[yes] <RETURN>
Give C-Source file names:
First file name: [""] my_c_file.c <RETURN>
Next file name: [""] <RETURN>

Give header file names:

First file name: [""] my_header_file.h <RETURN>

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 8-95
Physical Properties

Loading the UDRGM Shared Library File

To load the UDRGM library:

• Go to the following menu item in the text command interface.

define −→ user-defined −→real-gas

• Select either user-defined-real-gas-model if you are modeling a single-specie

real gas fluid or user-defined-multispecies-real-gas-model if you are model-
ing a multiple-species fluid-mixture.

• Turn on the real gas model.

For single-specie:

use user defined real gas? [no] yes

For multiple-specie:

use multispecies user defined real gas? [no] yes

FLUENT will ask for the location of the user-defined real gas library. You can enter
either the name of the directory where the UDRGM shared library is called or the
entire path to the UDRGM shared library.
If the loading of the UDRGM library is successful you will or the message similar
to the following:

Opening user-defined realgas library "RealgasLibraryname"...

Library "RealgasDirName/lnx86/2d/libudf.so" opened
Setting material "air" to a real-gas...
Loading Real-RealGasPrefexLable Library:

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 8.16 Real Gas Models

UDRGM Example: Ideal Gas Equation of State

This section describes an example of a user-defined real gas model. You can use this
example as the basis for your own UDRGM code. In this simple example, the standard
ideal gas equation of state is used in the UDRGM.
p = pressure
T = temperature
Cp = specific heat
H = enthalpy
S = entropy
ρ = density
c = speed of sound
R = universal gas constant/molecular weight
The ideal gas equation of state can be written in terms of pressure and temperature as
p
ρ= (8.16-1)
RT

The specific heat is defined to be constant Cp = 1006.42.

The enthalpy is, therefore, defined as

H = Cp T (8.16-2)

and entropy is given by

!
T pref
 
S = Cp log + R log (8.16-3)
Tref p

where Tref = 288.15 K and pref = 101325 Pa

The speed of sound is simply defined as
s
R
c= T Cp (8.16-4)
(Cp − R)

The density derivatives are: !

dρ 1
= (8.16-5)
dp T
RT
!
dρ p ρ
=− 2
=− (8.16-6)
dT p
RT T

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 8-97
Physical Properties

The enthalpy derivatives are: !

dH
= Cp (8.16-7)
dT p

! " #
dH Cp p dρ
= 1− =0 (8.16-8)
dp T
ρR ρ dp

When you activate the real gas model and load the library successfully into FLUENT,
you will be using the equation of state and other fluid properties from this library rather
than the one built into the FLUENT code, therefore, the access to the Materials panel will
be restricted.

Ideal Gas UDRGM Code Listing

/**********************************************************************/
/* User Defined Real Gas Model : */
/* For Ideal Gas Equation of State */
/* */
/**********************************************************************/
#include "udf.h"
#include "stdio.h"
#include "ctype.h"
#include "stdarg.h"

#define MW 28.966 /* molec. wt. for single gas (Kg/Kmol) */

#define RGAS (UNIVERSAL_GAS_CONSTANT/MW)

static int (*usersMessage)(char *,...);

static void (*usersError)(char *,...);

DEFINE_ON_DEMAND(I_do_nothing)
{
/* This is a dummy function to allow us to use */
/* the Compiled UDFs utility */
}

void IDEAL_error(int err, char *f, char *msg)

{
if (err)
usersError("IDEAL_error (%d) from function: %s\n%s\n",err,f,msg);
}

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 8.16 Real Gas Models

void IDEAL_Setup(Domain *domain, char *filename,

int (*messagefunc)(char *format, ...),
void (*errorfunc)(char *format, ...))
{
/* Use this function for any initialization or model setups*/
usersMessage = messagefunc;
usersError = errorfunc;
usersMessage("\nLoading Real-Ideal Library: %s\n", filename);
}

double IDEAL_density(double Temp, double press, double yi[])

{
double r = press/(RGAS*Temp); /* Density at Temp & press */

return r; /* (Kg/m^3) */
}

double IDEAL_specific_heat(double Temp, double density, double yi[])

{
double cp=1006.43;

return cp; /* (J/Kg/K) */

}

double IDEAL_enthalpy(double Temp, double density, double yi[])

{
double h=Temp*IDEAL_specific_heat(Temp, density, yi);

return h; /* (J/Kg) */
}

#define TDatum 288.15

#define PDatum 1.01325e5

double IDEAL_entropy(double Temp, double density, double yi[])

{
double s=IDEAL_specific_heat(Temp,density,yi)*log(fabs(Temp/TDatum))+
RGAS*log(fabs(PDatum/(RGAS*Temp*density)));
return s; /* (J/Kg/K) */
}

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 8-99
Physical Properties

double IDEAL_mw(double yi[])

{
return MW; /* (Kg/Kmol) */
}

double IDEAL_speed_of_sound(double Temp, double density, double yi[])

{
double cp=IDEAL_specific_heat(Temp,density,yi);

return sqrt(Temp*cp*RGAS/(cp-RGAS)); /* m/s */

}

double IDEAL_viscosity(double Temp, double density, double yi[])

{
double mu=1.7894e-05;

return mu; /* (Kg/m/s) */

}

double IDEAL_thermal_conductivity(double Temp, double density,

double yi[])
{
double ktc=0.0242;

return ktc; /* W/m/K */

}

double IDEAL_rho_t(double Temp, double density, double yi[])

{
/* derivative of rho wrt. Temp at constant p */
double rho_t=-density/Temp;

return rho_t; /* (Kg/m^3/K) */

}

double IDEAL_rho_p(double Temp, double density, double yi[])

{
/* derivative of rho wrt. pressure at constant T */
double rho_p=1.0/(RGAS*Temp);

return rho_p; /* (Kg/m^3/Pa) */

}

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c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 8.16 Real Gas Models

double IDEAL_enthalpy_t(double Temp, double density, double yi[])

{
/* derivative of enthalpy wrt. Temp at constant p */
return IDEAL_specific_heat(Temp, density, yi);
}

double IDEAL_enthalpy_p(double Temp, double density, double yi[])

{
/* derivative of enthalpy wrt. pressure at constant T */
/* general form dh/dp|T = (1/rho)*[ 1 + (T/rho)*drho/dT|p] */
/* but for ideal gas dh/dp = 0 */
return 0.0 ;
}

UDF_EXPORT RGAS_Functions RealGasFunctionList =

{
IDEAL_Setup, /* initialize */
IDEAL_density, /* density */
IDEAL_enthalpy, /* enthalpy */
IDEAL_entropy, /* entropy */
IDEAL_specific_heat, /* specific_heat */
IDEAL_mw, /* molecular_weight */
IDEAL_speed_of_sound, /* speed_of_sound */
IDEAL_viscosity, /* viscosity */
IDEAL_thermal_conductivity, /* thermal_conductivity */
IDEAL_rho_t, /* drho/dT |const p */
IDEAL_rho_p, /* drho/dp |const T */
IDEAL_enthalpy_t, /* dh/dT |const p */
IDEAL_enthalpy_p /* dh/dp |const T */
};
/**************************************************************/

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 8-101
Physical Properties

UDRGM Example: Redlich-Kwong Equation of State

This section describes another example of a user-defined real gas model. You can use this
example as the basis for your own UDRGM code. In this example, the Redlich-Kwong
equation of state is used in the UDRGM.
This section summarizes the equations used in developing the UDRGM for the Redlich-
Kwong equation of state. The model is based on a modified form of the Redlich-Kwong
equation of state described in [14]. The equations used in this UDRGM will be listed in
the sections below.
The following nomenclature applies to this section:
a(T ) = Redlich-Kwong temperature function
c = speed of sound
Cp = specific heat
H = enthalpy
n = exponent in function a(T )
p = pressure
R = universal gas constant/molecular weight
T = temperature
S = entropy
V = specific volume
ρ = density
The superscript 0 designates a reference state, and the subscript c designates a critical
point property.

Specific Volume and Density

The Redlich-Kwong equation of state can be written in the following form:

RT a(T )
p= − (8.16-9)
(V − b̃) V (V + b0 )

where n
1 Tc R2 Tc2

V = , a(T ) = a0 , a0 = 0.42747 ,
ρ T pc
RTc RTc
b0 = 0.08664 , c0 = + b0 − Vc , b̃ = b0 − c0
pc pc + Vc (Vac0+b0 )

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c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 8.16 Real Gas Models

Since the real gas model in FLUENT requires a function for density as a function of
pressure and temperature, Equation 8.16-9 must be solved for the specific volume (from
which the density can be easily obtained). For convenience, Equation 8.16-9 can be
written as a cubic equation for specific volume as follows:

V 3 + a1 V 2 + a2 V + a3 = 0 (8.16-10)

where !
RT RT b0 a(T ) a(T ) b̃
a1 = c 0 − , a2 = − b̃b0 + − , a3 = −
p p p p

Equation 8.16-10 is solved using a standard algorithm for cubic equations (see [351] for
details). In the UDRGM code, the cubic solution is coded to minimize the number of
floating point operations. This is critical for optimal performance, since this function
gets called numerous times during an iteration cycle.
It should be noted that the value of the exponent, n, in the function a(T ) will depend
on the substance. A table of values can be found in [14] for some common substances.
Alternatively, [14] states that values of n are well correlated by the empirical equation

n = 0.4986 + 1.1735ω + 0.475ω 2 (8.16-11)

where ω is the acentric factor, defined as

!
pv (T )
ω = − log − 1.0 (8.16-12)
pc

In the above equation, pv (T ) is the saturated vapor pressure evaluated at temperature

T = 0.7Tc .

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 8-103
Physical Properties

Derivatives of Specific Volume and Density

The derivatives of specific volume with respect to temperature and pressure can be easily
determined from Equation 8.16-9 using implicit differentiation. The results are presented
below:

(a1 )0p V 2 + (a2 )0p V + (a3 )0p

!
∂V
= − (8.16-13)
∂p T
3V 2 + 2a1 V + a2
(a1 )0T V 2 + (a2 )0T V + (a3 )0T
!
∂V
= − (8.16-14)
∂T p
3V 2 + 2a1 V + a2

where
RT RT b0 − a(T ) a(T ) b̃
(a1 )0p = 2
, (a2 )0p = 2
, (a3 )0p =
p p p2
da(T )
R −Rb0 + da(T ) b̃ da(T ) a(T )
(a1 )0T = − , (a2 )0T = dT
, (a3 )0T = − , = −n
p p dT p dT T

The derivatives of density can be obtained from the above using the relations
! !
∂ρ 2 ∂V
= −ρ (8.16-15)
∂p T
∂p T

! !
∂ρ 2 ∂V
= −ρ (8.16-16)
∂T p
∂T p

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 8.16 Real Gas Models

Specific Heat and Enthalpy

Following [14], enthalpy for a real gas can be written

!
a(T ) V + b0
H = H 0 (T ) + pV − RT − (1 + n) ln (8.16-17)
b0 V

where H 0 (T ) is the enthalpy function for a thermally perfect gas (i.e., enthalpy is a
function of temperature alone). In the present case, we employ a fourth-order polynomial
for the specific heat for a thermally perfect gas [252]

Cp0 (T ) = C1 + C2 T + C3 T 2 + C4 T 3 + C5 T 4 (8.16-18)

and obtain the enthalpy from the basic relation

Z T
H 0 (T ) = Cp0 (T )dT (8.16-19)
T0

The result is

1 1 1 1
H 0 (T ) = C1 T + C2 T 2 + C3 T 3 + C4 T 4 + C5 T 5 − H 0 (T 0 ) (8.16-20)
2 3 4 5
Note that H 0 (T 0 ) is the enthalpy at a reference state (p0 , T 0 ), which can be chosen
arbitrarily.
The specific heat for the real gas can be obtained by differentiating Equation 8.16-17
with respect to temperature (at constant pressure):
!
∂H
Cp = (8.16-21)
∂T p

The result is

 
! ! ∂V
∂V da(T ) (1 + n) V + b0 ∂T p
Cp = Cp0 (T ) + p −R− ln + a(T )(1 + n)
∂T p
dT b0 V V (V + b0 )
(8.16-22)
Finally, the derivative of enthalpy with respect to pressure (at constant temperature) can
be obtained using the following thermodynamic relation [252]:
! !
∂H ∂V
=V −T (8.16-23)
∂p T
∂T p

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 8-105
Physical Properties

Entropy

Following [14], the entropy can be expressed in the form

 
! da(T ) !
V − b̃ dT V + b0
S = S 0 (T, p0 ) + R ln + ln (8.16-24)
V0 b0 V

where the superscript 0 again refers to a reference state where the ideal gas law is appli-
cable. For an ideal gas at a fixed reference pressure, p0 , the entropy is given by

Z T Cp0 (T )
S 0 (T, p0 ) = S(T 0 , p0 ) + dT (8.16-25)
T0 T
Note that the pressure term is zero since the entropy is evaluated at the reference pressure.
Using the polynomial expression for specific heat, Equation 8.16-18, Equation 8.16-25
becomes

1 1 1
S 0 (T, p0 ) = S(T 0 , p0 ) + C1 ln(T ) + C2 T + C3 T 2 + C4 T 3 + C5 T 4 − f (T 0 ) (8.16-26)
2 3 4

where f (T 0 ) is a constant, which can be absorbed into the reference entropy S(T 0 , p0 ).

Speed of Sound

The speed of sound for a real gas can be determined from the thermodynamic relation

V2
!
∂p Cp
 
2
c = =−   (8.16-27)
∂ρ S
CV ∂V
∂p T

Noting that,
 ! 
2
∂V  ∂p 
Cp − CV = −T   (8.16-28)
∂T p ∂v T

we can write the speed of sound as

v !
u
u Cp 1
t−
c=Vu   (8.16-29)
Cp − ∆C ∂V
∂p T

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c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 8.16 Real Gas Models

Viscosity and Thermal Conductivity

The dynamic viscosity of a gas or vapor can be estimated using the following formula
from [56]:

M 0.5 p0.6666 Tr1.5

!
µ(T ) = 6.3 × 107 w 0.1666
c
(8.16-30)
Tc Tr + 0.8

Here, Tr is the reduced temperature

T
Tr = (8.16-31)
Tc

and Mw is the molecular weight of the gas. This formula neglects the effect of pressure
on viscosity, which usually becomes significant only at very high pressures.
Knowing the viscosity, the thermal conductivity can be estimated using the Eucken
formula [93]:

5
 
k = µ Cp + R (8.16-32)
4
It should be noted that both Equation 8.16-30 and 8.16-32 are simple relations, and
therefore may not provide satisfactory values of viscosity and thermal conductivity for
certain applications. You are encouraged to modify these functions in the UDRGM source
code if alternate formulae are available for a given gas.

Using the Redlich-Kwong Real Gas UDRGM

Using the Redlich-Kwong Real Gas UDRGM simply requires the modification of the top
block of #define macros to provide the appropriate parameters for a given substance.
An example listing for CO2 is given below. The parameters required are:
MWT = Molecular weight of the substance
PCRIT = Critical pressure (Pa)
TCRIT = Critical temperature (K)
ZCRIT = Critical compressibility factor
VCRIT = Critical specific volume (m3 /kg)
NRK = Exponent of a(T ) function
CC1, CC2, CC3, CC4, CC5 = Coefficients of Cp (T ) polynomial curve fit
P REF = Reference pressure (Pa)
T REF = Reference temperature (K)

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 8-107
Physical Properties

The coefficients for the ideal gas specific heat polynomial were obtained from [252] (coeffi-
cients for other substances are also provided in [252]). Once the source listing is modified,
the UDRGM C code can be recompiled and loaded into FLUENT in the manner described
earlier.

/* The variables below need to be set for a particular gas */

/* CO2 */

/* REAL GAS EQUATION OF STATE MODEL - BASIC VARIABLES */

/* ALL VARIABLES ARE IN SI UNITS! */

#define RGASU UNIVERSAL_GAS_CONSTANT

#define PI 3.141592654

#define MWT 44.01

#define PCRIT 7.3834e6
#define TCRIT 304.21
#define ZCRIT 0.2769
#define VCRIT 2.15517e-3
#define NRK 0.77

/* IDEAL GAS SPECIFIC HEAT CURVE FIT */

#define CC1 453.577

#define CC2 1.65014
#define CC3 -1.24814e-3
#define CC4 3.78201e-7
#define CC5 0.00

/* REFERENCE STATE */

#define P_REF 101325

#define T_REF 288.15

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c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 8.16 Real Gas Models

Redlich-Kwong Real Gas UDRGM Code Listing

/**************************************************************/
/* */
/* User-Defined Function: Redlich-Kwong Equation of State */
/* for Real Gas Modeling */
/* */
/* Author: Frank Kelecy */
/* Date: May 2003 */
/* Version: 1.02 */
/* */
/* This implementation is completely general. */
/* Parameters set for CO2. */
/* */
/**************************************************************/

#include "udf.h"
#include "stdio.h"
#include "ctype.h"
#include "stdarg.h"

/* The variables below need to be set for a particular gas */

/* CO2 */

/* REAL GAS EQUATION OF STATE MODEL - BASIC VARIABLES */

/* ALL VARIABLES ARE IN SI UNITS! */

#define RGASU UNIVERSAL_GAS_CONSTANT

#define PI 3.141592654

#define MWT 44.01

#define PCRIT 7.3834e6
#define TCRIT 304.21
#define ZCRIT 0.2769
#define VCRIT 2.15517e-3
#define NRK 0.77

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 8-109
Physical Properties

/* IDEAL GAS SPECIFIC HEAT CURVE FIT */

#define CC1 453.577

#define CC2 1.65014
#define CC3 -1.24814e-3
#define CC4 3.78201e-7
#define CC5 0.00

/* REFERENCE STATE */

#define P_REF 101325

#define T_REF 288.15

/* OPTIONAL REFERENCE (OFFSET) VALUES FOR ENTHALPY AND ENTROPY */

#define H_REF 0.0

#define S_REF 0.0

static int (*usersMessage)(char *,...);

static void (*usersError)(char *,...);

/* Static variables associated with Redlich-Kwong Model */

static double rgas, a0, b0, c0, bb, cp_int_ref;

DEFINE_ON_DEMAND(I_do_nothing)
{
/* this is a dummy function to allow us */
/* to use the compiled UDFs utility */
}

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* FUNCTION: RKEOS_error */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/

void RKEOS_error(int err, char *f, char *msg)

{
if (err)
usersError("RKEOS_error (%d) from function: %s\n%s\n",err,f,msg);
}

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c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 8.16 Real Gas Models

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* FUNCTION: RKEOS_Setup */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/

void RKEOS_Setup(Domain *domain, char *filename,

void (*messagefunc)(char *format, ...),
void (*errorfunc)(char *format, ...))
{

rgas = RGASU/MWT;
a0 = 0.42747*rgas*rgas*TCRIT*TCRIT/PCRIT;
b0 = 0.08664*rgas*TCRIT/PCRIT;
c0 = rgas*TCRIT/(PCRIT+a0/(VCRIT*(VCRIT+b0)))+b0-VCRIT;
bb = b0-c0;
cp_int_ref = CC1*log(T_REF)+T_REF*(CC2+
T_REF*(0.5*CC3+T_REF*(0.333333*CC4+0.25*CC5*T_REF)));

usersMessage = messagefunc;
usersError = errorfunc;
usersMessage("\nLoading Redlich-Kwong Library: %s\n", filename);
}

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* FUNCTION: RKEOS_pressure */
/* Returns density given T and density */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/

double RKEOS_pressure(double temp, double density)

{
double v = 1./density;
double afun = a0*pow(TCRIT/temp,NRK);
return rgas*temp/(v-bb)-afun/(v*(v+b0));
}

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 8-111
Physical Properties

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* FUNCTION: RKEOS_spvol */
/* Returns specific volume given T and P */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/

double RKEOS_spvol(double temp, double press)

{
double a1,a2,a3;
double vv,vv1,vv2,vv3;
double qq,qq3,sqq,rr,tt,dd;
double afun = a0*pow(TCRIT/temp,NRK);

a1 = c0-rgas*temp/press;
a2 = -(bb*b0+rgas*temp*b0/press-afun/press);
a3 = -afun*bb/press;

/* Solve cubic equation for specific volume */

qq = (a1*a1-3.*a2)/9.;
rr = (2*a1*a1*a1-9.*a1*a2+27.*a3)/54.;
qq3 = qq*qq*qq;
dd = qq3-rr*rr;

/* If dd < 0, then we have one real root */

/* If dd >= 0, then we have three roots -> choose largest root */

if (dd < 0.) {

tt = sqrt(-dd)+pow(fabs(rr),0.333333);
vv = (tt+qq/tt)-a1/3.;
} else {
tt = acos(rr/sqrt(qq3));
sqq = sqrt(qq);
vv1 = -2.*sqq*cos(tt/3.)-a1/3.;
vv2 = -2.*sqq*cos((tt+2.*PI)/3.)-a1/3.;
vv3 = -2.*sqq*cos((tt+4.*PI)/3.)-a1/3.;
vv = (vv1 > vv2) ? vv1 : vv2;
vv = (vv > vv3) ? vv : vv3;
}

return vv;
}

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c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 8.16 Real Gas Models

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* FUNCTION: RKEOS_density */
/* Returns density given T and P */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/

double RKEOS_density(double temp, double press, double yi[])

{
return 1./RKEOS_spvol(temp, press); /* (Kg/m3) */
}

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* FUNCTION: RKEOS_dvdp */
/* Returns dv/dp given T and rho */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/

double RKEOS_dvdp(double temp, double density)

{
double a1,a2,a1p,a2p,a3p,v,press;
double afun = a0*pow(TCRIT/temp,NRK);

press = RKEOS_pressure(temp, density);

v = 1./density;

a1 = c0-rgas*temp/press;
a2 = -(bb*b0+rgas*temp*b0/press-afun/press);
a1p = rgas*temp/(press*press);
a2p = a1p*b0-afun/(press*press);
a3p = afun*bb/(press*press);

return -(a3p+v*(a2p+v*a1p))/(a2+v*(2.*a1+3.*v));
}

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 8-113
Physical Properties

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* FUNCTION: RKEOS_dvdt */
/* Returns dv/dT given T and rho */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/

double RKEOS_dvdt(double temp, double density)

{
double a1,a2,dadt,a1t,a2t,a3t,v,press;
double afun = a0*pow(TCRIT/temp,NRK);

press = RKEOS_pressure(temp, density);

v = 1./density;

dadt = -NRK*afun/temp;
a1 = c0-rgas*temp/press;
a2 = -(bb*b0+rgas*temp*b0/press-afun/press);
a1t = -rgas/press;
a2t = a1t*b0+dadt/press;
a3t = -dadt*bb/press;

return -(a3t+v*(a2t+v*a1t))/(a2+v*(2.*a1+3.*v));
}

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* FUNCTION: RKEOS_Cp_ideal_gas */
/* Returns ideal gas specific heat given T */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/

double RKEOS_Cp_ideal_gas(double temp)

{
return (CC1+temp*(CC2+temp*(CC3+temp*(CC4+temp*CC5))));
}

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* FUNCTION: RKEOS_H_ideal_gas */
/* Returns ideal gas specific enthalpy given T */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/

double RKEOS_H_ideal_gas(double temp)

{
return temp*(CC1+temp*(0.5*CC2+temp*(0.333333*CC3+
temp*(0.25*CC4+temp*0.2*CC5))));
}

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c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 8.16 Real Gas Models

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* FUNCTION: RKEOS_specific_heat */
/* Returns specific heat given T and rho */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/

double RKEOS_specific_heat(double temp, double density, double yi[])

{
double delta_Cp,press,v,dvdt,dadt;
double afun = a0*pow(TCRIT/temp,NRK);

press = RKEOS_pressure(temp, density);

v = 1./density;
dvdt = RKEOS_dvdt(temp, density);
dadt = -NRK*afun/temp;
delta_Cp = press*dvdt-rgas-dadt*(1.+NRK)/b0*log((v+b0)/v)
+ afun*(1.+NRK)*dvdt/(v*(v+b0));

return RKEOS_Cp_ideal_gas(temp)+delta_Cp; /* (J/Kg-K) */

}

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* FUNCTION: RKEOS_enthalpy */
/* Returns specific enthalpy given T and rho */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/

double RKEOS_enthalpy(double temp, double density, double yi[])

{
double delta_h ,press, v;
double afun = a0*pow(TCRIT/temp,NRK);

press = RKEOS_pressure(temp, density);

v = 1./density;
delta_h = press*v-rgas*temp-afun*(1+NRK)/b0*log((v+b0)/v);

return H_REF+RKEOS_H_ideal_gas(temp)+delta_h; /* (J/Kg) */

}

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 8-115
Physical Properties

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* FUNCTION: RKEOS_entropy */
/* Returns entropy given T and rho */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/

double RKEOS_entropy(double temp, double density, double yi[])

{
double delta_s,v,v0,dadt,cp_integral;
double afun = a0*pow(TCRIT/temp,NRK);

cp_integral = CC1*log(temp)+temp*(CC2+temp*(0.5*CC3+
temp*(0.333333*CC4+0.25*CC5*temp)))
- cp_int_ref;
v = 1./density;
v0 = rgas*temp/P_REF;
dadt = -NRK*afun/temp;
delta_s = rgas*log((v-bb)/v0)+dadt/b0*log((v+b0)/v);

return S_REF+cp_integral+delta_s; /* (J/Kg-K) */

}

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* FUNCTION: RKEOS_mw */
/* Returns molecular weight */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/

double RKEOS_mw(double yi[])

{
return MWT; /* (Kg/Kmol) */
}

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c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 8.16 Real Gas Models

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* FUNCTION: RKEOS_speed_of_sound */
/* Returns s.o.s given T and rho */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/

double RKEOS_speed_of_sound(double temp, double density, double yi[])

{
double cp = RKEOS_specific_heat(temp, density, yi);
double dvdt = RKEOS_dvdt(temp, density);
double dvdp = RKEOS_dvdp(temp, density);
double v = 1./density;
double delta_c = -temp*dvdt*dvdt/dvdp;

return sqrt(cp/((delta_c-cp)*dvdp))*v; /* m/s */

}

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* FUNCTION: RKEOS_rho_t */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/

double RKEOS_rho_t(double temp, double density, double yi[])

{
return -density*density*RKEOS_dvdt(temp, density);
}

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* FUNCTION: RKEOS_rho_p */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/

double RKEOS_rho_p(double temp, double density, double yi[])

{
return -density*density*RKEOS_dvdp(temp, density);
}

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* FUNCTION: RKEOS_enthalpy_t */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/

double RKEOS_enthalpy_t(double temp, double density, double yi[])

{
return RKEOS_specific_heat(temp, density, yi);
}

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 8-117
Physical Properties

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* FUNCTION: RKEOS_enthalpy_p */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/

double RKEOS_enthalpy_p(double temp, double density, double yi[])

{
double v = 1./density;
double dvdt = RKEOS_dvdt(temp, density);

return v-temp*dvdt;
}

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* FUNCTION: RKEOS_viscosity */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/

double RKEOS_viscosity(double temp, double density, double yi[])

{
double mu,tr,tc,pcatm;

tr = temp/TCRIT;
tc = TCRIT;
pcatm = PCRIT/101325.;

mu = 6.3e-7*sqrt(MWT)*pow(pcatm,0.6666)/pow(tc,0.16666)*
(pow(tr,1.5)/(tr+0.8));

return mu;
}

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* FUNCTION: RKEOS_thermal_conductivity */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/

double RKEOS_thermal_conductivity(double temp, double density, double yi[])

{
double cp, mu;

cp = RKEOS_Cp_ideal_gas(temp);
mu = RKEOS_viscosity(temp, density, yi);

return (cp+1.25*rgas)*mu;
}

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c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 8.16 Real Gas Models

/* Export Real Gas Functions to Solver */

UDF_EXPORT RGAS_Functions RealGasFunctionList =

{
RKEOS_Setup, /* initialize */
RKEOS_density, /* density */
RKEOS_enthalpy, /* enthalpy */
RKEOS_entropy, /* entropy */
RKEOS_specific_heat, /* specific_heat */
RKEOS_mw, /* molecular_weight */
RKEOS_speed_of_sound, /* speed_of_sound */
RKEOS_viscosity, /* viscosity */
RKEOS_thermal_conductivity, /* thermal_conductivity */
RKEOS_rho_t, /* drho/dT |const p */
RKEOS_rho_p, /* drho/dp |const T */
RKEOS_enthalpy_t, /* dh/dT |const p */
RKEOS_enthalpy_p /* dh/dp |const T */
};

UDRGM Example: Multiple-Species Real Gas Model

This is a simple example for multiple-species real gas model that provide you with a
template which you can use to write a more complex multiple-species UDRGM.
In this example a fluid material is defined in the setup function as a mixture of four
species (H20, N2, O2, CO2). The equation of state was the simple ideal gas equation of
state. The other thermodynamic properties where defined by an ideal-gas mixing law.
Other auxiliary functions are written to provide individual species property to the prin-
ciple function set.
dρ dρ dh dh
The example also provide numerical method of computing , , ,
dT dp dT
and dp
.

/*
*sccs id: @(#)real_ideal.c 1.10 Copyright 1900/11/09 Fluent Inc.
*/

/*
* Copyright 1988-1998 Fluent Inc.
* All Rights Reserved
*

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 8-119
Physical Properties

* This is unpublished proprietary source code of Fluent Inc.

* It is protected by U.S. copyright law as an unpublished work
* and is furnished pursuant to a written license agreement. It
* is considered by Fluent to be confidential and may not be
* used, copied, or disclosed to others except in accordance with
* the terms and conditions of the license agreement.
*/

/*
* NT Warning!!! Including udf.h is for getting definitions for
* Fluent constructs such as Domain. You must NOT
* reference any Fluent globals directly from within
* this module nor link this against any Fluent libs,
* doing so will cause dependancies on a specific
* Fluent binary such as fl551.exe and thus won’t
* be version-independent.
*/

#include "udf.h"
#include "stdio.h"
#include "ctype.h"
#include "stdarg.h"

#if RP_DOUBLE
#define SMALL 1.e-20
#else
#define SMALL 1.e-10
#endif

#define NCMAX 20
#define NSPECIE_NAME 80

static int (*usersMessage)(char *,...);

static void (*usersError)(char *,...);

static double ref_p, ref_T;

static char gas[NCMAX][NSPECIE_NAME];
static int n_specs;

double Mixture_Rgas(double yi[]);

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c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 8.16 Real Gas Models

double Mixture_pressure(double Temp, double Rho, double yi[]);

double Mw_i(int i);
double Cp_i(double T, double r, int i);
double K_i(double T, double r, int i);
double Mu_i(double T, double r, int i);
double Rgas_i(double T, double r, int i);
double Gm_i(double T, double r, int i);

DEFINE_ON_DEMAND(I_do_nothing)
{
/*
This is a dummy function
must be included to allow for the use of the
Fluent UDF compilation utility
*/
}

void Mixture_error(int err, char *f, char *msg)

{
if (err)
usersError("Mixture_error (%d) from function: %s\n%s\n",err,f,msg);
}

/*******************************************************************/
/* Mixture Functions */
/* These are the only functions called from Fluent Code */
/*******************************************************************/
void MIXTURE_Setup(Domain *domain, char *specielist,
int (*messagefunc)(char *format, ...),
void (*errorfunc)(char *format, ...))
{
/* This function will be called from Fluent after the
UDF library has been loaded.
User must enter the number of species in the mixture
and the name of the individual species.
*/

int i ;
usersMessage = messagefunc;
usersError = errorfunc;
ref_p = ABS_P(RP_Get_Real("reference-pressure"),op_pres);
ref_T = RP_Get_Real("reference-temperature");

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 8-121
Physical Properties

if (ref_p == 0.0)
{
Message0("\n MIXTURE_Setup: reference-pressure was not set by user \n");
Message0("\n MIXTURE_Setup: setting reference-pressur to 101325 Pa \n");
ref_p = 101325.0 ;
}
/*====================================================*/
/*========= User Input Section =====================*/
/*====================================================*/
/*
Define Number of species & Species name.
DO NOT use space for naming species
*/
n_specs = 4 ;

(void)strcpy(gas[0],"H2O") ;
(void)strcpy(gas[1],"N2") ;
(void)strcpy(gas[2],"O2") ;
(void)strcpy(gas[3],"CO2") ;

/*====================================================*/
/*========= End Of User Input Section ==============*/
/*====================================================*/

Message0("\n MIXTURE_Setup: RealGas mixture initialization \n");

Message0("\n MIXTURE_Setup: Number of Species = %d \n",n_specs);
for (i=0; i<n_specs; ++i)
{
Message0("\n MIXTURE_Setup: Specie[%d] = %s \n",i,gas[i]);
}

/*
concatenate species name into one string
and send back to fluent
*/
strcat(specielist,gas[0]);
for (i=1; i<n_specs; ++i)
{
strcat(specielist," ");
strcat(specielist,gas[i]);
}
}

8-122
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 8.16 Real Gas Models

double MIXTURE_density(double Temp, double P, double yi[])

{
double Rgas = Mixture_Rgas(yi) ;

double r = P/(Rgas*Temp); /* Density at Temp & P */

return r; /* (Kg/m^3) */
}

double MIXTURE_specific_heat(double Temp, double density, double yi[])

{
double cp=0.0 ;
int i ;

for (i=0; i<n_specs; ++i)

cp += yi[i]*Cp_i(Temp,density,i);

return cp; /* (J/Kg/K) */

}

double MIXTURE_enthalpy(double Temp, double density, double yi[])

{
double h=0.0;
int i ;

for (i=0; i<n_specs; ++i)

h += yi[i]*(Temp*Cp_i(Temp,density,i));

return h; /* (J/Kg) */
}

double MIXTURE_entropy(double Temp, double density, double yi[])

{
double s = 0.0 ;
double Rgas=0.0 ;

Rgas = Mixture_Rgas(yi);

s = MIXTURE_specific_heat(Temp,density,yi)*log(Temp/ref_T) -
Rgas*log(density*Rgas*Temp/ref_p) ;

return s; /* (J/Kg/K) */

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 8-123
Physical Properties

double MIXTURE_mw(double yi[])

{
double MW, sum=0.0 ;
int i ;

for (i=0; i<n_specs; ++i)

sum += (yi[i]/Mw_i(i)) ;

MW = 1.0/MAX(sum,SMALL) ;

return MW; /* (Kg/Kmol) */

}

double MIXTURE_speed_of_sound(double Temp, double density, double yi[])

{
double a, cp, Rgas ;

cp = MIXTURE_specific_heat(Temp,density,yi) ;
Rgas = Mixture_Rgas(yi) ;

a = sqrt(Rgas*Temp* cp/(cp-Rgas) ) ;

return a ; /* m/s */
}

double MIXTURE_viscosity(double Temp, double density, double yi[])

{
double mu=0;
int i ;

for (i=0; i<n_specs; ++i)

mu += yi[i]*Mu_i(Temp,density,i);

return mu; /* (Kg/m/s) */

}

double MIXTURE_thermal_conductivity(double Temp, double density, double yi[])

{
double kt=0;
int i ;

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c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 8.16 Real Gas Models

for (i=0; i<n_specs; ++i)

kt += yi[i]*K_i(Temp,density,i);

return kt; /* W/m/K */

}

double MIXTURE_rho_t(double Temp, double density, double yi[])

{

double drdT ; /* derivative of rho wrt. Temp */

double p ;
double dT=0.01;

p = Mixture_pressure(Temp,density, yi);
drdT = (MIXTURE_density(Temp+dT,p,yi) - MIXTURE_density(Temp,p,yi) ) /dT;

return drdT; /* (Kg/m^3/K) */

}

double MIXTURE_rho_p(double Temp, double density, double yi[])

{
double drdp ;
double p ;
double dp= 5.0 ;

p = Mixture_pressure(Temp,density, yi);
drdp = (MIXTURE_density(Temp,p+dp,yi) - MIXTURE_density(Temp,p,yi) ) /dp;

return drdp; /* (Kg/m^3/Pa) */

}

double MIXTURE_enthalpy_t(double Temp, double density, double yi[])

{
double dhdT ;
double p ;
double rho2 ;
double dT= 0.01 ;

p = Mixture_pressure(Temp,density, yi);
rho2 = MIXTURE_density(Temp+dT,p,yi) ;

dhdT = (MIXTURE_enthalpy(Temp+dT,rho2,yi) - MIXTURE_enthalpy(Temp,density,yi)) /dT ;

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 8-125
Physical Properties

return dhdT ; /* J/(Kg.K) */

}

double MIXTURE_enthalpy_p(double Temp, double density, double yi[])

{
double dhdp ;
double p ;
double rho2 ;
double dp= 5.0 ;

p = Mixture_pressure(Temp,density, yi);
rho2 = MIXTURE_density(Temp,p+dp,yi) ;

dhdp = (MIXTURE_enthalpy(Temp,rho2,yi) - MIXTURE_enthalpy(Temp,density,yi)) /dp;

return dhdp ; /* J/ (Kg.Pascal) */

}

/*******************************************************************/
/* Auxiliary Mixture Functions */
/*******************************************************************/

double Mixture_Rgas(double yi[])

{
double Rgas=0.0 ;
int i ;

for (i=0; i<n_specs; ++i)

Rgas += yi[i]*(UNIVERSAL_GAS_CONSTANT/Mw_i(i)) ;

return Rgas ;
}

double Mixture_pressure(double Temp, double Rho, double yi[])

{
double Rgas = Mixture_Rgas(yi) ;

double P = Rho*Rgas*Temp ; /* Pressure at Temp & P */

8-126
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 8.16 Real Gas Models

return P; /* (Kg/m^3) */
}

/*******************************************************************/
/* Species Property Functions */
/*******************************************************************/
double Mw_i(int i)
{
double mi[20];

mi[0] = 18.01534 ; /*H2O*/

mi[1] = 28.01340 ; /*N2 */
mi[2] = 31.99880 ; /*O2 */
mi[3] = 44.00995 ; /*CO2*/

return mi[i] ;
}

double Cp_i(double T, double r, int i)

{
double cpi[20] ;

cpi[0] = 2014.00 ; /*H2O*/

cpi[1] = 1040.67 ; /*N2 */
cpi[2] = 919.31 ; /*O2 */
cpi[3] = 840.37 ; /*CO2*/

return cpi[i] ;
}

double K_i(double T, double r, int i)

{
double ki[20] ;

ki[0] = 0.02610 ; /*H2O*/

ki[1] = 0.02420 ; /*N2 */
ki[2] = 0.02460 ; /*O2 */
ki[3] = 0.01450 ; /*CO2*/

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 8-127
Physical Properties

return ki[i] ;
}

double Mu_i(double T, double r, int i)

{
double mui[20] ;

mui[0] = 1.340E-05 ; /*H2O*/

mui[1] = 1.663E-05 ; /*N2 */
mui[2] = 1.919E-05 ; /*O2 */
mui[3] = 1.370E-05 ; /*CO2*/

return mui[i] ;
}

double Rgas_i(double T, double r, int i)

{
double Rgasi ;

Rgasi = UNIVERSAL_GAS_CONSTANT/Mw_i(i) ;

return Rgasi ;
}

double Gm_i(double T, double r, int i)

{
double gammai ;

gammai = Cp_i(T,r,i)/(Cp_i(T,r,i) - Rgas_i(T,r,i));

return gammai ;

/*******************************************************************/
/* Mixture Functions Structure */
/*******************************************************************/
UDF_EXPORT RGAS_Functions RealGasFunctionList =
{
MIXTURE_Setup,/* initialize */
MIXTURE_density, /* density */

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c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 8.16 Real Gas Models

MIXTURE_enthalpy, /* enthalpy */
MIXTURE_entropy, /* entropy */
MIXTURE_specific_heat,/* specific_heat */
MIXTURE_mw, /* molecular_weight */
MIXTURE_speed_of_sound,/* speed_of_sound */
MIXTURE_viscosity, /* viscosity */
MIXTURE_thermal_conductivity, /* thermal_conductivity */
MIXTURE_rho_t,/* drho/dT |const p */
MIXTURE_rho_p,/* drho/dp |const T */
MIXTURE_enthalpy_t, /* dh/dT |const p */
MIXTURE_enthalpy_p /* dh/dp |const T */
};

/*******************************************************************/
/*******************************************************************/

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 8-129
Physical Properties

8-130
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
Chapter 9. Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

This chapter describes the basic physical models that FLUENT provides for fluid flow
and the commands for defining and using them. Models for flows in moving zones (in-
cluding sliding and dynamic meshes) are explained in Chapter 10: Modeling Flows with
Rotating Reference Frames, models for turbulence are described in Chapter 12: Modeling
Turbulence, and models for heat transfer (including radiation) are presented in Chap-
ter 13: Modeling Heat Transfer. An overview of modeling species transport and reacting
flows is provided in Chapter 14: Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry,
details about models for species transport and reacting flows are described in Chap-
ters 14–18, and models for pollutant formation are presented in Chapter 20: Modeling
Pollutant Formation. The discrete phase model is described in Chapter 22: Modeling Dis-
crete Phase, general multiphase models are described in Chapter 23: Modeling Multiphase
Flows, and the melting and solidification model is described in Chapter 24: Modeling So-
lidification and Melting. For information on modeling porous media, porous jumps, and
lumped parameter fans and radiators, see Chapter 7: Boundary Conditions.
The information in this chapter is presented in the following sections:

• Section 9.1: Overview of Physical Models in FLUENT

• Section 9.2: Continuity and Momentum Equations

• Section 9.3: User-Defined Scalar (UDS) Transport Equations

• Section 9.4: Periodic Flows

• Section 9.5: Swirling and Rotating Flows

• Section 9.6: Compressible Flows

• Section 9.7: Inviscid Flows

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 9-1
Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

9.1 Overview of Physical Models in FLUENT

FLUENT provides comprehensive modeling capabilities for a wide range of incompressible
and compressible, laminar and turbulent fluid flow problems. Steady-state or transient
analyses can be performed. In FLUENT, a broad range of mathematical models for
transport phenomena (like heat transfer and chemical reactions) is combined with the
ability to model complex geometries. Examples of FLUENT applications include laminar
non-Newtonian flows in process equipment; conjugate heat transfer in turbomachinery
and automotive engine components; pulverized coal combustion in utility boilers; exter-
nal aerodynamics; flow through compressors, pumps, and fans; and multiphase flows in
bubble columns and fluidized beds.
To permit modeling of fluid flow and related transport phenomena in industrial equip-
ment and processes, various useful features are provided. These include porous media,
lumped parameter (fan and heat exchanger), streamwise-periodic flow and heat transfer,
swirl, and moving reference frame models. The moving reference frame family of models
includes the ability to model single or multiple reference frames. A time-accurate sliding
mesh method, useful for modeling multiple stages in turbomachinery applications, for ex-
ample, is also provided, along with the mixing plane model for computing time-averaged
flow fields.
Another very useful group of models in FLUENT is the set of free surface and multi-
phase flow models. These can be used for analysis of gas-liquid, gas-solid, liquid-solid,
and gas-liquid-solid flows. For these types of problems, FLUENT provides the volume-of-
fluid (VOF), mixture, and Eulerian models, as well as the discrete phase model (DPM).
The DPM performs Lagrangian trajectory calculations for dispersed phases (particles,
droplets, or bubbles), including coupling with the continuous phase. Examples of multi-
phase flows include channel flows, sprays, sedimentation, separation, and cavitation.
Robust and accurate turbulence models are a vital component of the FLUENT suite of
models. The turbulence models provided have a broad range of applicability, and they
include the effects of other physical phenomena, such as buoyancy and compressibility.
Particular care has been devoted to addressing issues of near-wall accuracy via the use
of extended wall functions and zonal models.
Various modes of heat transfer can be modeled, including natural, forced, and mixed
convection with or without conjugate heat transfer, porous media, etc. The set of radia-
tion models and related submodels for modeling participating media are general and can
take into account the complications of combustion. A particular strength of FLUENT
is its ability to model combustion phenomena using a variety of models, including eddy
dissipation and probability density function models. A host of other models that are
very useful for reacting flow applications are also available, including coal and droplet
combustion, surface reaction, and pollutant formation models.

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 9.2 Continuity and Momentum Equations

9.2 Continuity and Momentum Equations

For all flows, FLUENT solves conservation equations for mass and momentum. For flows
involving heat transfer or compressibility, an additional equation for energy conservation
is solved. For flows involving species mixing or reactions, a species conservation equation
is solved or, if the non-premixed combustion model is used, conservation equations for
the mixture fraction and its variance are solved. Additional transport equations are also
solved when the flow is turbulent.
In this section, the conservation equations for laminar flow in an inertial (non-accelerating)
reference frame are presented. The equations that are applicable to rotating reference
frames are presented in Chapter 10: Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames.
The conservation equations relevant to heat transfer, turbulence modeling, and species
transport will be discussed in the chapters where those models are described.
The Euler equations solved for inviscid flow are presented in Section 9.7: Inviscid Flows.

The Mass Conservation Equation

The equation for conservation of mass, or continuity equation, can be written as follows:

∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρ~v ) = Sm (9.2-1)
∂t
Equation 9.2-1 is the general form of the mass conservation equation and is valid for
incompressible as well as compressible flows. The source Sm is the mass added to the
continuous phase from the dispersed second phase (e.g., due to vaporization of liquid
droplets) and any user-defined sources.
For 2D axisymmetric geometries, the continuity equation is given by

∂ρ ∂ ∂ ρvr
+ (ρvx ) + (ρvr ) + = Sm (9.2-2)
∂t ∂x ∂r r
where x is the axial coordinate, r is the radial coordinate, vx is the axial velocity, and vr
is the radial velocity.

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Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

Momentum Conservation Equations

Conservation of momentum in an inertial (non-accelerating) reference frame is described
by [24]

∂
(ρ~v ) + ∇ · (ρ~v~v ) = −∇p + ∇ · (τ ) + ρ~g + F~ (9.2-3)
∂t
where p is the static pressure, τ is the stress tensor (described below), and ρ~g and F~ are
the gravitational body force and external body forces (e.g., that arise from interaction
with the dispersed phase), respectively. F~ also contains other model-dependent source
terms such as porous-media and user-defined sources.
The stress tensor τ is given by

2
 
T
τ = µ (∇~v + ∇~v ) − ∇ · ~v I (9.2-4)
3
where µ is the molecular viscosity, I is the unit tensor, and the second term on the right
hand side is the effect of volume dilation.
For 2D axisymmetric geometries, the axial and radial momentum conservation equations
are given by

" !#
∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂p 1 ∂ ∂vx 2
(ρvx ) + (rρvx vx ) + (rρvr vx ) = − + rµ 2 − (∇ · ~v )
∂t r ∂x r ∂r ∂x r ∂x ∂x 3
" !#
1 ∂ ∂vx ∂vr
+ rµ + + Fx
r ∂r ∂r ∂x
(9.2-5)

and
" !#
∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂p 1 ∂ ∂vr ∂vx
(ρvr ) + (rρvx vr ) + (rρvr vr ) = − + rµ +
∂t r ∂x r ∂r ∂r r ∂x ∂x ∂r
vz2
" !#
1 ∂ ∂vr 2 vr 2 µ
+ rµ 2 − (∇ · ~v ) − 2µ + (∇ · ~
v ) + ρ + Fr (9.2-6)
r ∂r ∂r 3 r2 3 r r

where

∂vx ∂vr vr
∇ · ~v = + + (9.2-7)
∂x ∂r r
and vz is the swirl velocity. (See Section 9.5: Swirling and Rotating Flows for information
about modeling axisymmetric swirl.)

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 9.3 User-Defined Scalar (UDS) Transport Equations

9.3 User-Defined Scalar (UDS) Transport Equations

This section provides information on how you can specify user-defined scalar (UDS)
transport equations to enhance the standard features of FLUENT.

• Section 9.3.1: Introduction

• Section 9.3.2: UDS Theory

• Section 9.3.3: Setting Up UDS Equations in FLUENT

9.3.1 Introduction
FLUENT can solve the transport equation for an arbitrary, user-defined scalar (UDS)
in the same way that it solves the transport equation for a scalar such as species mass
fraction. Extra scalar transport equations may be needed in certain types of combustion
applications or for example in plasma-enhanced surface reaction modeling. FLUENT
allows you to define additional scalar transport equations in your model in the User-
Defined Scalars panel.

9.3.2 UDS Theory

Single Phase Flow
For an arbitrary scalar φk , FLUENT solves the equation

∂ρφk ∂ ∂φk
+ (ρui φk − Γk ) = Sφk k = 1, ..., N (9.3-1)
∂t ∂xi ∂xi

where Γk and Sφk are the diffusion coefficient and source term supplied by you for each
of the N scalar equations. Note that Γk is defined as a tensor in the case of anisotropic
diffusivity. The diffusion term is thus ∇ · (Γk · φk )
For isotropic diffusivity, Γk could be written as Γk I where I is the identity matrix.
For the steady-state case, FLUENT will solve one of the three following equations, de-
pending on the method used to compute the convective flux:

• If convective flux is not to be computed, FLUENT will solve the equation

∂ ∂φk
− (Γk ) = Sφk k = 1, ..., N (9.3-2)
∂xi ∂xi
where Γk and Sφk are the diffusion coefficient and source term supplied by you for
each of the N scalar equations.

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Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

• If convective flux is to be computed with mass flow rate, FLUENT will solve the
equation

∂ ∂φk
(ρui φk − Γk ) = Sφk k = 1, ..., N (9.3-3)
∂xi ∂xi
• It is also possible to specify a user-defined function to be used in the computation
of convective flux. In this case, the user-defined mass flux is assumed to be of the
form
Z
F = ~
ρ~u · dS (9.3-4)
S

~ is the face vector area.

where dS

Multiphase Flow
For multiphase flows, FLUENT solves transport equations for two types of scalars:
per phase and mixture. For an arbitrary k scalar in phase-1, denoted by φkl , FLUENT
solves the transport equation inside the volume occupied by phase-l

∂αl ρl φkl
+ ∇ · (αl ρl ~ul φkl − αl Γkl ∇φkl ) = Slk k = 1, ..., N (9.3-5)
∂t
where αl , ρl , and ~ul are the volume fraction, physical density, and velocity of phase-l,
respectively. Γkl and Slk are the diffusion coefficient and source term, respectively, which
you will need to specify. In this case, scalar φkl is associated only with one phase (phase-l)
and is considered an individual field variable of phase-l.
The mass flux for phase-l is defined as
Z
Fl = ~
αl ρl ~ul · dS (9.3-6)
S

If the transport variable described by scalar φkl represents the physical field that is shared
between phases, or is considered the same for each phase, then you should consider this
scalar as being associated with a mixture of phases, φk . In this case, the generic transport
equation for the scalar is

∂ρm φk
+ ∇ · (ρm~um φk − Γkm ∇φk ) = S km k = 1, ..., N (9.3-7)
∂t
where mixture density ρm , mixture velocity ~um , and mixture diffusivity for the scalar k
Γkm are calculated according to

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 9.3 User-Defined Scalar (UDS) Transport Equations

X
ρm = αl ρl (9.3-8)
l

X
ρm~um = αl ρl ~ul (9.3-9)
l

Z
Fm = ~
rhom~um · dS (9.3-10)
S

Γkm = αl Γkl
X
(9.3-11)
l

k
Slk
X
Sm = (9.3-12)
l

To calculate mixture diffusivity, you will need to specify individual diffusivities for each
material associated with individual phases.
Note that if the user-defined mass flux option is activated, then mass fluxes shown in
Equation 9.3-6 and Equation 9.3-10 will need to be replaced in the corresponding scalar
transport equations.

9.3.3 Setting Up UDS Equations in FLUENT

FLUENT allows you to define up to 50 user-defined scalar (UDS) transport equations in
your model. The general scalar transport equation (Equation 9.3-1) from the previous
theory section is shown below with the four terms (unsteady, flux, diffusivity, source)
that you can customize. (Figure 9.3.1). You will define a UDS transport equation by
setting the parameters for these four terms.

Figure 9.3.1: Generalized UDS Transport Equation

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Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

In addition, you can set boundary conditions for the variables within cells of a fluid or
solid zone for a particular scalar equation. This is done by fixing the value of φk in
Figure 9.3.1. When φk is fixed in a given cell, the UDS scalar transport is not solved
and the cell is not included when the residual sum is computed. Additionally, you can
also specify custom boundary conditions in the mixture on all wall, inflow, and outflow
boundaries on a per-scalar basis.
The procedures for setting up a user-defined scalar (UDS) equation for single-phase and
multiphase flows are outlined below. Note that a significant difference between a UDS for
a single-phase versus a multiphase application is that you will need to associate each UDS
with its corresponding phase domain or mixture domain, depending on your application.
If you supply UDFs for transient terms, convective fluxes, and sources, you will need to
be aware that they are directly called from the phase or mixture domains, according to
the scalar association settings.
See the separate UDF Manual for information on using UDFs to define scalar quantities.

Single Phase Flow

1. Specify the number of UDS equations you require in the User-Defined Scalars panel
(Figure 9.3.2).
Define −→ User-Defined −→Scalars...

i The maximum number of user-defined scalar transport equations you can

define is 50. FLUENT assigns numbers to the equations starting with 0.

i Note that FLUENT assigns a default name for each scalar equation ((User
Scalar 0, User Scalar 1, etc.). These labels will appear in graphics
panels in FLUENT. You can change them by means of a UDF. See the
separate UDF Manual for details.

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 9.3 User-Defined Scalar (UDS) Transport Equations

Figure 9.3.2: The User-Defined Scalars Panel

2. Keep the default Inlet Diffusion enabled if you want to include the diffusion term in
the UDS transport equation for all inflow and outflow boundaries.
3. Set the first user-defined scalar equation parameters by making sure that the UDS
Index is set to 0.
(a) Specify the Solution Zones you want the scalar equation to be solved in as all
fluid zones, all solid zones, all zones (fluid and solid) or selected zones. If you
choose selected zones, click on the Edit button to view the list of zones you can
select.
(b) Specify the Flux Function to be none, mass flow rate, or a user-defined function
(UDF). The Flux Function determines how the convective flux is computed,
which determines the equation that FLUENT solves for the user-defined scalar.
Selecting none, mass flow rate, or a user-defined function results in FLUENT
solving 9.3-2, 9.3-3, or 9.3-4, respectively. See the separate UDF Manual for
details on flux UDFs.
(c) Specify the Unsteady Function to be none, default, or a user-defined function
(UDF). Select none for a steady state solution and default if you want the
transient term in Equation 9.3-1 to be solved. See the separate UDF Manual
for details on unsteady UDFs.
(d) Repeat this process for each scalar equation by incrementing the UDS Index.
(e) Click OK when all user scalar equations have been defined.

4. To specify source term(s) for each of the N UDS equations, enable the Source Terms
option in the Fluid or Solid panel (Figure 9.3.3) and click on the Source Terms tab.
The source parameters will be displayed.

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Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

Define −→Boundary Conditions...

Figure 9.3.3: The Fluid Panel with Inputs for Source Terms for a User-
Defined Scalar

(a) Specify the number of sources you require for each scalar equation by clicking
on the Edit... button next to the scalar name (e.g., User Scalar 0). This will
open the User Scalar 0 Sources panel (Figure 9.3.4).
(b) Specify the Number of User Scalar Sources for the scalar equation by incre-
menting the counter. Based on the value you have chosen, the sources will be
added to the list in the panel. Specify each source to be none, constant, or
a user-defined function (UDF). For details on defining a UDF scalar source,
see the separate UDF Manual. Click OK when you have specified all scalar
sources.

5. To specify diffusivity for each of the N UDS equations, open the Materials panel
(Figure 9.3.5) and select either defined-per-uds (the default) or user-defined in the
drop-down list for UDS Diffusivity.
Define −→Materials...
See Section 8.6: User-Defined Scalar (UDS) Diffusivity for details on the different
options available to you for defining diffusion coefficients.

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 9.3 User-Defined Scalar (UDS) Transport Equations

Figure 9.3.4: The User Scalar Sources Panel

Figure 9.3.5: The Materials Panel with Input for Diffusivity for UDS Equa-
tions

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Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

6. To specify boundary conditions for the user-defined scalars on wall, inflow, and
outflow boundaries, you can define a specific value or a specific flux for each scalar.
A coupled boundary condition can be specified on two-sided walls for scalars that
are to be solved in regions on both sides of the wall (i.e., scalars solved in both fluid
and solid zones).
Define −→Boundary Conditions...
(a) Under User Defined Scalar Boundary Condition, select either Specified Flux or
Specified Value in the drop-down list next to each scalar (e.g., User Scalar 0) for
a boundary wall. For interior walls, select Coupled Boundary if the scalars are
to be solved on both sides of a two-sided wall. Note that the Coupled Boundary
option will only show up in the drop-down list if the scalar is defined in the
fluid and solid zones in the User-Defined Scalars panel.
(b) Under User Defined Scalar Boundary Value, enter a constant value or select a
user-defined function from the drop-down list for each scalar. If you select
Specified Flux, your input will be the value of the flux at the boundary (i.e.,
the negative of the term in parenthesis on the left hand side of Equation 9.3-2
dot [as in the dot product of] n [as in the vector, n], where n is the normal into
the domain). If you select Specified Value, your input will be the value of the
scalar itself at the boundary. See the separate UDF Manual for information
on using UDFs for UDS boundary conditions.

7. Set the solution parameters in the Solution Controls panel, specify an initial value
for each UDS (as you do for all other scalar transport equations), and calculate a
solution.

8. Examine the results using the usual postprocessing tools. In each postprocessing
panel, the list of field variables will include the User Defined Scalars... category,
which contains the value of each UDS and its diffusion coefficient (Γk in Equa-
tion 9.3-1, 9.3-2, 9.3-3, or 9.3-4):
• User Scalar-n
• Diffusion Coef. of Scalar-n

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 9.3 User-Defined Scalar (UDS) Transport Equations

Multiphase Flow
1. Specify the number of scalars in the User-Defined Scalars panel (Figure 9.3.6).
Define −→ User-Defined −→Scalars...

Figure 9.3.6: The User-Defined Scalars Panel for a Multiphase Flow

i The maximum number of user-defined scalar transport equations you can

define is 50. FLUENT assigns numbers to the equations starting with 0.
The default association type is set to mixture for all scalars.

i Note that FLUENT assigns a default name for each scalar equation ((User
Scalar 0, User Scalar 1, etc.). These labels will appear in graphics
panels in FLUENT. You can change them by means of a UDF. See the
separate UDF Manual for details.
2. Keep the default Inlet Diffusion enabled if you want to include the diffusion term in
the UDS transport equation for all inflow and outflow boundaries.

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Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

3. Set the first user-defined scalar equation parameters by making sure that the UDS
Index is set to 0.
(a) Select the Phase you want the scalar equation solved in as a primary phase,
secondary phase, or the mixture.
(b) Specify the Solution Zones you want the scalar equation to be solved in as all
fluid zones, all solid zones, all zones (fluid and solid) or selected zones. If you
choose selected zones, click on the Edit button to view the list of zones you can
select.
(c) Specify the Flux Function to Unsteady Function the same way as you would for
a single phase flow (see above).
(d) Repeat this process for each scalar equation by incrementing the UDS Index.
(e) Click OK when all user scalar equations have been defined.

4. Specify source term(s) for each of the N UDS equations in the Fluid or Solid panel
as described for a single phase flow(see above).

5. Specify boundary conditions for the user-defined scalars in the mixture on all wall,
inflow, and outflow boundary as described for a single phase flow (see above).

6. Set the solution parameters, specify an initial value for each UDS (as you do for all
other scalar transport equations), and calculate a solution.

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 9.4 Periodic Flows

9.4 Periodic Flows

Periodic flow occurs when the physical geometry of interest and the expected pattern of
the flow/thermal solution have a periodically repeating nature. Two types of periodic
flow can be modeled in FLUENT. In the first type, no pressure drop occurs across the
periodic planes. In the second type, a pressure drop occurs across translationally periodic
boundaries, resulting in “fully-developed” or “streamwise-periodic” flow.
This section discusses streamwise-periodic flow. A description of no-pressure-drop peri-
odic flow is provided in Section 7.15: Periodic Boundary Conditions, and a description
of streamwise-periodic heat transfer is provided in Section 13.4: Modeling Periodic Heat
Transfer.
Information about streamwise-periodic flow is presented in the following sections:

• Section 9.4.1: Overview and Limitations

• Section 9.4.2: Theory

• Section 9.4.3: User Inputs for the Pressure-Based Solver

• Section 9.4.4: User Inputs for the Density-Based Solvers

• Section 9.4.5: Monitoring the Value of the Pressure Gradient

• Section 9.4.6: Postprocessing for Streamwise-Periodic Flows

9.4.1 Overview and Limitations

Overview
FLUENT provides the ability to calculate streamwise-periodic—or “fully-developed”—
fluid flow. These flows are encountered in a variety of applications, including flows in
compact heat exchanger channels and flows across tube banks. In such flow configura-
tions, the geometry varies in a repeating manner along the direction of the flow, leading
to a periodic fully-developed flow regime in which the flow pattern repeats in succes-
sive cycles. Other examples of streamwise-periodic flows include fully-developed flow in
pipes and ducts. These periodic conditions are achieved after a sufficient entrance length,
which depends on the flow Reynolds number and geometric configuration.
Streamwise-periodic flow conditions exist when the flow pattern repeats over some length
L, with a constant pressure drop across each repeating module along the streamwise
direction. Figure 9.4.1 depicts one example of a periodically repeating flow of this type
which has been modeled by including a single representative module.

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Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

3.57e-03

3.33e-03

3.09e-03

2.86e-03

2.62e-03

2.38e-03

2.14e-03

1.90e-03

1.67e-03

1.43e-03

1.19e-03

9.53e-04

7.15e-04

4.77e-04

2.39e-04

1.01e-06

Velocity Vectors Colored By Velocity Magnitude (m/s)

Figure 9.4.1: Example of Periodic Flow in a 2D Heat Exchanger Geometry

Limitations for Modeling Streamwise-Periodic Flow

The following limitations apply to modeling streamwise-periodic flow:

• The flow must be incompressible.

• The geometry must be translationally periodic. Note that transient simulations for
fully-developed fluid flow are not valid with translational periodic flow.

• If one of the density-based solvers is used, you can specify only the pressure jump;
for the pressure-based solver, you can specify either the pressure jump or the mass
flow rate.

• No net mass addition through inlets/exits or extra source terms is allowed.

• Species can be modeled only if inlets/exits (without net mass addition) are included
in the problem. Reacting flows are not permitted.

• Discrete phase and multiphase modeling are not allowed.

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 9.4 Periodic Flows

9.4.2 Theory
Definition of the Periodic Velocity
The assumption of periodicity implies that the velocity components repeat themselves in
space as follows:

~ = u(~r + 2L)
u(~r) = u(~r + L) ~ = ···
~ = v(~r + 2L)
v(~r) = v(~r + L) ~ = ··· (9.4-1)
~ = w(~r + 2L)
w(~r) = w(~r + L) ~ = ···

~ is the periodic length vector of the domain considered

where ~r is the position vector and L
(see Figure 9.4.2).
→ →
A L B L C

uA = uB = uC ∼ pB = ∼
pA = ∼ pC
vA = vB = vC pB - pA = pC - pB

Figure 9.4.2: Example of a Periodic Geometry

Definition of the Streamwise-Periodic Pressure

For viscous flows, the pressure is not periodic in the sense of Equation 9.4-1. Instead,
the pressure drop between modules is periodic:

~ = p(~r + L)
∆p = p(~r) − p(~r + L) ~ − p(~r + 2L)
~ = ··· (9.4-2)

If one of the density-based solvers is used, ∆p is specified as a constant value. For the
pressure-based solver, the local pressure gradient can be decomposed into two parts:
the gradient of a periodic component, ∇p̃(~r), and the gradient of a linearly-varying
~
L
component, β |L|
~ :

~
L
∇p(~r) = β + ∇p̃(~r) (9.4-3)
~
|L|

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Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

where p̃(~r) is the periodic pressure and β|~r| is the linearly-varying component of the
pressure. The periodic pressure is the pressure left over after subtracting out the linearly-
varying pressure. The linearly-varying component of the pressure results in a force acting
on the fluid in the momentum equations. Because the value of β is not known a priori,
it must be iterated on until the mass flow rate that you have defined is achieved in the
computational model. This correction of β occurs in the pressure correction step of the
SIMPLE, SIMPLEC, or PISO algorithm where the value of β is updated based on the
difference between the desired mass flow rate and the actual one. You have some control
over the number of sub-iterations used to update β, as described in Section 9.4.3: Setting
Parameters for the Calculation of β.

9.4.3 User Inputs for the Pressure-Based Solver

If you are using the pressure-based solver, in order to calculate a spatially periodic flow
field with a specified mass flow rate or pressure derivative, you must first create a grid
with translationally periodic boundaries that are parallel to each other and equal in
size. You can specify translational periodicity in the Periodic panel, as described in
Section 7.15: Periodic Boundary Conditions. (If you need to create periodic boundaries,
see Section 6.8.4: Creating Periodic Zones.)
Once the grid has been read into FLUENT, you will complete the following inputs in the
Periodic Conditions panel (Figure 9.4.3):
Define −→Periodic Conditions...

Figure 9.4.3: The Periodic Conditions Panel

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 9.4 Periodic Flows

1. Select either the specified mass flow rate (Specify Mass Flow) option or the specified
pressure gradient (Specify Pressure Gradient) option. For most problems, the mass
flow rate across the periodic boundary will be a known quantity; for others, the
mass flow rate will be unknown, but the pressure gradient (β in Equation 9.4-3)
will be a known quantity.
2. Specify the mass flow rate and/or the pressure gradient (β in Equation 9.4-3):
• If you selected the Specify Mass Flow option, enter the desired value for the
Mass Flow Rate. You can also specify an initial guess for the Pressure Gradient,
but this is not required.

i For axisymmetric problems, the mass flow rate is per 2π radians.

• If you selected the Specify Pressure Gradient option, enter the desired value for
Pressure Gradient.
3. Define the flow direction by setting the X,Y,Z (or X,Y in 2D) point under Flow
Direction. The flow will move in the direction of the vector pointing from the
origin to the specified point. The direction vector must be parallel to the periodic
translation direction or its opposite.
4. If you chose in step 1 to specify the mass flow rate, set the parameters used for the
calculation of β. These parameters are described in detail below.

After completing these inputs, you can solve the periodic velocity field to convergence.

Setting Parameters for the Calculation of β

If you choose to specify the mass flow rate, FLUENT will need to calculate the appropriate
value of the pressure gradient β. You can control this calculation by specifying the
Relaxation Factor and the Number of Iterations, and by supplying an initial guess for β.
All of these inputs are entered in the Periodic Conditions panel.
The Number of Iterations sets the number of sub-iterations performed on the correction
of β in the pressure correction equation. Because the value of β is not known a priori,
it must be iterated on until the Mass Flow Rate that you have defined is achieved in
the computational model. This correction of β occurs in the pressure correction step of
the SIMPLE, SIMPLEC, or PISO algorithm. A correction to the current value of β is
calculated based on the difference between the desired mass flow rate and the actual one.
The sub-iterations referred to here are performed within the pressure correction step to
improve the correction for β before the pressure correction equation is solved for the
resulting pressure (and velocity) correction values. The default value of 2 sub-iterations
should suffice in most problems, but can be increased to help speed convergence. The
Relaxation Factor is an under-relaxation factor that controls convergence of this iteration
process.

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Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

You can also speed up convergence of the periodic calculation by supplying an initial guess
for β in the Pressure Gradient field. Note that the current value of β will be displayed in
this field if you have performed any calculations. To update the Pressure Gradient field
with the current value at any time, click on the Update button.

9.4.4 User Inputs for the Density-Based Solvers

If you are using one of the density-based solvers, in order to calculate a spatially periodic
flow field with a specified pressure jump, you must first create a grid with translationally
periodic boundaries that are parallel to each other and equal in size. (If you need to
create periodic boundaries, see Section 6.8.4: Creating Periodic Zones.)
Then, follow the steps below:

1. In the Periodic panel (Figure 9.4.4), which is opened from the Boundary Conditions
panel, indicate that the periodicity is Translational (the default).
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

Figure 9.4.4: The Periodic Panel

2. Also in the Periodic panel, set the Periodic Pressure Jump (∆p in Equation 9.4-2).

After completing these inputs, you can solve the periodic velocity field to convergence.

9.4.5 Monitoring the Value of the Pressure Gradient

If you have specified the mass flow rate, you can monitor the value of the pressure
gradient β during the calculation using the Statistic Monitors panel. Select per/pr-grad as
the variable to be monitored. See Section 25.18.2: Monitoring Statistics for details about
using this feature.

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 9.4 Periodic Flows

9.4.6 Postprocessing for Streamwise-Periodic Flows

For streamwise-periodic flows, the velocity field should be completely periodic. If a
density-based solver is used to compute the periodic flow, the pressure field reported will
be the actual pressure p (which is not periodic). If the pressure-based solver is used,
the pressure field reported will be the periodic pressure field p̃(~r) of Equation 9.4-3.
Figure 9.4.5 displays the periodic pressure field in the geometry of Figure 9.4.1.
If you specified a mass flow rate and had FLUENT calculate the pressure gradient, you
can check the pressure gradient in the streamwise direction (β) by looking at the current
value for Pressure Gradient in the Periodic Conditions panel.

1.68e-03

1.29e-03

8.98e-04

5.07e-04

1.16e-04

-2.74e-04

-6.65e-04

-1.06e-03

-1.45e-03

-1.84e-03

-2.23e-03

-2.62e-03

-3.01e-03

-3.40e-03

-3.79e-03

-4.18e-03

Contours of Static Pressure (pascal)

Figure 9.4.5: Periodic Pressure Field Predicted for Flow in a 2D Heat Ex-
changer Geometry

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Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

9.5 Swirling and Rotating Flows

Many important engineering flows involve swirl or rotation and FLUENT is well-equipped
to model such flows. Swirling flows are common in combustion, with swirl introduced in
burners and combustors in order to increase residence time and stabilize the flow pattern.
Rotating flows are also encountered in turbomachinery, mixing tanks, and a variety of
other applications.
Information about rotating and swirling flows is provided in the following subsections:

• Section 9.5.1: Overview of Swirling and Rotating Flows

• Section 9.5.2: Physics of Swirling and Rotating Flows

• Section 9.5.3: Turbulence Modeling in Swirling Flows

• Section 9.5.4: Grid Setup for Swirling and Rotating Flows

• Section 9.5.5: Modeling Axisymmetric Flows with Swirl or Rotation

When you begin the analysis of a rotating or swirling flow, it is essential that you classify
your problem into one of the following five categories of flow:

• axisymmetric flows with swirl or rotation

• fully three-dimensional swirling or rotating flows

• flows requiring a rotating reference frame

• flows requiring multiple rotating reference frames or mixing planes

• flows requiring sliding meshes

Modeling and solution procedures for the first two categories are presented in this section.
The remaining three, which all involve “moving zones”, are discussed in Chapter 10: Mod-
eling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames.

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 9.5 Swirling and Rotating Flows

9.5.1 Overview of Swirling and Rotating Flows

Axisymmetric Flows with Swirl or Rotation
Your problem may be axisymmetric with respect to geometry and flow conditions but
still include swirl or rotation. In this case, you can model the flow in 2D (i.e., solve
the axisymmetric problem) and include the prediction of the circumferential (or swirl)
velocity. It is important to note that while the assumption of axisymmetry implies
that there are no circumferential gradients in the flow, there may still be non-zero swirl
velocities.

Momentum Conservation Equation for Swirl Velocity

The tangential momentum equation for 2D swirling flows may be written as

" # " #
∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂w 1 ∂ ∂ w vw

(ρw)+ (rρuw)+ (rρvw) = rµ + 2 r3 µ −ρ (9.5-1)
∂t r ∂x r ∂r r ∂x ∂x r ∂r ∂r r r

where x is the axial coordinate, r is the radial coordinate, u is the axial velocity, v is the
radial velocity, and w is the swirl velocity.

Three-Dimensional Swirling Flows

When there are geometric changes and/or flow gradients in the circumferential direction,
your swirling flow prediction requires a three-dimensional model. If you are planning
a 3D FLUENT model that includes swirl or rotation, you should be aware of the setup
constraints listed in Section 9.5.4: Coordinate System Restrictions. In addition, you may
wish to consider simplifications to the problem which might reduce it to an equivalent
axisymmetric problem, especially for your initial modeling effort. Because of the com-
plexity of swirling flows, an initial 2D study, in which you can quickly determine the
effects of various modeling and design choices, can be very beneficial.

i For 3D problems involving swirl or rotation, there are no special inputs

required during the problem setup and no special solution procedures.
Note, however, that you may want to use the cylindrical coordinate sys-
tem for defining velocity-inlet boundary condition inputs, as described in
Section 7.4.1: Defining the Velocity. Also, you may find the gradual in-
crease of the rotational speed (set as a wall or inlet boundary condition)
helpful during the solution process. This is described for axisymmetric
swirling flows in Section 9.5.5: Improving Solution Stability by Gradually
Increasing the Rotational or Swirl Speed.

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Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

Flows Requiring a Rotating Reference Frame

If your flow involves a rotating boundary which moves through the fluid (e.g., an impeller
blade or a grooved or notched surface), you will need to use a rotating reference frame
to model the problem. Such applications are described in detail in Section 10.2: Flow in
a Rotating Reference Frame. If you have more than one rotating boundary (e.g., several
impellers in a row), you can use multiple reference frames (described in Section 10.3.1: The
Multiple Reference Frame Model) or mixing planes (described in Section 10.3.2: The
Mixing Plane Model).

9.5.2 Physics of Swirling and Rotating Flows

In swirling flows, conservation of angular momentum (rw or r2 Ω = constant) tends to
create a free vortex flow, in which the circumferential velocity, w, increases sharply as the
radius, r, decreases (with w finally decaying to zero near r = 0 as viscous forces begin
to dominate). A tornado is one example of a free vortex. Figure 9.5.1 depicts the radial
distribution of w in a typical free vortex.

axis

Figure 9.5.1: Typical Radial Distribution of w in a Free Vortex

It can be shown that for an ideal free vortex flow, the centrifugal forces created by the
circumferential motion are in equilibrium with the radial pressure gradient:

∂p ρw2
= (9.5-2)
∂r r
As the distribution of angular momentum in a non-ideal vortex evolves, the form of this
radial pressure gradient also changes, driving radial and axial flows in response to the
highly non-uniform pressures that result. Thus, as you compute the distribution of swirl
in your FLUENT model, you will also notice changes in the static pressure distribution
and corresponding changes in the axial and radial flow velocities. It is this high degree
of coupling between the swirl and the pressure field that makes the modeling of swirling
flows complex.
In flows that are driven by wall rotation, the motion of the wall tends to impart a forced
vortex motion to the fluid, wherein w/r or Ω is constant. An important characteristic
of such flows is the tendency of fluid with high angular momentum (e.g., the flow near
the wall) to be flung radially outward (Figure 9.5.2). This is often referred to as “radial
pumping”, since the rotating wall is pumping the fluid radially outward.

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 9.5 Swirling and Rotating Flows

7.69e-03

6.92e-03

6.15e-03

5.38e-03

4.62e-03

3.85e-03

3.08e-03

2.31e-03

1.54e-03

7.69e-04

0.00e+00 axis of rotation

Contours of Stream Function (kg/s)

Figure 9.5.2: Stream Function Contours for Rotating Flow in a Cavity (Ge-
ometry of Figure 9.5.3)

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Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

9.5.3 Turbulence Modeling in Swirling Flows

If you are modeling turbulent flow with a significant amount of swirl (e.g., cyclone flows,
swirling jets), you should consider using one of FLUENT’s advanced turbulence models:
the RNG k- model, realizable k- model, or Reynolds stress model. The appropriate
choice depends on the strength of the swirl, which can be gauged by the swirl number.
The swirl number is defined as the ratio of the axial flux of angular momentum to the
axial flux of axial momentum:
Z
~
rw~v · dA
S= Z (9.5-3)
~
R̄ u~v · dA

where R̄ is the hydraulic radius.

For flows with weak to moderate swirl (S < 0.5), both the RNG k- model and the
realizable k- model yield appreciable improvements over the standard k- model. See
Sections 12.4.2, 12.4.3, and 12.19.6 for details about these models.
For highly swirling flows (S > 0.5), the Reynolds stress model (RSM) is strongly recom-
mended. The effects of strong turbulence anisotropy can be modeled rigorously only by
the second-moment closure adopted in the RSM. See Sections 12.7 and 12.12 for details
about this model.
For swirling flows encountered in devices such as cyclone separators and swirl combustors,
near-wall turbulence modeling is quite often a secondary issue at most. The fidelity of
the predictions in these cases is mainly determined by the accuracy of the turbulence
model in the core region. However, in cases where walls actively participate in the
generation of swirl (i.e., where the secondary flows and vortical flows are generated by
pressure gradients), non-equilibrium wall functions can often improve the predictions
since they use a law of the wall for mean velocity sensitized to pressure gradients. See
Section 12.10: Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows for additional
details about near-wall treatments for turbulence.

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 9.5 Swirling and Rotating Flows

9.5.4 Grid Setup for Swirling and Rotating Flows

Coordinate System Restrictions
Recall that for an axisymmetric problem, the axis of rotation must be the x axis and the
grid must lie on or above the y = 0 line.

Grid Sensitivity in Swirling and Rotating Flows

In addition to the setup constraint described above, you should be aware of the need
for sufficient resolution in your grid when solving flows that include swirl or rotation.
Typically, rotating boundary layers may be very thin, and your FLUENT model will
require a very fine grid near a rotating wall. In addition, swirling flows will often involve
steep gradients in the circumferential velocity (e.g., near the centerline of a free-vortex
type flow), and thus require a fine grid for accurate resolution.

9.5.5 Modeling Axisymmetric Flows with Swirl or Rotation

As discussed in Section 9.5.1: Overview of Swirling and Rotating Flows, you can solve
a 2D axisymmetric problem that includes the prediction of the circumferential or swirl
velocity. The assumption of axisymmetry implies that there are no circumferential gra-
dients in the flow, but that there may be non-zero circumferential velocities. Examples
of axisymmetric flows involving swirl or rotation are depicted in Figures 9.5.3 and 9.5.4.

Rotating Cover

Region to
be modeled

Figure 9.5.3: Rotating Flow in a Cavity

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Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

Region to be modeled

Figure 9.5.4: Swirling Flow in a Gas Burner

Problem Setup for Axisymmetric Swirling Flows

For axisymmetric problems, you will need to perform the following steps during the prob-
lem setup procedure. (Only those steps relevant specifically to the setup of axisymmetric
swirl/rotation are listed here. You will need to set up the rest of the problem as usual.)

1. Activate solution of the momentum equation in the circumferential direction by

turning on the Axisymmetric Swirl option for Space in the Solver panel.
Define −→ Models −→Solver...

2. Define the rotational or swirling component of velocity, rΩ, at inlets or walls.

Define −→Boundary Conditions...

i Remember to use the axis boundary type for the axis of rotation.

The procedures for input of rotational velocities at inlets and at walls are described in
detail in Sections 7.4.1 and 7.13.1.

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 9.5 Swirling and Rotating Flows

Solution Strategies for Axisymmetric Swirling Flows

The difficulties associated with solving swirling and rotating flows are a result of the
high degree of coupling between the momentum equations, which is introduced when the
influence of the rotational terms is large. A high level of rotation introduces a large radial
pressure gradient which drives the flow in the axial and radial directions. This, in turn,
determines the distribution of the swirl or rotation in the field. This coupling may lead
to instabilities in the solution process, and you may require special solution techniques
in order to obtain a converged solution. Solution techniques that may be beneficial in
swirling or rotating flow calculations include the following:

• (Pressure-based segregated solver only) Use the PRESTO! scheme (enabled in the
Pressure list for Discretization in the Solution Controls panel), which is well-suited
for the steep pressure gradients involved in swirling flows.

• Ensure that the mesh is sufficiently refined to resolve large gradients in pressure
and swirl velocity.

• (Pressure-based solver only) Change the under-relaxation parameters on the veloc-

ities, perhaps to 0.3–0.5 for the radial and axial velocities and 0.8–1.0 for swirl.

• (Pressure-based solver only) Use a sequential or step-by-step solution procedure, in

which some equations are temporarily left inactive (see below).

• If necessary, start the calculations using a low rotational speed or inlet swirl velocity,
increasing the rotation or swirl gradually in order to reach the final desired operating
condition (see below).

See Chapter 25: Using the Solver for details on the procedures used to make these changes
to the solution parameters. More details on the step-by-step procedure and on the gradual
increase of the rotational speed are provided below.

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Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

Step-By-Step Solution Procedures for Axisymmetric Swirling Flows

Often, flows with a high degree of swirl or rotation will be easier to solve if you use the
following step-by-step solution procedure, in which only selected equations are left active
in each step. This approach allows you to establish the field of angular momentum, then
leave it fixed while you update the velocity field, and then finally to couple the two fields
by solving all equations simultaneously.

i Since the density-based solvers solve all the flow equations simultaneously,
the following procedure applies only to the pressure-based solver.
In this procedure, you will use the Equations list in the Solution Controls panel to turn
individual transport equations on and off between calculations.

1. If your problem involves inflow/outflow, begin by solving the flow without rotation
or swirl effects. That is, enable the Axisymmetric option instead of the Axisymmetric
Swirl option in the Solver panel, and do not set any rotating boundary conditions.
The resulting flow-field data can be used as a starting guess for the full problem.

2. Enable the Axisymmetric Swirl option and set all rotating/swirling boundary condi-
tions.

3. Begin the prediction of the rotating/swirling flow by solving only the momentum
equation describing the circumferential velocity. This is the Swirl Velocity listed
in the Equations list in the Solution Controls panel. Let the rotation “diffuse”
throughout the flow field, based on your boundary condition inputs. In a turbulent
flow simulation, you may also want to leave the turbulence equations active during
this step. This step will establish the field of rotation throughout the domain.

4. Turn off the momentum equations describing the circumferential motion (Swirl
Velocity). Leaving the velocity in the circumferential direction fixed, solve the
momentum and continuity (pressure) equations (Flow in the Equations list in the
Solution Controls panel) in the other coordinate directions. This step will establish
the axial and radial flows that are a result of the rotation in the field. Again, if
your problem involves turbulent flow, you should leave the turbulence equations
active during this calculation.

5. Turn on all of the equations simultaneously to obtain a fully coupled solution. Note
the under-relaxation controls suggested above.

In addition to the steps above, you may want to simplify your calculation by solving
isothermal flow before adding heat transfer or by solving laminar flow before adding a
turbulence model. These two methods can be used for any of the solvers (i.e., pressure-
based or density-based).

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 9.5 Swirling and Rotating Flows

Improving Solution Stability by Gradually Increasing the Rotational or Swirl Speed

Because the rotation or swirl defined by the boundary conditions can lead to large com-
plex forces in the flow, your FLUENT calculations will be less stable as the speed of
rotation or degree of swirl increases. Hence, one of the most effective controls you can
apply to the solution is to solve your rotating flow problem starting with a low rotational
speed or swirl velocity and then slowly increase the magnitude up to the desired level.
The procedure for accomplishing this is as follows:

1. Set up the problem using a low rotational speed or swirl velocity in your inputs for
boundary conditions. The rotation or swirl in this first attempt might be selected
as 10% of the actual operating conditions.

2. Solve the problem at these conditions, perhaps using the step-by-step solution
strategy outlined above.

3. Save this initial solution data.

4. Modify your inputs (boundary conditions). Increase the speed of rotation, perhaps
doubling it.

5. Restart the calculation using the solution data saved in step 3 as the initial solution
for the new calculation. Save the new data.

6. Continue to increment the speed of rotation, following steps 4 and 5, until you
reach the desired operating condition.

Postprocessing for Axisymmetric Swirling Flows

Reporting of results for axisymmetric swirling flows is the same as for other flows. The
following additional variables are available for postprocessing when axisymmetric swirl
is active:

• Swirl Velocity (in the Velocity... category)

• Swirl-Wall Shear Stress (in the Wall Fluxes... category)

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Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

9.6 Compressible Flows

Compressibility effects are encountered in gas flows at high velocity and/or in which there
are large pressure variations. When the flow velocity approaches or exceeds the speed of
sound of the gas or when the pressure change in the system (∆p/p) is large, the variation
of the gas density with pressure has a significant impact on the flow velocity, pressure,
and temperature. Compressible flows create a unique set of flow physics for which you
must be aware of the special input requirements and solution techniques described in
this section. Figures 9.6.1 and 9.6.2 show examples of compressible flows computed
using FLUENT.

1.57e+00

1.43e+00

1.29e+00

1.16e+00

1.02e+00

8.82e-01

7.45e-01

6.07e-01

4.70e-01

3.32e-01

1.95e-01

Contours of Mach Number

Figure 9.6.1: Transonic Flow in a Converging-Diverging Nozzle

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 9.6 Compressible Flows

2.02e+04

1.24e+04

4.68e+03

-3.07e+03

-1.08e+04

-1.86e+04

-2.63e+04

-3.41e+04

-4.18e+04

-4.95e+04

-5.73e+04

Contours of Static Pressure (pascal)

Figure 9.6.2: Mach 0.675 Flow Over a Bump in a 2D Channel

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Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

Information about compressible flows is provided in the following subsections:

• Section 9.6.1: When to Use the Compressible Flow Model

• Section 9.6.2: Physics of Compressible Flows

• Section 9.6.3: Modeling Inputs for Compressible Flows

• Section 9.6.4: Floating Operating Pressure

• Section 9.6.5: Solution Strategies for Compressible Flows

• Section 9.6.6: Reporting of Results for Compressible Flows

9.6.1 When to Use the Compressible Flow Model

Compressible flows can be characterized by the value of the Mach number:

M ≡ u/c (9.6-1)

Here, c is the speed of sound in the gas:

q
c= γRT (9.6-2)

and γ is the ratio of specific heats (cp /cv ).

When the Mach number is less than 1.0, the flow is termed subsonic. At Mach numbers
much less than 1.0 (M < 0.1 or so), compressibility effects are negligible and the variation
of the gas density with pressure can safely be ignored in your flow modeling. As the Mach
number approaches 1.0 (which is referred to as the transonic flow regime), compressibility
effects become important. When the Mach number exceeds 1.0, the flow is termed
supersonic, and may contain shocks and expansion fans which can impact the flow pattern
significantly. FLUENT provides a wide range of compressible flow modeling capabilities
for subsonic, transonic, and supersonic flows.

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 9.6 Compressible Flows

9.6.2 Physics of Compressible Flows

Compressible flows are typically characterized by the total pressure p0 and total tem-
perature T0 of the flow. For an ideal gas, these quantities can be related to the static
pressure and temperature by the following:

R T0 Cp
p0 T T
dT
= exp( ) (9.6-3)
p R

For constant Cp , Equation 9.6-3 reduces to

γ/(γ−1)
p0 γ−1 2

= 1+ M (9.6-4)
p 2
T0 γ−1 2
= 1+ M (9.6-5)
T 2

These relationships describe the variation of the static pressure and temperature in the
flow as the velocity (Mach number) changes under isentropic conditions. For example,
given a pressure ratio from inlet to exit (total to static), Equation 9.6-4 can be used to
estimate the exit Mach number which would exist in a one-dimensional isentropic flow.
For air, Equation 9.6-4 predicts a choked flow (Mach number of 1.0) at an isentropic
pressure ratio, p/p0 , of 0.5283. This choked flow condition will be established at the
point of minimum flow area (e.g., in the throat of a nozzle). In the subsequent area
expansion the flow may either accelerate to a supersonic flow in which the pressure will
continue to drop, or return to subsonic flow conditions, decelerating with a pressure rise.
If a supersonic flow is exposed to an imposed pressure increase, a shock will occur, with
a sudden pressure rise and deceleration accomplished across the shock.

Basic Equations for Compressible Flows

Compressible flows are described by the standard continuity and momentum equations
solved by FLUENT, and you do not need to activate any special physical models (other
than the compressible treatment of density as detailed below). The energy equation
solved by FLUENT correctly incorporates the coupling between the flow velocity and the
static temperature, and should be activated whenever you are solving a compressible flow.
In addition, if you are using the pressure-based solver, you should activate the viscous
dissipation terms in Equation 13.2-1, which become important in high-Mach-number
flows.

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Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

The Compressible Form of the Gas Law

For compressible flows, the ideal gas law is written in the following form:

pop + p
ρ= R (9.6-6)
Mw
T

where pop is the operating pressure defined in the Operating Conditions panel, p is the
local static pressure relative to the operating pressure, R is the universal gas constant,
and Mw is the molecular weight. The temperature, T , will be computed from the energy
equation.

9.6.3 Modeling Inputs for Compressible Flows

To set up a compressible flow in FLUENT, you will need to follow the steps listed below.
(Only those steps relevant specifically to the setup of compressible flows are listed here.
You will need to set up the rest of the problem as usual.)

1. Set the Operating Pressure in the Operating Conditions panel.

Define −→Operating Conditions...
(You can think of pop as the absolute static pressure at a point in the flow where you
will define the gauge pressure p to be zero. See Section 8.14: Operating Pressure
for guidelines on setting the operating pressure. For time-dependent compressible
flows, you may want to specify a floating operating pressure instead of a constant
operating pressure. See Section 9.6.4: Floating Operating Pressure for details.)

2. Activate solution of the energy equation in the Energy panel.

Define −→ Models −→Energy...

3. (Pressure-based solver only) If you are modeling turbulent flow, activate the op-
tional viscous dissipation terms in the energy equation by turning on Viscous Heating
in the Viscous Model panel. Note that these terms can be important in high-speed
flows.
Define −→ Models −→Viscous...
This step is not necessary if you are using one of the density-based solvers, because
the density-based solvers always include the viscous dissipation terms in the energy
equation.

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 9.6 Compressible Flows

4. Set the following items in the Materials panel:

Define −→Materials...
(a) Select ideal-gas in the drop-down list next to Density.
(b) Define all relevant properties (specific heat, molecular weight, thermal con-
ductivity, etc.).

5. Set boundary conditions (using the Boundary Conditions panel), being sure to choose
a well-posed boundary condition combination that is appropriate for the flow regime.
See below for details. Recall that all inputs for pressure (either total pressure or
static pressure) must be relative to the operating pressure, and the temperature
inputs at inlets should be total (stagnation) temperatures, not static temperatures.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

These inputs should ensure a well-posed compressible flow problem. You will also want to
consider special solution parameter settings, as noted in Section 9.6.5: Solution Strategies
for Compressible Flows, before beginning the flow calculation.

Boundary Conditions for Compressible Flows

Well-posed inlet and exit boundary conditions for compressible flow are listed below:

• For flow inlets:

– Pressure inlet: Inlet total temperature and total pressure and, for supersonic
inlets, static pressure
– Mass flow inlet: Inlet mass flow and total temperature

• For flow exits:

– Pressure outlet: Exit static pressure (ignored if flow is supersonic at the exit.
All the information travels downstream in a supersonic region, hence the pres-
sure at the outlet can be computed by directly extrapolating from the adjacent
cell center [143]. Therefore, it is not meaningful to use the exit static pressure
prescribed in the boundary conditions panel, and the exit static pressure is
ignored).

It is important to note that your boundary condition inputs for pressure (either total
pressure or static pressure) must be in terms of gauge pressure—i.e., pressure relative to
the operating pressure defined in the Operating Conditions panel, as described above.
All temperature inputs at inlets should be total (stagnation) temperatures, not static
temperatures.

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Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

9.6.4 Floating Operating Pressure

FLUENT provides a “floating operating pressure” option to handle time-dependent com-
pressible flows with a gradual increase in the absolute pressure in the domain. This option
is desirable for slow subsonic flows with static pressure build-up, since it efficiently ac-
counts for the slow changing of absolute pressure without using acoustic waves as the
transport mechanism for the pressure build-up.
Examples of typical applications include the following:

• combustion or heating of a gas in a closed domain

• pumping of a gas into a closed domain

Limitations
The floating operating pressure option should not be used for transonic or incompressible
flows. In addition, it cannot be used if your model includes any pressure inlet, pressure
outlet, exhaust fan, inlet vent, intake fan, outlet vent, or pressure far field boundaries.

Theory
The floating operating pressure option allows FLUENT to calculate the pressure rise
(or drop) from the integral mass balance, separately from the solution of the pressure
correction equation. When this option is activated, the absolute pressure at each iteration
can be expressed as

pabs = pop,float + p (9.6-7)

where p is the pressure relative to the reference location, which in this case is in the cell
with the minimum pressure value. Thus the reference location itself is floating.
pop,float is referred to as the floating operating pressure, and is defined as

pop,float = p0op + ∆pop (9.6-8)

where p0op is the initial operating pressure and ∆pop is the pressure rise.
Including the pressure rise ∆pop in the floating operating pressure pop,float , rather than in
the pressure p, helps to prevent roundoff error. If the pressure rise were included in p, the
calculation of the pressure gradient for the momentum equation would give an inexact
balance due to precision limits for 32-bit real numbers.

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 9.6 Compressible Flows

Enabling Floating Operating Pressure

When time dependence is active, you can turn on the Floating Operating Pressure option
in the Operating Conditions panel.
Define −→Operating Conditions...
(Note that the inputs for Reference Pressure Location will disappear when you enable
Floating Operating Pressure, since these inputs are no longer relevant.)

i The floating operating pressure option should not be used for transonic
flows or for incompressible flows. It is meaningful only for slow subsonic
flows of ideal gases, when the characteristic time scale is much larger than
the sonic time scale.

Setting the Initial Value for the Floating Operating Pressure

When the floating operating pressure option is enabled, you will need to specify a value
for the Initial Operating Pressure in the Solution Initialization panel.
Solve −→ Initialize −→Initialize...
This initial value is stored in the case file with all your other initial values.

Storage and Reporting of the Floating Operating Pressure

The current value of the floating operating pressure is stored in the data file. If you visit
the Operating Conditions panel after a number of time steps have been performed, the
current value of the Operating Pressure will be displayed.
Note that the floating operating pressure will automatically be reset to the initial oper-
ating pressure if you reset the data (i.e., start over at the first iteration of the first time
step).

Monitoring Absolute Pressure

You can monitor the absolute pressure during the calculation using the Surface Monitors
panel (see Section 25.18.4: Monitoring Surface Integrals for details). You can also gen-
erate graphical plots or alphanumeric reports of absolute pressure when your solution
is complete. The Absolute Pressure variable is contained in the Pressure... category of
the variable selection drop-down list that appears in postprocessing panels. See Chap-
ter 30: Field Function Definitions for its definition.

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Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

9.6.5 Solution Strategies for Compressible Flows

The difficulties associated with solving compressible flows are a result of the high degree
of coupling between the flow velocity, density, pressure, and energy. This coupling may
lead to instabilities in the solution process and, therefore, may require special solution
techniques in order to obtain a converged solution. In addition, the presence of shocks
(discontinuities) in the flow introduces an additional stability problem during the cal-
culation. Solution techniques that may be beneficial in compressible flow calculations
include the following:

• (Pressure-based solver only) Initialize the flow to be near stagnation (i.e. velocity
small but not zero, pressure to inlet total pressure, temperature to inlet total tem-
perature). Turn off the energy equation for the first 50 iterations. Leave the energy
under-relaxation at 1. Set the pressure under-relaxation to 0.4, and the momentum
under-relaxation to 0.3. After the solution stabilizes and the energy equation has
been turned on, increase the pressure under-relaxation to 0.7.

• Set reasonable limits for the temperature and pressure (in the Solution Limits panel)
to avoid solution divergence, especially at the start of the calculation. If FLUENT
prints messages about temperature or pressure being limited as the solution nears
convergence, the high or low computed values may be physical, and you will need
to change the limits to allow these values.

• If required, begin the calculations using a reduced pressure ratio at the bound-
aries, increasing the pressure ratio gradually in order to reach the final desired
operating condition. If the Mach number is low, you can also consider starting the
compressible flow calculation from an incompressible flow solution (although the
incompressible flow solution can in some cases be a rather poor initial guess for the
compressible calculation).

• In some cases, computing an inviscid solution as a starting point may be helpful.

See Chapter 25: Using the Solver for details on the procedures used to make these changes
to the solution parameters.

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 9.7 Inviscid Flows

9.6.6 Reporting of Results for Compressible Flows

You can display the results of your compressible flow calculations in the same manner
that you would use for an incompressible flow. The variables listed below are of particular
interest when you model compressible flow:

• Total Temperature
• Total Pressure
• Mach Number

These variables are contained in the variable selection drop-down list that appears in
postprocessing panels. Total Temperature is in the Temperature... category, Total Pressure
is in the Pressure... category, and Mach Number is in the Velocity... category. See
Chapter 30: Field Function Definitions for their definitions.

9.7 Inviscid Flows

Inviscid flow analyses neglect the effect of viscosity on the flow and are appropriate for
high-Reynolds-number applications where inertial forces tend to dominate viscous forces.
One example for which an inviscid flow calculation is appropriate is an aerodynamic
analysis of some high-speed projectile. In a case like this, the pressure forces on the body
will dominate the viscous forces. Hence, an inviscid analysis will give you a quick estimate
of the primary forces acting on the body. After the body shape has been modified to
maximize the lift forces and minimize the drag forces, you can perform a viscous analysis
to include the effects of the fluid viscosity and turbulent viscosity on the lift and drag
forces.
Another area where inviscid flow analyses are routinely used is to provide a good ini-
tial solution for problems involving complicated flow physics and/or complicated flow
geometry. In a case like this, the viscous forces are important, but in the early stages of
the calculation the viscous terms in the momentum equations will be ignored. Once the
calculation has been started and the residuals are decreasing, you can turn on the viscous
terms (by enabling laminar or turbulent flow) and continue the solution to convergence.
For some very complicated flows, this is the only way to get the calculation started.
Information about inviscid flows is provided in the following subsections:

• Section 9.7.1: Euler Equations

• Section 9.7.2: Setting Up an Inviscid Flow Model
• Section 9.7.3: Solution Strategies for Inviscid Flows
• Section 9.7.4: Postprocessing for Inviscid Flows

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Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

9.7.1 Euler Equations

For inviscid flows, FLUENT solves the Euler equations. The mass conservation equation
is the same as for a laminar flow, but the momentum and energy conservation equations
are reduced due to the absence of molecular diffusion.
In this section, the conservation equations for inviscid flow in an inertial (non-rotating)
reference frame are presented. The equations that are applicable to non-inertial reference
frames are described in Chapter 10: Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames.
The conservation equations relevant for species transport and other models will be dis-
cussed in the chapters where those models are described.

The Mass Conservation Equation

The equation for conservation of mass, or continuity equation, can be written as follows:

∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρ~v ) = Sm (9.7-1)
∂t
Equation 9.7-1 is the general form of the mass conservation equation and is valid for
incompressible as well as compressible flows. The source Sm is the mass added to the
continuous phase from the dispersed second phase (e.g., due to vaporization of liquid
droplets) and any user-defined sources.
For 2D axisymmetric geometries, the continuity equation is given by

∂ρ ∂ ∂ ρvr
+ (ρvx ) + (ρvr ) + = Sm (9.7-2)
∂t ∂x ∂r r
where x is the axial coordinate, r is the radial coordinate, vx is the axial velocity, and vr
is the radial velocity.

Momentum Conservation Equations

Conservation of momentum is described by

∂
(ρ~v ) + ∇ · (ρ~v~v ) = −∇p + ρ~g + F~ (9.7-3)
∂t

where p is the static pressure and ρ~g and F~ are the gravitational body force and external
body forces (e.g., forces that arise from interaction with the dispersed phase), respectively.
F~ also contains other model-dependent source terms such as porous-media and user-
defined sources.

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 9.7 Inviscid Flows

For 2D axisymmetric geometries, the axial and radial momentum conservation equations
are given by

∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂p
(ρvx ) + (rρvx vx ) + (rρvr vx ) = − + Fx (9.7-4)
∂t r ∂x r ∂r ∂x
and

∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂p
(ρvr ) + (rρvx vr ) + (rρvr vr ) = − + Fr (9.7-5)
∂t r ∂x r ∂r ∂r
where

∂vx ∂vr vr
∇ · ~v = + + (9.7-6)
∂x ∂r r

Energy Conservation Equation

Conservation of energy is described by
 
∂ X
(ρE) + ∇ · (~v (ρE + p)) = −∇ ·  hj Jj  + Sh (9.7-7)
∂t j

9.7.2 Setting Up an Inviscid Flow Model

For inviscid flow problems, you will need to perform the following steps during the prob-
lem setup procedure. (Only those steps relevant specifically to the setup of inviscid flow
are listed here. You will need to set up the rest of the problem as usual.)

1. Activate the calculation of inviscid flow by selecting Inviscid in the Viscous Model
panel.
Define −→ Models −→Viscous...

2. Set boundary conditions and flow properties.

Define −→Boundary Conditions...
Define −→Materials...

3. Solve the problem and examine the results.

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Modeling Basic Fluid Flow

9.7.3 Solution Strategies for Inviscid Flows

Since inviscid flow problems will usually involve high-speed flow, you may have to reduce
the under-relaxation factors for momentum (if you are using the pressure-based solver)
or reduce the Courant number (if you are using the density-based solver), in order to
get the solution started. Once the flow is started and the residuals are monotonically
decreasing, you can start increasing the under-relaxation factors or Courant number back
up to the default values.
Modifications to the under-relaxation factors and the Courant number can be made in
the Solution Controls panel.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
The solution strategies for compressible flows apply also to inviscid flows. See Sec-
tion 9.6.5: Solution Strategies for Compressible Flows for details.

9.7.4 Postprocessing for Inviscid Flows

If you are interested in the lift and drag forces acting on your model, you can use the
Force Reports panel to compute them.
Report −→Forces...
See Section 29.3: Forces on Boundaries for details.

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Chapter 10. Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference
Frames

This chapter provides details about the moving reference frame capabilities in FLUENT.
The information in this chapter is divided into the following sections:

• Section 10.1: Introduction

• Section 10.2: Flow in a Rotating Reference Frame

• Section 10.3: Flow in Multiple Rotating Reference Frames

• Section 10.4: Grid Setup for a Single Rotating Reference Frame

• Section 10.5: Grid Setup for a Multiple Rotating Reference Frame

• Section 10.6: Steps in Using Rotating Reference Frames

• Section 10.7: Setting Up a Single Rotating Reference Frame Problem

• Section 10.8: Solution Strategies for a Single Rotating Reference Frame

• Section 10.9: Postprocessing for a Single Rotating Reference Frame

• Section 10.10: Setting Up a Multiple Rotating Reference Frame Problem

• Section 10.11: Solution Strategies for MRF and Mixing Plane Problems

• Section 10.12: Postprocessing for MRF and Mixing Plane Problems

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Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

10.1 Introduction
FLUENT solves the equations of fluid flow and heat transfer, by default, in a stationary (or
inertial) reference frame. However, there are many problems where it is advantageous
to solve the equations in a moving (or non-inertial) reference frame. Such problems
typically involve moving parts (such as rotating blades, impellers, and similar types of
moving surfaces), and it is the flow around these moving parts that is of interest. In most
cases, the moving parts render the problem unsteady when viewed from the stationary
frame. With a moving reference frame, however, the flow around the moving part can
(with certain restrictions) be modeled as a steady-state problem with respect to the
moving frame.
FLUENT’s moving reference frame modeling capability allows you to model problems
involving moving parts by allowing you to activate moving reference frames in selected cell
zones. When a moving reference frame is activated, the equations of motion are modified
to incorporate the additional acceleration terms which occur due to the transformation
from the stationary to the moving reference frame. By solving these equations in a
steady-state manner, the flow around the moving parts can be modeled.
For simple problems, it may be possible to refer the entire computational domain to a
single moving reference frame. This is known as the single reference frame (or SRF)
approach. The use of the SRF approach is possible, provided the geometry meets certain
requirements (as discussed in Section 10.2: Flow in a Rotating Reference Frame). For
more complex geometries, it may not be possible to use a single reference frame. In
such cases, you must break up the problem into multiple cells zones, with well-defined
interfaces between the zones. The manner in which the interfaces are treated leads to
two approximate, steady-state modeling methods for this class of problem: the multiple
reference frame (or MRF) approach, and the mixing plane approach. These approaches
will be discussed in Sections 10.3.1 and 10.3.2. If unsteady interaction between the
stationary and moving parts is important, you can employ the Sliding Mesh approach to
capture the transient behavior of the flow. The sliding meshing model will be discussed
in Chapter 11: Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes.

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 10.1 Introduction

Figure 10.1.1: Single Component (Blower Wheel Blade Passage)

Figure 10.1.2: Multiple Component (Blower Wheel and Casing)

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Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

10.2 Flow in a Rotating Reference Frame

10.2.1 Overview
The principal reason for employing a moving reference frame is to render a problem which
is unsteady in the stationary (inertial) frame steady with respect to the moving frame. For
a steadily rotating frame (i.e., the rotational speed is constant), it is possible to transform
the equations of fluid motion to the rotating frame such that steady-state solutions are
possible. By default, FLUENT permits the activation of a moving reference frame with a
steady rotational speed. If the rotational speed is not constant, the transformed equations
will contain additional terms which are not included in FLUENT’s formulation (although
they can be added as source terms using user-defined functions). It should also be noted
that you can run an unsteady simulation in a moving reference frame with constant
rotational speed. This would be necessary if you wanted to simulate, for example, vortex
shedding from a rotating fan blade. The unsteadiness in this case is due to a natural fluid
instability (vortex generation) rather than induced from interaction with a stationary
component.
In Section 10.2.2: Equations for a Rotating Reference Frame, the equations for a steadily
rotating frame will be described.

10.2.2 Equations for a Rotating Reference Frame

Consider a coordinate system which is rotating steadily with angular velocity ω ~ relative
to a stationary (inertial) reference frame, as illustrated in Figure 10.2.1. The origin of
the rotating system is located by a position vector r~0 .

Figure 10.2.1: Stationary and Rotating Reference Frames

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 10.2 Flow in a Rotating Reference Frame

The axis of rotation is defined by a unit direction vector â such that

ω
~ = ωâ (10.2-1)

The computational domain for the CFD problem is defined with respect to the rotating
frame such that an arbitrary point in the CFD domain is located by a position vector ~r
from the origin of the rotating frame.
The fluid velocities can be transformed from the stationary frame to the rotating frame
using the following relation:

~vr = ~v − ~ur (10.2-2)

where
~ × ~r
~ur = ω (10.2-3)

In the above, ~vr is the relative velocity (the velocity viewed from the rotating frame), ~v
is the absolute velocity (the velocity viewed from the stationary frame), and ~ur is the
“whirl” velocity (the velocity due to the moving frame).
When the equations of motion are solved in the rotating reference frame, the accel-
eration of the fluid is augmented by additional terms that appear in the momentum
equations [24]. Moreover, the equations can be formulated in two different ways:

• Expressing the momentum equations using the relative velocities as dependent vari-
ables (known as the relative velocity formulation).

• Expressing the momentum equations using the absolute velocities as dependent

variables in the momentum equations (known as the absolute velocity formulation).

The exact forms of the governing equations for these two formulations will be provided in
the sections below. It can be noted here that FLUENT’s pressure-based solvers provide the
option to use either of these two formulations, whereas the density-based solvers always
use the absolute velocity formulation. The advantages of each velocity formulation are
discussed in Section 10.7.1: Choosing the Relative or Absolute Velocity Formulation.

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Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

Relative Velocity Formulation

For the relative velocity formulation, the governing equations of fluid flow for a steadily
rotating frame can be written as follows:
Conservation of mass:

∂ρ
+ ∇ · ρ~vr = 0 (10.2-4)
∂t
Conservation of momentum:
∂
(ρ~vr ) + ∇ · (ρ~vr~vr ) + ρ(2~ω × ~vr + ω ~ × ~r) = −∇p + ∇τ r + F~
~ ×ω (10.2-5)
∂t

Conservation of energy:
∂
(ρEr ) + ∇ · (ρ~vr Hr ) = ∇ · (k∇T + τ r · ~vr ) + Sh (10.2-6)
∂t

The momentum equation contains two additional acceleration terms: the Coriolis acceler-
ation (2~ω ×~vr ), and the centripetal acceleration (~ω ×~ω ×~r). In addition, the viscous stress
(τ r ) is identical to Equation 9.2-4 except that relative velocity derivatives are used. The
energy equation is written in terms of the relative internal energy (Er ) and the relative
total enthalpy (Hr ), also known as the rothalpy. These variables are defined as:

p 1 2
Er = h − + (vr − ur 2 ) (10.2-7)
ρ 2

p
Hr = Er + (10.2-8)
ρ

Absolute Velocity Formulation

For the absolute velocity formulation, the governing equations of fluid flow for a steadily
rotating frame can be written as follows:
Conservation of mass:

∂ρ
+ ∇ · ρ~vr = 0 (10.2-9)
∂t
Conservation of momentum:

∂
ρ~v + ∇ · (ρ~vr~v ) + ρ(~ω × ~v ) = −∇p + ∇τ + F~ (10.2-10)
∂t

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 10.2 Flow in a Rotating Reference Frame

Conservation of energy:

∂
ρE + ∇ · (ρ~vr H + p~ur ) = ∇ · (k∇T + τ · ~v ) + Sh (10.2-11)
∂t
In this formulation, the Coriolis and centripetal accelerations can be collapsed into a
single term (~ω × ~v ).

10.2.3 Single Rotating Reference Frame (SRF) Modeling

Many problems permit the entire computational domain to be referred to as a single
rotating reference frame (hence the name SRF modeling). In such cases, the equations
given in Section 10.2.2: Equations for a Rotating Reference Frame are solved in all fluid
cell zones. Steady-state solutions are possible in SRF models provided suitable boundary
conditions are prescribed. In particular, wall boundaries must adhere to the following
requirements:

• Any walls which are moving with the reference frame can assume any shape. An
example would be the blade surfaces associated with a pump impeller. The no slip
condition is defined in the relative frame such that the relative velocity is zero on
the moving walls.

• Walls can be defined which are non-moving with respect to the stationary coor-
dinate system, but these walls must be surfaces of revolution about the axis of
rotation. Here the so slip condition is defined such that the absolute velocity is
zero on the walls. An example of this type of boundary would be a cylindrical wind
tunnel wall which surrounds a rotating propeller.

Rotationally periodic boundaries may also be used, but the surface must be periodic
about the axis of rotation. As an example, it is very common to model flow through a
blade row on a turbomachine by assuming the flow to be rotationally periodic and using
a periodic domain about a single blade. This permits good resolution of the flow around
the blade without the expense of model all blades in the blade row (see Figure 10.2.2).
Flow boundary conditions in FLUENT (inlets and outlets) can, in most cases, be pre-
scribed in either the stationary or rotating frames. For example, for a velocity inlet,
one can specify either the relative velocity or absolute velocity, depending on which is
more convenient. In some cases (e.g. pressure inlets) there are restrictions based upon
the velocity formulation which has been chosen. For additional information on these
and other boundary conditions, see Section 10.7: Setting Up a Single Rotating Reference
Frame Problem and Chapter 7: Boundary Conditions.

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Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

Figure 10.2.2: Single Blade Model with Rotationally Periodic Boundaries

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 10.3 Flow in Multiple Rotating Reference Frames

10.3 Flow in Multiple Rotating Reference Frames

Many problems involve multiple moving parts or contain stationary surfaces which are
not surfaces of revolution (and therefore cannot be used with the Single Reference Frame
modeling approach). For these problems, you must break up the model into multiple
fluid/solid cell zones, with interface boundaries separating the zones. Zones which contain
the moving components can then be solved using the moving reference frame equations
(Section 10.2.2: Equations for a Rotating Reference Frame), whereas stationary zones
can be solved with the stationary frame equations. The manner in which the equations
are treated at the interface lead to two approaches which are supported in FLUENT:

• Multiple Rotating Reference Frames

– Multiple Reference Frame model (MRF)
– Mixing Plane Model (MPM)

• Sliding Mesh Model (SMM)

Both the MRF and mixing plane approaches are steady-state approximations, and dif-
fer primarily in the manner in which conditions at the interfaces are treated. These
approaches will be discussed in the sections below. The sliding mesh model approach
is, on the other hand, inherently unsteady due to the motion of the mesh with time.
This approach is discussed in Chapter 11: Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming
Meshes.

10.3.1 The Multiple Reference Frame Model

Overview
The MRF model [223] is, perhaps, the simplest of the two approaches for multiple zones.
It is a steady-state approximation in which individual cell zones move at different rota-
tional and/or translational speeds. The flow in each moving cell zone is solved using the
moving reference frame equations (see Section 10.2: Flow in a Rotating Reference Frame).
If the zone is stationary (ω = 0), the stationary equations are used. At the interfaces
between cell zones, a local reference frame transformation is performed to enable flow
variables in one zone to be used to calculate fluxes at the boundary of the adjacent zone.
The MRF interface formulation will be discussed in more detail in Section 10.3.1: The
MRF Interface Formulation.
It should be noted that the MRF approach does not account for the relative motion of
a moving zone with respect to adjacent zones (which may be moving or stationary); the
grid remains fixed for the computation. This is analogous to freezing the motion of the
moving part in a specific position and observing the instantaneous flowfield with the rotor
in that position. Hence, the MRF is often referred to as the “frozen rotor approach.”

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Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

While the MRF approach is clearly an approximation, it can provide a reasonable model
of the flow for many applications. For example, the MRF model can be used for turbo-
machinery applications in which rotor-stator interaction is relatively weak, and the flow
is relatively uncomplicated at the interface between the moving and stationary zones.
In mixing tanks, for example, since the impeller-baffle interactions are relatively weak,
large-scale transient effects are not present and the MRF model can be used.
Another potential use of the MRF model is to compute a flow field that can be used as
an initial condition for a transient sliding mesh calculation. This eliminates the need for
a startup calculation. The multiple reference frame model should not be used, however,
if it is necessary to actually simulate the transients that may occur in strong rotor-stator
interactions, the sliding mesh model alone should be used (see Section 11.2: Sliding Mesh
Theory).

Examples
For a mixing tank with a single impeller, you can define a rotating reference frame that
encompasses the impeller and the flow surrounding it, and use a stationary frame for
the flow outside the impeller region. An example of this configuration is illustrated
in Figure 10.3.1. (The dashes denote the interface between the two reference frames.)
Steady-state flow conditions are assumed at the interface between the two reference
frames. That is, the velocity at the interface must be the same (in absolute terms) for
each reference frame. The grid does not move.
You can also model a problem that includes more than one rotating reference frame.
Figure 10.3.2 shows a geometry that contains two rotating impellers side by side. This
problem would be modeled using three reference frames: the stationary frame outside
both impeller regions and two separate rotating reference frames for the two impellers.
(As noted above, the dashes denote the interfaces between reference frames.)

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 10.3 Flow in Multiple Rotating Reference Frames

Figure 10.3.1: Geometry with One Rotating Impeller

Figure 10.3.2: Geometry with Two Rotating Impellers

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Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

Limitations
The following limitations exist when using the MRF approach:

• The interfaces separating a moving region from adjacent regions must be oriented
such that the component of the frame velocity normal to the boundary is zero. That
is, the interfaces must be surfaces of revolution about the axis of rotation defined
for the fluid zone. For the example shown in Figure 10.3.1, this requires the dashed
boundary to be circular (not square or any other shape). For a translationally
moving frame, the moving zone’s boundaries must be parallel to the translational
velocity vector.

• Strictly speaking, the use of multiple reference frames is meaningful only for steady
flow. However, FLUENT will allow you to solve an unsteady flow when multiple
reference frames are being used. In this case, unsteady terms (as described in
Section 25.3.2: Temporal Discretization) are added to all the governing transport
equations. You should carefully consider whether this will yield meaningful results
for your application, because, for unsteady flows, a sliding mesh calculation will
generally yield more meaningful results than an MRF calculation.

• Particle trajectories and pathlines drawn by FLUENT use the velocity relative to
the cell zone motion. For massless particles, the resulting pathlines follow the
streamlines based on relative velocity. For particles with mass, however, the particle
tracks displayed are meaningless. Similarly, coupled discrete-phase calculations are
meaningless.
An alternative approach for particle tracking and coupled discrete-phase calcula-
tions with multiple reference frames is to track particles based on absolute velocity
instead of relative velocity. To make this change, use the define/models/dpm/
options/track-in-absolute-frame text command. Note, that the results may
strongly depend on the location of walls inside the multiple reference frame. The
particle injection velocities (specified in the Set Injection Properties panel) are de-
fined relative to the frame of reference in which the particles are tracked. By
default, the injection velocities are specified relative to the local reference frame.
If you enable the track-in-absolute-frame option, the injection velocities are
specified relative to the absolute frame.

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 10.3 Flow in Multiple Rotating Reference Frames

• You cannot accurately model axisymmetric swirl in the presence of multiple ref-
erence frames using the relative velocity formulation. This is because the current
implementation does not apply the transformation used in Equation 10.3-2 to the
swirl velocity derivatives.

• Translational and rotational velocities are assumed to be constant (time varying ω,

vt are not allowed).

• The relative velocity formulation cannot be used in combination with the MRF and
mixture models (see Section 23.4: Mixture Model Theory). For such cases, use the
absolute velocity formulation instead.

i You can switch from the MRF model to the sliding mesh model for a more
robust solution. See Section 11.4: Steps in Using Sliding Meshes for details
on how to make this change in the fluid’s boundary conditions. Currently,
this switch is not possible when running in parallel.

The MRF Interface Formulation

The MRF formulation that is applied to the interfaces will depend on the velocity formu-
lation being used. The specific approaches will be discussed below for each case. It should
be noted that the interface treatment applies to the velocity and velocity gradients, since
these vector quantities change with a change in reference frame. Scalar quantities, such
as temperature, pressure, density, turbulent kinetic energy, etc., do no require any special
treatment, and thus are passed locally without any change.

Interface Treatment: Relative Velocity Formulation

In FLUENT’s implementation of the MRF model, the calculation domain is divided into
subdomains, each of which may be rotating and/or translating with respect to the lab-
oratory (inertial) frame. The governing equations in each subdomain are written with
respect to that subdomain’s reference frame. Thus, the flow in stationary and translat-
ing subdomains is governed by the equations in Section 9.2: Continuity and Momentum
Equations, while the flow in rotating subdomains is governed by the equations presented
in Section 10.2.2: Equations for a Rotating Reference Frame.
At the boundary between two subdomains, the diffusion and other terms in the governing
equations in one subdomain require values for the velocities in the adjacent subdomain
(see Figure 10.3.3). FLUENT enforces the continuity of the absolute velocity, ~v , to provide
the correct neighbor values of velocity for the subdomain under consideration. (This
approach differs from the mixing plane approach described in Section 10.3.2: The Mixing
Plane Model, where a circumferential averaging technique is used.)

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Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

When the relative velocity formulation is used, velocities in each subdomain are computed
relative to the motion of the subdomain. Velocities and velocity gradients are converted
from a moving reference frame to the absolute inertial frame using Equation 10.3-1.

stationary zone
v, v

interface

vr , vr

rotating zone
All velocities converted to
absolute frame and applied
to interface along with local
scalars.

Figure 10.3.3: Interface Treatment for the MRF Model

For a translational velocity v~t , we have

~v = ~vr + (~ω × ~r) + ~vt (10.3-1)

From Equation 10.3-1, the gradient of the absolute velocity vector can be shown to be

∇~v = ∇~vr + ∇ (~ω × ~r) (10.3-2)

Note that scalar quantities such as density, static pressure, static temperature, species
mass fractions, etc., are simply obtained locally from adjacent cells.

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 10.3 Flow in Multiple Rotating Reference Frames

Interface Treatment: Absolute Velocity Formulation

When the absolute velocity formulation is used, the governing equations in each subdo-
main are written with respect to that subdomain’s reference frame, but the velocities
are stored in the absolute frame. Therefore, no special transformation is required at the
interface between two subdomains. Again, scalar quantities are determined locally from
adjacent cells.

10.3.2 The Mixing Plane Model

The mixing plane model in FLUENT provides an alternative to the multiple reference
frame and sliding mesh models for simulating flow through domains with one or more
regions in relative motion. This section provides a brief overview of the model and a list
of its limitations.

Overview
As discussed in Section 10.3.1: The Multiple Reference Frame Model, the MRF model is
applicable when the flow at the boundary between adjacent zones that move at different
speeds is nearly uniform (“mixed out”). If the flow at this boundary is not uniform, the
MRF model may not provide a physically meaningful solution. The sliding mesh model
(see Section 11.2: Sliding Mesh Theory) may be appropriate for such cases, but in many
situations it is not practical to employ a sliding mesh. For example, in a multistage tur-
bomachine, if the number of blades is different for each blade row, a large number of blade
passages is required in order to maintain circumferential periodicity. Moreover, sliding
mesh calculations are necessarily unsteady, and thus require significantly more compu-
tation to achieve a final, time-periodic solution. For situations where using the sliding
mesh model is not feasible, the mixing plane model can be a cost-effective alternative.
In the mixing plane approach, each fluid zone is treated as a steady-state problem.
Flow-field data from adjacent zones are passed as boundary conditions that are spatially
averaged or “mixed” at the mixing plane interface. This mixing removes any unsteadiness
that would arise due to circumferential variations in the passage-to-passage flow field
(e.g., wakes, shock waves, separated flow), thus yielding a steady-state result. Despite
the simplifications inherent in the mixing plane model, the resulting solutions can provide
reasonable approximations of the time-averaged flow field.

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Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

Limitations
Note the following limitations of the mixing plane model:

• The LES turbulence model cannot be used with the mixing plane model.

• The models for species transport and combustion cannot be used with the mixing
plane model.

• The VOF multiphase model cannot be used with the mixing plane model.

• The discrete phase model cannot be used with the mixing plane model for cou-
pled flows. Non-coupled computations can be done, but you should note that the
particles leave the domain of the mixing plane.

Rotor and Stator Domains

Consider the turbomachine stages shown schematically in Figures 10.3.4 and 10.3.5. Fig-
ure 10.3.4 shows a constant radial plane within a single stage of an axial machine, while
Figure 10.3.5 shows a constant θ plane within a mixed-flow device. In each case, the
stage consists of two flow domains: the rotor domain, which is rotating at a prescribed
angular velocity, followed by the stator domain, which is stationary. The order of the
rotor and stator is arbitrary (that is, a situation where the rotor is downstream of the
stator is equally valid).
rotor stator

rotor outlet: ps α r α t α z

Rθ stator inlet: p0 α r αt α z k ε

x mixing plane interface

Figure 10.3.4: Axial Rotor-Stator Interaction (Schematic Illustrating the

Mixing Plane Concept)

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 10.3 Flow in Multiple Rotating Reference Frames

stator

stator inlet:
p α α α k ε
0 r t z

mixing plane
r
interface

x
rotor outlet:
p α α α
s r t z

rotor

Figure 10.3.5: Radial Rotor-Stator Interaction (Schematic Illustrating the

Mixing Plane Concept)

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Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

In a numerical simulation, each domain will be represented by a separate mesh. The

flow information between these domains will be coupled at the mixing plane interface (as
shown in Figures 10.3.4 and 10.3.5) using the mixing plane model. Note that you may
couple any number of fluid zones in this manner; for example, four blade passages can
be coupled using three mixing planes.

i Note that the stator and rotor meshes do not have to be conformal; that
is, the nodes on the stator exit boundary do not have to match the nodes
on the rotor inlet boundary. In addition, the meshes can be of different
types (e.g., the stator can have a hexahedral mesh while the rotor has a
tetrahedral mesh).

The Mixing Plane Concept

The essential idea behind the mixing plane concept is that each fluid zone is solved as a
steady-state problem. At some prescribed iteration interval, the flow data at the mixing
plane interface are averaged in the circumferential direction on both the stator outlet and
the rotor inlet boundaries. The FLUENT implementation uses area-weighted averages.
By performing circumferential averages at specified radial or axial stations, “profiles” of
flow properties can be defined. These profiles—which will be functions of either the axial
or the radial coordinate, depending on the orientation of the mixing plane—are then used
to update boundary conditions along the two zones of the mixing plane interface. In the
examples shown in Figures 10.3.4 and 10.3.5, profiles of averaged total pressure (p0 ),
direction cosines of the local flow angles in the radial, tangential, and axial directions
(αr , αt , αz ), total temperature (T0 ), turbulence kinetic energy (k), and turbulence dissi-
pation rate () are computed at the rotor exit and used to update boundary conditions
at the stator inlet. Likewise, a profile of static pressure (ps ), direction cosines of the local
flow angles in the radial, tangential, and axial directions (αr , αt , αz ), are computed at
the stator inlet and used as a boundary condition on the rotor exit.
Passing profiles in the manner described above assumes specific boundary condition types
have been defined at the mixing plane interface. The coupling of an upstream outlet
boundary zone with a downstream inlet boundary zone is called a “mixing plane pair”.
In order to create mixing plane pairs in FLUENT, the boundary zones must be of the
following types:

Upstream Downstream
pressure outlet pressure inlet
pressure outlet velocity inlet
pressure outlet mass flow inlet

Specific instructions for setting up mixing planes are provided in Section 10.10.2: Setting
Up the Mixing Plane Model.

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 10.3 Flow in Multiple Rotating Reference Frames

FLUENT’s Mixing Plane Algorithm

FLUENT’s basic mixing plane algorithm can be described as follows:

1. Update the flow field solutions in the stator and rotor domains.

2. Average the flow properties at the stator exit and rotor inlet boundaries, obtaining
profiles for use in updating boundary conditions.

3. Pass the profiles to the boundary condition inputs required for the stator exit and
rotor inlet.

4. Repeat steps 1–3 until convergence.

i Note that it may be desirable to under-relax the changes in boundary con-

dition values in order to prevent divergence of the solution (especially early
in the computation). FLUENT allows you to control the under-relaxation
of the mixing plane variables.

Mass Conservation
Note that the algorithm described above will not rigorously conserve mass flow across
the mixing plane if it is represented by a pressure inlet and pressure outlet mixing plane
pair. If you use a mass flow inlet and pressure outlet pair instead, FLUENT will force
mass conservation across the mixing plane. The basic technique consists of computing
the mass flow rate across the upstream zone (pressure outlet) and adjusting the mass flux
profile applied at the mass flow inlet such that the downstream mass flow matches the
upstream mass flow. This adjustment occurs at every iteration, thus ensuring rigorous
conservation of mass flow throughout the course of the calculation.

i Note that, since mass flow is being fixed in this case, there will be a jump
in total pressure across the mixing plane. The magnitude of this jump is
usually small compared with total pressure variations elsewhere in the flow
field.

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Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

Swirl Conservation
By default, FLUENT does not conserve swirl across the mixing plane. For applications
such as torque converters, where the sum of the torques acting on the components should
be zero, enforcing swirl conservation across the mixing plane is essential, and is available
in FLUENT as a modeling option. Ensuring conservation of swirl is important because,
otherwise, sources or sinks of tangential momentum will be present at the mixing plane
interface.
Consider a control volume containing a stationary or rotating component (e.g., a pump
impeller or turbine vane). Using the moment of momentum equation from fluid mechan-
ics, it can be shown that for steady flow,
ZZ
T = rvθ ρ~v · n̂dS (10.3-3)
S

where T is the torque of the fluid acting on the component, r is the radial distance from
the axis of rotation, vθ is the absolute tangential velocity, ~v is the total absolute velocity,
and S is the boundary surface. (The product rvθ is referred to as swirl.)
For a circumferentially periodic domain, with well-defined inlet and outlet boundaries,
Equation 10.3-3 becomes
ZZ ZZ
T = rvθ ρ~v · n̂dS + rvθ ρ~v · n̂dS (10.3-4)
outlet inlet

where inlet and outlet denote the inlet and outlet boundary surfaces.
Now consider the mixing plane interface to have a finite streamwise thickness. Applying
Equation 10.3-4 to this zone and noting that, in the limit as the thickness shrinks to
zero, the torque should vanish, the equation becomes
ZZ ZZ
rvθ ρ~v · n̂dS = rvθ ρ~v · n̂dS (10.3-5)
downstream upstream

where upstream and downstream denote the upstream and downstream sides of the
mixing plane interface. Note that Equation 10.3-5 applies to the full area (360 degrees)
at the mixing plane interface.
Equation 10.3-5 provides a rational means of determining the tangential velocity com-
ponent. That is, FLUENT computes a profile of tangential velocity and then uniformly
adjusts the profile such that the swirl integral is satisfied. Note that interpolating the
tangential (and radial) velocity component profiles at the mixing plane does not affect
mass conservation because these velocity components are orthogonal to the face-normal
velocity used in computing the mass flux.

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 10.4 Grid Setup for a Single Rotating Reference Frame

Total Enthalpy Conservation

By default, FLUENT does not conserve total enthalpy across the mixing plane. For
some applications, total enthalpy conservation across the mixing plane is very desirable,
because global parameters such as efficiency are directly related to the change in total
enthalpy across a blade row or stage. This is available in FLUENT as a modeling option.
The procedure for ensuring conservation of total enthalpy simply involves adjusting the
downstream total temperature profile such that the integrated total enthalpy matches
the upstream integrated total enthalpy. For multiphase flows, conservation of mass, swirl,
and enthalpy are calculated for each phase. However, for the Eulerian multiphase model,
since mass flow inlets are not permissible, conservation of the above quantities does not
occur.

10.4 Grid Setup for a Single Rotating Reference Frame

It is important to remember the following coordinate-system constraints when you are
setting up a problem involving a rotating reference frame:

• For 2D problems, the axis of rotation must be parallel to the z axis.

• For 2D axisymmetric problems, the axis of rotation must be the x axis.

• For 3D geometries, you should generate the mesh with a specific rotational axis in
mind for the rotating cell zone. Usually it is convenient to use the x, y, or z axis,
but FLUENT can accommodate arbitrary rotational axes.

With 3D geometries, it is also important to note that if you wish to include walls which
have zero velocity in the stationary frame, these walls must be a surface of revolution
with respect to the axis of rotation. If the stationary walls are not surfaces of revolution,
you must encapsulate the rotating parts with interface boundaries, thereby breaking your
model up into multiple zones, and use either the MRF or mixing plane models for steady
state solutions (see Sections 10.3.1 and 10.3.2), or the sliding mesh model for unsteady
interaction (see Chapter 11: Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes).

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Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

10.5 Grid Setup for a Multiple Rotating Reference Frame

Two grid setup methods are available. Choose the method that is appropriate for your
model, noting the restrictions in Section 10.3.1: Limitations.

• If the boundary between two zones that are in different reference frames is conformal
(i.e., the grid node locations are identical at the boundary where the two zones
meet), you can simply create the grid as usual, with all cell zones contained in the
same grid file. A different cell zone should exist for each portion of the domain that
is modeled in a different reference frame. Use an interior zone for the boundary
between reference frames.

• If the boundary between two zones that are in different reference frames is non-
conformal (i.e., the grid node locations are not identical at the boundary where
the two zones meet), follow the non-conformal grid setup procedure described in
Section 6.4.3: Using a Non-Conformal Grid in FLUENT.

10.6 Steps in Using Rotating Reference Frames

The procedure for setting up and solving problems which involve rotating reference frames
is outlined below, and described in detail in Sections 10.7 and 10.10. Only those steps
relevant specifically to the setup of a rotating reference frame problem are listed here.
You will need to set up the rest of the problem as usual.

1. Select the Velocity Formulation in the Solver panel (Figure 10.6.1).

(Note that this step is irrelevant if you are using one of the density-based solvers;
these solvers always use an absolute velocity formulation.)
Define −→ Models −→Solver...

2. Specify the translational or angular velocity in the Boundary Conditions panel of

Walls (Figure 10.6.2), Fluids, Solids, Velocity Inlets, Mass Flow Inlets, etc.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

3. Initialize the solution.

Solve −→ Initialize −→Initialize...

4. Run the simulation until convergence.

Solve −→Iterate

5. Postprocess the results as described in Sections 10.9 and 10.12.

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 10.6 Steps in Using Rotating Reference Frames

Figure 10.6.1: The Solver Panel with the Absolute Velocity Formulation En-
abled

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Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

Figure 10.6.2: Wall Boundary Conditions Displaying the Rotational Velocity

of the Moving Reference Frame

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 10.7 Setting Up a Single Rotating Reference Frame Problem

10.7 Setting Up a Single Rotating Reference Frame Problem

To model a problem involving a single rotating reference frame, follow the steps outlined
below.

1. Select the Velocity Formulation to be used in the Solver panel: either Relative or Ab-
solute. (See Section 10.7.1: Choosing the Relative or Absolute Velocity Formulation
for details.)
Define −→ Models −→Solver...
(Note that this step is irrelevant if you are using one of the density-based solvers;
these solvers always use an absolute velocity formulation.)

2. For each cell zone in the domain, specify the angular velocity (ω) of the reference
frame and the axis about which it rotates.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...
(a) In the Fluid panel or Solid panel, specify the Rotation-Axis Origin and Rotation-
Axis Direction to define the axis of rotation.
(b) Also in the Fluid (Figure 10.7.1) or Solid panel, select Moving Reference Frame
in the Motion Type drop-down list and then set the Speed under Rotational
Velocity in the expanded portion of the panel.
Details about these inputs are presented in Section 7.17.1: Inputs for Fluid Zones
and in Section 7.18.1: Inputs for Solid Zones.

i For solid zones, you only need to activate the Moving Reference Frame
option if you intend to include the convective terms in the energy equation
for the solid (Equation 13.2-11). Normally, this is not required if you wish
to do a conjugate heat transfer problem where the solid and fluid zones are
moving together.
3. Define the velocity boundary conditions at walls. You can choose to define either an
absolute velocity or a velocity relative to the moving reference frame (i.e., relative to
the velocity of the adjacent cell zone specified in step 2), as shown in Figure 10.6.2.
If the wall is moving at the speed of the rotating frame (and hence stationary in
the rotating frame), it is convenient to specify a relative angular velocity of zero.
Likewise, a wall that is stationary in the non-rotating frame of reference should
be given a velocity of zero in the absolute reference frame. Specifying the wall
velocities in this manner obviates the need to modify these inputs later if a change
is made in the rotational velocity of the fluid zone.
Details about these inputs are presented in Section 7.13.1: Velocity Conditions for
Moving Walls.

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Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

Figure 10.7.1: The Fluid Panel with the Moving Reference Frame Selected

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 10.7 Setting Up a Single Rotating Reference Frame Problem

4. Define the velocity at any velocity inlets and the flow direction and total pressure
at any pressure inlets. For velocity inlets, you can choose to define either absolute
velocities or velocities relative to the motion of the adjacent cell zone (specified in
step 2). For pressure inlets, the specification of the flow direction and total pressure
will be relative or absolute, depending on the velocity formulation you selected in
step 1. See Section 10.7.1: Choosing the Relative or Absolute Velocity Formulation
for details. (If you use one of the coupled solution algorithms, the specification is
always in the absolute frame.)
Details about these inputs are presented in Sections 7.3.1 and 7.4.1.

10.7.1 Choosing the Relative or Absolute Velocity Formulation

It is recommended that you use the velocity formulation that will result in most of the
flow domain having the smallest velocities in that frame, thereby reducing the numerical
diffusion in the solution and leading to a more accurate solution.
The absolute velocity formulation is preferred in applications where the flow in most of
the domain is not rotating (e.g., a fan in a large room). The relative velocity formulation
is appropriate when most of the fluid in the domain is rotating, as in the case of a large
impeller in a mixing tank.

Example
A problem with stationary outer walls and a rotating impeller can be solved in a single
reference frame. The example is illustrated in Figure 10.7.2.

A. Small Impeller B. Large Impeller

Figure 10.7.2: Geometry with the Rotating Impeller

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Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

In case A, it is expected that only the flow near the impeller would be rotating and that
much of the flow away from the impeller would have a low velocity magnitude in the
absolute frame. Therefore, solving in the absolute frame is recommended. In case B,
most of the flow is expected to be rotating with a velocity close to that of the impeller.
By solving the case in the relative frame, the flow speed would be very low relative to
the impeller speed. Hence, the relative velocity formulation is appropriate.
In a situation between case A and case B, either of the formulations may be used.

i If the velocity formulation is switched during the solution process, FLU-

ENT will not transform the current solution to the other frame, which can
lead to large jumps in residuals. If changing the frame is necessary, it is
recommended that you first reinitialize, and then solve.

i When one of the coupled solution algorithms is used, the absolute formu-
lation is always used; the relative velocity formulation is not available in
the density-based solvers.
For velocity inlets and walls, you may specify velocity in either the absolute or the relative
frame, regardless of whether the absolute or relative velocity is used in the computation.
For pressure boundary conditions, however, FLUENT imposes several restrictions on how
total pressure and flow direction are specified in rotating reference frames.
The total pressure and flow direction at a pressure inlet must be specified in the absolute
frame if the absolute velocity formulation is used. For calculations using relative veloci-
ties, the total pressure and flow direction must be specified with respect to the rotating
frame.
For pressure outlets, the specified static pressure is independent of frame. When there is
backflow at a pressure outlet, however, the specified static pressure is used as the total
pressure. For calculations using absolute velocities, the specified static pressure is used
as the total pressure in the absolute frame; for the relative velocity formulation, the
specified static pressure is assumed to be the total pressure in the relative frame. As for
flow direction in reverse flows, FLUENT assumes the absolute velocity to be normal to the
pressure outlet for the absolute velocity formulation; for the relative velocity formulation,
it is the relative velocity that is assumed to be normal to the pressure outlet.

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 10.8 Solution Strategies for a Single Rotating Reference Frame

10.8 Solution Strategies for a Single Rotating Reference Frame

The difficulties associated with solving flows in rotating reference frames are similar to
those discussed in Section 9.5.5: Solution Strategies for Axisymmetric Swirling Flows.
The primary issue you must confront is the high degree of coupling between the mo-
mentum equations when the influence of the rotational terms is large. A high degree
of rotation introduces a large radial pressure gradient which drives the flow in the axial
and radial directions, thereby setting up a distribution of the swirl or rotation in the
field. This coupling may lead to instabilities in the solution process, and hence require
special solution techniques to obtain a converged solution. Some techniques that may be
beneficial include the following:

• (Pressure-based solver only) Consider switching the frame in which velocities are
solved by changing the velocity formulation setting in the Solver panel. (See
Section 10.7.1: Choosing the Relative or Absolute Velocity Formulation for details.)

• (Pressure-based segregated solver only) Use the PRESTO! scheme (enabled in the
Solution Controls panel), which is well-suited for the steep pressure gradients in-
volved in rotating flows.

• Ensure that the mesh is sufficiently refined to resolve large gradients in pressure
and swirl velocity.

• (Pressure-based solver only) Reduce the under-relaxation factors for the velocities,
perhaps to 0.3–0.5 or lower, if necessary.

• Begin the calculations using a low rotational speed, increasing the rotational speed
gradually in order to reach the final desired operating condition (see below).

See Chapter 25: Using the Solver for details on the procedures used to make these changes
to the solution parameters.

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Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

10.8.1 Gradual Increase of the Rotational Speed to Improve Solution Stability

Because the rotation of the reference frame and the rotation defined via boundary condi-
tions can lead to large complex forces in the flow, your FLUENT calculations may be less
stable as the speed of rotation (and hence the magnitude of these forces) increases. One
of the most effective controls you can exert on the solution is to start with a low rota-
tional speed and then slowly increase the rotation up to the desired level. The procedure
you use to accomplish this is as follows:

1. Set up the problem using a low rotational speed in your inputs for boundary con-
ditions and for the angular velocity of the reference frame. The rotational speed in
this first attempt might be selected as 10% of the actual operating condition.

2. Solve the problem at these conditions.

3. Save this initial solution data.

4. Modify your inputs (i.e., boundary conditions and angular velocity of the reference
frame). Increase the speed of rotation, perhaps doubling it.

5. Restart or continue the calculation using the solution data saved in Step 3 as the
initial guess for the new calculation. Save the new data.

6. Continue to increment the rotational speed, following Steps 4 and 5, until you reach
the desired operating condition.

10.9 Postprocessing for a Single Rotating Reference Frame

When you solve a problem in a rotating reference frame, you can plot or report both
absolute and relative velocities. For all velocity parameters (e.g., Velocity Magnitude and
Mach Number), corresponding relative values will be available for postprocessing (e.g.,
Relative Velocity Magnitude and Relative Mach Number). These variables are contained
in the Velocity... category of the variable selection drop-down list that appears in post-
processing panels. Relative values are also available for postprocessing of total pressure,
total temperature, and any other parameters that include a dynamic contribution de-
pendent on the reference frame (e.g., Relative Total Pressure, Relative Total Temperature,
Rothalpy).
When plotting velocity vectors, you can choose to plot vectors in the absolute frame
(the default), or you can select Relative Velocity in the Vectors of drop-down list in the
Vectors panel to plot vectors in the rotating frame. If you plot relative velocity vectors,
you might want to color the vectors by relative velocity magnitude (by choosing Relative
Velocity Magnitude in the Color by list); by default they will be colored by absolute velocity
magnitude. Figures 10.9.1 and 10.9.2 show absolute and relative velocity vectors in a
rotating domain with a stationary outer wall.

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 10.9 Postprocessing for a Single Rotating Reference Frame

1.29e+00

1.18e+00

1.06e+00

9.46e-01

8.31e-01

7.16e-01

6.01e-01

4.87e-01

3.72e-01

2.57e-01

1.42e-01

Velocity Vectors Colored By Velocity Magnitude (m/s)

Figure 10.9.1: Absolute Velocity Vectors

1.81e+00

1.63e+00

1.45e+00

1.27e+00

1.09e+00

9.07e-01

7.27e-01

5.47e-01

3.67e-01

1.87e-01

7.09e-03

Velocity Vectors Colored By Relative Velocity Magnitude (m/s)

Figure 10.9.2: Relative Velocity Vectors

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Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

10.10 Setting Up a Multiple Rotating Reference Frame Problem

10.10.1 Setting Up Multiple Reference Frames
To model a problem involving multiple reference frames, follow the steps outlined below.

i The grid-setup constraints for a rotating reference frame listed in Sec-

tion 10.4: Grid Setup for a Single Rotating Reference Frame apply to mul-
tiple reference frames as well.

1. Select the Velocity Formulation to be used in the Solver panel: either Absolute or Rel-
ative. (See Section 10.7.1: Choosing the Relative or Absolute Velocity Formulation
for details.)
Define −→ Models −→Solver...
(Note that this step is irrelevant if you are using one of the coupled solution algo-
rithms; these algorithms always use an absolute velocity formulation.)

2. For each cell zone in the domain, specify its translational velocity and/or its angular
velocity (ω) and the axis about which it rotates.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...
(a) If the zone is rotating, or if you plan to specify cylindrical velocity or flow-
direction components at inlets to the zone, you will need to define the axis
of rotation. In the Fluid panel or Solid panel, specify the Rotation-Axis Origin
and Rotation-Axis Direction.
(b) Also in the Fluid or Solid panel, select Moving Reference Frame in the Motion
Type drop-down list and then set the Speed under Rotational Velocity and/or
the X, Y, and Z components of the Translational Velocity in the expanded
portion of the panel.
Details about these inputs are presented in Section 7.17.1: Inputs for Fluid Zones
and in Section 7.18.1: Inputs for Solid Zones.

3. Define the velocity boundary conditions at walls. You can choose to define either
an absolute velocity or a velocity relative to the velocity of the adjacent cell zone
specified in step 2.
If the wall is moving at the speed of the moving frame (and hence stationary relative
to the moving frame), it is convenient to specify a relative angular velocity of zero.
Likewise, a wall that is stationary in the non-moving frame of reference should
be given a velocity of zero in the absolute reference frame. Specifying the wall
velocities in this manner obviates the need to modify these inputs later if a change
is made in the rotational velocity of the fluid zone.

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 10.10 Setting Up a Multiple Rotating Reference Frame Problem

An example for which you would specify a relative velocity is as follows: If an

impeller is defined as wall-3 and the fluid region within the impeller’s radius is
defined as fluid-5, you would need to specify the angular velocity and axis of rotation
for fluid-5 and then assign wall-3 a relative velocity of 0. If you later wanted to
model a different angular velocity for the impeller, you would need to change only
the angular velocity of the fluid region; you would not need to modify the wall
velocity conditions.
Details about these inputs are presented in Section 7.13.1: Velocity Conditions for
Moving Walls.

4. Define the velocity at any velocity inlets and the flow direction and total pressure
at any pressure inlets. For velocity inlets, you can choose to define either absolute
velocities or velocities relative to the motion of the adjacent cell zone (specified in
step 2). For pressure inlets, the specification of the flow direction and total pressure
will be relative or absolute, depending on the velocity formulation you selected in
step 1. See Section 10.7.1: Choosing the Relative or Absolute Velocity Formulation
for details. (If you use one of the coupled solution algorithms, the specification is
always in the absolute frame.)
Details about these inputs are presented in Sections 7.3.1 and 7.4.1.

5. Initialize the solution using an absolute frame of reference (Figure 10.10.1).

Solve −→ Initialize −→Initialize...
Select the Absolute option under Reference Frame. If the Relative to Cell Zone
option is selected, the initial flow field can contain discontinuities, which can cause
convergence problems in the first few iterations.

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Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

Figure 10.10.1: The Solution Initialization Panel for Rotating Reference

Frames

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 10.10 Setting Up a Multiple Rotating Reference Frame Problem

10.10.2 Setting Up the Mixing Plane Model

The model inputs for mixing planes are presented in this section. Only those steps
relevant specifically to the setup of a mixing plane problem are listed here. Note that
the use of wall and periodic boundaries in a mixing plane model is consistent with their
use when the model is not active.

1. Select the Absolute or Relative Velocity Formulation in the Solver panel, when the
pressure-based solver is enabled.

i When the density-based solver is enabled, only the Absolute Velocity For-
mulation can be used with the mixing plane model.
Define −→ Models −→Solver...

2. For each cell zone in the domain, specify its angular velocity (ω) and the axis about
which it rotates.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...
(a) If the zone is rotating, or if you plan to specify cylindrical-velocity or flow-
direction components at inlets to the zone, you will need to define the axis
of rotation. In the Fluid panel or Solid panel, specify the Rotation-Axis Origin
and Rotation-Axis Direction.
(b) Also in the Fluid or Solid panel, select Moving Reference Frame in the Motion
Type drop-down list and then set the Speed under Rotational Velocity and/or
the X, Y, and Z components of the Translational Velocity in the expanded
portion of the panel.
Details about these inputs are presented in Section 7.17.1: Inputs for Fluid Zones
for fluid zones, and in Section 7.18.1: Inputs for Solid Zones for solid zones.

i It is important to define the axis of rotation for the cell zones on both sides
of the mixing plane interface, including the stationary zone.
3. Define the velocity boundary conditions at walls, as described in step 3 of Sec-
tion 10.10.1: Setting Up Multiple Reference Frames.

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Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

4. Define the velocity at any velocity inlets and the flow direction and total pressure
at any pressure inlets or mass flow inlets. For velocity inlets, you can choose to
define either absolute velocities or velocities relative to the motion of the adjacent
cell zone (specified in step 2). For pressure inlets and mass flow inlets, the specifi-
cation of the flow direction and total pressure will always be absolute, because the
absolute velocity formulation is always used for mixing plane calculations. For a
mass flow inlet, you do not need to specify the mass flow rate or mass flux. FLU-
ENT will automatically select the Mass Flux with Average Mass Flux specification
method and set the correct values when you create the mixing plane, as described
in Section 7.5.1: More About Mass Flux and Average Mass Flux.
Details about these inputs are presented in Sections 7.3.1, 7.4.1, and 7.5.1.

i Note that the outlet boundary zone at the mixing plane interface must
be defined as a pressure outlet, and the inlet boundary zone at the mix-
ing plane interface must be defined as a velocity inlet (incompressible flow
only), a pressure inlet, or a mass flow inlet. The overall inlet and exit
boundary conditions can be any suitable combination permitted by the
solver (e.g., velocity inlet, pressure inlet, or mass flow inlet; pressure out-
let). Keep in mind, however, that if mass conservation across the mixing
plane is important, you need to use a mass flow inlet as the downstream
boundary; mass conservation is not maintained across the mixing plane
when you use a velocity inlet or pressure inlet.

5. Define the mixing planes in the Mixing Planes panel (Figure 10.10.2).
Define −→Mixing Planes...

Figure 10.10.2: The Mixing Planes Panel

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 10.10 Setting Up a Multiple Rotating Reference Frame Problem

(a) Specify the two zones that comprise the mixing plane by selecting an upstream
zone in the Upstream Zone list and a downstream zone in the Downstream Zone
list. It is essential that the correct pairs be chosen from these lists (i.e., that
the boundary zones selected lie on the mixing plane interface). You can check
this by displaying the grid.
Display −→Grid...
(b) (3D only) Indicate the geometry of the mixing plane interface by choosing one
of the options under Mixing Plane Geometry.
A Radial geometry signifies that information at the mixing plane interface is
to be circumferentially averaged into profiles that vary in the radial direction,
e.g., p(r), T (r). This is the case for axial-flow machines, for example.
An Axial geometry signifies that circumferentially averaged profiles are to be
constructed that vary in the axial direction, e.g., p(x), T (x). This is the
situation for a radial-flow device.

i Note that the radial direction is normal to the rotation axis for the fluid
zone and the axial direction is parallel to the rotation axis.
(c) (3D only) Set the number of Interpolation Points. This is the number of radial
or axial locations used in constructing the boundary profiles for circumferential
averaging. You should choose a number that approximately corresponds to
the resolution of the surface mesh in the radial or axial direction. Note that
while you can use more points if you wish, the resolution of the boundary
profile will only be as fine as the resolution of the surface mesh itself.
In 2D the flow data is averaged over the entire interface to create a profile
consisting of a single data point. For this reason you do not need to set the
number of Interpolation Points or select a Mixing Plane Geometry in 2D.

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Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

(d) Set the Global Parameters for the mixing plane.

i. Set the Under-Relaxation parameter. It is sometimes desirable to under-
relax the changes in boundary values at mixing planes as these may change
very rapidly during the early iterations of the solution and cause the
calculation to diverge. The changes can be relaxed by specifying an under-
relaxation less than 1. The new boundary profile values are then computed
using

φnew = φold + α(φcalculated − φold ) (10.10-1)

where α is the under-relaxation factor. Once the flow field is established,

the value of α can be increased.
ii. Click Apply to set the Global Parameters. If the Default button is visible
to the right of the Apply button, clicking the Default button will return
Global Parameters back to their default values. The Default button will
then change to be a Reset button. Clicking the Reset button will change
the Global Parameters back to the values that were last applied.
(e) Click Create to create a new mixing plane. FLUENT will name the mixing
plane by combining the names of the zones selected as the Upstream Zone and
Downstream Zone and enter the new mixing plane in the Mixing Plane list.
If you create an incorrect mixing plane, you can select it in the Mixing Plane
list and click the Delete button to delete it.

Modeling Options
There are two options available for use with the mixing plane model: a fixed pressure
level for incompressible flows, and the swirl conservation described in Section 10.3.2: Swirl
Conservation.

Fixing the Pressure Level for an Incompressible Flow

For certain turbomachinery configurations, such as a torque converter, there is no fixed-

pressure boundary when the mixing plane model is used. The mixing plane model is
usually used to model the three interfaces that connect the components of the torque
converter. In this configuration, the pressure is no longer fixed. As a result, the pressure
may float unbounded, making it difficult to obtain a converged solution.
To resolve this problem, FLUENT offers an option for fixing the pressure level. When this
option is enabled, FLUENT will adjust the gauge pressure field after each iteration by
subtracting from it the pressure value in the cell closest to the Reference Pressure Location
in the Operating Conditions panel.

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 10.10 Setting Up a Multiple Rotating Reference Frame Problem

i This option is available only for incompressible flows calculated using the
pressure-based solver.
To enable the fixed pressure option, use the fix-pressure-level text command:
define −→ mixing-planes −→ set −→fix-pressure-level

Conserving Swirl Across the Mixing Plane

As discussed in Section 10.3.2: Swirl Conservation, conservation of swirl is important for

applications such as torque converters. If you want to enable swirl conservation across
the mixing plane, you can use the commands in the conserve-swirl text menu:
define −→ mixing-planes −→ set −→conserve-swirl
To turn on swirl conservation, use the enable? text command. Once the option is turned
on, you can ask the solver to report information about the swirl conservation during the
calculation. If you turn on verbosity?, FLUENT will report for every iteration the zone
ID for the zone on which the swirl conservation is active, the upstream and downstream
swirl integration per zone area, and the ratio of upstream to downstream swirl integration
before and after the correction.
To obtain a report of the swirl integration at every pressure inlet, pressure outlet, velocity
inlet, and mass flow inlet in the domain, use the report-swirl-integration command.
You can use this information to determine the torque acting on each component of the
turbomachinery according to Equation 10.3-4.

Conserving Total Enthalpy Across the Mixing Plane

One of the options available in the mixing plane model is to conserve total enthalpy
across the mixing plane. This is a desirable feature because global parameters such as
efficiency are directly related to the change in total enthalpy across a blade row or stage.
The procedure for ensuring conservation of total enthalpy simply involves adjusting the
downstream total temperature profile such that the integrated total enthalpy matches
the upstream integrated total enthalpy.
If you want to enable total enthalpy conservation, you can use the commands in the
conserve-total-enthalpy text menu:
define −→ mixing-planes −→ set −→conserve-total-enthalpy
To turn on total enthalpy conservation, use the enable? text command. Once the
option is turned on, you can ask the solver to report information about the total enthalpy
conservation during the calculation. If you turn on verbosity?, FLUENT will report at
every iteration the zone ID for the zone on which the total enthalpy conservation is active,
the upstream and downstream heat flux, and the ratio of upstream to downstream heat
flux.

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Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

10.11 Solution Strategies for MRF and Mixing Plane Problems

10.11.1 MRF Model
For multiple rotating reference frames, follow the guidelines presented in Section 10.8: So-
lution Strategies for a Single Rotating Reference Frame for a single rotating reference
frame. Keep in mind that with multiple zones, the possibility exists of interaction be-
tween rotating and non-rotating components. This will manifest itself as poor or oscilla-
tory convergence. In such cases, it is strongly recommend that the sliding mesh approach
be used to compute the flowfield in order to resolve the unsteady interactions.

10.11.2 Mixing Plane Model

It should be emphasized that the mixing plane model is a reasonable approximation
so long as there is not significant reverse flow in the vicinity of the mixing plane. If
significant reverse flow occurs, the mixing plane will not be a satisfactory model of the
actual flow. In a numerical simulation, reverse flow often occurs during the early stages
of the computation even though the flow at convergence is not reversed. Therefore, it is
helpful in these situations to first obtain a provisional solution using fixed conditions at
the rotor-stator interface. The mixing plane model can then be enabled and the solution
run to convergence.
Under-relaxing the changes in the mixing plane boundary values can also help in trou-
blesome situations. In many cases, setting the under-relaxation factor to a value less
than 1 can be helpful. Once the flow field is established, you can gradually increase the
under-relaxation factor.

10.12 Postprocessing for MRF and Mixing Plane Problems

When you solve a problem using the multiple reference frame or mixing plane model, you
can plot or report both absolute and relative velocities. For all velocity parameters (e.g.,
Velocity Magnitude and Mach Number), corresponding relative values will be available for
postprocessing (e.g., Relative Velocity Magnitude and Relative Mach Number). These vari-
ables are contained in the Velocity... category of the variable selection drop-down list that
appears in postprocessing panels. Relative values are also available for postprocessing
of total pressure, total temperature, and any other parameters that include a dynamic
contribution dependent on the reference frame (e.g., Relative Total Pressure, Relative Total
Temperature).

i Relative velocities are relative to the translational/rotational velocity of

the “reference zone” (specified in the Reference Values panel). The velocity
of the reference zone is the velocity defined in the Fluid panel for that zone.

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 10.12 Postprocessing for MRF and Mixing Plane Problems

When plotting velocity vectors, you can choose to plot vectors in the absolute frame (the
default), or you can select Relative Velocity in the Vectors of drop-down list in the Vectors
panel to plot vectors relative to the translational/rotational velocity of the “reference
zone” (specified in the Reference Values panel). If you plot relative velocity vectors,
you might want to color the vectors by relative velocity magnitude (by choosing Relative
Velocity Magnitude in the Color by list); by default they will be colored by absolute velocity
magnitude.
You can also generate a plot of circumferential averages in FLUENT. This allows you to
find the average value of a quantity at several different radial or axial positions in your
model. FLUENT computes the average of the quantity over a specified circumferential
area, and then plots the average against the radial or axial coordinate. For more infor-
mation on generating XY plots of circumferential averages, see Section 28.8.4: XY Plots
of Circumferential Averages.
See also Section 28.9: Turbomachinery Postprocessing for details about turbomachinery-
specific postprocessing features.

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Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

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Chapter 11. Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming
Meshes

This chapter describes the theoretical background, setup, and use of the sliding and
dynamic mesh models in FLUENT.

• Section 11.1: Introduction

• Section 11.2: Sliding Mesh Theory

• Section 11.3: Dynamic Mesh Theory

• Section 11.4: Steps in Using Sliding Meshes

• Section 11.5: Solution Strategies for Sliding Meshes

• Section 11.6: Postprocessing for Sliding Meshes

• Section 11.7: Steps in Using Dynamic Meshes

11.1 Introduction
In sliding meshes, the relative motion of stationary and rotating components in a rotating
machine will give rise to unsteady interactions. These interactions are illustrated in
Figure 11.1.1, and generally classified as follows:

• Potential interactions: flow unsteadiness due to pressure waves which propagate

both upstream and downstream.

• Wake interactions: flow unsteadiness due to wakes from upstream blade rows, con-
vecting downstream.

• Shock interactions: for transonic/supersonic flow unsteadiness due to shock waves

striking the downstream blade row.

Where the multiple reference frame (MRF) and mixing plane (MP) models, discussed
in Chapter 10: Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames, are models that are
applied to steady-state cases, thus neglecting unsteady interactions, the sliding mesh
model cannot neglect unsteady interactions. The sliding mesh model accounts for the
relative motion of stationary and rotating components.

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

Figure 11.1.1: Illustration of Unsteady Interactions

The dynamic mesh model uses the FLUENT solver to move boundaries and/or objects,
and to adjust the mesh accordingly. The dynamic mesh model is used when boundaries
move rigidly (linear or rotating) with respect to each other. For example

• A piston moving with respect to an engine cylinder.

• A flap moving with respect to an airplane wing.

The dynamic mesh model can also be used when boundaries deform or deflect. For
example

• A balloon that is being inflated.

• An artificial wall responding to the pressure pulse from the heart.

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 11.1 Introduction

11.1.1 Conservation Equations

With respect to dynamic meshes, the integral form of the conservation equation for a
general scalar, φ, on an arbitrary control volume, V , whose boundary is moving can be
written as

d Z Z
~
Z
~
Z
ρφdV + ρφ (~u − ~ug ) · dA = Γ∇φ · dA + Sφ dV (11.1-1)
dt V ∂V ∂V V

where ρ is the fluid density

~u is the flow velocity vector
~ug is the grid velocity of the moving mesh
Γ is the diffusion coefficient
Sφ is the source term of φ
Here ∂V is used to represent the boundary of the control volume V .
The time derivative term in Equation 11.1-1 can be written, using a first-order backward
difference formula, as

d Z (ρφV )n+1 − (ρφV )n

ρφdV = (11.1-2)
dt V ∆t
where n and n + 1 denote the respective quantity at the current and next time level. The
(n + 1)th time level volume V n+1 is computed from

dV
V n+1 = V n + ∆t (11.1-3)
dt
where dV /dt is the volume time derivative of the control volume. In order to satisfy the
grid conservation law, the volume time derivative of the control volume is computed from

f n
dV Z
~=
X
~j
= ~ug · dA ~ug,j · A (11.1-4)
dt ∂V j

where nf is the number of faces on the control volume and A ~ j is the j face area vector.
~ j on each control volume face is calculated from
The dot product ~ug,j · A

~j = δVj
~ug,j · A (11.1-5)
∆t
where δVj is the volume swept out by the control volume face j over the time step ∆t.

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

In the case of the sliding mesh, the motion of moving zones is tracked relative to the sta-
tionary frame. Therefore, no moving reference frames are attached to the computational
domain, simplifying the flux transfers across the interfaces. In the sliding mesh formula-
tion, the control volume remains constant, therefore from Equation 11.1-3, dV dt
= 0 and
n+1 n
V = V . Equation 11.1-2 can now be expressed as follows:

d Z [(ρφ)n+1 − (ρφ)n ]V
ρφdV = (11.1-6)
dt V ∆t

11.2 Sliding Mesh Theory

11.2.1 Overview
When a time-accurate solution for rotor-stator interaction (rather than a time-averaged
solution) is desired, you must use the sliding mesh model to compute the unsteady flow
field. As mentioned in Section 10.1: Introduction, the sliding mesh model is the most
accurate method for simulating flows in multiple moving reference frames, but also the
most computationally demanding.
Most often, the unsteady solution that is sought in a sliding mesh simulation is time-
periodic. That is, the unsteady solution repeats with a period related to the speeds
of the moving domains. However, you can model other types of transients, including
translating sliding mesh zones (e.g., two cars or trains passing in a tunnel, as shown in
Figure 11.2.1).

Figure 11.2.1: Two Passing Trains in a Tunnel

Note that for flow situations where there is no interaction between stationary and moving
parts (i.e., when there is only a rotor), the computational domain can be made stationary
by using a rotating reference frame. (See Section 10.2: Flow in a Rotating Reference
Frame for details.) When transient rotor-stator interaction is desired (as in the examples
in Figures 11.2.2 and 11.2.3), you must use sliding meshes. If you are interested in a
steady approximation of the interaction, you may use the multiple reference frame model
or the mixing plane model, as described in Sections 10.3.1 and 10.3.2.

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 11.2 Sliding Mesh Theory

stationary
vanes
rotating
blades

flow

direction of
motion

Figure 11.2.2: Rotor-Stator Interaction (Stationary Guide Vanes with Ro-

tating Blades)

Figure 11.2.3: Blower

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

The Sliding Mesh Technique

In the sliding mesh technique two or more cell zones are used. (If you generate the mesh
in each zone independently, you will need to merge the mesh files prior to starting the
calculation, as described in Section 6.3.15: Reading Multiple Mesh/Case/Data Files.)
Each cell zone is bounded by at least one “interface zone” where it meets the opposing
cell zone. The interface zones of adjacent cell zones are associated with one another to
form a “grid interface.” The two cell zones will move relative to each other along the
grid interface.

i Note that the grid interface must be positioned so that it has fluid cells
on both sides. For example, the grid interface for the geometry shown in
Figure 11.2.2 must lie in the fluid region between the rotor and stator; it
cannot be on the edge of any part of the rotor or stator.
During the calculation, the cell zones slide (i.e., rotate or translate) relative to one another
along the grid interface in discrete steps. Figures 11.2.4 and 11.2.5 show the initial
position of two grids and their positions after some translation has occurred.

Figure 11.2.4: Initial Position of the Grids

As the rotation or translation takes place, node alignment along the grid interface is not
required. Since the flow is inherently unsteady, a time-dependent solution procedure is
required.

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 11.2 Sliding Mesh Theory

Figure 11.2.5: Rotor Mesh Slides with Respect to the Stator

Grid Interface Shapes

The grid interface and the associated interface zones can be any shape, provided that
the two interface boundaries are based on the same geometry. Figure 11.2.6 shows an
example with a linear grid interface and Figure 11.2.7 shows a circular-arc grid interface.
(In both figures, the grid interface is designated by a dashed line.)
If Figure 11.2.6 were extruded to 3D, the resulting sliding interface would be a planar
rectangle; if Figure 11.2.7 were extruded to 3D, the resulting interface would be a cylinder.
Figure 11.2.8 shows an example that would use a conical grid interface. (The slanted,
dashed lines represent the intersection of the conical interface with a 2D plane.)
For an axial rotor/stator configuration, in which the rotating and stationary parts are
aligned axially instead of being concentric (see Figure 11.2.9), the interface will be a
planar sector. This planar sector is a cross-section of the domain perpendicular to the
axis of rotation at a position along the axis between the rotor and the stator.

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

Figure 11.2.6: 2D Linear Grid Interface

Figure 11.2.7: 2D Circular-Arc Grid Interface

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 11.2 Sliding Mesh Theory

Figure 11.2.8: 3D Conical Grid Interface

portion of domain being modeled

planar sector
grid interface

Figure 11.2.9: 3D Planar-Sector Grid Interface

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

11.2.2 Sliding Mesh Concept

As discussed in Section 11.2.1: Overview, the sliding mesh model allows adjacent grids
to slide relative to one another. In doing so, the grid faces do not need to be aligned on
the grid interface. This situation requires a means of computing the flux across the two
non-conformal interface zones of each grid interface.
To compute the interface flux, the intersection between the interface zones is determined
at each new time step. The resulting intersection produces one interior zone (a zone with
fluid cells on both sides) and one or more periodic zones. If the problem is not periodic,
the intersection produces one interior zone and a pair of wall zones (which will be empty
if the two interface zones intersect entirely), as shown in Figure 11.2.10. (You will need
to change these wall zones to some other appropriate boundary type.) The resultant
interior zone corresponds to where the two interface zones overlap; the resultant periodic
zone corresponds to where they do not. The number of faces in these intersection zones
will vary as the interface zones move relative to one another. Principally, fluxes across
the grid interface are computed using the faces resulting from the intersection of the two
interface zones, rather than from the interface zone faces themselves.
"wall" zone interior zone "wall" zone

Figure 11.2.10: Zones Created by Non-Periodic Interface Intersection

In the example shown in Figure 11.2.11, the interface zones are composed of faces A-B
and B-C, and faces D-E and E-F. The intersection of these zones produces the faces a-d,
d-b, b-e, etc. Faces produced in the region where the two cell zones overlap (d-b, b-e,
and e-c) are grouped to form an interior zone, while the remaining faces (a-d and c-f)
are paired up to form a periodic zone. To compute the flux across the interface into cell
IV, for example, face D-E is ignored and faces d-b and b-e are used instead, bringing
information into cell IV from cells I and III, respectively.

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 11.2 Sliding Mesh Theory

cell zone 1

I II
III
interface
A B C zone 1

a d b e c f
interface D E F
zone 2
IV VI

cell zone 2

Figure 11.2.11: Two-Dimensional Grid Interface

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

11.3 Dynamic Mesh Theory

11.3.1 Overview
The dynamic mesh model in FLUENT can be used to model flows where the shape of the
domain is changing with time due to motion on the domain boundaries. The dynamic
mesh model can also be used for steady-state applications, where it is beneficial to move
the mesh in the steady-state solver. The motion can be a prescribed motion (e.g., you can
specify the linear and angular velocities about the center of gravity of a solid body with
time) or an unprescribed motion where the subsequent motion is determined based on
the solution at the current time (e.g., the linear and angular velocities are calculated from
the force balance on a solid body, which is what the six degree of freedom (6DOF) solver
does (see Section 11.7.7: Using the Six DOF Solver). The update of the volume mesh
is handled automatically by FLUENT at each time step based on the new positions of
the boundaries. To use the dynamic mesh model, you need to provide a starting volume
mesh and the description of the motion of any moving zones in the model. FLUENT
allows you to describe the motion using either boundary profiles, user-defined functions
(UDFs), or the Six Degree of Freedom solver (6DOF).
FLUENT expects the description of the motion to be specified on either face or cell zones.
If the model contains moving and non-moving regions, you need to identify these regions
by grouping them into their respective face or cell zones in the starting volume mesh that
you generate. Furthermore, regions that are deforming due to motion on their adjacent
regions must also be grouped into separate zones in the starting volume mesh. The
boundary between the various regions need not be conformal. You can use the non-
conformal or sliding interface capability in FLUENT to connect the various zones in the
final model.

11.3.2 Dynamic Mesh Update Methods

Three groups of mesh motion methods are available in FLUENT to update the volume
mesh in the deforming regions subject to the motion defined at the boundaries:

• smoothing methods

• dynamic layering

• local remeshing methods

Note that you can use FLUENT’s dynamic mesh models in conjunction with hanging
node adaption, with the exception of dynamic layering and face remeshing. For more
information on hanging node adaption, see Section 26.2.1: Hanging Node Adaption.

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 11.3 Dynamic Mesh Theory

Spring-Based Smoothing Method

In the spring-based smoothing method, the edges between any two mesh nodes are ide-
alized as a network of interconnected springs. The initial spacings of the edges before
any boundary motion constitute the equilibrium state of the mesh. A displacement at
a given boundary node will generate a force proportional to the displacement along all
the springs connected to the node. Using Hook’s Law, the force on a mesh node can be
written as

ni
F~i =
X
kij (∆~xj − ∆~xi ) (11.3-1)
j

where ∆~xi and ∆~xj are the displacements of node i and its neighbor j, ni is the number
of neighboring nodes connected to node i, and kij is the spring constant (or stiffness)
between node i and its neighbor j. The spring constant for the edge connecting nodes i
and j is defined as

1
kij = q (11.3-2)
| ~xi − ~xj |

At equilibrium, the net force on a node due to all the springs connected to the node must
be zero. This condition results in an iterative equation such that
Pni
j kij ∆~xmj
∆~xm+1
i = Pni (11.3-3)
j k ij

Since displacements are known at the boundaries (after boundary node positions have
been updated), Equation 11.3-3 is solved using a Jacobi sweep on all interior nodes. At
convergence, the positions are updated such that

~xn+1
i = ~xni + ∆~xm,converged
i (11.3-4)

where n + 1 and n are used to denote the positions at the next time step and the current
time step, respectively. The spring-based smoothing is shown in Figures 11.3.1 and 11.3.2
for a cylindrical cell zone where one end of the cylinder is moving.

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

Figure 11.3.1: Spring-Based Smoothing on Interior Nodes: Start

Figure 11.3.2: Spring-Based Smoothing on Interior Nodes: End

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 11.3 Dynamic Mesh Theory

Applicability of the Spring-Based Smoothing Methods

You can use the spring-based smoothing method to update any cell or face zone whose
boundary is moving or deforming.
For non-tetrahedral cell zones (non-triangular in 2D), the spring-based method is recom-
mended when the following conditions are met:

• The boundary of the cell zone moves predominantly in one direction (i.e., no ex-
cessive anisotropic stretching or compression of the cell zone).

• The motion is predominantly normal to the boundary zone.

If these conditions are not met, the resulting cells may have high skewness values, since
not all possible combinations of node pairs in non-tetrahedral cells (or non-triangular in
2D) are idealized as springs.
By default, spring-based smoothing on non-triangular or non-tetrahedral cell zones are
turned off. If you want to use spring-based smoothing on all cell shapes, you can turn on
the model for these zones using the spring-on-all-shapes? text-interface command:
define −→ models −→ dynamic-mesh-controls −→
smoothing-parameter −→spring-on-all-shapes?

Laplacian Smoothing Method

Laplacian smoothing is the most commonly used and the simplest mesh smoothing
method. This method adjusts the location of each mesh vertex to the geometric cen-
ter of its neighboring vertices. This method is computationally inexpensive but it does
not guarantee an improvement on mesh quality, since repositioning a vertex by Laplacian
smoothing can result in poor quality elements. To overcome this problem, FLUENT only
relocates the vertex to the geometric center of its neighboring vertices if and only if there
is an improvement in the mesh quality (i.e., the skewness has been improved).
This improved Laplacian smoothing can be enabled on deforming boundaries only (i.e.,
the zone with triangular elements in 3D and zones with linear elements in 2D). The
computation of the node positions works as follows:
Pni −
→m
→
− j xj
xmi = (11.3-5)
ni

where −→
xm →m
−
i is the averaged node position of node i at iteration m, x j is the node position
of neighbor node of −→xm
i at iteration m, and ni is the number nodes neighboring node i.
The new node position − →x m+1
i is then computed as follows:

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

−
→
x m+1 =−
→
xm →m
−
i i (1 − β) + x i β (11.3-6)

where β is the boundary node relaxation factor.

This update only happens if the maximum skewness of all faces adjacent to −
→
x m+1
i is
→
− m
improved in comparison to x i .

Boundary Layer Smoothing Method

The boundary layer smoothing method is used to deform the boundary layer during
a moving-deforming mesh simulation. For cases that have a Mesh Motion UDF (Sec-
tion 11.7.2: User-Defined Motion) applied to a face zone with adjacent boundary layers,
the boundary layer will deform according to the UDF that is applied to the face zone.
This smoothing method preserves the height of each boundary layer and can be applied
to boundary layer zones of all mesh types (wedges and hexahedra in 3D, quadrilaterals
in 2D).
Consider the example below, where a UDF of the form DEFINE_GRID_MOTION provides the
moving-deforming mesh model with the locations of the nodes located on the compliant
strip on an idealized airfoil. The node motion varies sinusoidally (Figures 11.3.5 and
11.3.6), both in time and space as seen by the deformation of the face zone and the
respective boundary layer. A deforming flag is set on the adjacent cell zone, such that
the cells adjacent to the deforming wall will also be deformed, in order to avoid skewness.
Compare the original mesh (Figure 11.3.3) prior to applying the Mesh Motion UDF to
that mesh whose boundary layer has been deformed (Figure 11.3.5).
To find out how to set up a deforming boundary layer for smoothing, refer to Sec-
tion 11.7.2: Specifying Boundary Layer Deformation Smoothing.

Dynamic Layering Method

In prismatic (hexahedral and/or wedge) mesh zones, you can use dynamic layering to
add or remove layers of cells adjacent to a moving boundary, based on the height of the
layer adjacent to the moving surface. The dynamic mesh model in FLUENT allows you
to specify an ideal layer height on each moving boundary. The layer of cells adjacent to
the moving boundary (layer j in Figure 11.3.7) is split or merged with the layer of cells
next to it (layer i in Figure 11.3.7) based on the height (h) of the cells in layer j.
If the cells in layer j are expanding, they cell heights are allowed to increase until

hmin > (1 + αs )hideal (11.3-7)

where hmin is the minimum cell height of cell layer j, hideal is the ideal cell height, and
αs is the layer split factor. When this condition is met, the cells are split based on the
specified layering option: constant height or constant ratio.

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Figure 11.3.3: The Mesh Prior to Applying Boundary Layer Smoothing

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

Figure 11.3.4: Zooming into the Mesh of the Compliant Strip Prior to Ap-
plying Boundary Layer Smoothing

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Figure 11.3.5: The Mesh After Applying Boundary Layer Smoothing

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

Figure 11.3.6: Zooming into the Deformed Boundary Layer of the Compliant
Strip

Layer i

Layer j h

Moving
boundary

Figure 11.3.7: Dynamic Layering

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 11.3 Dynamic Mesh Theory

With the constant height option, the cells are split to create a layer of cells with constant
height hideal and a layer of cells of height h − hideal . With the constant ratio option, the
cells are split such that locally, the ratio of the new cell heights is exactly αs everywhere.
Figures 11.3.8 and 11.3.9 shows the result of splitting a layer of cells above a valve
geometry using the constant height and constant ratio option.

Figure 11.3.8: Results of Splitting Layer By Constant Height

Figure 11.3.9: Results of Splitting Layer By Constant Ratio

If the cells in layer j are being compressed, they can be compressed until

hmin < αc hideal (11.3-8)

where αc is the layer collapse factor. When this condition is met, the compressed layer
of cells is merged into the layer of cells above the compressed layer; i.e., the cells in layer
j are merged with those in layer i.

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

Applicability of the Dynamic Layering Method

You can use the dynamic layering method to split or merge cells adjacent to any moving
boundary provided the following conditions are met:

• All cells adjacent to the moving face zone are either wedges or hexahedra (quadri-
laterals in 2D) even though the cell zone may contain mixed cell shapes.

• The cell layers must be completely bounded by one-sided face zones, except when
sliding interfaces are used (see Section 11.3.2: Applicability of the Face Region
Remeshing Method).

• If the bounding face zones are two-sided walls, you must split the wall and wall-
shadow pair and use the coupled sliding interface option to couple the two adjacent
cell zones.

• Note that you cannot use the dynamic layering method in conjunction with hang-
ing node adaption. For more information on hanging node adaption, see Sec-
tion 26.2.1: Hanging Node Adaption.

If the moving boundary is an internal zone, cells on both sides (possibly with different
ideal cell layer heights) of the internal zone are considered for dynamic layering.
If you want to use dynamic layering on cells adjacent to a moving wall that do not
span from boundary to boundary, you must separate those cells which are involved in
the dynamic layering and use the sliding interfaces capability in FLUENT to transition
from the deforming cells to the adjacent non-deforming cells (see Figure 11.3.10). For a
moving interior face, the zones must be separated such that they are either expanding or
collapsing on the same side. No one zone can consist of both expanding and collapsing
layers.

Remeshing Methods
On zones with a triangular or tetrahedral mesh, the spring-based smoothing method
(described in Section 11.3.2: Spring-Based Smoothing Method) is normally used. When
the boundary displacement is large compared to the local cell sizes, the cell quality can
deteriorate or the cells can become degenerate. This will invalidate the mesh (e.g., result
in negative cell volumes) and consequently, will lead to convergence problems when the
solution is updated to the next time step.
To circumvent this problem, FLUENT agglomerates cells that violate the skewness or size
criteria and locally remeshes the agglomerated cells or faces. If the new cells or faces
satisfy the skewness criterion, the mesh is locally updated with the new cells (with the
solution interpolated from the old cells). Otherwise, the new cells are discarded.

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 11.3 Dynamic Mesh Theory

Sliding Interfaces

Moving Face Zone

Dynamic Layering Zone

Figure 11.3.10: Use of Sliding Interfaces to Transition Between Adjacent Cell

Zones and the Dynamic Layering Cell Zone

FLUENT includes several remeshing methods that include local remeshing, local face
remeshing (for 3D flows only), face region remeshing, and 2.5D surface remeshing (for 3D
flows only). The available remeshing methods in FLUENT work for triangular-tetrahedral
zones and mixed zones where the non-triangular/tetrahedral elements are skipped. The
exception is the 2.5D model, where the available remeshing method only work on wedges
extruded from triangular surfaces or hex meshes.

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

Local Remeshing Method

Using the local remeshing method, FLUENT marks cells based on cell skewness and
minimum and maximum length scales as well as an optional sizing function.
FLUENT evaluates each cell and marks it for remeshing if it meets one or more of the
following criteria:

• It has a skewness that is greater than a specified maximum skewness.

• It is smaller than a specified minimum length scale.
• It is larger than a specified maximum length scale.
• Its height does not meet the specified length scale (at moving face zones, e.g., above
a moving piston).

Face Region Remeshing Method

In addition to remeshing the volume mesh, FLUENT also allows triangular and linear
faces on a deforming boundary to be remeshed. FLUENT marks deforming boundary
faces for remeshing based on moving and deforming loops of faces.
For face region remeshing, FLUENT marks the region of faces on the deforming boundaries
at the moving boundary based on minimum and maximum length scales. Once marked,
FLUENT remeshes the faces and the adjacent cells to produce a very regular mesh on the
deforming boundary at the moving boundary (e.g., Figure 11.3.11). Using this method,
FLUENT is able to remesh across multiple face zones.
For 3D simulations, FLUENT allows remeshing with symmetric boundary conditions, and
across multiple face zones which includes preserving features not only between the differ-
ent face zones, but also within a face zone. For more information, see Section 11.3.2: Fea-
ture Detection.
FLUENT automatically extracts loops on the boundary of the face zone whose nodes are
moving or deforming. Consider a simple tetrahedral mesh of a cylinder whose bottom
wall is moving (see Figure 11.3.11). On the deforming boundary, a single loop is generated
at the bottom end of the cylinder (where the nodes are moving). FLUENT analyzes the
height of the faces connected to the nodes on the loop and subsequently, splits or merges
the faces depending on the specified maximum or minimum length scale.
If the faces in layer j are expanding, they are allowed to expand until the maximum
length scale is reached.
Conversely, if the layer is contracting, they are allowed to contract until the minimum
length scale is reached.
When this condition is met, the compressed layer of faces is merged into the layer of faces
above it. The face remeshing is illustrated in Figure 11.3.13.

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 11.3 Dynamic Mesh Theory

Deforming
boundary

Layer i

Layer j h

Moving boundary

Figure 11.3.11: Remeshing at a Deforming Boundary

Applicability of the Face Region Remeshing Method

You can use the local remeshing method only in cell zones that contain tetrahedral or
triangular cells.
If you define deforming face zones in your model and you use local remeshing in the
adjacent cell zone, the faces on the deforming face zone can be remeshed only if the
following conditions are met:

• The faces are triangular (or linear in 2D).

• Note that you cannot use the face region remeshing method in conjunction with
hanging node adaption. For more information on hanging node adaption, see Sec-
tion 26.2.1: Hanging Node Adaption.

Local Face Remeshing Method

The local face remeshing method only applies to 3D geometries. Using this method,
FLUENT marks the faces (and the adjacent cells) on the deforming boundaries based on
the face skewness. Using this method, FLUENT is able to remesh locally at deforming
boundaries, however, you are not able to remesh across multiple face zones.

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

Figure 11.3.12: Expanding Cylinder Before Region Face Remeshing

Figure 11.3.13: Expanding Cylinder After Region Face Remeshing

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 11.3 Dynamic Mesh Theory

Applicability of the Local Face Remeshing Method

If you define deforming face zones in your model and you use local face remeshing in
the adjacent cell zone, the faces on the deforming face zone can be remeshed only if the
following conditions are met:

• The faces are triangular.

• The faces do not exists across zones or features.

• Note that you cannot use the local face remeshing method in conjunction with
hanging node adaption. For more information on hanging node adaption, see Sec-
tion 26.2.1: Hanging Node Adaption.

2.5D Surface Remeshing Method

The 2.5D surface remeshing method only applies to extruded 3D geometries and is sim-
ilar to local remeshing in two dimensions on a triangular surface mesh (not a mixed
zone). Faces on a deforming boundary are marked for remeshing based on face skewness,
minimum and maximum length scale and an optional sizing function.

Stationary Wall

Moving
Walls

Moving Walls

Figure 11.3.14: Close-Up of 2.5D Extruded Flow Meter Pump Geometry Be-
fore Remeshing and Laplacian Smoothing

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

Remeshed Areas

Figure 11.3.15: Close-Up of 2.5D Extruded Flow Meter Pump Geometry Af-
ter Remeshing and Laplacian Smoothing

Applicability of the 2.5D Surface Remeshing Method

The following applies to the 2.5D surface remeshing method:

• Triangular faces get remeshed based on marking.

• Extruded prisms get remeshed based on the remeshing of the triangular face. Only
extruded regions get remeshed, not mixed regions.

• Note that you cannot use the 2.5D surface remeshing method in conjunction with
hanging node adaption. For more information on hanging node adaption, see Sec-
tion 26.2.1: Hanging Node Adaption.

• In the extruded/coopered mesh, area zone changes are not allowed. In such cases,
make sure that the face zones at the extruded mesh area do not change from the top
to the bottom. For more information about the 2.5D model, see Section 11.7.6: Us-
ing the 2.5D Model.

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 11.3 Dynamic Mesh Theory

Local Remeshing Based on Size Functions

Instead of marking cells based on minimum and maximum length scales, FLUENT also
marks cells based on the size distribution generated by the sizing function if the Sizing
Function option under Options is enabled.
Local remeshing using size functions can be used with the following remeshing methods:

• local remeshing

• 2.5D surface remeshing

Figure 11.3.17 demonstrates the advantages of using size functions for local remeshing:
In determining the sizing function, FLUENT draws a bounding box around the zone that
is approximately twice the size of the zone, and locates the shortest feature length within
each fluid zone. FLUENT then subdivides the bounding box based on the shortest feature
length and the Size Function Resolution that you specify. This allows FLUENT to create
a background grid.
You control the resolution of the background grid and a background grid is created for
each fluid zone. The shortest feature length is determined by shrinking a second box
around the object, and then selecting the shortest edge on that box. The size function
is evaluated at the vertex of each individual background grid.
As seen in Figure 11.3.18, the local value of the size function SFI is defined by
 
Σ D1J ∆sJ
SFI =   (11.3-9)
Σ D1J

where DJ is the distance from vertex I on the background grid to the centroid of boundary
cell J and ∆sJ is the mesh size (length) of boundary cell J.
The size function is then smoothed using Laplacian smoothing. FLUENT then inter-
polates the value of the size function by calculating the distance LI from a given cell
centroid P to the background grid vertices that surround the cell (see Figure 11.3.19).
The intermediate value of the size function sizeb at the centroid is computed from
 
ΣSF I L1I
sizeb =   (11.3-10)
Σ L1I

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

Figure 11.3.16: Grid at the End of a Dynamic Mesh Simulation Without Size
Functions

Figure 11.3.17: Grid at the End of a Dynamic Mesh Simulation With Size
Functions

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 11.3 Dynamic Mesh Theory

Figure 11.3.18: Size Function Determination at Background Grid Vertex I

Figure 11.3.19: Interpolating the Value of the Size Function

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

Next, a single point Q is located within the domain (see Figure 11.3.20) that has the
largest distance dmax to the nearest boundary to it. The normalized distance db for the
given centroid P is given by

dPmin
db = (11.3-11)
dmax

Figure 11.3.20: Determining the Normalized Distance

Using the parameters α and β (the Size Function Variation and the Size Function Rate,
respectively), you can write the final value sizeP of the size function at point P as

sizeP = sizeb × (1 + α × d1+2β

b ) = sizeb × γ (11.3-12)

where sizeb is the intermediate value of the size function at the cell centroid.
Note that α is the size function variation. Positive values mean that the cell size in-
creases as you move away from the boundary. Since the maximum value of db is one, the
maximum cell size becomes

sizeP,max = sizeb × (1 + α) = sizeb × γmax (11.3-13)

thus, α is really a measure of the maximum cell size.

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 11.3 Dynamic Mesh Theory

The factor γ is computed from

γ = 1 + αd1+2β
b if α > 0 (11.3-14)
1
1−β
γ = 1 + αdb if α < 0 (11.3-15)

You can use Size Function Variation (or α) to control how large or small an interior cell
can be with respect to its closest boundary cell. α ranges from −1 to ∞, an α value of 0.5
indicates that the interior cell size can be, at most, 1.5 the size of the closest boundary
cell. Conversely, an α value of −0.5 indicates that the cell size interior of the boundary
can be half of that at the closest boundary cell. A value of 0 indicates a constant size
distribution away from the boundary.
You can use Size Function Rate (or β) to control how rapidly the cell size varies from the
boundary. The value of β should be specified such that −0.99 < β < +0.99. A positive
value indicates a slower transition from the boundary to the specified Size Function Vari-
ation value. Conversely, a negative value indicates a faster transition from the boundary
to the Size Function Variation value. A value of 0 indicates a linear variation of cell size
away from the boundary.
You can also control the resolution of the sizing function with Size Function Resolution.
The resolution determines the size of the background bins used to evaluate the size
distribution with respect to the shortest feature length of the current mesh. By default,
the Size Function Resolution is 3 in 2D problems, and 1 in 3D problems.
A set of default values (based on the current mesh) is automatically generated if you
click Use Defaults.
In summary, the sizing function is a distance-weighted average of all mesh sizes on all
boundary faces (both stationary and moving boundaries). The sizing function is based on
the sizes of the boundary cells, with the size computed from the cell volume by assuming
a perfect (equilateral) triangle in 2D and a perfect tetrahedron in 3D. You can control
the size distribution by specifying the Size Function Variation and the Size Function Rate.
If you have enabled the Sizing Function option, FLUENT will agglomerate a cell if

4 5
 
size 6∈ γsizeb , γsizeb (11.3-16)
5 4
where γ is a factor defined by Equation 11.3-14 and Equation 11.3-15.
Note that the size function is only used for marking cells before remeshing. The size
function is not used to govern the size of the cell during remeshing.

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

Feature Detection
For 3D simulations, FLUENT allows you to preserve features on deforming zones not only
between the different face zones, but also within a face zone.
In the Geometry Definition tab of the Dynamic Mesh Zones panel, for any geometry defini-
tion, you can indicate whether you want to include features of a specific angle by selecting
Include Features under Feature Detection and setting the Feature Angle (the zonal feature
angle α) in degrees. If the angle β between adjacent faces is bigger than the specified
angle, then the feature is recognized (i.e., cos(β) < cos(α)).

Applicability of Feature Detection

The following items are applicable for use with feature detection:

• Feature remeshing is only possible with face region remeshing

• Features are preserved by local face remeshing, i.e. there is no local face remeshing
across features

• Smoothing methods preserve features, i.e. nodes at feature edges are not allowed
to be smoothed

11.3.3 Volume Mesh Update Procedure

The volume mesh is updated automatically based on the methods described in Sec-
tion 11.3.2: Dynamic Mesh Update Methods. FLUENT decides which method to use for
a particular zone based on which model is enabled and the shape of the cells in the zone.
For example, if the boundaries of a tetrahedral cell zone are moving, the spring-based
smoothing and local remeshing methods will be used to update the volume mesh in this
zone. If the zone consists of prismatic (hexahedral and/or wedge) cells, then the dynamic
layer method will be used to determine where and when to insert and remove cell layers.
On extruded prism zones, the 2.5D surface meshing method will be used.
Depending on which model is enabled, FLUENT automatically determines which method
to use by visiting the adjacent cell zones and setting appropriate flags for the volume
mesh update methods to be used. If you specify the motion for a cell zone, FLUENT will
visit all of the neighboring cell zones and set the flags appropriately. If you specify the
motion of a boundary zone, FLUENT will analyze only the adjacent cell zones. If a cell
zone does not have any moving boundaries, then no volume mesh update method will be
applied to the zone.

i Note that as a result of the remeshing procedures, updated meshes may be

slightly different when dynamic meshes are used in parallel FLUENT, and
therefore very small differences may arise in the solutions.

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 11.3 Dynamic Mesh Theory

i Note that if your dynamic mesh model consists of numerous shell conduc-
tion zones, the mesh update may very time consuming because all shells
are deleted and recreated during the mesh update.

11.3.4 Solid-Body Kinematics

FLUENT uses solid-body kinematics if the motion is prescribed based on the position and
orientation of the center of gravity of a moving object. This is applicable to both cell
and face zones.
The motion of the solid-body can be specified either as a profile or as a user-defined
function (UDF). A profile may be defined by the following profile fields:

• time (time)

• crank angle (angle) (in-cylinder flows only)

• position (x, y, z)

• linear velocity (vx , vy , vz )

• angular velocity (ωx , ωy , ωz )

• orientation (θx , θy , θz )

By default FLUENT assumes that the motion is specified in the inertial coordinate system.
However, it is also possible to prescribe the motion relative to the coordinate system by
selecting the Motion Type from the drop-down list for the respective fluid zone defined
in Define −→Boundary Conditions. Thus the motion may be prescribed relative to a
Rotating Reference Frame, Moving Mesh, or as Stationary.
For in-cylinder simulations, the velocity profiles for valves can be expressed as a function
of crank angle instead of time. In addition, transient boundary condition profiles can also
be expressed as a function of crank angle instead of time. For more information about
transient profiles, see Section 7.1.9: Defining Transient Boundary Conditions.

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Below are two examples of a profile format:

((movement_linear 3 point)
(time
0 1 2 )
(x
2 3 4 )
(v_y
0 -5 0 )
)

((movement_angular 3 point)
(time
0 1 2 )
(omega_x
2 3 4 )
)

For in-cylinder flows, crank angles can be included in transient tables as well as transient
profiles, in a similar fashion to time. An example of a transient table using (crank) angle
is as follows:

example 2 3 1
angle temperature
0 300
180 500
360 300

An example of a transient profile using (crank) angle is as follows:

((example transient 3 1)
(angle
0.000000e+00 1.800000e+02 3.600000e+02)
(temperature
3.000000e+02 5.000000e+02 3.000000e+02)
)

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 11.3 Dynamic Mesh Theory

In addition to the motion description, you must also specify the starting location of the
center of gravity and orientation of the solid body. In 2D (and 3D non-6DOF), FLUENT
automatically updates the center of gravity position and orientation at every time step
such that

~xn+1
c.g. = ~xnc.g. + ~vc.g. ∆t (11.3-17)
θ~c.g.
n+1
= θ~c.g.
n
+Ω~ c.g. ∆t (11.3-18)

where ~xc.g. and θ~c.g. are the position and orientation of the center of gravity, ~vc.g. and Ω
~ c.g.
are the linear and angular velocities of the center of gravity. 3D, 6DOF cases use a more
complex form of Equation 11.3-18 when updating θ.
Typically, θ~ is chosen to be an appropriate set of Euler angles. In this case, the solid-body
motion must be specified using a user-defined function (DEFINE CG MOTION).
The position vectors on the solid body are updated based on rotation about the instan-
taneous angular velocity vector Ω~ c.g. . For a finite rotation angle ∆θ = |Ω
~ c.g. |∆t, the final
position of a vector ~xr on the solid body with respect to ~xc.g. can be expressed as (See
Figure 11.3.4)

~xn+1
r = ~xnr + ∆~x (11.3-19)

where ∆~x can be shown to be

∆~x = |~xnr − ~xc.g. | [sin (∆θ)êθ + (cos (∆θ) − 1) êr ] (11.3-20)

The unit vectors êθ and ~er are defined as

~ c.g. × ~xr
Ω
êθ = (11.3-21)
~ c.g. × ~xr |
|Ω
~ c.g.
êθ × Ω
êr = (11.3-22)
~ c.g. |
|êθ × Ω

If the solid body is also translating with ~vc.g , the n + 1 position vector on the solid body
can be expressed as

~xn+1 = ~xnc.g. + ~vc.g. ∆t + ~xn+1

r (11.3-23)

where ~xn+1
r is given by Equation 11.3-19.

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

Ω c.g.

∆θ
∆x
eθ

er
x rn+1
n
xr

x c.g.
Figure 11.3.21: Solid Body Rotation Coordinates

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 11.3 Dynamic Mesh Theory

11.3.5 Steady-State Dynamic Mesh Applications

You can use dynamic meshes for steady-state applications as well as for transient applica-
tions. Some examples include: checking the valve application after reaching a steady-state
valve position; or after a fluid-structure interface application has reached a steady-state
solution.
There are no differences in the meshing aspect between steady-state cases and transient
cases. Furthermore, setting up a steady-state simulation is similar to setting up a tran-
sient case, described in Section 11.7: Steps in Using Dynamic Meshes. However, there
are a few differences which you should note:

• A CG MOTION UDF is needed to specify the motion of the boundary: a transient

profile used in transient cases cannot be used in steady-state cases.

• The dtime passed to the CG MOTION UDF is 1 by default: if a displacement of 1mm

is needed to move the boundary, you can specify the velocity to be 1e-3m/s.

• Dynamic mesh parameters can be different since an interpolation error is no longer

a concern.

The mesh must be manually updated through journal files or execute commands. To
update the mesh, you can use the Mesh Motion panel.
Solve −→Mesh Motion...
Alternatively, you can use the following text command:
solve −→mesh-motion
which can also be used as an execute command in the Execute Command panel:
Solve −→Execute Commands...

Figure 11.3.22: The Mesh Motion Panel for Steady-State Dynamic Meshes

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

You can display dynamic mesh statistics (such as minimum and maximum volumes and
maximum cell and face skewness) by clicking the Update button in the Mesh Motion panel
(Figure 11.3.22).

i The following models are not available for steady-state applications:

• In-Cylinder

• Six DOF Solver

An Example of Steady-State Dynamic Mesh Usage

Consider a rescue drop case shown in Figure 11.3.23. The object can be moved in any
position in the steady-state solver, after which steady-state analyses can be performed
at different object positions.

Figure 11.3.23: Initial Object Position

The dynamic mesh parameters setup is identical for the steady-state and transient cases,
which is described in Section 11.7.1: Setting Dynamic Mesh Modeling Parameters. When
setting up the dynamic zones, the procedures are similar to those described in Sec-
tion 11.7.2: Specifying the Motion of Dynamic Zones, except that the UDF selected from
the Motion UDF/Profile drop-down list is different. In steady-state cases the dtime passed
to the UDF is by default 1. So, in this example, the object will move 50mm each time
the following UDF is executed:

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 11.3 Dynamic Mesh Theory

#include "udf.h"

DEFINE_CG_MOTION(pod,dt,vel,omega,time,dtime)

{
NV_S(vel,=,0);
NV_S(omega,=,0);

vel[1] = -50e-3;
}

The resulting mesh is shown in Figure 11.3.25.

Figure 11.3.24: The Mesh Motion Panel After 40 Updates

Figure 11.3.25: Final Object Position After 40 Executions

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

11.4 Steps in Using Sliding Meshes

11.4.1 Grid Requirements
Before beginning the problem setup in FLUENT, be sure that the grid you have created
meets the following requirements:

• A different cell zone exists for each portion of the domain that is sliding at a different
speed.

• The grid interface must be situated such that there is no motion normal to it.

• The grid interface can be any shape (including a non-planar surface, in 3D), pro-
vided that the two interface boundaries are based on the same geometry. If there
are sharp features in the mesh (e.g., 90-degree angles), it is especially important
that both sides of the interface closely follow that feature.

• If you create a single grid with multiple cell zones, you must be sure that each
cell zone has a distinct face zone on the sliding boundary. The face zones for two
adjacent cell zones will have the same position and shape, but one will correspond
to one cell zone and one to the other. (Note that it is also possible to create a
separate grid file for each of the cell zones, and then merge them as described in
Section 6.3.15: Reading Multiple Mesh/Case/Data Files.)

• If you are modeling a rotor/stator geometry using periodicity, the periodic angle of
the mesh around the rotor blade(s) must be the same as that of the mesh around
the stationary vane(s).

• All periodic zones must be correctly oriented (either rotational or translational)

before you create the grid interface.

• For 3D cases, if the interface is periodic, only one pair of periodic boundaries can
neighbor the interface.

See Section 11.2.1: The Sliding Mesh Technique for details about these restrictions and
general information about how the sliding mesh model works in FLUENT.

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 11.4 Steps in Using Sliding Meshes

11.4.2 Setting Up the Problem

The steps for setting up a sliding mesh problem are listed below. (Note that this proce-
dure includes only those steps necessary for the sliding mesh model itself; you will need
to set up other models, boundary conditions, etc. as usual.)

1. Enable the appropriate option for modeling unsteady flow in the Solver panel.
(See Section 25.17: Performing Time-Dependent Calculations for details about the
unsteady modeling capabilities in FLUENT.)
Define −→ Models −→Solver...

2. Set boundary conditions for the sliding action:

Define −→Boundary Conditions...
(a) Change the zone type of the interface zones of adjacent cell zones to interface
in the Boundary Conditions panel.
(b) In the Fluid panel or Solid panel for each moving fluid or solid zone, select Mov-
ing Mesh in the Motion Type drop-down list and set the translational and/or
rotational velocity. (Note that a solid zone cannot move at a different speed
than an adjacent fluid zone.)

i Note that simultaneous translation and rotation can be modeled only if

the rotation axis and the translation direction are the same (i.e., the origin
is fixed).
By default, the velocity of a wall is set to zero relative to the motion of the adjacent
mesh. For walls bounding a moving mesh this results in a “no-slip” condition in
the reference frame of the mesh. Therefore, you need not modify the wall veloc-
ity boundary conditions unless the wall is stationary in the absolute frame, and
therefore moving in the relative frame. See Section 7.13.1: Velocity Conditions for
Moving Walls for details about wall motion.
See Chapter 7: Boundary Conditions for details about input of boundary conditions.

3. Define the grid interfaces in the Grid Interfaces panel (Figure 11.4.1).
Define −→Grid Interfaces...
(a) Enter a name for the interface in the Grid Interface field.
(b) Specify the two interface zones that comprise the grid interface by selecting
one or more zones in the Interface Zone 1 list and one or more zones in the
Interface Zone 2 list. (The order does not matter.)
(c) Set the Interface Type, if appropriate. There are two options:

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

Figure 11.4.1: The Grid Interfaces Panel

• Enable Periodic for periodic problems.

i Periodic is not a valid option when more than one zone is selected in each
Interface Zone.
• Enable Coupled if the interface lies between a solid zone and a fluid zone.
(d) Click on Create to create a new grid interface.
For all types of interfaces, FLUENT will create boundary zones for the inter-
face (e.g., wall-9, wall-10), which will appear under Boundary Zone 1 and
Boundary Zone 2. You can use the Boundary Conditions panel to change them
to another zone type (e.g., pressure far-field, symmetry, pressure outlet).
If you have enabled the Coupled option, FLUENT will also create wall interface
zones (e.g., wall-4, wall-4-shadow), which will appear under Interface Wall
Zone 1 and Interface Wall Zone 2.
If you create an incorrect grid interface, you can select it in the Grid Interface list
and click on the Delete button to delete it. (Any boundary zones that were created
when the interface was created will also be deleted.)

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 11.5 Solution Strategies for Sliding Meshes

i When you have completed the problem setup, you should save an initial
case file so that you can easily return to the original grid position (i.e.,
the positions before any sliding occurs). The grid position is stored in the
case file, so case files that you save at different times during the unsteady
calculation will contain grids at different positions.

i For cases with strong impeller-baffle interactions, it is recommended that

you switch from an MRF model setup to a sliding mesh setup using the
following text command:
grid −→ modify-zones −→mrf-to-sliding-mesh
To successfully switch from an MRF to a sliding mesh, you must provide
the ID of the fluid zone. FLUENT identifies all the zones belonging to this
fluid zone as well as fluid zones shared in the domain. FLUENT then splits
these zones into walls, afterwhich the walls are slit converted to interfaces.
FLUENT then changes the boundary condition of the fluid zone to Moving
Mesh in the Fluid panel. The sliding mesh solution tends to be more robust
than the MRF solution.

11.5 Solution Strategies for Sliding Meshes

You will begin the sliding mesh calculation by initializing the solution (as described in
Section 25.14.1: Initializing the Entire Flow Field) and then specifying the time step
size and number of time steps in the Iterate panel, as for any other unsteady calcu-
lation. (See Section 25.17: Performing Time-Dependent Calculations for details about
time-dependent solutions. Note that if you wish to save the time step size in the initial
case file, you can click Apply instead of Iterate and then save a case file before start-
ing to iterate.) FLUENT will iterate on the current time step solution until satisfactory
residual reduction is achieved, or the maximum number of iterations per time step is
reached. When it advances to the next time step, the cell and wall zones will automat-
ically be moved according to the specified translational or rotational velocities (set in
step 2b above). The new interface-zone intersections will be computed automatically,
and resultant interior/periodic/external boundary zones will be updated (as described in
Section 11.2.2: Sliding Mesh Concept).

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

Saving Case and Data Files

FLUENT’s automatic saving of case and data files (see Section 4.3.4: Automatic Saving
of Case and Data Files) can be used with the sliding mesh model. This provides a
convenient way for you to save results at successive time steps for later postprocessing.

i You must save a case file each time you save a data file because the grid
position is stored in the case file. Since the grid position changes with each
time step, reading data for a given time step will require the case file at
that time step so that the grid will be in the proper position. You should
also save your initial case file so that you can easily return to the grid’s
original position to restart the solution if desired.

i If you are planning to solve your sliding mesh model in several stages,
whereby you run the calculation for some period of time, save case and
data files, exit FLUENT, start a new FLUENT session, read the case and
data files, continue the calculation for some time, save case and data files,
exit FLUENT, and so on, there may be some distortion in the mesh with
each subsequent continuation of the calculation. To avoid this problem, you
can delete the grid interface before saving the case file, and then create it
again (as described in step 3 above) after you read the case file into a new
FLUENT session.

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 11.5 Solution Strategies for Sliding Meshes

Time-Periodic Solutions
For some problems (e.g., rotor-stator interactions), you may be interested in a time-
periodic solution. That is, the startup transient behavior may not be of interest to you.
Once this startup phase has passed, the flow will start to exhibit time-periodic behavior.
If T is the period of unsteadiness, then for some flow property φ at a given point in the
flow field:

φ(t) = φ(t + N T ) (N = 1, 2, 3, ...) (11.5-1)

For rotating problems, the period (in seconds) can be calculated by dividing the sector
angle of the domain (in radians) by the rotor speed (in radians/sec): T = θ/Ω. For 2D
rotor-stator problems, T = P/vb , where P is the pitch and vb is the blade speed. The
number of time steps in a period can be determined by dividing the time period by the
time step size. When the solution field does not change from one period to the next (for
example, if the change is less than 5%), a time-periodic solution has been reached.
To determine how the solution changes from one period to the next, you will need to
compare the solution at some point in the flow field over two periods. For example, if the
time period is 10 seconds, you can compare the solution at a given point after 22 seconds
with the solution after 32 seconds to see if a time-periodic solution has been reached. If
not, you can continue the calculation for another period and compare the solutions after
32 and 42 seconds, and so on until you see little or no change from one period to the
next. You can also track global quantities, such as lift and drag coefficients and mass
flow, in the same manner. Figure 11.5.1 shows a lift coefficient plot for a time-periodic
solution.

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

-5.00e+00

-5.10e+00

-5.20e+00

-5.30e+00

-5.40e+00

Cl -5.50e+00

-5.60e+00

-5.70e+00

-5.80e+00

-5.90e+00

-6.00e+00
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11
Y

X Time
Z

Cl

Figure 11.5.1: Lift Coefficient Plot for a Time-Periodic Solution

The final time-periodic solution is independent of the time steps taken during the initial
stages of the solution procedure. You can therefore define “large” time steps in the initial
stages of the calculation, since you are not interested in a time-accurate solution for the
startup phase of the flow. Starting out with large time steps will allow the solution to
become time-periodic more quickly. As the solution becomes time-periodic, however, you
should reduce the time step in order to achieve a time-accurate result.

i If you are solving with second-order time accuracy, the temporal accuracy
of the solution will be affected if you change the time step during the
calculation. You may start out with larger time steps, but you should not
change the time step by more than 20% during the solution process. You
should not change the time step at all during the last several periods to
ensure that the solution has approached a time-periodic state.

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 11.6 Postprocessing for Sliding Meshes

11.6 Postprocessing for Sliding Meshes

Postprocessing for sliding mesh problems is the same as for other unsteady problems.
You will read in the case and data file for the time of interest and display and report
results as usual. For spatially-periodic problems, you may want to use periodic repeats
(set in the Views panel, as described in Section 28.4: Modifying the View) to display the
geometry. Figure 11.6.1 shows the flow field for the rotor-stator example of Figure 11.2.4
at one instant in time, using 1 periodic repeat.

1.01e+05

1.01e+05

9.98e+04

9.91e+04

9.83e+04

9.75e+04

9.68e+04

9.60e+04

9.52e+04

9.45e+04

9.37e+04

Contours of Static Pressure (pascal) (Time=1.0400e-01)

Figure 11.6.1: Contours of Static Pressure for the Rotor-Stator Example

When displaying velocity vectors, note that absolute velocities (i.e., velocities in the
inertial, or laboratory, reference frame) are displayed by default. You may also choose to
display relative velocities by selecting Relative Velocity in the Vectors Of drop-down list in
the Vectors panel. In this case, velocities relative to the translational/rotational velocity
of the “reference zone” (specified in the Reference Values panel) will be displayed. (The
velocity of the reference zone is the velocity defined in the Fluid panel for that zone.)
Note that you cannot create zone surfaces for the intersection boundaries (i.e., the in-
terior/periodic/external zones created from the intersection of the interface zones). You
may instead create zone surfaces for the interface zones. Data displayed on these surfaces
will be “one-sided”. That is, nodes on the interface zones will “see” only the cells on one
side of the grid interface, and slight discontinuities may appear when you plot contour
lines across the interface. Note also that, for non-planar interface shapes in 3D, you may
see small gaps in your plots of filled contours. These discontinuities and gaps are only
graphical in nature. The solution does not have these discontinuities or gaps.

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

You can also generate a plot of circumferential averages in FLUENT. This allows you to
find the average value of a quantity at several different radial or axial positions in your
model. FLUENT computes the average of the quantity over a specified circumferential
area, and then plots the average against the radial or axial coordinate. For more infor-
mation on generating XY plots of circumferential averages, see Section 28.8.4: XY Plots
of Circumferential Averages.

11.7 Steps in Using Dynamic Meshes

The steps for setting up a dynamic mesh problem are listed below. (Note that this
procedure includes only those steps necessary for the dynamic mesh model itself; you
will need to set up other models, boundary conditions, etc. as usual.)

1. Enable the appropriate option for modeling unsteady or steady flow in the Solver
panel. (See Section 25.17: Performing Time-Dependent Calculations for details
about the unsteady modeling capabilities in FLUENT.)
Define −→ Models −→Solver...
2. Set boundary conditions as required.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...
See Chapter 7: Boundary Conditions for details about input of boundary conditions.
The wall velocity is set up automatically when the motion attribute is set for wall
zones, so you will not specify wall motion in the Wall panel.
3. Enable the dynamic mesh model, and specify related parameters.
Define −→ Dynamic Mesh −→Parameters...
See Section 11.7.1: Setting Dynamic Mesh Modeling Parameters for details.
4. Specify the motion of the dynamic zones in your model.
Define −→ Dynamic Mesh −→Zones...
See Section 11.7.2: Specifying the Motion of Dynamic Zones for details.
5. You can display the motion of the moving zones with prescribed motion to verify
the simulation setup.
Display −→Zone Motion...
6. Define the events that will occur during the calculation.
Define −→ Dynamic Mesh −→Events...
See Section 11.7.4: Defining Dynamic Mesh Events for details.
7. Save case and data.
File −→ Write −→Case & Data...

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 11.7 Steps in Using Dynamic Meshes

8. Preview your dynamic mesh setup (when the motion is a prescribed motion).
See Section 11.3.5: Steady-State Dynamic Mesh Applications for previewing your
steady-state dynamic mesh motion and refer to Section 11.7.3: Previewing the Dy-
namic Mesh for details.
Solve −→Mesh Motion...

9. Specify the pressure-velocity coupling scheme. For transient flow calculations, the
PISO algorithm is recommended, as it is the most efficient for such cases (see
Section 25.9.1: PISO for details).

10. Use the automatic saving feature to specify the file name and frequency with which
case and data files should be saved during the solution process.
File −→ Write −→Autosave...
See Section 4.3.4: Automatic Saving of Case and Data Files for details about the use
of this feature. This provides a convenient way for you to save results at successive
time steps for later postprocessing.

i You must save a case file each time you save a data file because the mesh
position is stored in the case file. Since the mesh position changes with
each time step, reading data for a given time step will require the case file
at that time step so that the mesh will be in the proper position. You
should also save your initial case file so that you can easily return to the
mesh’s original position to restart the solution if desired.

11. (optional) If you want to create a graphical animation of the mesh over time dur-
ing the solution procedure, you can use the Solution Animation panel to set up the
graphical displays that you want to use in the animation. See Section 25.20.1: An-
imating the Solution for details.

11.7.1 Setting Dynamic Mesh Modeling Parameters

To enable the dynamic mesh model, turn on Dynamic Mesh in the Dynamic Mesh Param-
eters panel (Figure 11.7.1).
Define −→ Dynamic Mesh −→Parameters...
If you are modeling in-cylinder motion, turn on the In-Cylinder option. If you are modeling
2.5D applications (e.g., pumps), turn on the 2.5D option (3D flows only). If you are going
to use the six degrees of freedom solver, then turn on the Six DOF Solver option.
Next, you will need to select the appropriate mesh update methods, and set the associated
parameters, as well as the in-cylinder or Six DOF parameters, if relevant.

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

Figure 11.7.1: The Dynamic Mesh Parameters Panel

Selecting the Mesh Update Methods

Under Mesh Methods, select Smoothing, Layering, and/or Remeshing. Details about these
methods and their applicability to different cases are provided in Section 11.3.2: Dynamic
Mesh Update Methods. Information about setting parameters for the mesh update meth-
ods is provided below.

Setting Mesh Update Parameters

Smoothing

To turn on spring-based (or Laplacian smoothing if the 2.5D model is enabled), enable
the Smoothing option under Mesh Methods in the Dynamic Mesh panel (Figure 11.7.1).
The relevant parameters are specified in the Smoothing tab.

Spring-Based Smoothing

You can control the spring stiffness by adjusting the value of the Spring Constant Factor
between 0 and 1. A value of 0 indicates that there is no damping on the springs, and
boundary node displacements have more influence on the motion of the interior nodes.
A value of 1 imposes the default level of damping on the interior node displacements as
determined by solving Equation 11.3-3.

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 11.7 Steps in Using Dynamic Meshes

The effect of the Spring Constant Factor is illustrated in Figures 11.7.2 and 11.7.3, which
show the trailing edge of a NACA-0012 airfoil after a counter-clockwise rotation of 2.3◦
and the mesh is smoothed using the spring-based smoother but limited to 20 iterations.
Degenerate cells (Figure 11.7.2) are created with the default value of 1 for the Spring
Constant Factor. However, the original mesh distribution (Figure 11.7.3) is recovered if
the Spring Constant Factor is set to 0 (i.e., no damping on the displacement of nodes on
the airfoil surface).

Figure 11.7.2: Effect of a Spring Constant Factor of 1 on Interior Node Motion

Figure 11.7.3: Effect of a Spring Constant Factor of 0 on Interior Node Motion

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

If your model contains deforming boundary zones, you can use the Boundary Node Re-
laxation to control how the node positions on the deforming boundaries are updated. On
deforming boundaries, the node positions are updated such that

~xn+1 = ~xn + β∆~xm,converged

spring (11.7-1)

where β is the Boundary Node Relaxation. A value of 0 prevents deforming boundary

nodes from moving (equivalent to turning off smoothing on deforming boundary zones)
and a value of 1 indicates no under-relaxation.
You can control the solution of Equation 11.3-3 using the values of Convergence Tolerance
and Number of Iterations. FLUENT solves Equation 11.3-3 iteratively during each time
step until one of the following criteria is met:

• The specified number of iterations has been performed.

• The solution is converged for that time step:

∆~xm
!
rms
< convergence tolerance (11.7-2)
∆~x1rms
where ∆~x1rms is the interior and deforming nodes RMS displacement at the first
iteration.

Laplacian Smoothing

Note that for 2.5D modeling (3D flows only), you can only change the Boundary Node
Relaxation and the Number of Iterations. Note that the Number of Iterations is used for both
spring-based and Laplacian smoothing. The Boundary Node Relaxation is used differently
by FLUENT when the 2.5D model is used. On deforming boundaries, the node positions
are updated such that

~xn+1 = ~xn + β∆~xm

Laplacian (11.7-3)

Dynamic Layering

To turn on dynamic layering, enable the Layering option under Mesh Methods in the
Dynamic Mesh Parameters panel (Figure 11.7.4). The layering control is specified in the
Layering tab.
You can control how a cell layer is split by specifying either Constant Height or Constant
Ratio under Options. The Split Factor and Collapse Factor (αs in Equation 11.3-7 and
αc in Equation 11.3-8, respectively) are the factors that determine when a layer of cells
(hexahedra or wedges in 3D, or quadrilaterals in 2D) that is next to a moving boundary
is split or merged with the adjacent cell layer, respectively.

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 11.7 Steps in Using Dynamic Meshes

Figure 11.7.4: The Layering Tab in the Dynamic Mesh Parameters Panel

Local Remeshing

To turn on local remeshing, enable the Remeshing option under Mesh Methods in the Dy-
namic Mesh Parameters panel (Figure 11.7.5). The local remeshing controls are specified
in the Remeshing tab.
You can view the vital statistics of your mesh by clicking the Mesh Scale Info... button.
This displays the Mesh Scale Info panel where you can view the minimum and maximum
length scale values as well as the maximum cell and face skewness values.
In local remeshing, FLUENT agglomerates cells based on skewness, size, and height (ad-
jacent moving face zones). The value of Maximum Cell Skewness indicates the desired
skewness of the mesh. By default, the Maximum Cell Skewness is set to 0.9 for 3D sim-
ulations and 0.6 for 2D simulations. Cells with skewness above the maximum skewness
are marked for remeshing. The size criteria are specified with Minimum Length Scale and
Maximum Length Scale. Cells with length scales below the minimum length scale and
above the maximum length scale are marked for remeshing.

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

Figure 11.7.5: The Remeshing Tab in the Dynamic Mesh Parameters Panel

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 11.7 Steps in Using Dynamic Meshes

For 3D simulations, the Face Remeshing option is available, allowing you the convenience
of remeshing deforming boundary faces if you so desire. Once the option is turned on, you
are able to set the Maximum Face Skewness to a specific value. In addition, you should
turn on the Remeshing option in the Meshing Options tab of the Dynamics Zones panel for
a deforming zone type (see Section 11.7.2: Deforming Motion). You also have the option
of choosing either the local face remeshing method or the face region remeshing methods
by selecting the appropriate option under Remeshing Methods for a deforming zone type.
Note that depending on the case, either or both methods have to be enabled.
The marking of cells based on skewness is done at every time step when the local remesh-
ing method is enabled. However, marking based on size and height is performed between
the specified Size Remesh Interval since the change in cell size distribution is typically
small over one time step.
By default, FLUENT replaces the agglomerated cells only if the quality of the remeshed
cells has improved. However, you can override this behavior by disabling Must Improve
Skewness under Options.
When you use the Size Function remeshing option (see Figure 11.7.6), you can control
three parameters that govern the size function. You can specify the Size Function Resolu-
tion, the Size Function Variation, and the Size Function Rate or you can return to FLUENT’s
default values by using the Use Defaults button.
The Size Function Resolution controls the density of the background grid (see Section 11.3.2: Lo-
cal Remeshing Based on Size Functions). By default, it is equivalent to 3 in 2D simula-
tions and 1 in 3D simulations.
The Size Function Variation corresponds to α in Equation 11.3-12. It is the measure of
the maximum permissible cell size and it ranges from −1 < α < +∞.
The Size Function Rate corresponds to β in Equation 11.3-12. It is the measure of the
rate of growth of the cell size, and it ranges from −0.99 < β < + + 0.99. A value of 0
implies linear growth, whereas higher values imply a slower growth near the boundary
with faster growth as one moves toward the interior.

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Figure 11.7.6: The Remeshing Tab in the Dynamic Mesh Parameters Panel
Using the Size Function Option

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 11.7 Steps in Using Dynamic Meshes

Setting In-Cylinder Parameters

If you turn on the In-Cylinder model in the Dynamic Mesh Parameters panel (Figure 11.7.1),
you need to specify the Crank Shaft Speed, the Starting Crank Angle, and the Crank Period
which are used to convert between flow time and crank angle. You must also specify the
time step to use for advancing the solution in terms of crank angle in Crank Angle Step
Size. By default, FLUENT assumes a Crank Angle Step Size of 0.5 degree.

Figure 11.7.7: The In-Cylinder Tab in the Dynamic Mesh Parameters Panel

FLUENT provides a built-in function to calculate the piston location as a function of

crank angle. If the piston motion is specified using this function, you need to specify the
Piston Stroke and Connecting Rod Length. The piston location is calculated using
s
A A2
ps = L + (1 − cos (θc )) − L2 − sin2 (θc ) (11.7-4)
2 4

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

where ps is the piston location (0 at top-dead-center (TDC) and A at bottom-dead-center

(BDC)), L is the connecting rod length, A is the piston stroke, and θc is the current crank
angle. The current crank angle is calculated from

θc = θs + tΩshaft (11.7-5)

where θs is the Starting Crank Angle and Ωshaft is the Crank Shaft Speed.
The Piston Stroke Cutoff and Minimum Valve Lift values are used to control the actual
values of the valve lift and piston stroke such that

c min
vlift = max(vlift , vlift ) (11.7-6)
c min
ps = min(ps , ps ) (11.7-7)

c min
where vlift is the valve lift computed from the appropriate valve profiles, vlift is the
Minimum Valve Lift, ps is the stroke calculated from Equation 11.7-4, and pmin
c
s is the
Piston Stroke Cutoff. (See Section 11.7.5: Defining Motion/Geometry Attributes of Mesh
Zones on how the Piston Stroke Cutoff is used to control the onset of layering in the
cylinder chamber.)

Setting Six DOF Solver Parameters

To use the six degree of freedom solver for your unsteady dynamic mesh simulation, select
Six DOF Solver under Models in the Dynamic Mesh Parameters panel (Figure 11.7.1) and
click on the Six DOF Solver tab (Figure 11.7.8).
Define −→ Dynamic Mesh −→Parameters
You can specify the gravitational acceleration in the x, y, and z directions either in this
panel, or in the Operating Conditions panel.

11.7.2 Specifying the Motion of Dynamic Zones

You need to define the motion of the dynamic zones in your model. If the zone is a rigid
body, you can use a profile or user-defined function (UDF) to define the motion of the
rigid body or use the 6DOF solver. If the zone is a deforming zone, you can define the
geometry and the parameters that control face remeshing, if applicable. For a zone that
is deforming and moving at the same time, you can use a user-defined function to define
the geometry and motion of the zone as they change with time.

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 11.7 Steps in Using Dynamic Meshes

Figure 11.7.8: The Six DOF Solver Tab in the Dynamic Mesh Parameters Panel

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General Procedure
You will specify the motion of the dynamic zones in your model using the Dynamic Mesh
Zones panel.
Define −→ Dynamic Mesh −→Zones...
Details about specifying different types of motion are provided in this section.

Creating a Dynamic Zone

When you have completed the specification of a dynamic zone, click Create in the Dynamic
Mesh Zones panel to complete the specification and add the zone to the Dynamic Zones
list.

Modifying a Dynamic Zone

If you want to make a change to the specification of a dynamic zone, select the zone
in the Dynamic Zones list, change the specification, and then click Create to update the
specification.

Checking the Center of Gravity

If a dynamic zone has solid body motion, you can view its current position and orientation
of the center of gravity (with respect to initial data) by selecting the zone in the Dynamic
Zones list and then clicking on Update.

Deleting a Dynamic Zone

To delete a dynamic zone that you have specified, select the zone in the Dynamic Zones
list, and click Delete. The zone will be removed from the Dynamic Zones list.

Stationary Motion
By default, if no motion (moving or deforming) attributes are assigned to a face or cell
zone, then the zone is not considered when updating the mesh to the next time step.
However, there are cases where an explicit declaration of a stationary zone is required.
For example, if a cell zone is assigned some solid body motion, the positions of all nodes
belonging to the cell zone will be updated even though some of the nodes may also be part
of a non-moving boundary zone. An explicit declaration of a stationary zone excludes
the nodes on these zones when updating the node positions.
To define a stationary zone in your model, follow the steps below.

1. Select the stationary zone in the Zone Names drop-down list.

2. Select Stationary under Type.

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Figure 11.7.9: The Dynamic Mesh Zones Panel for a Stationary Zone

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3. If the stationary zone is a face zone, then specify Cell Height on any Adjacent Zone
which is involved in local remeshing or dynamic layering in the Meshing Options
tab. The Cell Height specifies the ideal height of the adjacent cells as described
earlier in the dynamic layering section.
4. Click Create.

Rigid Body Motion

To define a rigid-body zone in your model, follow the steps below.

Figure 11.7.10: The Dynamic Mesh Zones Panel for a Rigid Body Motion

1. Select the rigid body zone in the Zone Names drop-down list.
2. Select the Rigid Body option under Type.
3. If you want to specify the motion of the rigid body zone using a profile or user-
defined function, then select a profile or user-defined function from the Motion
UDF/Profile drop-down list in the Motion Attributes tab. See Section 7.26: Boundary
Profiles and Section 11.3.4: Solid-Body Kinematics for information on profiles, and
see the separate UDF Manual for information on user-defined functions.

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4. If you want to use the Six DOF Solver option, then select the appropriate UDF from
the Six DOF UDF drop-down list in the Motion Attributes tab (see Figure 11.7.11).
Note that you should make sure that On is enabled under Six DOF Solver Options
to ensure that the Six DOF solver is being used. See the separate UDF Manual
for information on user-defined functions. For more information about the 6DOF
solver, see Section 11.7.7: Using the Six DOF Solver.
Note that the Passive option under Six DOF Solver Options is used when you do not
want the forces and moments on the zone to be taken into consideration.

5. Specify the initial location of the center of gravity for the rigid body by entering
the coordinates of the center of gravity in Center of Gravity Location.

6. Specify the orientation of the object with respect to the center of gravity (in the
inertia coordinate system) by entering the orientations of the center of gravity in
Center of Gravity Orientation.
For most cases, this is an initial reference orientation that FLUENT later updates,
letting you keep track or the object’s current orientation. The center of gravity
orientation is most useful when using the Six DOF solver, where it is used to
compute the transformation matrices (see Section 11.7.7: Overview of the Six DOF
(6DOF) Solver).

7. When using the Six DOF solver, specify the velocity of the center of gravity with
respect to the inertia coordinate system by entering the velocity of the center of
gravity in Center of Gravity Velocity. Also, specify the angular velocity of the center
of gravity with respect to the inertia coordinate system by entering the angular
velocity of the center of gravity in Center of Gravity Angular Velocity.

8. If you are solving an in-cylinder problem, specify the direction of the reference axis
of the valves or piston in Valve/Piston Axis.
The current valve lift or piston stroke is automatically updated in Lift/Stroke when
you click Create based on the parameters you have specified earlier when you first
invoke the in-cylinder model.

9. If the rigid body zone is a face zone, specify the ideal height for cells in the adjacent
cell zones by entering a value in the Cell Height field for each Adjacent Zone in the
Remeshing Options tab. The ideal cell height (hideal in Equations 11.3-7 and 11.3-8)
is used by FLUENT to determine when the prismatic layer next to the rigid body
should be split or merged with the layer next to it. If the adjacent zone is tetrahedral
or triangular, the ideal height is used by FLUENT to determine if adjacent cells need
to be agglomerated for local remeshing.

10. Click Create.

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Figure 11.7.11: The Dynamic Mesh Zones Panel for a Rigid Body Motion
Using the Six DOF Solver

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Deforming Motion
To define a deforming zone in your model, follow the steps below.

Figure 11.7.12: The Dynamic Mesh Zones Panel for a Deforming Motion

1. Select the deforming zone in the Zone Names drop-down list.

2. Select the Deforming option under Type.

3. Specify the geometry of the deforming zone in the Geometry Definition tab. There
are four options:
• If no geometry is available, select faceted in the Definition drop-down list.
• If the geometry is a plane, select plane in the Definition drop-down list. To
define the plane, enter the position of a point on the plane in Point on Plane
and the plane normal in Plane Normal.

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• If the geometry is a cylinder, select cylinder in the Definition drop-down list.

To define the cylinder, enter the Cylinder Radius, the Cylinder Origin and the
Cylinder Axis.
• If the geometry is described by a user-defined function, select user-defined in
the Definition drop-down list and the appropriate user-defined functions in the
Geometry UDF drop-down list. See the separate UDF Manual for information
on user-defined functions.
For 3D simulations, FLUENT allows you to preserve features not only between
the different face zones, but also within a face zone. For any geometry defini-
tion (faceted, plane, cylinder, or user-defined), you can indicate whether you want
to include features of a specific angle by selecting Include Features under Feature
Detection and setting the Feature Angle in degrees. For more information, see Sec-
tion 11.3.2: Feature Detection.
When available, the geometry information is used to project nodes on the deforming
zone after remeshing the face zone, or if nodes are moved from the spring-based
smoothing method.

4. Specify the appropriate remeshing parameters in the Meshing Options tab.

You can locally disable or enable Smoothing and or Remeshing and use any Smooth-
ing and or Remeshing method.
You can view the vital statistics of your zone by clicking the Zone Scale Info...
button. This displays the Zone Scale Info panel where you can view the minimum
and maximum length scale values as well as the maximum skewness values.
If you selected a cell or face zone, you need to enter Minimum Length Scale, Max-
imum Length Scale and Maximum Skewness if you want impose a different set of
remeshing criteria, other than those you specified globally in the Dynamic Mesh
Parameters panel. This is not required for cell zones since the global settings for
the dynamic mesh parameters are used if FLUENT determines that the local set-
tings are unreasonable. You should use the information found in the Zone Scale
Info panel in order to set your values.

5. Click Create.

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User-Defined Motion
For a zone that is deforming and moving, you can define the position of each node on the
general deforming/moving zone using a user-defined function (UDF). To define a moving
and deforming zone, follow the steps below.

1. Select the moving and deforming zone in the Zone Names drop-down list.

2. Select the User-Defined option under Type.

3. In the Motion Attributes tab, select the user-defined function that defines the ge-
ometry and motion of the zone from the Mesh Motion UDF drop-down list. See
the separate UDF Manual for information on user-defined functions used to specify
user-defined motion.

4. For face zones, you can specify Cell Height on any Adjacent Zone which is involved
in local remeshing or dynamic layering in the Meshing Options tab. The Cell Height
specifies the ideal height of the adjacent cells as described earlier in the dynamic
layering section.

5. Click Create.

Specifying Boundary Layer Deformation Smoothing

For a boundary layer that deforms according to the adjacent face zone, the zone that is
deforming and moving is defined using a user-defined function (UDF), as described in
Section 11.7.2: User-Defined Motion. To define a moving and deforming boundary layer,
follow the steps below:

1. Select the moving and deforming zone in the Zone Names drop-down list.

2. Select the User-Defined option under Type.

3. In the Motion Attributes tab, select the user-defined function that defines the ge-
ometry and motion of the zone from the Mesh Motion UDF drop-down list.

4. Click Create.

5. Create a deforming dynamic zone for the boundary layer fluid zone by selecting the
zone in the Zone Names drop-down list. Note that the boundary layer has to be a
separate fluid zone from the adjacent fluid zone. Select Deforming under Type and
enable Smoothing on the boundary layer fluid zone.

6. Click Create.

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7. Create a deforming dynamic zone for the fluid zone outside the boundary layer
by selecting the appropriate zone from the Zone Names drop-down list. Select
Deforming under Type and enable Smoothing and Remeshing Methods on the fluid
zone. Enabling both methods is necessary because the deforming boundary layer
will deform the adjacent cells.

8. Click Create.

11.7.3 Previewing the Dynamic Mesh

When you have specified the mesh update methods and their associated parameters, and
you have defined the motion of dynamic zones, as described in Section 11.7.2: Specifying
the Motion of Dynamic Zones, you can preview the motion of the mesh or the zone as
it changes with time before you start your simulation. The same dynamic zone or mesh
motion will be executed when you start your simulation.

Previewing Zone Motion

You can preview the motion of zones with rigid body motion using the Zone Motion panel
(Figure 11.7.13).
Display −→Zone Motion...

Figure 11.7.13: The Zone Motion Panel

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The zone motion preview only updates the graphical representation (in the graphics
window) of the zones that you have selected using the Grid Display panel. The zone
motion preview will only update those zones that have solid body motion specified. To
use the Zone Motion preview:

1. Select the appropriate zones to display in the Display Grid panel.

2. In the Zone Motion panel, enter the Time Step and the Number of Steps under
Motion History Integration.

3. Click the Integrate button. This allows FLUENT to create a table of surface positions
in time.

4. Under Preview Controls, specify the Time Step and the Number of Steps for preview.
Note that the time step here can be larger than the integration time step.

5. Click Preview to preview the zone motion. Click Apply to save your settings for
zone motion. Click Reset to have the default inputs restored in the panel.

You can also use the slider bar on the Zone Motion panel to fast-forward or rewind
the motion of the selected zones. Previewing the zone motion can also be used as a
postprocessor for 6DOF simulations (see Section 11.7.7: Using the Six DOF Solver).

Previewing Mesh Motion

The mesh motion preview is different from the zone motion described above in that the
mesh connectivity is not changed.
To preview the dynamic mesh of a transient case, you can use the Mesh Motion panel
(Figure 11.7.14).
Solve −→Mesh Motion...
The procedure is as follows:

1. Save the case file.

File −→ Write −→Case...

i Note that the mesh motion will actually update the node locations as well
as the connectivity of the mesh, so you must be sure to save your case
file before doing the dynamic mesh motion. Once you have advanced the
mesh by a certain number of time steps, you will not be able to recover
the previous status of the mesh, other than by reloading the appropriate
FLUENT case file.

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Figure 11.7.14: The Mesh Motion Panel

2. Specify the Number of Time Steps and the size of each time step (Time Step Size).
The current time will be displayed in the Current Mesh Time field after the dynamic
mesh has been advanced the specified number of steps.
Note that if you turned on the in-cylinder model, the Time Step Size is automatically
calculated from the Crank Angle Step Size and the Crank Shaft Speed that you have
specified in the Dynamic Mesh Parameters panel.

3. To view the dynamic mesh on the graphics window, turn on the Display Grid option.
In addition, you can control the frequency at which FLUENT should display an
updated mesh in the Display Frequency field. To save a hardcopy file of the mesh
each time FLUENT updates it during the preview, turn on the Save Hardcopy option.
This opens the Graphics Hardcopy panel (see Section 4.14: Saving Hardcopy Files).

4. Turn on Enable Autosave to use the automatic saving feature to specify the file name
and frequency with which case and data files should be saved during the solution
process.This opens the Autosave Case/Data panel.
See Section 4.3.4: Automatic Saving of Case and Data Files for details about the use
of this feature. This provides a convenient way for you to save results at successive
time steps for later postprocessing.

5. Click Preview to start the preview. FLUENT will update the dynamic mesh by
moving and deforming the face and cell zones that you have specified as dynamic
zones. Click Apply to save your settings for mesh motion. Click Reset to have the
default inputs restored in the panel.

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11.7.4 Defining Dynamic Mesh Events

If you are simulating a flow, you can use the events in FLUENT to control the timing of
specific events during the course of the simulation. With in-cylinder flows for example,
you may want to open the exhaust valve (represented by a pair of deforming sliding
interfaces) by creating an event to create the sliding interfaces at some crank angle. You
can also use dynamic mesh events to control when to suspend the motion of a face or
cell zone by creating the appropriate events based on the crank angle or time. Note that
in-cylinder flows are crank angle-based, whereas all other flows are time-based.

Procedure for Defining Events

You can define the events using the Dynamic Mesh Events panel (Figure 11.7.15).
Define −→ Dynamic Mesh −→Events...

Figure 11.7.15: The Dynamic Mesh Events Panel

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The procedure for defining events is as follows:

1. Increase the Number of Events value to the number of events you wish to specify. As
this value is increased, additional event entries in the panel will become editable.

2. Turn on the check box next to the first event and enter a name for the event under
the Name heading.

3. Specify either the time or the crank angle at which you want the event to occur.
For in-cylinder flows, specify the crank angle at which you want the event to occur
under At Crank Angle.
For non-in-cylinder flows, specify the time (in seconds) at which you want the event
to occur under At Time.
It is not necessary to specify the events in order of increasing time or crank angle,
but it may be easier to keep track of events if you specify them in the order of
increasing time or angle.

4. Click the Define... button to open the Define Event panel (Figure 11.7.16).

Figure 11.7.16: The Define Event Panel

5. In the Define Event panel, choose the type of event by selecting Change Zone Type,
Copy Zone BC, Activate Cell Zone, Deactivate Cell Zone, Create Sliding Interface,
Delete Sliding Interface, Change Motion Attribute, Change Time Step Size, Change
Under-Relaxation Factors, Insert Boundary Zone Layer, Remove Boundary Zone Layer,
Insert Interior Zone Layer, Remove Interior Zone Layer, Insert Cell Layer, or Remove
Cell Layer in the Type drop-down list. These event types and their definitions are
described later in this section.

6. Repeat steps 2–5 for the other events, if relevant.

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7. Click Apply in the Dynamic Mesh Events panel after you finish defining all events.

8. To play the events to check that they are defined correctly, click the Preview...
button in the Dynamic Mesh Events panel. This displays the Events Preview panel.
For in-cylinder flows, you use the Events Preview panel (Figure 11.7.17), to enter
the crank angles at which you want to start and end the playback in the Start Crank
Angle and End Crank Angle fields, respectively.
For non-in-cylinder flows, you use the Events Preview panel to enter the time at
which you want to start and end the playback in the Start Time and End Time
fields, respectively.
Specify the size of the step to take during the playback in the Increment field. Click
Preview to play back the events. FLUENT will play the events at the time (or crank
angle in the case of in-cylinder flows) specified for each event and report when each
event occurs in the text (console) window.

Figure 11.7.17: The Events Preview Panel for In-Cylinder Flows

For in-cylinder simulations, you need to specify the events for one complete engine
cycle. In the subsequent cycles, the events are executed whenever

θevent = θc ± nθperiod (11.7-8)

where θevent is the event crank angle, θc is the current crank angle calculated from
Equation 11.7-5, θperiod is the crank angle period for one cycle, and n is some integer.
As an example, for in-cylinder simulations, you are not required to specify the
event crank angle to correspond exactly to the current crank angle calculated from
Equation 11.7-5. FLUENT will execute an event if the current crank angle is between
±0.5∆θ where ∆θ is the equivalent change in crank angle for the time step. For
example, if the event preview is executed between crank angle of 340◦ and 1060◦
(crank period is 720◦ ) using an increment of 1◦ , FLUENT will report the following
in the text window.

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Execute Event: open-in-valve-left (defined at: 353.10, current angle: 353.00)

Execute Event: open-in-valve-right (defined at: 353.00, current angle: 353.00)
Execute Event: close-ex-valve-right (defined at: 355.60, current angle: 356.00)
Execute Event: close-ex-valve-left (defined at: 357.80, current angle: 358.00)
Execute Event: close-in-valve-left (defined at: 571.60, current angle: 572.00)
Execute Event: close-in-valve-right (defined at: 571.80, current angle: 572.00)
Execute Event: open-ex-valve-right (defined at: 137.10, current angle: 857.00)
Execute Event: open-ex-valve-left (defined at: 139.00, current angle: 859.00)

Notice that events defined at 137.10◦ and 139◦ are executed at 857◦ and 859◦ ,
respectively, because they satisfy the condition of Equation 11.7-8.

Events

Each of the available events is described below.

Changing the Zone Type

You can change the type of a zone to be a wall, or an interface, interior, fluid, or solid
zone during your simulation. To change the type of a zone, select Change Zone Type in
the Type drop-down list in the Define Event panel (Figure 11.7.16). Select the zone(s)
that you want to change in the Zone(s) list, and then select the new zone type in the
New Zone Type drop-down list.

Copying Zone Boundary Conditions

You can copy boundary conditions from one zone to other zones during your simulation.
If, for example, you have changed an inlet zone to type wall with the Change Zone Type
event, you can set the boundary conditions of the new zone type by simply copying the
boundary conditions from a known zone with the corresponding zone type.
To copy boundary conditions from one zone to another, select Copy Zone BC in the Type
drop-down list in the Define Event panel (Figure 11.7.16). In the From Zone drop-down
list, select the zone that has the conditions you want to copy. In the To Zone(s) list,
select the zone or zones to which you want to copy the conditions.
FLUENT will set all of the boundary conditions for the zones selected in the To Zone(s)
list to be the same as the conditions for the zone selected in the From Zone list. (You
cannot copy a subset of the conditions, such as only the thermal conditions.)
Note that you cannot copy conditions from external walls to internal (i.e., two-sided)
walls, or vice versa, if the energy equation is being solved, since the thermal conditions
for external and internal walls are different.

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Deactivating a Cell Zone

To deactivate a cell zone, select Deactivate Cell Zone in the Type drop-down list in the
Define Event panel (Figure 11.7.16), then select the zone that you want to deactivate in
the Zone(s) list.
Only deactivated zones can be activated. When a zone is deactivated, FLUENT skips
the zone during the calculations. For more information, see Section 6.8.8: Replacing,
Deleting, Deactivating, and Activating Zones.

Activating a Cell Zone

To activate a cell zone, select Activate Cell Zone in the Type drop-down list in the Define
Event panel (Figure 11.7.16), then select the zone that you want to activate in the Zone(s)
list. For more information, see Section 6.8.8: Replacing, Deleting, Deactivating, and
Activating Zones.

Creating a Sliding Interface

To create a sliding interface during your simulation, select Create Sliding Interface in the
Type drop-down list in the Define Event panel (Figure 11.7.18). Enter a name for the
sliding interface in the Interface Name field. Select the zones on either side of the interface
in the Interface Zone 1 and Interface Zone 2 drop-down lists.
You have the option to select any number of zones listed under each of the interface
zones. FLUENT calculates intersections between all possible combinations of the left and
right side of the interfaces, allowing you more flexibility in terms of creating zones and
defining the interfaces.

i If FLUENT finds another interface with the same name as defined in the
event, then the old interface will be deleted and a new one created as
defined in the dynamic mesh event.
If the interface zones that you selected above do not overlap each other completely, the
non-overlapped regions on each interface zones are put into separate wall zones by FLU-
ENT. If these wall zones (i.e., non-overlapped regions) have motion attributes associated
with them, their motion can only be specified by copying the motion from another dy-
namic zone by selecting the appropriate dynamic zones in the Wall 1 Motion and Wall 2
Motion drop-down lists, respectively.
Note that you don’t have to change the boundary type from wall to interface. When
the Create Sliding Interface event is executed, FLUENT will automatically change the
boundary type of the face zones selected in Interface Zone 1 and Interface Zone 2 to type
interface before the sliding interface is created.

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Figure 11.7.18: The Define Event Panel for the Creating Sliding Interface Op-
tion

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Deleting a Sliding Interface

To delete a sliding interface that has been created earlier in your in-cylinder simulation,
select Delete Sliding Interface in the Type drop-down list in the Define Event panel (Fig-
ure 11.7.16). Enter the name of the sliding interface to be deleted in the Interface Name
field.
As with the Create Sliding Interface event, FLUENT will automatically change the cor-
responding interface zones to wall. However, you may want to use the Copy Zone BC
event to set any boundary conditions that are not the default conditions that FLUENT
assumes.

Changing the Motion Attribute of a Dynamic Zone

To change the motion attribute of a dynamic zone during your in-cylinder calculation,
select Change Motion Attribute in the Type drop-down list in the Define Event panel
(Figure 11.7.16). Select the Attribute (slide, moving, or remesh) and set the appropriate
Status (enable or disable). Select the corresponding dynamic zones for which you want to
change the motion attributes in the Dynamic Zones list.
The slide attribute is used to enable or disable smoothing of nodes on selected deform-
ing face zones, the moving attribute is used to suspend the motion of selected moving
zones, and the remesh attribute is used to enable and disable face remeshing on selected
deforming face zones.

Changing the Time Step

To change the time step at some point during the simulation, select Change Time Step
Size in the Type drop-down list in the Define Event panel. Specify the new physical time
step size by entering the new Time Step Size in seconds.
For in-cylinder simulations, specify the new physical time step by entering the new Crank
Angle Step Size value in degrees. The physical time step is calculated from

∆θc
∆t = (11.7-9)
6Ωshaft

where the unit of Ωshaft is assumed to be in RPM.

Changing the Under-Relaxation Factor

To change one ore more under-relaxation factors, select Change Under-Relaxation Factor
in the Type drop-down list in the Define Event panel (Figure 11.7.16). Select the under-
relaxation factor that you wish to change, and assign a new value to it in the Under-
Relaxation Factors list. For more information on setting under-relaxation factors, see
Section 25.9.2: Setting Under-Relaxation Factors.

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Inserting a Boundary Zone Layer

To insert a new cell zone layer as a separate cell zone adjacent to a boundary, select Insert
Boundary Zone Layer in the Type drop-down list in the Define Event panel. Specify the
Base Dynamic Zone, from which the layer of cells is to be created, and the Side Dynamic
Zone, which represents the deforming face zone adjacent to the Base Dynamic Zone before
the layer is inserted. The new cell zone will inherit the boundary conditions of the cell
zone adjacent to the Base Dynamic Zone before the layer is inserted.
Note that a new cell layer can be inserted only from a one-sided Base Dynamic Zone. You
cannot insert a new cell layer from an interior face zone.
Figure 11.7.19 and Figure 11.7.20 illustrate the insertion of a boundary zone layer. In
both figures, the circular face at the top of the cylinder is the base dynamic zone.

Figure 11.7.19: Boundary Zone Before Insertion

Figure 11.7.20: Boundary Zone After Insertion

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Removing a Boundary Zone Layer

To remove the cell zone layer inserted using the Insert Boundary Zone Layer event, select
Remove Boundary Zone Layer in the Type drop-down list in the Define Event panel. Specify
the same Base Dynamic Zone that you used when you defined the insert boundary layer
event.
Note that a cell layer can be removed only from a one-sided Base Dynamic Zone.

Inserting an Interior Zone Layer

To insert a new zone layer as a separate cell zone adjacent to the internal side of a
boundary, select Insert Interior Zone Layer in the Type drop-down list in the Define Event
panel. Specify the Base Dynamic Zone and the Side Dynamic Zone as described in the
Insert Boundary Zone Layer event. You also need to specify the names of the new interior
face zones (Internal Zone 1 Name and Internal Zone 2 Name) that will be created after the
cell zone layer is created by FLUENT.
FLUENT inserts the interior cell layer by splitting the cell zone adjacent to the Base
Dynamic Zone with a plane. The position of the plane and the normal direction of the
plane are implicitly defined by the cylinder origin and cylinder axis of the Side Dynamic
Zone.
Figure 11.7.21 and Figure 11.7.22 illustrate the insertion of an interior zone layer.

Figure 11.7.21: Interior Zone Before Insertion

Removing an Interior Zone Layer

To remove the zone layer inserted using the Insert Interior Zone Layer event, select Remove
Interior Zone Layer in the Type drop-down list in the Define Event panel. Specify the same
Internal Zone 1 Name and Internal Zone 2 Name that you used to define the Insert Interior
Zone Layer event.

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Figure 11.7.22: Interior Zone After Insertion

Inserting a Cell Layer

To manually insert a new cell layer to the existing cell zone, select Insert Cell Layer in the
Type drop-down list in the Define Event panel. Specify the Adjacent Dynamic Face Zone
and the Direction Parameter. This can only work on zones that are suited for layering
(see Section 11.3.2: Applicability of the Dynamic Layering Method).

Removing a Cell Layer

To manually remove a cell layer from an existing cell zone, select Remove Cell Layer in the
Type drop-down list in the Define Event panel. Specify the Adjacent Dynamic Face Zone
and the Direction Parameter. This can only work on zones that are suited for layering
(see Section 11.3.2: Applicability of the Dynamic Layering Method).

Exporting and Importing Events

If you want to save the events you have defined to a file, click Write... in the Dynamic
Mesh Events panel and specify the Event File in the Select File dialog box.
To read the events back into FLUENT, click Read... in the Dynamic Mesh Events panel
and specify the Event File in the Select File dialog box.

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11.7.5 Using the In-Cylinder Model

This section describes the problem setup procedure for an in-cylinder dynamic mesh
simulation.

Overview
Consider the 2D in-cylinder example shown in Figure 11.7.23 for a typical pent-roof
engine.

Intake Valve

Exhaust Valve

Piston Head

Figure 11.7.23: A 2D In-Cylinder Geometry

In setting up the dynamic mesh model for an in-cylinder problem, you need to consider
the following issues:

• how to provide the proper mesh topology for the volume mesh update methods
(spring-based smoothing, dynamic layering, and local remeshing)

• how to define the motion attributes and geometry for the valve and piston surfaces

• how to address the opening and closing of the intake and exhaust valves

• how to specify the sequence of events that controls the in-cylinder simulation

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Defining the Mesh Topology

FLUENT requires that you provide an initial volume mesh with the appropriate mesh
topology such that the various mesh update methods described in Section 11.3.2: Dy-
namic Mesh Update Methods can be used to automatically update the dynamic mesh.
However, FLUENT does not require you to set up all in-cylinder problems using the same
mesh topology. When you generate the mesh for your in-cylinder model (using GAMBIT
or other mesh generation tools), you need to consider the various mesh regions that you
can identify as moving, deforming, or stationary, and generate these mesh regions with
the appropriate cell shape.
The mesh topology for the example problem in Figure 11.7.23 is shown in Figure 11.7.24,
and the corresponding volume mesh is shown in Figure 11.7.25.

Stationary Intake Zone Stationary Exhaust Zone

Layering Zones Above Intake Valve

Layering Zones Above Intake Valve

Remeshing Zone

Layering Zone Above Piston

Figure 11.7.24: Mesh Topology Showing the Various Mesh Regions

Because of the rectilinear motion of the moving surfaces, you can use dynamic layering
zones to represent the mesh regions swept out by the moving surfaces. These regions are
the regions above the top surfaces of the intake and exhaust valves and above the piston
head surface, and must be meshed with quadrilateral or hexahedral cells (as required by
the dynamic layering method).

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Figure 11.7.25: Mesh Associated With the Chosen Topology

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For the chamber region, you need to define a remeshing zone (triangular cells) to ac-
commodate the various positions of the valves in the course of the simulation. In this
region, the motion of the boundaries (valves and piston surfaces) is propagated to the
interior nodes using the spring-based smoothing method. If the cell quality violates any
of the remeshing criteria that you have specified, FLUENT will automatically agglomer-
ate these cells and remesh them. Furthermore, FLUENT will also remesh the deforming
faces (based on the minimum and maximum length scale that you have specified) on the
cylinder walls as well as those on the sliding interfaces used to connect the chamber cell
zone to the layering zones above the valve surfaces.
For the intake and exhaust port regions, you can use either triangular or quadrilateral
cell zones because these zones are not moving or deforming. FLUENT will automatically
mark these regions as stationary zones and will not apply any mesh motion method on
these cell zones.
The dynamic layering regions above the piston and valves are conformal with the adja-
cent cell zone in the chamber and ports, respectively, so you do not have to use sliding
interfaces to connect these cell zones together. However, you need to use sliding inter-
faces to connect the dynamic layering regions above the valves and the remeshing region
in the chamber. This is shown in Figure 11.7.26 with the exhaust valve almost at full
extension. Notice that cells on the chamber side of the interface zone are remeshed (i.e.,
split or merged) as the interface zone opens and closes because of the motion of the
exhaust valve.

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Sliding Interfaces

Figure 11.7.26: The Use of Sliding Interfaces to Connect the Exhaust Valve
Layering Zone to the Remeshing Zone

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

Defining Starting Position Mesh for the In-Cylinder Model

If you are solving an in-cylinder flow problem, it is recommended that you generate your
initial mesh to coincide with the TDC (top-dead-center) position. You can then use
FLUENT to position the valves and piston to correspond to the starting crank angle of
your simulation using the position-starting-mesh text-interface command.
define −→ models −→ dynamic-mesh-controls −→ in-cylinder-parameter −→
position-starting-mesh

/define/models/dynamic-mesh-controls/in-cylinder-parameter> position-starting-mesh
Start Crank Angle (deg) [0] 340

Updating mesh position ... Done

Subdividing mesh layers ... Done

Remeshing cell zone fluid-chamber (id = 18)

remeshing face zone cyl-wall-deform (id = 30) with length scale = 1.65000e-03
remeshing face zone intf-exv-lt-ob-t (id = 72) with length scale = 8.66000e-04
remeshing face zone intf-exv-rt-ob-t (id = 77) with length scale = 8.66000e-04
remeshing face zone intf-inv-lt-ob-t (id = 92) with length scale = 8.66000e-04
remeshing face zone intf-inv-rt-ob-t (id = 97) with length scale = 8.66000e-04
Remeshing cell zone fluid-export (id = 41)
remeshing face zone exvalve-deform-lt (id = 7) with length scale = 1.60000e-03
remeshing face zone intf-exv-rt-ib-t (id = 67) with length scale = 8.66000e-04
remeshing face zone intf-exv-lt-ib-t (id = 46) with length scale = 8.66000e-04
remeshing face zone exvalve-deform-rt (id = 39) with length scale = 1.60000e-03
Remeshing cell zone fluid-inport (id = 43)
remeshing face zone invalve-deform-rt (id = 8) with length scale = 1.60000e-03
remeshing face zone intf-inv-lt-ib-t (id = 82) with length scale = 8.66000e-04
remeshing face zone intf-inv-rt-ib-t (id = 87) with length scale = 8.66000e-04
remeshing face zone invalve-deform-lt (id = 40) with length scale = 1.60000e-03

This technique has the following restrictions:

• Does not execute mesh modification events (e.g., layer insertion).

• Does not work for geometries with a symmetry plane (e.g., half cylinder geometry).

FLUENT will automatically remesh any deforming face zones and the adjacent cell zones
(both remeshing and layering) based on the remeshing and dynamic layering parameters
that you have set up for your model. In the above example, the starting crank angle for
the in-cylinder simulation is 340 degrees (20 degrees before TDC). Figure 11.7.27 and
Figure 11.7.28 show the initial and the starting mesh generated by FLUENT.

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 11.7 Steps in Using Dynamic Meshes

Figure 11.7.27: In-Cylinder Initial Mesh

Figure 11.7.28: In-Cylinder Starting Mesh Generated by FLUENT at Crank

Angle of 340 degrees

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

Defining Motion/Geometry Attributes of Mesh Zones

As the piston moves down from the TDC to the BDC position, you need to expand the
remeshing region such that it can accommodate the valves when they are fully extended.
To accomplish this, you need to specify the dynamic layering zone adjacent to the piston
surface to move with the piston until some specified distance from the TDC position.
Beyond this cutoff distance, the motion of the layering zone is stopped and the piston
wall is allowed to continue to the BDC position. Because there is relative motion between
the piston head surface and the now non-moving dynamic layering zone, cell layers will
be added when the ideal layer height criteria is violated. Figures 11.7.29 to 11.7.34 show
the sequence of meshes before and after the onset of cell layering when the motion in the
layering zone above the piston surface is stopped (shown with ∆θ = 5◦ ).

Figure 11.7.29: Mesh Sequence 1

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Figure 11.7.30: Mesh Sequence 2

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Figure 11.7.31: Mesh Sequence 3

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Figure 11.7.32: Mesh Sequence 4

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Figure 11.7.33: Mesh Sequence 5

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Figure 11.7.34: Mesh Sequence 6

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

FLUENT provides built-in functions to handle the full piston motion and the limited
piston motion for the dynamic layering zone above the piston surface. When you define
the motion attribute of the dynamic layering zone above the piston surface, you need to
use the limited piston motion function (**piston-limit** in the C.G. Motion UDF/Profile
field in the Dynamic Mesh Zones panel). Note that you must define the parameters used
by these functions before you can use them. In the current example, the piston stroke is
80 mm and the connecting rod length is 140 mm. The piston stroke cutoff is assumed
to happen at 25 mm from TDC position. The lift as a function of crank angle between
344◦ and 1064◦ is shown in Figure 11.7.35 for both limited and full piston motion.

**piston-full**
**piston-limit**
8.00e-02

7.00e-02

6.00e-02

5.00e-02

4.00e-02

3.00e-02

2.00e-02

1.00e-02

0.00e+00
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100

Crank Angle (deg)

Figure 11.7.35: Piston Position (m) as a Function of Crank Angle (deg)

To define the motion of the valves, you need to use profiles that describe the variation of
valve lift with crank angle. FLUENT expects certain profile fields to be used to define the
lift and the crank angle. For example, consider the following simplified profile definition:

((ex-valve 5 point)
(angle 0 180 270 360 720)
(lift 0.05 0.05 1.8 0.05 0.05))

((in-valve 5 point)
(angle 0 355 440 540 720)
(lift 0.05 0.05 2.0 0.05 0.05))

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 11.7 Steps in Using Dynamic Meshes

FLUENT expects the angle and lift fields to define the crank angle and lift variations,
respectively. The angle must be specified in degrees and the lift values must be in
meters. The actual valve lift profiles that you will use for the current example are shown
in Figure 11.7.36. Notice that there is an overlapped period where both the intake and
exhaust valves are open.
in-valve
ex-valve
1.40e-02

1.20e-02

1.00e-02

8.00e-03

6.00e-03

4.00e-03

2.00e-03

0.00e+00
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100

Crank Angle (deg)

Figure 11.7.36: Intake and Exhaust Valve Lift (m) as a Function of Crank
Angle (deg)

The valve lift profiles and the built-in functions will describe how each surface moves as
a function of crank angle with respect to some reference point. For example, the valve
lift is zero when the valve is fully closed and the valve lift is maximum when it is fully
open. In order to move the surfaces, FLUENT requires that you specify the direction of
motion for each surface. FLUENT will then update the “center of gravity” of each surface
such that

~x = ~xref − l~eaxis (11.7-10)

where ~xref is some reference position, ~eaxis is the unit vector in the direction of motion,
and l is either the valve or the piston distance with respect to the reference position ~xref .
Note that the unit vector of the direction of motion is specified to point in the negative
direction. For example, the correct intake valve axis for this example is (−0.3421, 0.9397),
as shown in Figure 11.7.37.

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Modeling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes

Reference
Reference origin
axis

lift (l=0.05mm
at t=0)

Center of
gravity

Figure 11.7.37: Definition of Valve Zone Attributes (Intake Valve)

Defining Valve Opening and Closure

FLUENT assumes that once you have set up the mesh topology, the mesh topology is
unchanged throughout the entire simulation. Therefore, FLUENT does not allow you
to completely close the valves such that the cells between the valve and the valve seat
become degenerate (flat cells) when these surfaces come in contact (removing these flat
cells would require the creation of new boundary face zones). To prevent the collapse, you
need to define a minimum valve lift and FLUENT will automatically stop the motion of
the valve when the valve lift is smaller than the minimum valve lift value. The minimum
valve lift value can be specified in the Dynamic Mesh Parameters panel. For the current
example, a minimum valve lift value of 0.1 mm is assumed.
When the valve position is smaller than the minimum valve lift value, it is normal practice
to assume that the valve is closed. The actual closing of the valves is accomplished by
deleting the sliding interfaces that connect the chamber cell zone to the dynamic layering
zones on the valves. The interface zones are then converted to walls to close off the
“gaps” between the valves and the valve seats.
The valve opening is achieved by the reverse process. When the valve lift has reached
beyond the minimum valve lift value, the valve is assumed to be open and you can redefine
the sliding interfaces such that the chamber zone is now connected to the dynamic layering
zones above the valves.

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Defining Events for In-Cylinder Applications

FLUENT will automatically limit the valve lift values depending on the specified minimum
valve lift value. However, the conversion of the sliding interface zones to walls (and vice
versa) is accomplished via the in-cylinder events (see Section 11.7.4: Defining Dynamic
Mesh Events). For example, if the exhaust valve closes at −5◦ before TDC position, you
must define a Delete Sliding Interface event at the crank angle of −5◦. You need to define
similar events for the intake valve opening (using the Create Sliding Interface event), the
intake valve closing (Delete Sliding Interface event), and the exhaust valve opening (Create
Sliding Interface event) at the respective crank angles.
For the current example, the exhaust valve is assumed to be open between 131◦ and 371◦
and the intake valve is open between at 345◦ and 584◦.

11.7.6 Using the 2.5D Model

For 3D simulations only, you can select the 2.5D model under Models in the Dynamic Mesh
Parameters panel. This model allows for a specific subset of smoothing and remeshing
techniques.
The 2.5D mesh essentially is a 2D triangular mesh which is expanded, or extruded, along
the normal axis of the specific dynamic zone that you are interested in modeling. The
triangular surface mesh is remeshed and smoothed on one side, and the changes are then
extruded to the opposite side. Rigid body motion is applied to the moving face zones,
while the triangular extrusion surface is assigned to a deforming zone with remeshing
and smoothing enabled. The opposite side of the triangular mesh is assigned to be a
deforming zone as well, with only smoothing enabled, as in Figure 11.7.39.
Note that in the Smoothing tab of the Dynamic Mesh Parameters panel (Figure 11.7.38),
the 2.5D model allows you to change only the Boundary Node Relaxation value and the
Number of Iterations. Also note that the Remeshing tab of the Dynamic Mesh Parameters
panel automatically has Face Remeshing enabled.
For more information on setting smoothing and remeshing parameters, see Section 11.7.1: Set-
ting Mesh Update Parameters.
The 2.5D model only applies to mapable (i.e., extrudable) mesh geometries such as
pumps, as in Figure 11.7.39. Only the aspects of the geometry that represent the “moving
parts” need to be extruded in the mesh.

i You must only apply smoothing to the opposite side of the extruded mesh,
since FLUENT requires the geometry information for the dynamic zone.
FLUENT projects the nodes back to its geometry after the extrusion. With-
out this geometry information, the dynamic zones tends to lose its integrity.

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Figure 11.7.38: The Smoothing Tab for the 2.5D Model

Figure 11.7.39: 2.5D Extruded Gear Pump Geometry

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 11.7 Steps in Using Dynamic Meshes

i In parallel, a partition method that partitions perpendicular to the extru-

sion surface should be used. For example, if the normal of the extrusion
surface points in the x-direction then Cartesian-Y or Cartesian-Z would be
the perfect partition methods.
The 2.5D model is used in combination with a DEFINE_GRID_MOTION UDF. (See Sec-
tion 6.5.3: Hooking DEFINE GRID MOTION UDFs of the separate UDF Manual for infor-
mation about hooking this UDF.) This UDF is associated with the extrusion surface
that is adjacent to the cell zone, in turn applying the same deformation to the entire cell
zone. This approach is particularly useful when modeling gear pumps that are predomi-
nantly extruded hexahedral meshes. For more information about this UDF, contact your
support engineer.

11.7.7 Using the Six DOF Solver

FLUENT’s Six Degree of Freedom (6DOF) solver computes external forces and moments
such as aerodynamic and gravitational forces and moments on an object. These forces
are computed by numerical integration of pressure and shear stress over the object’s
surfaces. Additional load forces can be added (e.g., injector forces, thrust (propulsive)
forces, moments produced by a coil spring, etc.). This technique, along with the FLUENT
solver and the use of dynamic meshes, can be readily applied to many useful applications,
such as store separation [328, 346].

Overview of the Six DOF (6DOF) Solver

The 6DOF solver in FLUENT uses the object’s forces and moments in order to compute
the translational and angular motion of the center of gravity of an object. The governing
equation for the translational motion of the center of gravity is solved for in the inertial
coordinate system (Equation 11.7-11).

−̇ 1 X−
→
ν→
G = fG (11.7-11)
m
→
−
where −̇
ν→
G is the translational motion of the center of gravity, m is the mass, and f G is
the force vector due to gravity.
The angular motion of the object, −̇ω→
B , is more easily computed using body coordinates
(Equation 11.7-12).

X −→
−̇
ω→ MB − −
ω→ −
→

−1
B = L B × LωB (11.7-12)

−→
where L is the inertia tensor, MB is the moment vector of the body, and −
ω→
B is the rigid
body angular velocity vector.

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The moments are transformed from inertial to body coordinates using

−→ −→
M B = RM G (11.7-13)

where R is the following transformation matrix:

Cθ Cψ Cθ Sψ -Sθ
Sφ Sθ Cψ − Cφ Sψ Sφ Sθ Sψ + Cφ Cψ Sφ Cθ
Cφ Sθ Cψ + Sφ Sψ Cφ Sθ Sψ − Sφ Cψ Cφ Cθ

where, in generic terms, Cχ = cos(χ) and Sχ = sin(χ). The angles φ, θ, and ψ are Euler
angles that represent the following sequence of rotations:

• rotation about the x-axis (e.g., roll for airplanes)

• rotation about the y-axis (e.g., pitch for airplanes)

• rotation about the z-axis (e.g., yaw for airplanes)

Once the angular and the translational accelerations are computed from Equation 11.7-11
and Equation 11.7-12, the rates are derived by numerical integration [346]. The angular
and translational velocities are used in the dynamic mesh calculations to update the rigid
body position.

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Setting Rigid Body Motion Attributes for the Six DOF Solver
When the Six DOF Solver is enabled, you need to provide additional information for rigid
body dynamic zones. For instance, you must use a user-defined function to define the six
degrees of freedom parameters, and you must set the velocity and angular velocity for
the center of gravity. For each moving object, exactly one user-defined function has to
be defined, no matter how many zones there are for each object. For more information
about the Six DOF Solver settings in the Dynamic Mesh Zones panel for rigid body motion,
see Section 11.7.2: Rigid Body Motion.
Note that you can also keep track of an object’s motion history using the text user
interface and by entering yes for the motion-history? text interface command.
define −→ models −→ dynamic-mesh-controls −→ six-dof-parameter −→
motion-history?
This command generates a single motion history file for each moving object which can
be used to display zone motion for postprocessing your results. For more information on
zone motion, see Section 11.7.3: Previewing the Dynamic Mesh.

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Chapter 12. Modeling Turbulence

This chapter provides details about the turbulence models available in FLUENT.
Information is presented in the following sections:

• Section 12.1: Introduction

• Section 12.2: Choosing a Turbulence Model

• Section 12.3: Spalart-Allmaras Model Theory

• Section 12.4: Standard, RNG, and Realizable k- Models Theory

• Section 12.5: Standard and SST k-ω Models Theory

• Section 12.6: The v 2 -f Model Theory

• Section 12.7: Reynolds Stress Model (RSM) Theory

• Section 12.8: Detached Eddy Simulation (DES) Model Theory

• Section 12.9: Large Eddy Simulation (LES) Model Theory

• Section 12.10: Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows

• Section 12.11: Grid Considerations for Turbulent Flow Simulations

• Section 12.12: Steps in Using a Turbulence Model

• Section 12.13: Setting Up the Spalart-Allmaras Model

• Section 12.14: Setting Up the k- Model

• Section 12.15: Setting Up the k-ω Model

• Section 12.16: Setting Up the Reynolds Stress Model

• Section 12.17: Setting Up the Detached Eddy Simulation Model

• Section 12.18: Setting Up the Large Eddy Simulation Model

• Section 12.19: Setup Options for all Turbulence Modeling

• Section 12.20: Defining Turbulence Boundary Conditions

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Modeling Turbulence

• Section 12.21: Providing an Initial Guess for k and  (or k and ω)

• Section 12.22: Solution Strategies for Turbulent Flow Simulations

• Section 12.23: Postprocessing for Turbulent Flows

12.1 Introduction
Turbulent flows are characterized by fluctuating velocity fields. These fluctuations mix
transported quantities such as momentum, energy, and species concentration, and cause
the transported quantities to fluctuate as well. Since these fluctuations can be of small
scale and high frequency, they are too computationally expensive to simulate directly in
practical engineering calculations. Instead, the instantaneous (exact) governing equations
can be time-averaged, ensemble-averaged, or otherwise manipulated to remove the small
scales, resulting in a modified set of equations that are computationally less expensive
to solve. However, the modified equations contain additional unknown variables, and
turbulence models are needed to determine these variables in terms of known quantities.
FLUENT provides the following choices of turbulence models:

• Spalart-Allmaras model

• k- models
– Standard k- model
– Renormalization-group (RNG) k- model
– Realizable k- model

• k-ω models
– Standard k-ω model
– Shear-stress transport (SST) k-ω model

• v 2 -f model (addon)

• Reynolds stress model (RSM)

– Linear pressure-strain RSM model
– Quadratic pressure-strain RSM model
– Low-Re stress-omega RSM model

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• Detached eddy simulation (DES) model

– Spalart-Allmaras RANS model
– Realizable k- RANS model
– SST k-ω RANS model

• Large eddy simulation (LES) model

– Smagorinsky-Lilly subgrid-scale model
– WALE subgrid-scale model
– Kinetic-energy transport subgrid-scale model

12.2 Choosing a Turbulence Model

It is an unfortunate fact that no single turbulence model is universally accepted as be-
ing superior for all classes of problems. The choice of turbulence model will depend on
considerations such as the physics encompassed in the flow, the established practice for
a specific class of problem, the level of accuracy required, the available computational
resources, and the amount of time available for the simulation. To make the most ap-
propriate choice of model for your application, you need to understand the capabilities
and limitations of the various options.
The purpose of this section is to give an overview of issues related to the turbulence
models provided in FLUENT. The computational effort and cost in terms of CPU time and
memory of the individual models is discussed. While it is impossible to state categorically
which model is best for a specific application, general guidelines are presented to help
you choose the appropriate turbulence model for the flow you want to model.

12.2.1 Reynolds-Averaged Approach of the DES Model vs. LES

Time-dependent solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations for high Reynolds-number tur-
bulent flows in complex geometries which set out to resolve all the way down to the
smallest scales of the motions are unlikely to be attainable for some time to come. Two
alternative methods can be employed to render the Navier-Stokes equations tractable
so that the small-scale turbulent fluctuations do not have to be directly simulated:
Reynolds-averaging (or ensemble-averaging) and filtering. Both methods introduce ad-
ditional terms in the governing equations that need to be modeled in order to achieve a
“closure” for the unknowns.
The Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations govern the transport of the aver-
aged flow quantities, with the whole range of the scales of turbulence being modeled. The
RANS-based modeling approach therefore greatly reduces the required computational ef-
fort and resources, and is widely adopted for practical engineering applications. An entire
hierarchy of closure models are available in FLUENT including Spalart-Allmaras, k- and
its variants, k-ω and its variants, and the RSM. The RANS equations are often used

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Modeling Turbulence

to compute time-dependent flows, whose unsteadiness may be externally imposed (e.g.,

time-dependent boundary conditions or sources) or self-sustained (e.g., vortex-shedding,
flow instabilities).
LES provides an alternative approach in which large eddies are explicitly computed (re-
solved) in a time-dependent simulation using the “filtered” Navier-Stokes equations. The
rationale behind LES is that by modeling less of turbulence (and resolving more), the
error introduced by turbulence modeling can be reduced. It is also believed to be easier
to find a “universal” model for the small scales, since they tend to be more isotropic and
less affected by the macroscopic features like boundary conditions, than the large eddies.
Filtering is essentially a mathematical manipulation of the exact Navier-Stokes equations
to remove the eddies that are smaller than the size of the filter, which is usually taken as
the mesh size when spatial filtering is employed as in FLUENT. Like Reynolds-averaging,
the filtering process creates additional unknown terms that must be modeled to achieve
closure. Statistics of the time-varying flow-fields such as time-averages and r.m.s. values
of the solution variables, which are generally of most engineering interest, can be col-
lected during the time-dependent simulation. LES for high Reynolds number industrial
flows requires a significant amount of compute resources. This is mainly because of the
need to accurately resolve the energy-containing turbulent eddies in both space and time
domains, which becomes most acute in near-wall regions where the scales to be resolved
become increasingly smaller. Wall functions in combination with a coarse near wall mesh
can be employed, often with some success, to reduce the cost of LES for wall-bounded
flows. However, one needs to carefully consider the ramification of using wall functions
for the flow in question. For the same reason (to accurately resolve the eddies), LES also
requires highly accurate spatial and temporal discretizations.

12.2.2 Reynolds (Ensemble) Averaging

In Reynolds averaging, the solution variables in the instantaneous (exact) Navier-Stokes
equations are decomposed into the mean (ensemble-averaged or time-averaged) and fluc-
tuating components. For the velocity components:

ui = ūi + u0i (12.2-1)

where ūi and u0i are the mean and fluctuating velocity components (i = 1, 2, 3).
Likewise, for pressure and other scalar quantities:

φ = φ̄ + φ0 (12.2-2)

where φ denotes a scalar such as pressure, energy, or species concentration.

Substituting expressions of this form for the flow variables into the instantaneous conti-
nuity and momentum equations and taking a time (or ensemble) average (and dropping

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 12.2 Choosing a Turbulence Model

the overbar on the mean velocity, ū) yields the ensemble-averaged momentum equations.
They can be written in Cartesian tensor form as:

∂ρ ∂
+ (ρui ) = 0 (12.2-3)
∂t ∂xi

" !#
∂ ∂ ∂p ∂ ∂ui ∂uj 2 ∂ul ∂
(ρui ) + (ρui uj ) = − + µ + − δij + (−ρu0i u0j )
∂t ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi 3 ∂xl ∂xj
(12.2-4)
Equations 12.2-3 and 12.2-4 are called Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equa-
tions. They have the same general form as the instantaneous Navier-Stokes equations,
with the velocities and other solution variables now representing ensemble-averaged (or
time-averaged) values. Additional terms now appear that represent the effects of tur-
bulence. These Reynolds stresses, −ρu0i u0j , must be modeled in order to close Equa-
tion 12.2-4.
For variable-density flows, Equations 12.2-3 and 12.2-4 can be interpreted as Favre-
averaged Navier-Stokes equations [142], with the velocities representing mass-averaged
values. As such, Equations 12.2-3 and 12.2-4 can be applied to density-varying flows.

12.2.3 Boussinesq Approach vs. Reynolds Stress Transport Models

The Reynolds-averaged approach to turbulence modeling requires that the Reynolds
stresses in Equation 12.2-4 be appropriately modeled. A common method employs the
Boussinesq hypothesis [142] to relate the Reynolds stresses to the mean velocity gradients:
! !
∂ui ∂uj 2 ∂uk
− ρu0i u0j = µt + − ρk + µt δij (12.2-5)
∂xj ∂xi 3 ∂xk

The Boussinesq hypothesis is used in the Spalart-Allmaras model, the k- models, and
the k-ω models. The advantage of this approach is the relatively low computational
cost associated with the computation of the turbulent viscosity, µt . In the case of the
Spalart-Allmaras model, only one additional transport equation (representing turbulent
viscosity) is solved. In the case of the k- and k-ω models, two additional transport
equations (for the turbulence kinetic energy, k, and either the turbulence dissipation
rate, , or the specific dissipation rate, ω) are solved, and µt is computed as a function of
k and . The disadvantage of the Boussinesq hypothesis as presented is that it assumes
µt is an isotropic scalar quantity, which is not strictly true.

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Modeling Turbulence

The alternative approach, embodied in the RSM, is to solve transport equations for each
of the terms in the Reynolds stress tensor. An additional scale-determining equation
(normally for ) is also required. This means that five additional transport equations are
required in 2D flows and seven additional transport equations must be solved in 3D.
In many cases, models based on the Boussinesq hypothesis perform very well, and the
additional computational expense of the Reynolds stress model is not justified. However,
the RSM is clearly superior for situations in which the anisotropy of turbulence has a
dominant effect on the mean flow. Such cases include highly swirling flows and stress-
driven secondary flows.

12.2.4 Computational Effort: CPU Time and Solution Behavior

In terms of computation, the Spalart-Allmaras model is the least expensive turbulence
model of the options provided in FLUENT, since only one turbulence transport equation
is solved.
The standard k- model clearly requires more computational effort than the Spalart-
Allmaras model since an additional transport equation is solved. The realizable k-
model requires only slightly more computational effort than the standard k- model.
However, due to the extra terms and functions in the governing equations and a greater
degree of non-linearity, computations with the RNG k- model tend to take 10–15% more
CPU time than with the standard k- model. Like the k- models, the k-ω models are
also two-equation models, and thus require about the same computational effort.
Compared with the k- and k-ω models, the RSM requires additional memory and CPU
time due to the increased number of the transport equations for Reynolds stresses. How-
ever, efficient programming in FLUENT has reduced the CPU time per iteration signifi-
cantly. On average, the RSM in FLUENT requires 50–60% more CPU time per iteration
compared to the k- and k-ω models. Furthermore, 15–20% more memory is needed.
Aside from the time per iteration, the choice of turbulence model can affect the ability of
FLUENT to obtain a converged solution. For example, the standard k- model is known
to be slightly over-diffusive in certain situations, while the RNG k- model is designed
such that the turbulent viscosity is reduced in response to high rates of strain. Since
diffusion has a stabilizing effect on the numerics, the RNG model is more likely to be
susceptible to instability in steady-state solutions. However, this should not necessarily
be seen as a disadvantage of the RNG model, since these characteristics make it more
responsive to important physical instabilities such as time-dependent turbulent vortex
shedding.
Similarly, the RSM may take more iterations to converge than the k- and k-ω models
due to the strong coupling between the Reynolds stresses and the mean flow.

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 12.3 Spalart-Allmaras Model Theory

12.3 Spalart-Allmaras Model Theory

12.3.1 Overview
The Spalart-Allmaras model is a relatively simple one-equation model that solves a mod-
eled transport equation for the kinematic eddy (turbulent) viscosity. This embodies a
relatively new class of one-equation models in which it is not necessary to calculate a
length scale related to the local shear layer thickness. The Spalart-Allmaras model was
designed specifically for aerospace applications involving wall-bounded flows and has been
shown to give good results for boundary layers subjected to adverse pressure gradients.
It is also gaining popularity for turbomachinery applications.
In its original form, the Spalart-Allmaras model is effectively a low-Reynolds-number
model, requiring the viscous-affected region of the boundary layer to be properly resolved.
In FLUENT, however, the Spalart-Allmaras model has been implemented to use wall
functions when the mesh resolution is not sufficiently fine. This might make it the best
choice for relatively crude simulations on coarse meshes where accurate turbulent flow
computations are not critical. Furthermore, the near-wall gradients of the transported
variable in the model are much smaller than the gradients of the transported variables
in the k- or k-ω models. This might make the model less sensitive to numerical error
when non-layered meshes are used near walls. See Section 6.1.3: Numerical Diffusion for
further discussion of numerical error.
On a cautionary note, however, the Spalart-Allmaras model is still relatively new, and
no claim is made regarding its suitability to all types of complex engineering flows. For
instance, it cannot be relied on to predict the decay of homogeneous, isotropic turbu-
lence. Furthermore, one-equation models are often criticized for their inability to rapidly
accommodate changes in length scale, such as might be necessary when the flow changes
abruptly from a wall-bounded to a free shear flow.
In turbulence models that employ the Boussinesq approach, the central issue is how the
eddy viscosity is computed. The model proposed by Spalart and Allmaras [349] solves
a transport equation for a quantity that is a modified form of the turbulent kinematic
viscosity.

12.3.2 Transport Equation for the Spalart-Allmaras Model

The transported variable in the Spalart-Allmaras model, ν̃, is identical to the turbu-
lent kinematic viscosity except in the near-wall (viscous-affected) region. The transport
equation for ν̃ is

 ( ) !2 
∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ ν̃ ∂ ν̃  −Yν +Sν̃ (12.3-1)
(ρν̃)+ (ρν̃ui ) = Gν +  (µ + ρν̃) + Cb2 ρ
∂t ∂xi σν̃ ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj

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where Gν is the production of turbulent viscosity and Yν is the destruction of turbulent

viscosity that occurs in the near-wall region due to wall blocking and viscous damping.
σν̃ and Cb2 are constants and ν is the molecular kinematic viscosity. Sν̃ is a user-defined
source term. Note that since the turbulence kinetic energy k is not calculated in the
Spalart-Allmaras model, the last term in Equation 12.2-5 is ignored when estimating the
Reynolds stresses.

12.3.3 Modeling the Turbulent Viscosity

The turbulent viscosity, µt , is computed from

µt = ρν̃fv1 (12.3-2)

where the viscous damping function, fv1 , is given by

χ3
fv1 = 3
(12.3-3)
χ3 + Cv1

and

ν̃
χ≡ (12.3-4)
ν

12.3.4 Modeling the Turbulent Production

The production term, Gν , is modeled as

Gν = Cb1 ρS̃ ν̃ (12.3-5)

where

ν̃
S̃ ≡ S + fv2 (12.3-6)
κ2 d2
and

χ
fv2 = 1 − (12.3-7)
1 + χfv1

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 12.3 Spalart-Allmaras Model Theory

Cb1 and κ are constants, d is the distance from the wall, and S is a scalar measure of the
deformation tensor. By default in FLUENT, as in the original model proposed by Spalart
and Allmaras, S is based on the magnitude of the vorticity:

q
S≡ 2Ωij Ωij (12.3-8)

where Ωij is the mean rate-of-rotation tensor and is defined by

!
1 ∂ui ∂uj
Ωij = − (12.3-9)
2 ∂xj ∂xi

The justification for the default expression for S is that, for the wall-bounded flows that
were of most interest when the model was formulated, turbulence is found only where
vorticity is generated near walls. However, it has since been acknowledged that one
should also take into account the effect of mean strain on the turbulence production, and
a modification to the model has been proposed [73] and incorporated into FLUENT.
This modification combines measures of both rotation and strain tensors in the definition
of S:

S ≡ |Ωij | + Cprod min (0, |Sij | − |Ωij |) (12.3-10)

where

q q
Cprod = 2.0, |Ωij | ≡ 2Ωij Ωij , |Sij | ≡ 2Sij Sij

with the mean strain rate, Sij , defined as

!
1 ∂uj ∂ui
Sij = + (12.3-11)
2 ∂xi ∂xj

Including both the rotation and strain tensors reduces the production of eddy viscosity
and consequently reduces the eddy viscosity itself in regions where the measure of vortic-
ity exceeds that of strain rate. One such example can be found in vortical flows, i.e., flow
near the core of a vortex subjected to a pure rotation where turbulence is known to be
suppressed. Including both the rotation and strain tensors more correctly accounts for
the effects of rotation on turbulence. The default option (including the rotation tensor
only) tends to overpredict the production of eddy viscosity and hence overpredicts the
eddy viscosity itself in certain circumstances.
You can select the modified form for calculating production in the Viscous Model panel.

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Modeling Turbulence

12.3.5 Modeling the Turbulent Destruction

The destruction term is modeled as

 2
ν̃
Yν = Cw1 ρfw (12.3-12)
d
where

#1/6
6
"
1 + Cw3
fw = g 6 6
(12.3-13)
g + Cw3
 
g = r + Cw2 r6 − r (12.3-14)

ν̃
r≡ (12.3-15)
S̃κ2 d2

Cw1 , Cw2 , and Cw3 are constants, and S̃ is given by Equation 12.3-6. Note that the
modification described above to include the effects of mean strain on S will also affect
the value of S̃ used to compute r.

12.3.6 Model Constants

The model constants Cb1 , Cb2 , σν̃ , Cv1 , Cw1 , Cw2 , Cw3 , and κ have the following default
values [349]:

2
Cb1 = 0.1355, Cb2 = 0.622, σν̃ = , Cv1 = 7.1
3

Cb1 (1 + Cb2 )
Cw1 = + , Cw2 = 0.3, Cw3 = 2.0, κ = 0.4187
κ2 σν̃

12.3.7 Wall Boundary Conditions

At walls, the modified turbulent kinematic viscosity, ν̃, is set to zero.
When the mesh is fine enough to resolve the laminar sublayer, the wall shear stress is
obtained from the laminar stress-strain relationship:

u ρuτ y
= (12.3-16)
uτ µ

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 12.3 Spalart-Allmaras Model Theory

If the mesh is too coarse to resolve the laminar sublayer, it is assumed that the centroid
of the wall-adjacent cell falls within the logarithmic region of the boundary layer, and
the law-of-the-wall is employed:
!
u 1 ρuτ y
= ln E (12.3-17)
uτ κ µ

where u is the velocity parallel to the wall, uτ is the shear velocity, y is the distance from
the wall, κ is the von Kármán constant (0.4187), and E = 9.793.

12.3.8 Convective Heat and Mass Transfer Modeling

In FLUENT, turbulent heat transport is modeled using the concept of Reynolds’ analogy
to turbulent momentum transfer. The “modeled” energy equation is thus given by the
following:
" #
∂ ∂ ∂ c p µt ∂T

(ρE) + [ui (ρE + p)] = k+ + ui (τij )eff + Sh (12.3-18)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj Prt ∂xj

where k, in this case, is the thermal conductivity, E is the total energy, and (τij )eff is the
deviatoric stress tensor, defined as
!
∂uj ∂ui 2 ∂uk
(τij )eff = µeff + − µeff δij
∂xi ∂xj 3 ∂xk

The term involving (τij )eff represents the viscous heating, and is always computed in the
density-based solvers. It is not computed by default in the pressure-based solver, but it
can be enabled in the Viscous Model panel. The default value of the turbulent Prandtl
number is 0.85. You can change the value of Prt in the Viscous Model panel.
Turbulent mass transfer is treated similarly, with a default turbulent Schmidt number of
0.7. This default value can be changed in the Viscous Model panel.
Wall boundary conditions for scalar transport are handled analogously to momentum,
using the appropriate “law-of-the-wall”.

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12.4 Standard, RNG, and Realizable k- Models Theory

This section presents the standard, RNG, and realizable k- models. All three models
have similar forms, with transport equations for k and . The major differences in the
models are as follows:

• the method of calculating turbulent viscosity

• the turbulent Prandtl numbers governing the turbulent diffusion of k and 

• the generation and destruction terms in the  equation

The transport equations, methods of calculating turbulent viscosity, and model constants
are presented separately for each model. The features that are essentially common to all
models follow, including turbulent production, generation due to buoyancy, accounting
for the effects of compressibility, and modeling heat and mass transfer.

12.4.1 Standard k- Model

Overview
The simplest “complete models” of turbulence are two-equation models in which the so-
lution of two separate transport equations allows the turbulent velocity and length scales
to be independently determined. The standard k- model in FLUENT falls within this
class of turbulence model and has become the workhorse of practical engineering flow
calculations in the time since it was proposed by Launder and Spalding [196]. Robust-
ness, economy, and reasonable accuracy for a wide range of turbulent flows explain its
popularity in industrial flow and heat transfer simulations. It is a semi-empirical model,
and the derivation of the model equations relies on phenomenological considerations and
empiricism.
As the strengths and weaknesses of the standard k- model have become known, improve-
ments have been made to the model to improve its performance. Two of these variants
are available in FLUENT: the RNG k- model [408] and the realizable k- model [330].
The standard k- model [196] is a semi-empirical model based on model transport equa-
tions for the turbulence kinetic energy (k) and its dissipation rate (). The model trans-
port equation for k is derived from the exact equation, while the model transport equation
for  was obtained using physical reasoning and bears little resemblance to its mathe-
matically exact counterpart.
In the derivation of the k- model, the assumption is that the flow is fully turbulent, and
the effects of molecular viscosity are negligible. The standard k- model is therefore valid
only for fully turbulent flows.

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 12.4 Standard, RNG, and Realizable k- Models Theory

Transport Equations for the Standard k- Model

The turbulence kinetic energy, k, and its rate of dissipation, , are obtained from the
following transport equations:
" #
∂ ∂ ∂ µt ∂k

(ρk) + (ρkui ) = µ+ + Gk + Gb − ρ − YM + Sk (12.4-1)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj σk ∂xj

and

2
" #
∂ ∂ ∂ µt ∂ 

(ρ) + (ρui ) = µ+ + C1 (Gk + C3 Gb ) − C2 ρ + S (12.4-2)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj σ ∂xj k k

In these equations, Gk represents the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to the
mean velocity gradients, calculated as described in Section 12.4.4: Modeling Turbulent
Production in the k- Models. Gb is the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due
to buoyancy, calculated as described in Section 12.4.5: Effects of Buoyancy on Turbu-
lence in the k- Models. YM represents the contribution of the fluctuating dilatation in
compressible turbulence to the overall dissipation rate, calculated as described in Sec-
tion 12.4.6: Effects of Compressibility on Turbulence in the k- Models. C1 , C2 , and C3
are constants. σk and σ are the turbulent Prandtl numbers for k and , respectively. Sk
and S are user-defined source terms.

Modeling the Turbulent Viscosity

The turbulent (or eddy) viscosity, µt , is computed by combining k and  as follows:

k2
µt = ρCµ (12.4-3)

where Cµ is a constant.

Model Constants
The model constants C1 , C2 , Cµ , σk , and σ have the following default values [196]:

C1 = 1.44, C2 = 1.92, Cµ = 0.09, σk = 1.0, σ = 1.3

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Modeling Turbulence

These default values have been determined from experiments with air and water for funda-
mental turbulent shear flows including homogeneous shear flows and decaying isotropic
grid turbulence. They have been found to work fairly well for a wide range of wall-
bounded and free shear flows.
Although the default values of the model constants are the standard ones most widely
accepted, you can change them (if needed) in the Viscous Model panel.

12.4.2 RNG k- Model

Overview
The RNG k- model was derived using a rigorous statistical technique (called renormal-
ization group theory). It is similar in form to the standard k- model, but includes the
following refinements:

• The RNG model has an additional term in its  equation that significantly improves
the accuracy for rapidly strained flows.

• The effect of swirl on turbulence is included in the RNG model, enhancing accuracy
for swirling flows.

• The RNG theory provides an analytical formula for turbulent Prandtl numbers,
while the standard k- model uses user-specified, constant values.

• While the standard k- model is a high-Reynolds-number model, the RNG theory
provides an analytically-derived differential formula for effective viscosity that ac-
counts for low-Reynolds-number effects. Effective use of this feature does, however,
depend on an appropriate treatment of the near-wall region.

These features make the RNG k- model more accurate and reliable for a wider class of
flows than the standard k- model.
The RNG-based k- turbulence model is derived from the instantaneous Navier-Stokes
equations, using a mathematical technique called “renormalization group” (RNG) meth-
ods. The analytical derivation results in a model with constants different from those in
the standard k- model, and additional terms and functions in the transport equations
for k and . A more comprehensive description of RNG theory and its application to
turbulence can be found in [59].

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 12.4 Standard, RNG, and Realizable k- Models Theory

Transport Equations for the RNG k- Model

The RNG k- model has a similar form to the standard k- model:
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂k
(ρk) + (ρkui ) = αk µeff + Gk + Gb − ρ − YM + Sk (12.4-4)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj

and

2
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ 
(ρ) + (ρui ) = α µeff + C1 (Gk + C3 Gb ) − C2 ρ − R + S (12.4-5)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj k k

In these equations, Gk represents the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to the
mean velocity gradients, calculated as described in Section 12.4.4: Modeling Turbulent
Production in the k- Models. Gb is the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due
to buoyancy, calculated as described in Section 12.4.5: Effects of Buoyancy on Turbu-
lence in the k- Models. YM represents the contribution of the fluctuating dilatation in
compressible turbulence to the overall dissipation rate, calculated as described in Sec-
tion 12.4.6: Effects of Compressibility on Turbulence in the k- Models. The quantities
αk and α are the inverse effective Prandtl numbers for k and , respectively. Sk and S
are user-defined source terms.

Modeling the Effective Viscosity

The scale elimination procedure in RNG theory results in a differential equation for
turbulent viscosity:

ρ2 k
!
ν̂
d √ = 1.72 √ dν̂ (12.4-6)
µ ν̂ 3 − 1 + Cν

where

ν̂ = µeff /µ
Cν ≈ 100

Equation 12.4-6 is integrated to obtain an accurate description of how the effective tur-
bulent transport varies with the effective Reynolds number (or eddy scale), allowing the
model to better handle low-Reynolds-number and near-wall flows.

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Modeling Turbulence

In the high-Reynolds-number limit, Equation 12.4-6 gives

k2
µt = ρCµ (12.4-7)

with Cµ = 0.0845, derived using RNG theory. It is interesting to note that this value
of Cµ is very close to the empirically-determined value of 0.09 used in the standard k-
model.
In FLUENT, by default, the effective viscosity is computed using the high-Reynolds-
number form in Equation 12.4-7. However, there is an option available that allows you
to use the differential relation given in Equation 12.4-6 when you need to include low-
Reynolds-number effects.

RNG Swirl Modification

Turbulence, in general, is affected by rotation or swirl in the mean flow. The RNG model
in FLUENT provides an option to account for the effects of swirl or rotation by modifying
the turbulent viscosity appropriately. The modification takes the following functional
form:
!
k
µt = µt0 f αs , Ω, (12.4-8)


where µt0 is the value of turbulent viscosity calculated without the swirl modification
using either Equation 12.4-6 or Equation 12.4-7. Ω is a characteristic swirl number eval-
uated within FLUENT, and αs is a swirl constant that assumes different values depending
on whether the flow is swirl-dominated or only mildly swirling. This swirl modification
always takes effect for axisymmetric, swirling flows and three-dimensional flows when the
RNG model is selected. For mildly swirling flows (the default in FLUENT), αs is set to
0.07. For strongly swirling flows, however, a higher value of αs can be used.

Calculating the Inverse Effective Prandtl Numbers

The inverse effective Prandtl numbers, αk and α , are computed using the following
formula derived analytically by the RNG theory:

0.6321  0.3679
 α − 1.3929  α + 2.3929 µmol

 
    = (12.4-9)

α0 − 1.3929 
α0 + 2.3929
 
µeff

where α0 = 1.0. In the high-Reynolds-number limit (µmol /µeff  1), αk = α ≈ 1.393.

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 12.4 Standard, RNG, and Realizable k- Models Theory

The R Term in the  Equation

The main difference between the RNG and standard k- models lies in the additional
term in the  equation given by

Cµ ρη 3 (1 − η/η0 ) 2
R = (12.4-10)
1 + βη 3 k

where η ≡ Sk/, η0 = 4.38, β = 0.012.

The effects of this term in the RNG  equation can be seen more clearly by rearranging
Equation 12.4-5. Using Equation 12.4-10, the third and fourth terms on the right-hand
side of Equation 12.4-5 can be merged, and the resulting  equation can be rewritten as

2
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂  ∗ 
(ρ) + (ρui ) = α µeff + C1 (Gk + C3 Gb ) − C2 ρ (12.4-11)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj k k

∗
where C2 is given by

∗ Cµ η 3 (1 − η/η0 )
C2 ≡ C2 + (12.4-12)
1 + βη 3
∗
In regions where η < η0 , the R term makes a positive contribution, and C2 becomes
larger than C2 . In the logarithmic layer, for instance, it can be shown that η ≈ 3.0,
∗
giving C2 ≈ 2.0, which is close in magnitude to the value of C2 in the standard k-
model (1.92). As a result, for weakly to moderately strained flows, the RNG model tends
to give results largely comparable to the standard k- model.
In regions of large strain rate (η > η0 ), however, the R term makes a negative contribu-
∗
tion, making the value of C2 less than C2 . In comparison with the standard k- model,
the smaller destruction of  augments , reducing k and, eventually, the effective viscosity.
As a result, in rapidly strained flows, the RNG model yields a lower turbulent viscosity
than the standard k- model.
Thus, the RNG model is more responsive to the effects of rapid strain and streamline
curvature than the standard k- model, which explains the superior performance of the
RNG model for certain classes of flows.

Model Constants
The model constants C1 and C2 in Equation 12.4-5 have values derived analytically by
the RNG theory. These values, used by default in FLUENT, are

C1 = 1.42, C2 = 1.68

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12.4.3 Realizable k- Model

Overview
The realizable k- model [330] is a relatively recent development and differs from the
standard k- model in two important ways:

• The realizable k- model contains a new formulation for the turbulent viscosity.

• A new transport equation for the dissipation rate, , has been derived from an exact
equation for the transport of the mean-square vorticity fluctuation.

The term “realizable” means that the model satisfies certain mathematical constraints
on the Reynolds stresses, consistent with the physics of turbulent flows. Neither the
standard k- model nor the RNG k- model is realizable.
An immediate benefit of the realizable k- model is that it more accurately predicts
the spreading rate of both planar and round jets. It is also likely to provide superior
performance for flows involving rotation, boundary layers under strong adverse pressure
gradients, separation, and recirculation.
To understand the mathematics behind the realizable k- model, consider combining
the Boussinesq relationship (Equation 12.2-5) and the eddy viscosity definition (Equa-
tion 12.4-3) to obtain the following expression for the normal Reynolds stress in an
incompressible strained mean flow:

2 ∂U
u2 = k − 2 νt (12.4-13)
3 ∂x

Using Equation 12.4-3 for νt ≡ µt /ρ, one obtains the result that the normal stress, u2 ,
which by definition is a positive quantity, becomes negative, i.e., “non-realizable”, when
the strain is large enough to satisfy

k ∂U 1
> ≈ 3.7 (12.4-14)
 ∂x 3Cµ

Similarly, it can also be shown that the Schwarz inequality for shear stresses (uα uβ 2 ≤
u2α u2β ; no summation over α and β) can be violated when the mean strain rate is large.
The most straightforward way to ensure the realizability (positivity of normal stresses
and Schwarz inequality for shear stresses) is to make Cµ variable by sensitizing it to
the mean flow (mean deformation) and the turbulence (k, ). The notion of variable
Cµ is suggested by many modelers including Reynolds [303], and is well substantiated
by experimental evidence. For example, Cµ is found to be around 0.09 in the inertial
sublayer of equilibrium boundary layers, and 0.05 in a strong homogeneous shear flow.

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 12.4 Standard, RNG, and Realizable k- Models Theory

Both the realizable and RNG k- models have shown substantial improvements over the
standard k- model where the flow features include strong streamline curvature, vortices,
and rotation. Since the model is still relatively new, it is not clear in exactly which
instances the realizable k- model consistently outperforms the RNG model. However,
initial studies have shown that the realizable model provides the best performance of all
the k- model versions for several validations of separated flows and flows with complex
secondary flow features.
One of the weaknesses of the standard k- model or other traditional k- models lies with
the modeled equation for the dissipation rate (). The well-known round-jet anomaly
(named based on the finding that the spreading rate in planar jets is predicted reasonably
well, but prediction of the spreading rate for axisymmetric jets is unexpectedly poor) is
considered to be mainly due to the modeled dissipation equation.
The realizable k- model proposed by Shih et al. [330] was intended to address these
deficiencies of traditional k- models by adopting the following:

• A new eddy-viscosity formula involving a variable Cµ originally proposed by

Reynolds [303].

• A new model equation for dissipation () based on the dynamic equation of the
mean-square vorticity fluctuation.

One limitation of the realizable k- model is that it produces non-physical turbulent
viscosities in situations when the computational domain contains both rotating and sta-
tionary fluid zones (e.g., multiple reference frames, rotating sliding meshes). This is due
to the fact that the realizable k- model includes the effects of mean rotation in the
definition of the turbulent viscosity (see Equations 12.4-17–12.4-19). This extra rotation
effect has been tested on single rotating reference frame systems and showed superior be-
havior over the standard k- model. However, due to the nature of this modification, its
application to multiple reference frame systems should be taken with some caution. See
Section 12.4.3: Modeling the Turbulent Viscosity for information about how to include
or exclude this term from the model.

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Transport Equations for the Realizable k- Model

The modeled transport equations for k and  in the realizable k- model are

" #
∂ ∂ ∂ µt ∂k

(ρk) + (ρkuj ) = µ+ + Gk + Gb − ρ − YM + Sk (12.4-15)
∂t ∂xj ∂xj σk ∂xj

and

2
" #
∂ ∂ ∂ µt ∂ 

(ρ) + (ρuj ) = µ+ + ρ C1 S − ρ C2 √ + C1 C3 Gb + S
∂t ∂xj ∂xj σ ∂xj k + ν k
(12.4-16)
where
" #
η k q
C1 = max 0.43, , η=S , S= 2Sij Sij
η+5 

In these equations, Gk represents the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to the
mean velocity gradients, calculated as described in Section 12.4.4: Modeling Turbulent
Production in the k- Models. Gb is the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due
to buoyancy, calculated as described in Section 12.4.5: Effects of Buoyancy on Turbu-
lence in the k- Models. YM represents the contribution of the fluctuating dilatation in
compressible turbulence to the overall dissipation rate, calculated as described in Sec-
tion 12.4.6: Effects of Compressibility on Turbulence in the k- Models. C2 and C1 are
constants. σk and σ are the turbulent Prandtl numbers for k and , respectively. Sk and
S are user-defined source terms.
Note that the k equation (Equation 12.4-15) is the same as that in the standard k-
 model (Equation 12.4-1) and the RNG k- model (Equation 12.4-4), except for the
model constants. However, the form of the  equation is quite different from those in
the standard and RNG-based k- models (Equations 12.4-2 and 12.4-5). One of the
noteworthy features is that the production term in the  equation (the second term on
the right-hand side of Equation 12.4-16) does not involve the production of k; i.e., it does
not contain the same Gk term as the other k- models. It is believed that the present
form better represents the spectral energy transfer. Another desirable feature is that
the destruction term (the next to last term on the right-hand side of Equation 12.4-16)
does not have any singularity; i.e., its denominator never vanishes, even if k vanishes or
becomes smaller than zero. This feature is contrasted with traditional k- models, which
have a singularity due to k in the denominator.

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 12.4 Standard, RNG, and Realizable k- Models Theory

This model has been extensively validated for a wide range of flows [183, 330], including
rotating homogeneous shear flows, free flows including jets and mixing layers, channel
and boundary layer flows, and separated flows. For all these cases, the performance of
the model has been found to be substantially better than that of the standard k- model.
Especially noteworthy is the fact that the realizable k- model resolves the round-jet
anomaly; i.e., it predicts the spreading rate for axisymmetric jets as well as that for
planar jets.

Modeling the Turbulent Viscosity

As in other k- models, the eddy viscosity is computed from

k2
µt = ρCµ (12.4-17)

The difference between the realizable k- model and the standard and RNG k- models
is that Cµ is no longer constant. It is computed from

1
Cµ = ∗ (12.4-18)
A0 + As kU

where
q
∗
U ≡ Sij Sij + Ω̃ij Ω̃ij (12.4-19)

and

Ω̃ij = Ωij − 2ijk ωk

Ωij = Ωij − ijk ωk

where Ωij is the mean rate-of-rotation tensor viewed in a rotating reference frame with
the angular velocity ωk . The model constants A0 and As are given by

√
A0 = 4.04, As = 6 cos φ

where

√
!
1 Sij Sjk Ski q 1 ∂uj ∂ui
φ = cos−1 ( 6W ), W = , S̃ = S ij Sij , Sij = +
3 S̃ 3 2 ∂xi ∂xj

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Modeling Turbulence

It can be seen that Cµ is a function of the mean strain and rotation rates, the angular ve-
locity of the system rotation, and the turbulence fields (k and ). Cµ in Equation 12.4-17
can be shown to recover the standard value of 0.09 for an inertial sublayer in an equilib-
rium boundary layer.

i In FLUENT, the term −2ijk ωk is, by default, not included in the

calculation of Ω̃ij . This is an extra rotation term that is not com-
patible with cases involving sliding meshes or multiple reference frames.
If you want to include this term in the model, you can enable it by using the
define/models/viscous/turbulence-expert/rke-cmu-rotation-term?
text command and entering yes at the prompt.

Model Constants
The model constants C2 , σk , and σ have been established to ensure that the model
performs well for certain canonical flows. The model constants are

C1 = 1.44, C2 = 1.9, σk = 1.0, σ = 1.2

12.4.4 Modeling Turbulent Production in the k- Models

The term Gk , representing the production of turbulence kinetic energy, is modeled iden-
tically for the standard, RNG, and realizable k- models. From the exact equation for
the transport of k, this term may be defined as

∂uj
Gk = −ρu0i u0j (12.4-20)
∂xi

To evaluate Gk in a manner consistent with the Boussinesq hypothesis,

G k = µt S 2 (12.4-21)

where S is the modulus of the mean rate-of-strain tensor, defined as

q
S≡ 2Sij Sij (12.4-22)

i When using the high-Reynolds number k- versions, µeff is used in lieu of
µt in Equation 12.4-21.

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 12.4 Standard, RNG, and Realizable k- Models Theory

12.4.5 Effects of Buoyancy on Turbulence in the k- Models

When a non-zero gravity field and temperature gradient are present simultaneously, the
k- models in FLUENT account for the generation of k due to buoyancy (Gb in Equa-
tions 12.4-1, 12.4-4, and 12.4-15), and the corresponding contribution to the production
of  in Equations 12.4-2, 12.4-5, and 12.4-16.
The generation of turbulence due to buoyancy is given by

µt ∂T
Gb = βgi (12.4-23)
Prt ∂xi

where Prt is the turbulent Prandtl number for energy and gi is the component of the
gravitational vector in the ith direction. For the standard and realizable k- models, the
default value of Prt is 0.85. In the case of the RNG k- model, Prt = 1/α, where α
is given by Equation 12.4-9, but with α0 = 1/Pr = k/µcp . The coefficient of thermal
expansion, β, is defined as
!
1 ∂ρ
β=− (12.4-24)
ρ ∂T p

For ideal gases, Equation 12.4-23 reduces to

µt ∂ρ
Gb = −gi (12.4-25)
ρPrt ∂xi

It can be seen from the transport equations for k (Equations 12.4-1, 12.4-4, and 12.4-15)
that turbulence kinetic energy tends to be augmented (Gb > 0) in unstable stratification.
For stable stratification, buoyancy tends to suppress the turbulence (Gb < 0). In FLU-
ENT, the effects of buoyancy on the generation of k are always included when you have
both a non-zero gravity field and a non-zero temperature (or density) gradient.
While the buoyancy effects on the generation of k are relatively well understood, the
effect on  is less clear. In FLUENT, by default, the buoyancy effects on  are neglected
simply by setting Gb to zero in the transport equation for  (Equation 12.4-2, 12.4-5, or
12.4-16).
However, you can include the buoyancy effects on  in the Viscous Model panel. In this
case, the value of Gb given by Equation 12.4-25 is used in the transport equation for 
(Equation 12.4-2, 12.4-5, or 12.4-16).

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Modeling Turbulence

The degree to which  is affected by the buoyancy is determined by the constant C3 .
In FLUENT, C3 is not specified, but is instead calculated according to the following
relation [140]:

v
 
C3 = tanh   (12.4-26)
u
where v is the component of the flow velocity parallel to the gravitational vector and
u is the component of the flow velocity perpendicular to the gravitational vector. In
this way, C3 will become 1 for buoyant shear layers for which the main flow direction is
aligned with the direction of gravity. For buoyant shear layers that are perpendicular to
the gravitational vector, C3 will become zero.

12.4.6 Effects of Compressibility on Turbulence in the k- Models

For high-Mach-number flows, compressibility affects turbulence through so-called “di-
latation dissipation”, which is normally neglected in the modeling of incompressible
flows [403]. Neglecting the dilatation dissipation fails to predict the observed decrease
in spreading rate with increasing Mach number for compressible mixing and other free
shear layers. To account for these effects in the k- models in FLUENT, the dilatation
dissipation term, YM , is included in the k equation. This term is modeled according to
a proposal by Sarkar [315]:

YM = 2ρM2t (12.4-27)

where Mt is the turbulent Mach number, defined as

s
k
Mt = (12.4-28)
a2
√
where a (≡ γRT ) is the speed of sound.
This compressibility modification always takes effect when the compressible form of the
ideal gas law is used.

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 12.4 Standard, RNG, and Realizable k- Models Theory

12.4.7 Convective Heat and Mass Transfer Modeling in the k- Models
In FLUENT, turbulent heat transport is modeled using the concept of Reynolds’ analogy
to turbulent momentum transfer. The “modeled” energy equation is thus given by the
following:
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂T
(ρE) + [ui (ρE + p)] = keff + ui (τij )eff + Sh (12.4-29)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj

where E is the total energy, keff is the effective thermal conductivity, and
(τij )eff is the deviatoric stress tensor, defined as
!
∂uj ∂ui 2 ∂uk
(τij )eff = µeff + − µeff δij
∂xi ∂xj 3 ∂xk

The term involving (τij )eff represents the viscous heating, and is always computed in the
density-based solvers. It is not computed by default in the pressure-based solver, but it
can be enabled in the Viscous Model panel.
Additional terms may appear in the energy equation, depending on the physical models
you are using. See Section 13.2.1: Heat Transfer Theory for more details.
For the standard and realizable k- models, the effective thermal conductivity is given
by

c p µt
keff = k +
Prt

where k, in this case, is the thermal conductivity. The default value of the turbulent
Prandtl number is 0.85. You can change the value of the turbulent Prandtl number in
the Viscous Model panel.
For the RNG k- model, the effective thermal conductivity is

keff = αcp µeff

where α is calculated from Equation 12.4-9, but with α0 = 1/Pr = k/µcp .

The fact that α varies with µmol /µeff , as in Equation 12.4-9, is an advantage of the RNG k-
 model. It is consistent with experimental evidence indicating that the turbulent Prandtl
number varies with the molecular Prandtl number and turbulence [175]. Equation 12.4-9
works well across a very broad range of molecular Prandtl numbers, from liquid metals
(Pr ≈ 10−2 ) to paraffin oils (Pr ≈ 103 ), which allows heat transfer to be calculated in low-
Reynolds-number regions. Equation 12.4-9 smoothly predicts the variation of effective

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Modeling Turbulence

Prandtl number from the molecular value (α = 1/Pr) in the viscosity-dominated region
to the fully turbulent value (α = 1.393) in the fully turbulent regions of the flow.
Turbulent mass transfer is treated similarly. For the standard and realizable k- models,
the default turbulent Schmidt number is 0.7. This default value can be changed in the
Viscous Model panel. For the RNG model, the effective turbulent diffusivity for mass
transfer is calculated in a manner that is analogous to the method used for the heat
transport. The value of α0 in Equation 12.4-9 is α0 = 1/Sc, where Sc is the molecular
Schmidt number.

12.5 Standard and SST k-ω Models Theory

This section presents the standard [403] and shear-stress transport (SST) [237] k-ω mod-
els. Both models have similar forms, with transport equations for k and ω. The major
ways in which the SST model [238] differs from the standard model are as follows:

• gradual change from the standard k-ω model in the inner region of the boundary
layer to a high-Reynolds-number version of the k- model in the outer part of the
boundary layer

• modified turbulent viscosity formulation to account for the transport effects of the
principal turbulent shear stress

The transport equations, methods of calculating turbulent viscosity, and methods of

calculating model constants and other terms are presented separately for each model.

12.5.1 Standard k-ω Model

Overview
The standard k-ω model in FLUENT is based on the Wilcox k-ω model [403], which
incorporates modifications for low-Reynolds-number effects, compressibility, and shear
flow spreading. The Wilcox model predicts free shear flow spreading rates that are in
close agreement with measurements for far wakes, mixing layers, and plane, round, and
radial jets, and is thus applicable to wall-bounded flows and free shear flows. A variation
of the standard k-ω model called the SST k-ω model is also available in FLUENT, and is
described in Section 12.5.2: Shear-Stress Transport (SST) k-ω Model.
The standard k-ω model is an empirical model based on model transport equations for
the turbulence kinetic energy (k) and the specific dissipation rate (ω), which can also be
thought of as the ratio of  to k [403].
As the k-ω model has been modified over the years, production terms have been added
to both the k and ω equations, which have improved the accuracy of the model for
predicting free shear flows.

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 12.5 Standard and SST k-ω Models Theory

Transport Equations for the Standard k-ω Model

The turbulence kinetic energy, k, and the specific dissipation rate, ω, are obtained from
the following transport equations:
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂k
(ρk) + (ρkui ) = Γk + G k − Yk + S k (12.5-1)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj

and
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ω
(ρω) + (ρωui ) = Γω + G ω − Yω + S ω (12.5-2)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj

In these equations, Gk represents the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to mean
velocity gradients. Gω represents the generation of ω. Γk and Γω represent the effective
diffusivity of k and ω, respectively. Yk and Yω represent the dissipation of k and ω due
to turbulence. All of the above terms are calculated as described below. Sk and Sω are
user-defined source terms.

Modeling the Effective Diffusivity

The effective diffusivities for the k-ω model are given by

µt
Γk = µ + (12.5-3)
σk
µt
Γω = µ+ (12.5-4)
σω

where σk and σω are the turbulent Prandtl numbers for k and ω, respectively. The
turbulent viscosity, µt , is computed by combining k and ω as follows:

ρk
µt = α ∗ (12.5-5)
ω

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Modeling Turbulence

Low-Reynolds-Number Correction

The coefficient α∗ damps the turbulent viscosity causing a low-Reynolds-number correc-

tion. It is given by

α0∗ + Ret /Rk

!
∗ ∗
α = α∞ (12.5-6)
1 + Ret /Rk

where

ρk
Ret = (12.5-7)
µω
Rk = 6 (12.5-8)
βi
α0∗ = (12.5-9)
3
βi = 0.072 (12.5-10)

Note that, in the high-Reynolds-number form of the k-ω model, α∗ = α∞

∗
= 1.

Modeling the Turbulence Production

Production of k

The term Gk represents the production of turbulence kinetic energy. From the exact
equation for the transport of k, this term may be defined as

∂uj
Gk = −ρu0i u0j (12.5-11)
∂xi

To evaluate Gk in a manner consistent with the Boussinesq hypothesis,

G k = µt S 2 (12.5-12)

where S is the modulus of the mean rate-of-strain tensor, defined in the same way as for
the k- model (see Equation 12.4-22).

Production of ω

The production of ω is given by

ω
Gω = α Gk (12.5-13)
k

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 12.5 Standard and SST k-ω Models Theory

where Gk is given by Equation 12.5-11.

The coefficient α is given by
!
α∞ α0 + Ret /Rω
α= ∗ (12.5-14)
α 1 + Ret /Rω

where Rω = 2.95. α∗ and Ret are given by Equations 12.5-6 and 12.5-7, respectively.
Note that, in the high-Reynolds-number form of the k-ω model, α = α∞ = 1.

Modeling the Turbulence Dissipation

Dissipation of k

The dissipation of k is given by

Yk = ρ β ∗ fβ ∗ k ω (12.5-15)

where

 1 χk ≤ 0
fβ ∗ =  1+680χ2k (12.5-16)
1+400χ2k
χk > 0

where

1 ∂k ∂ω
χk ≡ (12.5-17)
ω 3 ∂xj ∂xj

and

β ∗ = βi∗ [1 + ζ ∗ F (Mt )] (12.5-18)

4/15 + (Ret /Rβ )4
!
∗ ∗
βi = β∞ (12.5-19)
1 + (Ret /Rβ )4
ζ ∗ = 1.5 (12.5-20)
Rβ = 8 (12.5-21)
∗
β∞ = 0.09 (12.5-22)

where Ret is given by Equation 12.5-7.

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Modeling Turbulence

Dissipation of ω

The dissipation of ω is given by

Yω = ρ β fβ ω 2 (12.5-23)

where

1 + 70χω
fβ = (12.5-24)
1 + 80χω
 
Ω Ω S 
 ij jk ki 
χω =  (12.5-25)
 (β ∗ ω)3 

∞
!
1 ∂ui ∂uj
Ωij = − (12.5-26)
2 ∂xj ∂xi

The strain rate tensor, Sij is defined in Equation 12.3-11. Also,

β∗
" #
β = βi 1 − i ζ ∗ F (Mt ) (12.5-27)
βi

βi∗ and F (Mt ) are defined by Equations 12.5-19 and 12.5-28, respectively.

Compressibility Correction

The compressibility function, F (Mt ), is given by

(
0 Mt ≤ Mt0
F (Mt ) = (12.5-28)
M2t − M2t0 Mt > Mt0

where

2k
M2t ≡ (12.5-29)
a2
Mt0 = 0.25 (12.5-30)
q
a = γRT (12.5-31)

Note that, in the high-Reynolds-number form of the k-ω model, βi∗ = β∞

∗
. In the incom-
∗ ∗
pressible form, β = βi .

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 12.5 Standard and SST k-ω Models Theory

Model Constants
∗ 1 ∗
α∞ = 1, α∞ = 0.52, α0 = , β∞ = 0.09, βi = 0.072, Rβ = 8
9
Rk = 6, Rω = 2.95, ζ ∗ = 1.5, Mt0 = 0.25, σk = 2.0, σω = 2.0

12.5.2 Shear-Stress Transport (SST) k-ω Model

Overview
The shear-stress transport (SST) k-ω model was developed by Menter [237] to effectively
blend the robust and accurate formulation of the k-ω model in the near-wall region with
the free-stream independence of the k- model in the far field. To achieve this, the k-
model is converted into a k-ω formulation. The SST k-ω model is similar to the standard
k-ω model, but includes the following refinements:

• The standard k-ω model and the transformed k- model are both multiplied by a
blending function and both models are added together. The blending function is
designed to be one in the near-wall region, which activates the standard k-ω model,
and zero away from the surface, which activates the transformed k- model.

• The SST model incorporates a damped cross-diffusion derivative term in the ω

equation.

• The definition of the turbulent viscosity is modified to account for the transport of
the turbulent shear stress.

• The modeling constants are different.

These features make the SST k-ω model more accurate and reliable for a wider class
of flows (e.g., adverse pressure gradient flows, airfoils, transonic shock waves) than the
standard k-ω model. Other modifications include the addition of a cross-diffusion term
in the ω equation and a blending function to ensure that the model equations behave
appropriately in both the near-wall and far-field zones.

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Modeling Turbulence

Transport Equations for the SST k-ω Model

The SST k-ω model has a similar form to the standard k-ω model:
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂k
(ρk) + (ρkui ) = Γk + G̃k − Yk + Sk (12.5-32)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj

and
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ω
(ρω) + (ρωui ) = Γω + G ω − Y ω + Dω + S ω (12.5-33)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj

In these equations, G̃k represents the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to
mean velocity gradients, calculated as described in Section 12.5.1: Modeling the Tur-
bulence Production. Gω represents the generation of ω, calculated as described in Sec-
tion 12.5.1: Modeling the Turbulence Production. Γk and Γω represent the effective
diffusivity of k and ω, respectively, which are calculated as described below. Yk and
Yω represent the dissipation of k and ω due to turbulence, calculated as described in
Section 12.5.1: Modeling the Turbulence Dissipation. Dω represents the cross-diffusion
term, calculated as described below. Sk and Sω are user-defined source terms.

Modeling the Effective Diffusivity

The effective diffusivities for the SST k-ω model are given by

µt
Γk = µ + (12.5-34)
σk
µt
Γω = µ+ (12.5-35)
σω

where σk and σω are the turbulent Prandtl numbers for k and ω, respectively. The
turbulent viscosity, µt , is computed as follows:

ρk 1
µt = h i (12.5-36)
ω max 1∗ , SF2
α a1 ω

where S is the strain rate magnitude and

1
σk = (12.5-37)
F1 /σk,1 + (1 − F1 )/σk,2
1
σω = (12.5-38)
F1 /σω,1 + (1 − F1 )/σω,2

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 12.5 Standard and SST k-ω Models Theory

α∗ is defined in Equation 12.5-6. The blending functions, F1 and F2 , are given by

 
F1 = tanh Φ41 (12.5-39)
" √ ! #
k 500µ 4ρk
Φ1 = min max , 2 , (12.5-40)
0.09ωy ρy ω σω,2 Dω+ y 2
" #
1 1 ∂k ∂ω −10
Dω+ = max 2ρ , 10 (12.5-41)
σω,2 ω ∂xj ∂xj

 
F2 = tanh Φ22 (12.5-42)
" √ #
k 500µ
Φ2 = max 2 , (12.5-43)
0.09ωy ρy 2 ω

where y is the distance to the next surface and Dω+ is the positive portion of the cross-
diffusion term (see Equation 12.5-52).

Modeling the Turbulence Production

Production of k

The term G̃k represents the production of turbulence kinetic energy, and is defined as:

G̃k = min(Gk , 10ρβ ∗ kω) (12.5-44)

where Gk is defined in the same manner as in the standard k-ω model. See Sec-
tion 12.5.1: Modeling the Turbulence Production for details.

Production of ω

The term Gω represents the production of ω and is given by

α
Gω = Gk (12.5-45)
νt

Note that this formulation differs from the standard k-ω model. The difference between
the two models also exists in the way the term α∞ is evaluated. In the standard k-ω
model, α∞ is defined as a constant (0.52). For the SST k-ω model, α∞ is given by

α∞ = F1 α∞,1 + (1 − F1 )α∞,2 (12.5-46)

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Modeling Turbulence

where

βi,1 κ2
α∞,1 = ∗
− q (12.5-47)
β∞ ∗
σw,1 β∞
βi,2 κ2
α∞,2 = ∗
− q (12.5-48)
β∞ ∗
σw,2 β∞

where κ is 0.41.

Modeling the Turbulence Dissipation

Dissipation of k

The term Yk represents the dissipation of turbulence kinetic energy, and is defined in a
similar manner as in the standard k-ω model (see Section 12.5.1: Modeling the Turbulence
Dissipation). The difference is in the way the term fβ ∗ is evaluated. In the standard k-ω
model, fβ ∗ is defined as a piecewise function. For the SST k-ω model, fβ ∗ is a constant
equal to 1. Thus,

Yk = ρβ ∗ kω (12.5-49)

Dissipation of ω

The term Yω represents the dissipation of ω, and is defined in a similar manner as in

the standard k-ω model (see Section 12.5.1: Modeling the Turbulence Dissipation). The
difference is in the way the terms βi and fβ are evaluated. In the standard k-ω model, βi
is defined as a constant (0.072) and fβ is defined in Equation 12.5-24. For the SST k-ω
model, fβ is a constant equal to 1. Thus,

Yk = ρβω 2 (12.5-50)

Instead of a having a constant value, βi is given by

βi = F1 βi,1 + (1 − F1 )βi,2 (12.5-51)

and F1 is obtained from Equation 12.5-39.

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 12.5 Standard and SST k-ω Models Theory

Cross-Diffusion Modification
The SST k-ω model is based on both the standard k-ω model and the standard k- model.
To blend these two models together, the standard k- model has been transformed into
equations based on k and ω, which leads to the introduction of a cross-diffusion term
(Dω in Equation 12.5-33). Dω is defined as

1 ∂k ∂ω
Dω = 2 (1 − F1 ) ρσω,2 (12.5-52)
ω ∂xj ∂xj

For details about the various k- models, see Section 12.4: Standard, RNG, and Realizable
k- Models Theory.

Model Constants
σk,1 = 1.176, σω,1 = 2.0, σk,2 = 1.0, σω,2 = 1.168

a1 = 0.31, βi,1 = 0.075 βi,2 = 0.0828

∗ ∗
All additional model constants (α∞ , α∞ , α0 , β∞ , Rβ , Rk , Rω , ζ ∗ , and Mt0 ) have the same
values as for the standard k-ω model (see Section 12.5.1: Model Constants).

12.5.3 Wall Boundary Conditions

The wall boundary conditions for the k equation in the k-ω models are treated in the
same way as the k equation is treated when enhanced wall treatments are used with
the k- models. This means that all boundary conditions for wall-function meshes will
correspond to the wall function approach, while for the fine meshes, the appropriate
low-Reynolds-number boundary conditions will be applied.
In FLUENT the value of ω at the wall is specified as

ρ (u∗ )2 +
ωw = ω (12.5-53)
µ

The asymptotic value of ω + in the laminar sublayer is given by

!
+ 6
ω = min ωw+ , (12.5-54)
βi (y + )2

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Modeling Turbulence

where

  2
50

 ks+
 ks+ < 25
ωw+ = (12.5-55)

100
ks+ ≥ 25


ks+

where

ρks u∗
!
ks+ = max 1.0, (12.5-56)
µ

and ks is the roughness height.

In the logarithmic (or turbulent) region, the value of ω + is

1 du+turb
ω+ = q +
(12.5-57)
∗
β∞ dy

which leads to the value of ω in the wall cell as

u∗
ω=q (12.5-58)
β∞∗ κy

Note that in the case of a wall cell being placed in the buffer region, FLUENT will blend
ω + between the logarithmic and laminar sublayer values.

12.6 The v 2 -f Model Theory

The v 2 -f model is similar to the standard k- model, but incorporates near-wall turbu-
lence anisotropy and non-local pressure-strain effects. A limitation of the v 2 -f model is
that it cannot be used to solve Eulerian multiphase problems, whereas the k- model is
typically used in such applications. The v 2 -f model is a general low-Reynolds-number
turbulence model that is valid all the way up to solid walls, and therefore does not need
to make use of wall functions. Although the model was originally developed for attached
or mildly separated boundary layers [92], it also accurately simulates flows dominated by
separation [31].
The distinguishing feature of the v 2 -f model is its use of the velocity scale, v 2 , instead
of the turbulent kinetic energy, k, for evaluating the eddy viscosity. v 2 , which can be
thought of as the velocity fluctuation normal to the streamlines, has shown to provide
the right scaling in representing the damping of turbulent transport close to the wall, a
feature that k does not provide.

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 12.7 Reynolds Stress Model (RSM) Theory

For more information about the theoretical background and usage of the v 2 -f model,
please visit the Fluent User Services Center (www.fluentusers.com).

12.7 Reynolds Stress Model (RSM) Theory

12.7.1 Overview
The Reynolds stress model (RSM) [119, 193, 194] is the most elaborate turbulence model
that FLUENT provides. Abandoning the isotropic eddy-viscosity hypothesis, the RSM
closes the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations by solving transport equations for
the Reynolds stresses, together with an equation for the dissipation rate. This means
that five additional transport equations are required in 2D flows and seven additional
transport equations must be solved in 3D.
Since the RSM accounts for the effects of streamline curvature, swirl, rotation, and rapid
changes in strain rate in a more rigorous manner than one-equation and two-equation
models, it has greater potential to give accurate predictions for complex flows. However,
the fidelity of RSM predictions is still limited by the closure assumptions employed to
model various terms in the exact transport equations for the Reynolds stresses. The
modeling of the pressure-strain and dissipation-rate terms is particularly challenging, and
often considered to be responsible for compromising the accuracy of RSM predictions.
The RSM might not always yield results that are clearly superior to the simpler models
in all classes of flows to warrant the additional computational expense. However, use
of the RSM is a must when the flow features of interest are the result of anisotropy in
the Reynolds stresses. Among the examples are cyclone flows, highly swirling flows in
combustors, rotating flow passages, and the stress-induced secondary flows in ducts.
The exact form of the Reynolds stress transport equations may be derived by taking mo-
ments of the exact momentum equation. This is a process wherein the exact momentum
equations are multiplied by a fluctuating property, the product then being Reynolds-
averaged. Unfortunately, several of the terms in the exact equation are unknown and
modeling assumptions are required in order to close the equations.

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12.7.2 Reynolds Stress Transport Equations

The exact transport equations for the transport of the Reynolds stresses, ρu0i u0j , may be
written as follows:

∂ ∂ ∂    
(ρ u0i u0j ) + (ρuk u0i u0j ) = − ρ u0i u0j u0k + p δkj u0i + δik u0j
|∂t {z } ∂x
| k {z } |
∂xk {z }
Local Time Derivative Cij ≡ Convection DT,ij ≡ Turbulent Diffusion

" # !
∂ ∂ ∂uj ∂ui
+ µ (u0 u0 ) − ρ u0i u0k + u0j u0k − ρβ(gi u0j θ + gj u0i θ)
∂xk ∂xk i j ∂xk ∂xk | {z }
| {z } | {z }
Gij ≡ Buoyancy Production
DL,ij ≡ Molecular Diffusion Pij ≡ Stress Production

∂u0i ∂u0j ∂u0i ∂u0j

!
+ p + − 2µ
∂xj ∂xi ∂xk ∂xk
| {z } | {z }
φij ≡ Pressure Strain ij ≡ Dissipation
 
−2ρΩk u0j u0m ikm + u0i u0m jkm + S user
| {z }
(12.7-1)
| {z }
Fij ≡ Production by System Rotation User-Defined Source Term

Of the various terms in these exact equations, Cij , DL,ij , Pij , and Fij do not require any
modeling. However, DT,ij , Gij , φij , and ij need to be modeled to close the equations.
The following sections describe the modeling assumptions required to close the equation
set.

12.7.3 Modeling Turbulent Diffusive Transport

DT,ij can be modeled by the generalized gradient-diffusion model of Daly and Harlow [75]:

ku0 u0 ∂u0 u0
!
∂
DT,ij = Cs ρ k ` i j (12.7-2)
∂xk  ∂x`

However, this equation can result in numerical instabilities, so it has been simplified in
FLUENT to use a scalar turbulent diffusivity as follows [208]:

µt ∂u0i u0j
!
∂
DT,ij = (12.7-3)
∂xk σk ∂xk

The turbulent viscosity, µt , is computed using Equation 12.7-33.

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 12.7 Reynolds Stress Model (RSM) Theory

Lien and Leschziner [208] derived a value of σk = 0.82 by applying the generalized
gradient-diffusion model, Equation 12.7-2, to the case of a planar homogeneous shear
flow. Note that this value of σk is different from that in the standard and realizable k-
models, in which σk = 1.0.

12.7.4 Modeling the Pressure-Strain Term

Linear Pressure-Strain Model
By default in FLUENT, the pressure-strain term, φij , in Equation 12.7-1 is modeled
according to the proposals by Gibson and Launder [119], Fu et al. [114], and Launder [192,
193].
The classical approach to modeling φij uses the following decomposition:

φij = φij,1 + φij,2 + φij,w (12.7-4)

where φij,1 is the slow pressure-strain term, also known as the return-to-isotropy term,
φij,2 is called the rapid pressure-strain term, and φij,w is the wall-reflection term.
The slow pressure-strain term, φij,1 , is modeled as

 0 0 2
 
φij,1 ≡ −C1 ρ u u − δij k (12.7-5)
k i j 3
with C1 = 1.8.
The rapid pressure-strain term, φij,2 , is modeled as

2
 
φij,2 ≡ −C2 (Pij + Fij + Gij − Cij ) − δij (P + G − C) (12.7-6)
3

where C2 = 0.60, Pij , Fij , Gij , and Cij are defined as in Equation 12.7-1, P = 12 Pkk ,
G = 12 Gkk , and C = 12 Ckk .
The wall-reflection term, φij,w , is responsible for the redistribution of normal stresses near
the wall. It tends to damp the normal stress perpendicular to the wall, while enhancing
the stresses parallel to the wall. This term is modeled as

 3 3 C` k 3/2
 
φij,w ≡ C10u0k u0m nk nm δij − u0i u0k nj nk − u0j u0k ni nk
k 2 2 d
3 3 C` k 3/2
 
+ C20 φkm,2 nk nm δij − φik,2 nj nk − φjk,2 ni nk
2 2 d
(12.7-7)

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where C10 = 0.5, C20 = 0.3, nk is the xk component of the unit normal to the wall, d is
the normal distance to the wall, and C` = Cµ3/4 /κ, where Cµ = 0.09 and κ is the von
Kármán constant (= 0.4187).
φij,w is included by default in the Reynolds stress model.

Low-Re Modifications to the Linear Pressure-Strain Model

When the RSM is applied to near-wall flows using the enhanced wall treatment described
in Section 12.10.4: Two-Layer Model for Enhanced Wall Treatment, the pressure-strain
model needs to be modified. The modification used in FLUENT specifies the values of C1 ,
C2 , C10 , and C20 as functions of the Reynolds stress invariants and the turbulent Reynolds
number, according to the suggestion of Launder and Shima [195]:

q n h io
C1 = 1 + 2.58A A2 1 − exp −(0.0067Ret )2 (12.7-8)
√
C2 = 0.75 A (12.7-9)
2
C10 = − C1 + 1.67 (12.7-10)
3 "
2 1
#
0 C2 −
C2 = max 3 6
,0 (12.7-11)
C2

with the turbulent Reynolds number defined as Ret = (ρk 2 /µ). The parameter A and
tensor invariants, A2 and A3 , are defined as

9
 
A ≡ 1− (A2 − A3 ) (12.7-12)
8
A2 ≡ aik aki (12.7-13)
A3 ≡ aik akj aji (12.7-14)

aij is the Reynolds-stress anisotropy tensor, defined as

−ρu0i u0j + 23 ρkδij

!
aij = − (12.7-15)
ρk

The modifications detailed above are employed only when the enhanced wall treatment
is selected in the Viscous Model panel.

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 12.7 Reynolds Stress Model (RSM) Theory

Quadratic Pressure-Strain Model

An optional pressure-strain model proposed by Speziale, Sarkar, and Gatski [352] is
provided in FLUENT. This model has been demonstrated to give superior performance in a
range of basic shear flows, including plane strain, rotating plane shear, and axisymmetric
expansion/contraction. This improved accuracy should be beneficial for a wider class of
complex engineering flows, particularly those with streamline curvature. The quadratic
pressure-strain model can be selected as an option in the Viscous Model panel.
This model is written as follows:

1
  q 
φij = − (C1 ρ + C1∗ P ) bij + C2 ρ bik bkj − bmn bmn δij + C3 − C3∗ bij bij ρkSij
3

2
 
+ C4 ρk bik Sjk + bjk Sik − bmn Smn δij + C5 ρk (bik Ωjk + bjk Ωik ) (12.7-16)
3
where bij is the Reynolds-stress anisotropy tensor defined as

−ρu0i u0j + 23 ρkδij

!
bij = − (12.7-17)
2ρk

The mean strain rate, Sij , is defined as

!
1 ∂uj ∂ui
Sij = + (12.7-18)
2 ∂xi ∂xj

The mean rate-of-rotation tensor, Ωij , is defined by

!
1 ∂ui ∂uj
Ωij = − (12.7-19)
2 ∂xj ∂xi

The constants are

C1 = 3.4, C1∗ = 1.8, C2 = 4.2, C3 = 0.8, C3∗ = 1.3, C4 = 1.25, C5 = 0.4

The quadratic pressure-strain model does not require a correction to account for the
wall-reflection effect in order to obtain a satisfactory solution in the logarithmic region
of a turbulent boundary layer. It should be noted, however, that the quadratic pressure-
strain model is not available when the enhanced wall treatment is selected in the Viscous
Model panel.

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Modeling Turbulence

Low-Re Stress-Omega Model

The low-Re stress-omega model is a stress-transport model that is based on the omega
equations and LRR model [403]. This model is ideal for modeling flows over curved
surfaces and swirling flows. The low-Re stress-omega model can be selected in the Vis-
cous Model panel and requires no treatments of wall reflections. The closure coefficients
are identical to the k-ω model (Section 12.5.1: Model Constants), however, there are
additional closure coefficients, C1 and C2 , defined in Section 12.7.4: Model Constants.
The low-Re stress-omega model resembles the k-ω model due to its excellent predictions
for a wide range of turbulent flows. Furthermore, low Reynolds number modifications
and surface boundary conditions for rough surfaces are similar to the k-ω model.
Equation 12.7-4 can be re-written for the low-Re stress-omega model such that wall
reflections are excluded:

φij = φij,1 + φij,2 (12.7-20)

Hence,

1
  q 
φij = − (C1 ρ + C1∗ P ) bij + C2 ρ bik bkj − bmn bmn δij + C3 − C3∗ bij bij ρkSij
3

2
 
+ C4 ρk bik Sjk + bjk Sik − bmn Smn δij + C5 ρk (bik Ωjk + bjk Ωik ) (12.7-21)
3
where bij is the Reynolds-stress anisotropy tensor defined as

−ρu0i u0j + 23 ρkδij

!
bij = − (12.7-22)
2ρk

The mean strain rate, Sij , is defined in Equation 12.7-18 and the mean rate-of-rotation
tensor, Ωij , is defined by Equation 12.7-19.
The constants are

C1 = 3.4, C1∗ = 1.8, C2 = 4.2, C3 = 0.8, C3∗ = 1.3, C4 = 1.25, C5 = 0.4

Near-wall treatment options in the Viscous Model panel are not available with the low-Re
stress-omega model.

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 12.7 Reynolds Stress Model (RSM) Theory

Model Constants

C1 = 1.8, C2 = 0.52
∗ 1 ∗
α∞ = 1, α∞ = 0.52, α0 = , β∞ = 0.09, βi = 0.072, Rβ = 8
9
Rk = 6, Rω = 2.95, ζ ∗ = 1.5, Mt0 = 0.25, σk = 2.0, σω = 2.0

Wall Boundary Conditions

The wall boundary conditions for the low-Re stress-omega equation in the RSM models
are treated in the same way as the k equation in the k-ω models.
FLUENT defines the value of ω at the wall as

ρ (u∗ )2 +
ωw = ω (12.7-23)
µ

where ω + is dimensionless and is defined as

  2
50

 ks+
 ks+ < 25
ωw+ = (12.7-24)

500
ks+ ≥ 25


ks+

where

ρks u∗
ks+ = (12.7-25)
µ

and ks is the roughness height.

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12.7.5 Effects of Buoyancy on Turbulence

The production terms due to buoyancy are modeled as
!
µt ∂T ∂T
Gij = β gi + gj (12.7-26)
Prt ∂xj ∂xi

where Prt is the turbulent Prandtl number for energy, with a default value of 0.85.
Using the definition of the coefficient of thermal expansion, β, given by Equation 12.4-24,
the following expression is obtained for Gij for ideal gases:
!
µt ∂ρ ∂ρ
Gij = − gi + gj (12.7-27)
ρPrt ∂xj ∂xi

12.7.6 Modeling the Turbulence Kinetic Energy

In general, when the turbulence kinetic energy is needed for modeling a specific term, it
is obtained by taking the trace of the Reynolds stress tensor:

1
k = u0i u0i (12.7-28)
2
As described in Section 12.7.9: Wall Boundary Conditions, an option is available in
FLUENT to solve a transport equation for the turbulence kinetic energy in order to
obtain boundary conditions for the Reynolds stresses. In this case, the following model
equation is used:

" #
∂ ∂ ∂ µt ∂k 1

(ρk) + (ρkui ) = µ+ + (Pii + Gii ) − ρ(1 + 2M2t ) + Sk (12.7-29)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj σk ∂xj 2

where σk = 0.82 and Sk is a user-defined source term. Equation 12.7-29 is obtainable

by contracting the modeled equation for the Reynolds stresses (Equation 12.7-1). As
one might expect, it is essentially identical to Equation 12.4-1 used in the standard k-
model.
Although Equation 12.7-29 is solved globally throughout the flow domain, the values of
k obtained are used only for boundary conditions. In every other case, k is obtained from
Equation 12.7-28. This is a minor point, however, since the values of k obtained with
either method should be very similar.

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 12.7 Reynolds Stress Model (RSM) Theory

12.7.7 Modeling the Dissipation Rate

The dissipation tensor, ij , is modeled as

2
ij = δij (ρ + YM ) (12.7-30)
3

where YM = 2ρM2t is an additional “dilatation dissipation” term according to the model

by Sarkar [315]. The turbulent Mach number in this term is defined as
s
k
Mt = (12.7-31)
a2
√
where a (≡ γRT ) is the speed of sound. This compressibility modification always takes
effect when the compressible form of the ideal gas law is used.
The scalar dissipation rate, , is computed with a model transport equation similar to
that used in the standard k- model:

2
" #
∂ ∂ ∂ µt ∂ 1 

(ρ) + (ρui ) = µ+ C1 [Pii + C3 Gii ] − C2 ρ + S (12.7-32)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj σ ∂xj 2 k k

where σ = 1.0, C1 = 1.44, C2 = 1.92, C3 is evaluated as a function of the local flow
direction relative to the gravitational vector, as described in Section 12.4.5: Effects of
Buoyancy on Turbulence in the k- Models, and S is a user-defined source term.

12.7.8 Modeling the Turbulent Viscosity

The turbulent viscosity, µt , is computed similarly to the k- models:

k2
µt = ρCµ (12.7-33)

where Cµ = 0.09.

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12.7.9 Wall Boundary Conditions

The RSM model in FLUENT requires boundary conditions for individual Reynolds stresses,
u0i u0j , and for the turbulence dissipation rate,  (or ω if the low-Re stress-omega model
is used). These quantities can be input directly or derived from the turbulence intensity
and characteristic length, as described in Section 12.20.3: Reynolds Stress Model.
At walls, FLUENT computes the near-wall values of the Reynolds stresses and  from
wall functions (see Section 12.10.2: Standard Wall Functions, Section 12.10.3: Non-
Equilibrium Wall Functions, and Section 12.10.4: Enhanced Wall Functions). FLUENT
applies explicit wall boundary conditions for the Reynolds stresses by using the log-law
and the assumption of equilibrium, disregarding convection and diffusion in the transport
equations for the stresses (Equation 12.7-1). Using a local coordinate system, where τ
is the tangential coordinate, η is the normal coordinate, and λ is the binormal coordi-
nate, the Reynolds stresses at the wall-adjacent cells (assuming standard wall functions
or non-equilibrium wall functions) are computed from

u0τ2 u0 2 0
u2 u0 u0
= 1.098, η = 0.247, λ = 0.655, − τ η = 0.255 (12.7-34)
k k k k
To obtain k, FLUENT solves the transport equation of Equation 12.7-29. For reasons of
computational convenience, the equation is solved globally, even though the values of k
thus computed are needed only near the wall; in the far field k is obtained directly from the
normal Reynolds stresses using Equation 12.7-28. By default, the values of the Reynolds
stresses near the wall are fixed using the values computed from Equation 12.7-34, and
the transport equations in Equation 12.7-1 are solved only in the bulk flow region.
Alternatively, the Reynolds stresses can be explicitly specified in terms of wall-shear
stress, instead of k:

u0τ2 u0η2 0
uλ2 u0τ u0η
= 5.1, = 1.0, = 2.3, − = 1.0 (12.7-35)
u2τ u2τ u2τ u2τ
q
where uτ is the friction velocity defined by uτ ≡ τw /ρ, where τw is the wall-shear stress.
When this option is chosen, the k transport equation is not solved.
When using enhanced wall treatments as the near-wall treatment, FLUENT applies zero
flux wall boundary conditions to the Reynolds stress equations.

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 12.8 Detached Eddy Simulation (DES) Model Theory

12.7.10 Convective Heat and Mass Transfer Modeling

With the Reynolds stress model in FLUENT, turbulent heat transport is modeled using
the concept of Reynolds’ analogy to turbulent momentum transfer. The “modeled”
energy equation is thus given by the following:
" #
∂ ∂ ∂ c p µt ∂T

(ρE) + [ui (ρE + p)] = k+ + ui (τij )eff + Sh (12.7-36)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj Prt ∂xj

where E is the total energy and (τij )eff is the deviatoric stress tensor, defined as
!
∂uj ∂ui 2 ∂uk
(τij )eff = µeff + − µeff δij
∂xi ∂xj 3 ∂xk

The term involving (τij )eff represents the viscous heating, and is always computed in the
density-based solvers. It is not computed by default in the pressure-based solver, but it
can be enabled in the Viscous Model panel. The default value of the turbulent Prandtl
number is 0.85. You can change the value of Prt in the Viscous Model panel.
Turbulent mass transfer is treated similarly, with a default turbulent Schmidt number of
0.7. This default value can be changed in the Viscous Model panel.

12.8 Detached Eddy Simulation (DES) Model Theory

Overview
FLUENT offers three different models for the detached eddy simulation: the Spalart-
Allmaras model, the realizable k- model, and the SST k-ω model.
In the DES approach, the unsteady RANS models are employed in the near-wall regions,
while the filtered versions of the same models are used in the regions away from the
near-wall. The LES region is normally associated with the core turbulent region where
large turbulence scales play a dominant role. In this region, the DES models recover
the respective subgrid models. In the near-wall region, the respective RANS models are
recovered.
The application of DES, however, may still require significant CPU resources and there-
fore, as a general guideline, it is recommended that the conventional turbulence models
employing the Reynolds-averaged approach be used for practical calculations.
The DES models, often referred to as the hybrid LES/RANS models combine RANS
modeling with LES for applications such as high-Re external aerodynamics simulations.
In FLUENT, the DES model is based on the one-equation Spalart-Allmaras model, the
realizable k- model, and the SST k-ω model. The computational costs, when using the
DES models, is less than LES computational costs, but greater than RANS.

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Modeling Turbulence

12.8.1 Spalart-Allmaras RANS Model

The standard Spalart-Allmaras model uses the distance to the closest wall as the defini-
tion for the length scale d, which plays a major role in determining the level of production
and destruction of turbulent viscosity (Equations 12.3-6, 12.3-12, and 12.3-15). The DES
model, as proposed by Shur et al. [331] replaces d everywhere with a new length scale d, ˜
defined as

d˜ = min(d, Cdes ∆) (12.8-1)

where the grid spacing, ∆, is based on the largest grid space in the x, y, or z directions
forming the computational cell. The empirical constant Cdes has a value of 0.65.

12.8.2 Realizable k- RANS Model

This RANS model is similar to the Realizable k- model discussed in Section 12.4.3: Re-
alizable k- Model, with the exception of the dissipation term in the k equation. In the
DES model, the Realizable k- RANS dissipation term is modified such that:

3
ρk 2
Yk = (12.8-2)
ldes

where

ldes = min(lrke , lles ) (12.8-3)

3
k 2
lrke = (12.8-4)

lles = Cdes ∆ (12.8-5)

where Cdes is a calibration constant used in the DES model and has a value of 0.61 and
∆ is the maximum local grid spacing (∆x, ∆y, ∆z).
For the case where ldes = lrke , you will obtain an expression for the dissipation of the k
formulation for the Realizable k- model (Section 12.4.3: Realizable k- Model):
Yk = ρ

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 12.9 Large Eddy Simulation (LES) Model Theory

12.8.3 SST k-ω RANS Model

The dissipation term of the turbulent kinetic energy (see Section 12.5.1: Modeling the Tur-
bulence Dissipation) is modified for the DES turbulence model as described in Menter’s
work [238] such that

Yk = ρβ ∗ kωfβ ∗ (12.8-6)

where fβ ∗ is no longer a constant equal to 1 as in the SST k-ω model (see Section 12.5.1: Mod-
eling the Turbulence Dissipation), but is now expressed as

Lt
 
fβ ∗ = max ,1 (12.8-7)
Cdes ∆

where Cdes is a calibration constant used in the DES model and has a value of 0.61, ∆ is
the maximum local grid spacing (∆x, ∆y, ∆z) and fβ ∗ is defined in Equation 12.5-16.
The turbulent length scale is the parameter that defines this RANS model:
√
k
Lt = (12.8-8)
β ∗ω

12.9 Large Eddy Simulation (LES) Model Theory

12.9.1 Overview
Turbulent flows are characterized by eddies with a wide range of length and time scales.
The largest eddies are typically comparable in size to the characteristic length of the
mean flow. The smallest scales are responsible for the dissipation of turbulence kinetic
energy.
It is possible, in theory, to directly resolve the whole spectrum of turbulent scales using
an approach known as direct numerical simulation (DNS). No modeling is required in
DNS. However, DNS is not feasible for practical engineering problems involving high
Reynolds number flows. The cost required for DNS to resolve the entire range of scales
is proportional to Re3t , where Ret is the turbulent Reynolds number. Clearly, for high
Reynolds numbers, the cost becomes prohibitive.

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Modeling Turbulence

In LES, large eddies are resolved directly, while small eddies are modeled. Large eddy
simulation (LES) thus falls between DNS and RANS in terms of the fraction of the
resolved scales. The rationale behind LES can be summarized as follows:

• Momentum, mass, energy, and other passive scalars are transported mostly by large
eddies.

• Large eddies are more problem-dependent. They are dictated by the geometries
and boundary conditions of the flow involved.

• Small eddies are less dependent on the geometry, tend to be more isotropic, and
are consequently more universal.

• The chance of finding a universal turbulence model is much higher for small eddies.

Resolving only the large eddies allows one to use much coarser mesh and larger times-
step sizes in LES than in DNS. However, LES still requires substantially finer meshes
than those typically used for RANS calculations. In addition, LES has to be run for
a sufficiently long flow-time to obtain stable statistics of the flow being modeled. As
a result, the computational cost involved with LES is normally orders of magnitudes
higher than that for steady RANS calculations in terms of memory (RAM) and CPU
time. Therefore, high-performance computing (e.g., parallel computing) is a necessity for
LES, especially for industrial applications.
The following sections give details of the governing equations for LES, the subgrid-scale
turbulence models, and the boundary conditions.

12.9.2 Filtered Navier-Stokes Equations

The governing equations employed for LES are obtained by filtering the time-dependent
Navier-Stokes equations in either Fourier (wave-number) space or configuration (physical)
space. The filtering process effectively filters out the eddies whose scales are smaller than
the filter width or grid spacing used in the computations. The resulting equations thus
govern the dynamics of large eddies.
A filtered variable (denoted by an overbar) is defined by
Z
φ(x) = φ(x0 )G(x, x0 )dx0 (12.9-1)
D

where D is the fluid domain, and G is the filter function that determines the scale of the
resolved eddies.

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 12.9 Large Eddy Simulation (LES) Model Theory

In FLUENT, the finite-volume discretization itself implicitly provides the filtering opera-
tion:

1 Z
φ(x) = φ(x0 ) dx0 , x0 ∈ V (12.9-2)
V V

where V is the volume of a computational cell. The filter function, G(x, x0 ), implied here
is then
(
0 1/V, x0 ∈ V
G(x, x ) (12.9-3)
0, x0 otherwise

The LES capability in FLUENT is applicable to compressible flows. For the sake of concise
notation, however, the theory is presented here for incompressible flows.
Filtering the Navier-Stokes equations, one obtains

∂ρ ∂
+ (ρui ) = 0 (12.9-4)
∂t ∂xi

and
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂σij ∂p ∂τij
(ρui ) + (ρui uj ) = µ − − (12.9-5)
∂t ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj

where σij is the stress tensor due to molecular viscosity defined by

" !#
∂ui ∂uj 2 ∂ul
σij ≡ µ + − µ δij (12.9-6)
∂xj ∂xi 3 ∂xl

and τij is the subgrid-scale stress defined by

τij ≡ ρui uj − ρui uj (12.9-7)

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Modeling Turbulence

12.9.3 Subgrid-Scale Models

The subgrid-scale stresses resulting from the filtering operation are unknown, and re-
quire modeling. The subgrid-scale turbulence models in FLUENT employ the Boussinesq
hypothesis [142] as in the RANS models, computing subgrid-scale turbulent stresses from

1
τij − τkk δij = −2µt S ij (12.9-8)
3
where µt is the subgrid-scale turbulent viscosity. The isotropic part of the subgrid-scale
stresses τkk is not modeled, but added to the filtered static pressure term. S ij is the
rate-of-strain tensor for the resolved scale defined by
!
1 ∂ui ∂uj
S ij ≡ + (12.9-9)
2 ∂xj ∂xi

For compressible flows, it is convenient to introduce the density-weighted (or Favre)

filtering operator:

ρφ
φ= (12.9-10)
ρ

The Favre Filtered Navier-Stokes equation takes the same form as Equation 12.9-5. The
compressible form of the subgrid stress tensor is defined as:

Tij = −ρui uj + ρui uj (12.9-11)

This term is split into its isotropic and deviatoric parts

1 1
Tij = Tij − Tll δij + Tll δij (12.9-12)
| 3
{z } |3 {z }
deviatoric isotropic

The deviatoric part of the subgrid-scale stress tensor is modeled using the compressible
form of the Smagorinsky model:

1 1
Tij − Tll δij = 2µt (δij − δii δij ) (12.9-13)
3 3
As for incompressible flows, the term involving Tll can be added to the filtered pressure
or simply neglected [99]. Indeed, this term can be re-written as Tll = γM 2 sgs p where
Msgs is the subgrid Mach number. This subgrid Mach number can be expected to be
small when the turbulent Mach number of the flow is small.

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 12.9 Large Eddy Simulation (LES) Model Theory

FLUENT offers four models for µt : the Smagorinsky-Lilly model, the dynamic Smagorinsky-
Lilly model, the WALE model, and the dynamic kinetic energy subgrid-scale model.
Subgrid-scale turbulent flux of a scalar, φ, is modeled using s subgrid-scale turbulent
Prandtl number by

µt ∂φ
qj = − (12.9-14)
σt ∂xj
where qj is the subgrid-scale flux.
In the dynamic models, the subgrid-scale turbulent Prandtl number or Schmidt number
is obtained by applying the dynamic procedure originally proposed by Germano [116] to
the subgrid-scale flux.

Smagorinsky-Lilly Model
This simple model was first proposed by Smagorinsky [337]. In the Smagorinsky-Lilly
model, the eddy-viscosity is modeled by

 
µt = ρL2s S  (12.9-15)
 

  q
where Ls is the mixing length for subgrid scales and S  ≡ 2S ij S ij . In FLUENT, Ls is
 

computed using

 
Ls = min κd, Cs V 1/3 (12.9-16)

where κ is the von Kármán constant, d is the distance to the closest wall, Cs is the
Smagorinsky constant, and V is the volume of the computational cell.
Lilly derived a value of 0.17 for Cs for homogeneous isotropic turbulence in the inertial
subrange. However, this value was found to cause excessive damping of large-scale fluc-
tuations in the presence of mean shear and in transitional flows as near solid boundary,
and has to be reduced in such regions. In short, Cs is not an universal constant, which
is the most serious shortcoming of this simple model. Nonetheless, Cs value of around
0.1 has been found to yield the best results for a wide range of flows, and is the default
value in FLUENT.

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Modeling Turbulence

Dynamic Smagorinsky-Lilly Model

Germano et al. [116] and subsequently Lilly [211] conceived a procedure in which the
Smagorinsky model constant, Cs , is dynamically computed based on the information
provided by the resolved scales of motion. The dynamic procedure thus obviates the
need for users to specify the model constant Cs in advance. The details of the model
implementation in FLUENT and its validation can be found in [181].
The Cs obtained using the dynamic Smagorinsky-Lilly model varies in time and space
over a fairly wide range. To avoid numerical instability, in FLUENT, Cs is clipped at zero
and 0.23 by default.

Wall-Adapting Local Eddy-Viscosity (WALE) Model

In the WALE model [262], the eddy viscosity is modeled by

(Sijd Sijd )3/2

µt = ρL2s (12.9-17)
(S ij S ij )5/2 + (Sijd Sijd )5/4

where Ls and Sijd in the WALE model are defined, respectively, as

 
Ls = min κd, Cw V 1/3 (12.9-18)

1 2  1 ∂ui
Sijd = g ij + g 2ji − δij g 2kk , g ij = (12.9-19)
2 3 ∂xj

In FLUENT, the default value of the WALE constant, Cw , is 0.325 and has been found
to yield satisfactory results for a wide range of flow. The rest of the notation is the
same as for the Smagorinsky-Lilly model. With this spatial operator, the WALE model
is designed to return the correct wall asymptotic (y 3 ) behavior for wall bounded flows.

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 12.9 Large Eddy Simulation (LES) Model Theory

Dynamic Kinetic Energy Subgrid-Scale Model

The original and dynamic Smagorinsky-Lilly models, discussed previously, are essentially
algebraic models in which subgrid-scale stresses are parameterized using the resolved ve-
locity scales. The underlying assumption is the local equilibrium between the transferred
energy through the grid-filter scale and the dissipation of kinetic energy at small sub-
grid scales. The subgrid-scale turbulence can be better modeled by accounting for the
transport of the subgrid-scale turbulence kinetic energy.
The dynamic subgrid-scale kinetic energy model in FLUENT replicates the model pro-
posed by Kim and Menon [184].
The subgrid-scale kinetic energy is defined as

1 2 
ksgs = uk − u2k (12.9-20)
2
which is obtained by contracting the subgrid-scale stress in Equation 12.9-7.
The subgrid-scale eddy viscosity, µt , is computed using ksgs as

1/2
µt = Ck ksgs ∆f (12.9-21)

where ∆f is the filter-size computed from ∆f ≡ V 1/3 .

The subgrid-scale stress can then be written as

2 1/2
τij − ksgs δij = −2Ck ksgs ∆f S ij (12.9-22)
3
ksgs is obtained by solving its transport equation

3/2
!
∂k sgs ∂uj k sgs ∂ui ksgs ∂ µt ∂ksgs
+ = −τij − Cε + (12.9-23)
∂t ∂xj ∂xj ∆f ∂xj σk ∂xj

In the above equations, the model constants, Ck and Cε , are determined dynamically [184].
σk is hardwired to 1.0. The details of the implementation of this model in FLUENT and
its validation is given by Kim [181].

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Modeling Turbulence

12.9.4 Inlet Boundary Conditions for the LES Model

This section describes the three algorithms available in FLUENT to model the fluctuating
velocity at velocity inlet boundaries.

No Perturbations
The stochastic components of the flow at the velocity-specified inlet boundaries are ne-
glected if the No Perturbations option is used. In such cases, individual instantaneous
velocity components are simply set equal to their mean velocity counterparts. This op-
tion is suitable only when the level of turbulence at the inflow boundaries is negligible or
does not play a major role in the accuracy of the overall solution.

Vortex Method
To generate a time-dependent inlet condition, a random 2D vortex method is considered.
With this approach, a perturbation is added on a specified mean velocity profile via a
fluctuating vorticity field (i.e. two-dimensional in the plane normal to the streamwise
direction). The vortex method is based on the Lagrangian form of the 2D evolution
equation of the vorticity and the Biot-Savart law. A particle discretization is used to
solve this equation. These particles, or “vortex points” are convected randomly and
carry information about the vorticity field. If N is the number of vortex points and A
is the area of the inlet section, the amount of vorticity carried by a given particle i is
represented by the circulation Γi and an assumed spatial distribution η:

v
πAk(x, y)
u
u
Γi (x, y) = 4t (12.9-24)
3N [2 ln(3) − 3 ln(2)]
1  −|x|2 /2σ2  2 2
η(~x) = 2
2e − 1 2e−|x| /2σ (12.9-25)
2πσ

where k is the turbulence kinetic energy. The parameter σ provides control over the size
of a vortex particle. The resulting discretization for the velocity field is given by

N 0 2 2
1 X ((~xi − ~x) × ~z)(1 − e|~x−~x | /2σ )
~u(~x) = Γi (12.9-26)
2π i=1 |~x − ~x0i |2

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 12.9 Large Eddy Simulation (LES) Model Theory

Where ~z is the unit vector in the streamwise direction. Originally [327], the size of
the vortex was fixed by an ad hoc value of σ. To make the vortex method generally
applicable, a local vortex size is specified through a turbulent mixing length hypothesis. σ
is calculated from a known profile of mean turbulence kinetic energy and mean dissipation
rate at the inlet according to the following:

ck 3/2
σ= (12.9-27)
2
where c = 0.16. To ensure that the vortex will always belong to resolved scales, the
minimum value of σ in Equation 12.9-27 is bounded by the local grid size. The sign
of the circulation of each vortex is changed randomly each characteristic time scale τ .
In the general implementation of the vortex method, this time scale represents the time
necessary for a 2D vortex convected by the bulk velocity in the boundary normal direction
to travel along n times its mean characteristic 2D size (σm ), where n is fixed equal to
100 from numerical testing. The vortex method considers only velocity fluctuations in
the plane normal to the streamwise direction.
In FLUENT however, a simplified linear kinematic model (LKM) for the streamwise
velocity fluctuations is used [231]. It is derived from a linear model that mimics the
influence of the two-dimensional vortex in the streamwise mean velocity field. If the
mean streamwise velocity U is considered as a passive scalar, the fluctuation u0 resulting
from the transport of U by the planar fluctuating velocity field v 0 is modeled by

u0 = −~v 0 · ~g (12.9-28)

~ . When this mean

where ~g is the unit vector aligned with the mean velocity gradient ∇U
velocity gradient is equal to zero, a random perturbation can be considered instead.

i Since the vortex method theory is based on the modification of the velocity
field normal to the streamwise direction, it is imperative that the user
creates an inlet plane normal (or as close as possible) to the streamwise
velocity direction.

Spectral Synthesizer
The spectral synthesizer provides an alternative method of generating fluctuating velocity
components. It is based on the random flow generation technique originally proposed by
Kraichnan [186] and modified by Smirnov et al. [338]. In this method, fluctuating velocity
components are computed by synthesizing a divergence-free velocity-vector field from
the summation of Fourier harmonics. In the implementation in FLUENT, the number of
Fourier harmonics is fixed to 100.

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Modeling Turbulence

12.10 Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows

12.10.1 Overview
Turbulent flows are significantly affected by the presence of walls. Obviously, the mean
velocity field is affected through the no-slip condition that has to be satisfied at the wall.
However, the turbulence is also changed by the presence of the wall in non-trivial ways.
Very close to the wall, viscous damping reduces the tangential velocity fluctuations, while
kinematic blocking reduces the normal fluctuations. Toward the outer part of the near-
wall region, however, the turbulence is rapidly augmented by the production of turbulence
kinetic energy due to the large gradients in mean velocity.
The near-wall modeling significantly impacts the fidelity of numerical solutions, inasmuch
as walls are the main source of mean vorticity and turbulence. After all, it is in the near-
wall region that the solution variables have large gradients, and the momentum and other
scalar transports occur most vigorously. Therefore, accurate representation of the flow in
the near-wall region determines successful predictions of wall-bounded turbulent flows.
The k- models, the RSM, and the LES model are primarily valid for turbulent core
flows (i.e., the flow in the regions somewhat far from walls). Consideration therefore
needs to be given as to how to make these models suitable for wall-bounded flows. The
Spalart-Allmaras and k-ω models were designed to be applied throughout the boundary
layer, provided that the near-wall mesh resolution is sufficient.
Numerous experiments have shown that the near-wall region can be largely subdivided
into three layers. In the innermost layer, called the “viscous sublayer”, the flow is almost
laminar, and the (molecular) viscosity plays a dominant role in momentum and heat
or mass transfer. In the outer layer, called the fully-turbulent layer, turbulence plays
a major role. Finally, there is an interim region between the viscous sublayer and the
fully turbulent layer where the effects of molecular viscosity and turbulence are equally
important. Figure 12.10.1 illustrates these subdivisions of the near-wall region, plotted
in semi-log coordinates.

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 12.10 Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows

Figure 12.10.1: Subdivisions of the Near-Wall Region

q
τw
In Figure 12.10.1, y + ≡ ρuτ y/µ, where uτ is the friction velocity, defined as ρ
.

Wall Functions vs. Near-Wall Model

Traditionally, there are two approaches to modeling the near-wall region. In one ap-
proach, the viscosity-affected inner region (viscous sublayer and buffer layer) is not re-
solved. Instead, semi-empirical formulas called “wall functions” are used to bridge the
viscosity-affected region between the wall and the fully-turbulent region. The use of wall
functions obviates the need to modify the turbulence models to account for the presence
of the wall.
In another approach, the turbulence models are modified to enable the viscosity-affected
region to be resolved with a mesh all the way to the wall, including the viscous sublayer.
For purposes of discussion, this will be termed the “near-wall modeling” approach. These
two approaches are depicted schematically in Figure 12.10.2.
In most high-Reynolds-number flows, the wall function approach substantially saves com-
putational resources, because the viscosity-affected near-wall region, in which the solution
variables change most rapidly, does not need to be resolved. The wall function approach
is popular because it is economical, robust, and reasonably accurate. It is a practical
option for the near-wall treatments for industrial flow simulations.
The wall function approach, however, is inadequate in situations where the low-Reynolds-
number effects are pervasive in the flow domain in question, and the hypotheses under-
lying the wall functions cease to be valid. Such situations require near-wall models that

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Modeling Turbulence

Figure 12.10.2: Near-Wall Treatments in FLUENT

are valid in the viscosity-affected region and accordingly integrable all the way to the
wall.
FLUENT provides both the wall function approach and the near-wall modeling approach.

Wall Functions
Wall functions are a collection of semi-empirical formulas and functions that in effect
“bridge” or “link” the solution variables at the near-wall cells and the corresponding
quantities on the wall. The wall functions comprise

• laws-of-the-wall for mean velocity and temperature (or other scalars)

• formulas for near-wall turbulent quantities

Depending on the turbulent model you choose, FLUENT offers three to four choices of
wall function approaches:

• Standard Wall Functions

• Non-Equilibrium Wall Functions
• Enhanced Wall Treatment
• User-Defined Wall Functions

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 12.10 Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows

12.10.2 Standard Wall Functions

The standard wall functions in FLUENT are based on the proposal of Launder and Spald-
ing [197], and have been most widely used for industrial flows. They are provided as a
default option in FLUENT.

Momentum

The law-of-the-wall for mean velocity yields

1
U∗ = ln(Ey ∗ ) (12.10-1)
κ
where

1/2
∗ UP Cµ1/4 kP
U ≡ (12.10-2)
τw /ρ

1/2
∗ ρCµ1/4 kP yP
y ≡ (12.10-3)
µ

and κ = von Kármán constant (= 0.4187)

E = empirical constant (= 9.793)
UP = mean velocity of the fluid at point P
kP = turbulence kinetic energy at point P
yP = distance from point P to the wall
µ = dynamic viscosity of the fluid
The logarithmic law for mean velocity is known to be valid for 30 < y ∗ < 300. In
FLUENT, the log-law is employed when y ∗ > 11.225.
When the mesh is such that y ∗ < 11.225 at the wall-adjacent cells, FLUENT applies the
laminar stress-strain relationship that can be written as

U ∗ = y∗ (12.10-4)

It should be noted that, in FLUENT, the laws-of-the-wall for mean velocity and temper-
ature are based on the wall unit, y ∗ , rather than y + (≡ ρuτ y/µ). These quantities are
approximately equal in equilibrium turbulent boundary layers.

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Modeling Turbulence

Energy

Reynolds’ analogy between momentum and energy transport gives a similar logarithmic
law for mean temperature. As in the law-of-the-wall for mean velocity, the law-of-the-wall
for temperature employed in FLUENT comprises the following two different laws:

• linear law for the thermal conduction sublayer where conduction is important

• logarithmic law for the turbulent region where effects of turbulence dominate con-
duction

The thickness of the thermal conduction layer is, in general, different from the thickness
of the (momentum) viscous sublayer, and changes from fluid to fluid. For example, the
thickness of the thermal sublayer for a high-Prandtl-number fluid (e.g., oil) is much less
than its momentum sublayer thickness. For fluids of low Prandtl numbers (e.g., liquid
metal), on the contrary, it is much larger than the momentum sublayer thickness.
In highly compressible flows, the temperature distribution in the near-wall region can
be significantly different from that of low subsonic flows, due to the heating by viscous
dissipation. In FLUENT, the temperature wall functions include the contribution from
the viscous heating [382].
The law-of-the-wall implemented in FLUENT has the following composite form:

1/4 1/2

C k



 Pr y ∗ + 12 ρPr µ q̇ P UP2 (y ∗ < yT∗ )
1/2 h i
(Tw − TP ) ρcp Cµ1/4 kP

 Pr 1 ln(Ey ∗ ) + P +

∗ t κ
T ≡ = 1/4 1/2
q̇ 
 1 C µ kP
ρ {Prt UP2 + (Pr − Prt )Uc2 } (y ∗ > yT∗ )


 2 q̇


(12.10-5)
where P is computed by using the formula given by Jayatilleke [165]:

" 3/4 #
Pr h i
P = 9.24 −1 1 + 0.28e−0.007Pr/Prt (12.10-6)
Prt

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 12.10 Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows

and
kP = turbulent kinetic energy at point P
ρ = density of fluid
cp = specific heat of fluid
q̇ = wall heat flux
TP = temperature at the cell adjacent to wall
Tw = temperature at the wall
Pr = molecular Prandtl number (µcp /kf )
Prt = turbulent Prandtl number (0.85 at the wall)
A = Van Driest constant (= 26)
Uc = mean velocity magnitude at y ∗ = yT∗
Note that, for the pressure-based solver, the terms

1/2
1 Cµ1/4 kP
ρPr UP2
2 q̇
and
1/2
1 Cµ1/4 kP n o
ρ Prt UP2 + (Pr − Prt )Uc2
2 q̇

will be included in Equation 12.10-5 only for compressible flow calculations.

The non-dimensional thermal sublayer thickness, yT∗ , in Equation 12.10-5 is computed as
the y ∗ value at which the linear law and the logarithmic law intersect, given the molecular
Prandtl number of the fluid being modeled.
The procedure of applying the law-of-the-wall for temperature is as follows. Once the
physical properties of the fluid being modeled are specified, its molecular Prandtl number
is computed. Then, given the molecular Prandtl number, the thermal sublayer thickness,
yT∗ , is computed from the intersection of the linear and logarithmic profiles, and stored.
During the iteration, depending on the y ∗ value at the near-wall cell, either the linear or
the logarithmic profile in Equation 12.10-5 is applied to compute the wall temperature
Tw or heat flux q̇ (depending on the type of the thermal boundary conditions).
The function for P given by equation Equation 12.10-6 is relevant for the smooth walls.
For the rough walls, however, this function is modified as follows:

!0.6
E0
0.359
1 1

0.695
Prough = 3.15Pr − + P (12.10-7)
E0 E E

where E 0 is the wall function constant modified for the rough walls, defined by E 0 = E/fr .
To find a description of the roughness function fr , you may refer to Equation 7.13-3 in
Section 7.13.1: Wall Roughness Effects in Turbulent Wall-Bounded Flows.

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Modeling Turbulence

Species

When using wall functions for species transport, FLUENT assumes that species transport
behaves analogously to heat transfer. Similarly to Equation 12.10-5, the law-of-the-wall
for species can be expressed for constant property flow with no viscous dissipation as

1/2
(Yi,w − Yi ) ρCµ1/4 kP Sc yh∗ (y ∗ < yc∗ )
(
∗
Y ≡ = i (12.10-8)
Ji,w Sct κ1 ln(Ey ∗ ) + Pc (y ∗ > yc∗ )

where Yi is the local species mass fraction, Sc and Sct are molecular and turbulent
Schmidt numbers, and Ji,w is the diffusion flux of species i at the wall. Note that Pc and
yc∗ are calculated in a similar way as P and yT∗ , with the difference being that the Prandtl
numbers are always replaced by the corresponding Schmidt numbers.

Turbulence

In the k- models and in the RSM (if the option to obtain wall boundary conditions from
the k equation is enabled), the k equation is solved in the whole domain including the
wall-adjacent cells. The boundary condition for k imposed at the wall is

∂k
=0 (12.10-9)
∂n
where n is the local coordinate normal to the wall.
The production of kinetic energy, Gk , and its dissipation rate, , at the wall-adjacent
cells, which are the source terms in the k equation, are computed on the basis of the local
equilibrium hypothesis. Under this assumption, the production of k and its dissipation
rate are assumed to be equal in the wall-adjacent control volume.
Thus, the production of k is computed from

∂U τw
G k ≈ τw = τw 1/4 1/2
(12.10-10)
∂y κρCµ kP yP

and  is computed from

3/2
Cµ3/4 kP
P = (12.10-11)
κyP

The  equation is not solved at the wall-adjacent cells, but instead is computed us-
ing Equation 12.10-11. ω and Reynolds stress equations are solved as detailed in Sec-
tions 12.5.3 and 12.7.9, respectively.

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 12.10 Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows

Note that, as shown here, the wall boundary conditions for the solution variables, in-
cluding mean velocity, temperature, species concentration, k, and , are all taken care of
by the wall functions. Therefore, you do not need to be concerned about the boundary
conditions at the walls.
The standard wall functions described so far are provided as a default option in FLUENT.
The standard wall functions work reasonably well for a broad range of wall-bounded flows.
However, they tend to become less reliable when the flow situations depart too much from
the ideal conditions that are assumed in their derivation. Among others, the constant-
shear and local equilibrium hypotheses are the ones that most restrict the universality
of the standard wall functions. Accordingly, when the near-wall flows are subjected to
severe pressure gradients, and when the flows are in strong non-equilibrium, the quality
of the predictions is likely to be compromised.
The non-equilibrium wall functions offered as an additional option can improve the results
in such situations.

i Standard wall functions are available with the following viscous models:

• K-epsilon

• Reynolds Stress

12.10.3 Non-Equilibrium Wall Functions

In addition to the standard wall function described above (which is the default near-wall
treatment) a two-layer-based, non-equilibrium wall function [182] is also available. The
key elements in the non-equilibrium wall functions are as follows:

• Launder and Spalding’s log-law for mean velocity is sensitized to pressure-gradient

effects.

• The two-layer-based concept is adopted to compute the budget of turbulence kinetic

energy (Gk ,) in the wall-neighboring cells.

The law-of-the-wall for mean temperature or species mass fraction remains the same as
in the standard wall function described above.
The log-law for mean velocity sensitized to pressure gradients is

Ũ Cµ1/4 k 1/2 ρCµ1/4 k 1/2 y

!
1
= ln E (12.10-12)
τw /ρ κ µ

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Modeling Turbulence

where

y − yv y 2
" ! #
1 dp yv y
Ũ = U − √ ln + √ + v (12.10-13)
2 dx ρκ k yv ρκ k µ

and yv is the physical viscous sublayer thickness, and is computed from

µyv∗
yv ≡ 1/4 1/2
(12.10-14)
ρCµ kP

where yv∗ = 11.225.

The non-equilibrium wall function employs the two-layer concept in computing the bud-
get of turbulence kinetic energy at the wall-adjacent cells, which is needed to solve the k
equation at the wall-neighboring cells. The wall-neighboring cells are assumed to consist
of a viscous sublayer and a fully turbulent layer. The following profile assumptions for
turbulence quantities are made:
  2 
( 2νk
0, y < yv  y
kP , y < yv 
y2
, y < yv
τt = k =  yv = k3/2 (12.10-15)
τw , y > yv kP , y > yv C` ∗ y
, y > yv

where C` ∗ = κCµ−3/4 , and yv is the dimensional thickness of the viscous sublayer, defined
in Equation 12.10-14.
Using these profiles, the cell-averaged production of k, Gk , and the cell-averaged dissipa-
tion rate, , can be computed from the volume average of Gk and  of the wall-adjacent
cells. For quadrilateral and hexahedral cells for which the volume average can be ap-
proximated with a depth-average,

τw2
!
1 Z yn ∂U 1 yn
Gk ≡ τt dy = ln (12.10-16)
yn 0 ∂y κyn ρCµ1/4 kP1/2 yv

and
 
1/2 !
1 Z yn 1  2ν kP yn 
≡  dy = + ∗ ln kP (12.10-17)
yn 0 yn yv C` yv

where yn is the height of the cell (yn = 2yP ). For cells with other shapes (e.g., triangular
and tetrahedral grids), the appropriate volume averages are used.
In Equations 12.10-16 and 12.10-17, the turbulence kinetic energy budget for the wall-
neighboring cells is effectively sensitized to the proportions of the viscous sublayer and
the fully turbulent layer, which varies widely from cell to cell in highly non-equilibrium

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 12.10 Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows

flows. It effectively relaxes the local equilibrium assumption (production = dissipation)

that is adopted by the standard wall function in computing the budget of the turbulence
kinetic energy at wall-neighboring cells. Thus, the non-equilibrium wall functions, in
effect, partly account for non-equilibrium effects neglected in the standard wall function.

Limitations of the Wall Function Approach

The standard wall functions give reasonably accurate predictions for the majority of
high-Reynolds-number, wall-bounded flows. The non-equilibrium wall functions further
extend the applicability of the wall function approach by including the effects of pressure
gradient and strong non-equilibrium. However, the wall function approach becomes less
reliable when the flow conditions depart too much from the ideal conditions underlying
the wall functions. Examples are as follows:

• Pervasive low-Reynolds-number or near-wall effects (e.g., flow through a small gap

or highly viscous, low-velocity fluid flow).

• Massive transpiration through the wall (blowing/suction).

• Severe pressure gradients leading to boundary layer separations.

• Strong body forces (e.g., flow near rotating disks, buoyancy-driven flows).

• High three-dimensionality in the near-wall region (e.g., Ekman spiral flow, strongly
skewed 3D boundary layers).

If any of the items listed above is a prevailing feature of the flow you are modeling, and
if it is considered critically important to capture that feature for the success of your
simulation, you must employ the near-wall modeling approach combined with adequate
mesh resolution in the near-wall region. FLUENT provides the enhanced wall treatment
for such situations. This approach can be used with the three k- models, the k-ω models,
and the RSM.

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Standard Wall Functions vs. Non-Equilibrium Wall Functions

Because of the capability to partly account for the effects of pressure gradients and
departure from equilibrium, the non-equilibrium wall functions are recommended for use
in complex flows involving separation, reattachment, and impingement where the mean
flow and turbulence are subjected to severe pressure gradients and change rapidly. In
such flows, improvements can be obtained, particularly in the prediction of wall shear
(skin-friction coefficient) and heat transfer (Nusselt or Stanton number).

i Non-equilibrium wall functions are available with the following viscous

models:

• K-epsilon

• Reynolds Stress

12.10.4 Enhanced Wall Treatment

Enhanced wall treatment is a near-wall modeling method that combines a two-layer
model with enhanced wall functions. If the near-wall mesh is fine enough to be able to
resolve the laminar sublayer (typically y + ≈ 1), then the enhanced wall treatment will
be identical to the traditional two-layer zonal model (see below for details). However,
the restriction that the near-wall mesh must be sufficiently fine everywhere might impose
too large a computational requirement. Ideally, then, one would like to have a near-wall
formulation that can be used with coarse meshes (usually referred to as wall-function
meshes) as well as fine meshes (low-Reynolds-number meshes). In addition, excessive
error should not be incurred for intermediate meshes that are too fine for the near-wall
cell centroid to lie in the fully turbulent region, but also too coarse to properly resolve
the sublayer.
To achieve the goal of having a near-wall modeling approach that will possess the accuracy
of the standard two-layer approach for fine near-wall meshes and that, at the same time,
will not significantly reduce accuracy for wall-function meshes, FLUENT can combine the
two-layer model with enhanced wall functions, as described in the following sections.

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 12.10 Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows

Two-Layer Model for Enhanced Wall Treatment

In FLUENT’s near-wall model, the viscosity-affected near-wall region is completely re-
solved all the way to the viscous sublayer. The two-layer approach is an integral part
of the enhanced wall treatment and is used to specify both  and the turbulent vis-
cosity in the near-wall cells. In this approach, the whole domain is subdivided into a
viscosity-affected region and a fully-turbulent region. The demarcation of the two re-
gions is determined by a wall-distance-based, turbulent Reynolds number, Rey , defined
as
√
ρy k
Rey ≡ (12.10-18)
µ

where y is the normal distance from the wall at the cell centers. In FLUENT, y is
interpreted as the distance to the nearest wall:

y ≡ min k~r − ~rw k (12.10-19)

rw ∈Γw
~

where ~r is the position vector at the field point, and ~rw is the position vector on the
wall boundary. Γw is the union of all the wall boundaries involved. This interpretation
allows y to be uniquely defined in flow domains of complex shape involving multiple
walls. Furthermore, y defined in this way is independent of the mesh topology used, and
is definable even on unstructured meshes.
In the fully turbulent region (Rey > Re∗y ; Re∗y = 200), the k- models or the RSM
(described in Sections 12.4 and 12.7) are employed.
In the viscosity-affected near-wall region (Rey < Re∗y ), the one-equation model of Wolf-
stein [406] is employed. In the one-equation model, the momentum equations and the
k equation are retained as described in Sections 12.4 and 12.7. However, the turbulent
viscosity, µt , is computed from

√
µt,2layer = ρ Cµ `µ k (12.10-20)

where the length scale that appears in Equation 12.10-20 is computed from [54]

 
`µ = yC` ∗ 1 − e−Rey /Aµ (12.10-21)

The two-layer formulation for turbulent viscosity described above is used as a part of the
enhanced wall treatment, in which the two-layer definition is smoothly blended with the
high-Reynolds-number µt definition from the outer region, as proposed by Jongen [168]:

µt,enh = λ µt + (1 − λ )µt,2layer (12.10-22)

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where µt is the high-Reynolds-number definition as described in Section 12.4: Standard,

RNG, and Realizable k- Models Theory or 12.7 for the k- models or the RSM. A
blending function, λ , is defined in such a way that it is equal to unity far from walls and
is zero very near to walls. The blending function chosen is

Rey − Re∗y
" !#
1
λ = 1 + tanh (12.10-23)
2 A

The constant A determines the width of the blending function. By defining a width such
that the value of λ will be within 1% of its far-field value given a variation of ∆Rey , the
result is

|∆Rey |
A= (12.10-24)
tanh(0.98)

Typically, ∆Rey would be assigned a value that is between 5% and 20% of Re∗y . The
main purpose of the blending function λ is to prevent solution convergence from being
impeded when the k- solution in the outer layer does not match with the two-layer
formulation.
The  field is computed from

k 3/2
= (12.10-25)
`

The length scales that appear in Equation 12.10-25 are again computed from Chen and
Patel [54]:

 
` = yC` ∗ 1 − e−Rey /A (12.10-26)

If the whole flow domain is inside the viscosity-affected region (Rey < 200),  is not
obtained by solving the transport equation; it is instead obtained algebraically from
Equation 12.10-25. FLUENT uses a procedure for the  specification that is similar to
the µt blending in order to ensure a smooth transition between the algebraically-specified
 in the inner region and the  obtained from solution of the transport equation in the
outer region.
The constants in the length scale formulas, Equations 12.10-21 and 12.10-26, are taken
from [54]:

C` ∗ = κCµ−3/4 , Aµ = 70, A = 2C` ∗ (12.10-27)

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 12.10 Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows

Enhanced Wall Functions

To have a method that can extend its applicability throughout the near-wall region
(i.e., laminar sublayer, buffer region, and fully-turbulent outer region) it is necessary to
formulate the law-of-the wall as a single wall law for the entire wall region. FLUENT
achieves this by blending linear (laminar) and logarithmic (turbulent) laws-of-the-wall
using a function suggested by Kader [170]:

1
u+ = eΓ u+ +
lam + e uturb
Γ (12.10-28)

where the blending function is given by:

a(y + )4
Γ=− (12.10-29)
1 + by +

where a = 0.01 and b = 5.

du+
Similarly, the general equation for the derivative dy +
is

+ +
du+ Γ dulam 1 du
turb
= e + e Γ (12.10-30)
dy + dy + dy +

This approach allows the fully turbulent law to be easily modified and extended to take
into account other effects such as pressure gradients or variable properties. This formula
also guarantees the correct asymptotic behavior for large and small values of y + and
reasonable representation of velocity profiles in the cases where y + falls inside the wall
buffer region (3 < y + < 10).
The enhanced wall functions were developed by smoothly blending an enhanced turbulent
wall law with the laminar wall law. The enhanced turbulent law-of-the-wall for compress-
ible flow with heat transfer and pressure gradients has been derived by combining the
approaches of White and Cristoph [402] and Huang et al. [149]:

du+
turb 1 h 0 + + 2 1/2
i
= S (1 − βu − γ(u ) ) (12.10-31)
dy + κy +

where
(
1 + αy + for y + < ys+
S0 = (12.10-32)
1 + αys+ for y + ≥ ys+

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Modeling Turbulence

and

νw dp µ dp
α ≡ ∗
= 2 ∗ 3 (12.10-33)
τw u dx ρ (u ) dx
∗
σt qw u σt qw
β ≡ = (12.10-34)
cp τw Tw ρcp u∗ Tw
σt (u∗ )2
γ ≡ (12.10-35)
2cp Tw

where ys+ is the location at which the log-law slope will remain fixed. By default, ys+ = 60.
The coefficient α in Equation 12.10-31 represents the influences of pressure gradients
while the coefficients β and γ represent thermal effects. Equation 12.10-31 is an ordinary
differential equation and FLUENT will provide an appropriate analytical solution. If α, β,
and γ all equal 0, an analytical solution would lead to the classical turbulent logarithmic
law-of-the-wall.
The laminar law-of-the-wall is determined from the following expression:

du+lam
+
= 1 + αy + (12.10-36)
dy

Note that the above expression only includes effects of pressure gradients through α,
while the effects of variable properties due to heat transfer and compressibility on the
laminar wall law are neglected. These effects are neglected because they are thought to be
of minor importance when they occur close to the wall. Integration of Equation 12.10-36
results in

α
 
u+
lam =y +
1 + y+ (12.10-37)
2
Enhanced thermal wall functions follow the same approach developed for the profile of
u+ . The unified wall thermal formulation blends the laminar and logarithmic profiles
according to the method of Kader [170]:

+ (Tw − TP ) ρcp u∗ + 1
+
T ≡ = eΓ Tlam + e Γ Tturb (12.10-38)
q̇

where the notation for TP and q̇ is the same as for standard thermal wall functions (see
Equation 12.10-5). Furthermore, the blending factor Γ is defined as

a(Pr y + )4
Γ = − (12.10-39)
1 + bPr3 y +

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 12.10 Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows

where Pr is the molecular Prandtl number, and the coefficients a and b are defined as in
Equation 12.10-29.
Apart from the formulation for T + in Equation 12.10-38, enhanced thermal wall functions
follow the same logic as for standard thermal wall functions (see Section 12.10.2: Energy),
resulting in the following definition for turbulent and laminar thermal wall functions:

ρu∗ 2
!
+
Tlam = Pr u+
lam + u (12.10-40)
2q̇
ρu∗ 2
( )
Pr
  
+
Tturb = Prt u+
turb +P + u − − 1 (u+ 2
c ) (u∗)
2
(12.10-41)
2q̇ Prt

where the quantity u+ +

c is the value of u at the fictitious “crossover” between the laminar
and turbulent region. The function P is defined in the same way as for standard wall
functions.
A similar procedure is also used for species wall functions when the enhanced wall treat-
ment is used. In this case, the Prandtl numbers in Equations 12.10-40 and 12.10-41 are
replaced by adequate Schmidt numbers. See Section 12.10.2: Species for details about
species wall functions.
The boundary condition for turbulence kinetic energy is the same as for standard wall
functions (Equation 12.10-9). However, the production of turbulence kinetic energy Gk is
computed using the velocity gradients that are consistent with the enhanced law-of-the-
wall (Equations 12.10-28 and 12.10-30), ensuring a formulation that is valid throughout
the near-wall region.

i The enhanced wall treatment is available with the following viscous models:

• K-epsilon

• Reynolds Stress

Enhanced wall functions are available with the following viscous models:

• Spalart-Allmaras

• K-omega

• Large Eddy Simulation

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12.10.5 User-Defined Wall Functions

This option is only available when the k- model is enabled. Selecting the User-Defined
Wall Functions under Near-wall Treatment allows you to hook a Law-of-the-Wall UDF.
See Section 2.3.23: DEFINE WALL FUNCTIONS of the separate UDF Manual for details on
user-defined wall functions.

i User-defined wall functions are available with the following viscous model:

• K-epsilon

12.10.6 LES Near-Wall Treatment

When the mesh is fine enough to resolve the laminar sublayer, the wall shear stress is
obtained from the laminar stress-strain relationship:

u ρuτ y
= (12.10-42)
uτ µ

If the mesh is too coarse to resolve the laminar sublayer, it is assumed that the centroid
of the wall-adjacent cell falls within the logarithmic region of the boundary layer, and
the law-of-the-wall is employed:
!
u 1 ρuτ y
= ln E (12.10-43)
uτ κ µ

where κ is the von Kármán constant and E = 9.793. If the mesh is a such that the first
near wall point is within the buffer region, then two above laws are blended in accordance
with equation Equation 12.10-28.
For the LES simulations in FLUENT, there is an alternative near wall approach based on
the work of Werner and Wengle [398], who proposed analytical integration of power-law
near-wall velocity distribution resulting in the following expressions for the wall shear
stress:

 2µ|up | 2
µ

 ∆z
for |up | ≤ 2ρ∆z
A 1−B
|τw | =  
1+B 
µ
1+B 
µ
B  2
1+B
µ 2
1−B 1−B 1+B
 ρ
2
A ρ∆z
+ A ρ∆z
|up | for |up | > 2ρ∆z
A 1−B
(12.10-44)
where up is velocity parallel to the wall, A = 8.3, B = 1/7 are the constants, and ∆z is
the near-wall control volume length scale.

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 12.11 Grid Considerations for Turbulent Flow Simulations

The Werner-Wengle wall functions can be enabled using the define/models/viscous/

near-wall-treatment/werner-wengle-wall-fn? text command.

12.11 Grid Considerations for Turbulent Flow Simulations

Successful computations of turbulent flows require some consideration during the mesh
generation. Since turbulence (through the spatially-varying effective viscosity) plays a
dominant role in the transport of mean momentum and other parameters, you must
ascertain that turbulence quantities in complex turbulent flows are properly resolved if
high accuracy is required. Due to the strong interaction of the mean flow and turbulence,
the numerical results for turbulent flows tend to be more susceptible to grid dependency
than those for laminar flows.
It is therefore recommended that you resolve, with sufficiently fine meshes, the regions
where the mean flow changes rapidly and there are shear layers with a large mean rate
of strain.
You can check the near-wall mesh by displaying or plotting the values of y + , y ∗ , and
Rey , which are all available in the postprocessing panels. It should be remembered that
y + , y ∗ , and Rey are not fixed, geometrical quantities. They are all solution-dependent.
For example, when you double the mesh (thereby halving the wall distance), the new y +
does not necessarily become half of the y + for the original mesh.
For the mesh in the near-wall region, different strategies must be used depending on which
near-wall option you are using. In Sections 12.11.1 and 12.11.1 are general guidelines for
the near-wall mesh.

12.11.1 Near-Wall Mesh Guidelines

Wall Functions
The log-law, which is valid for equilibrium boundary layers and fully developed flows,
provides upper and lower bounds on the acceptable distance between the cell centroid
and the wall for wall-adjacent cells. The distance is usually measured in the wall unit,
y + (≡ ρuτ y/µ), or y ∗ . Note that y + and y ∗ have comparable values when the first cell is
placed in the log-layer.

• For standard or non-equilibrium wall functions, each wall-adjacent cell’s centroid

should be located within the log-law layer, 30 < y + < 300. A y + value close to the
lower bound (y + ≈ 30) is most desirable.

• Although FLUENT employs the linear (laminar) law when y ∗ < 11.225, using an
excessively fine mesh near the walls should be avoided, because the wall functions
cease to be valid in the viscous sublayer.

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Modeling Turbulence

• As much as possible, the mesh should be made either coarse or fine enough to
prevent the wall-adjacent cells from being placed in the buffer layer (y + = 5 ∼ 30).

• The upper bound of the log-layer depends on, among others, pressure gradients
and Reynolds number. As the Reynolds number increases, the upper bound tends
to also increase. y + values that are too large are not desirable, because the wake
component becomes substantially large above the log-layer.

• Using excessive stretching in the direction normal to the wall should be avoided.

• It is important to have at least a few cells inside the boundary layer.

Enhanced Wall Treatment

Although the enhanced wall treatment is designed to extend the validity of near-wall
modeling beyond the viscous sublayer, it is still recommended that you construct a mesh
that will fully resolve the viscosity-affected near-wall region. In such a case, the two-layer
component of the enhanced wall treatment will be dominant and the following mesh
requirements are recommended (note that, here, the mesh requirements are in terms of
y + , not y ∗ ):

• When the enhanced wall treatment is employed with the intention of resolving the
laminar sublayer, y + at the wall-adjacent cell should be on the order of y + = 1.
However, a higher y + is acceptable as long as it is well inside the viscous sublayer
(y + < 4 to 5).

• You should have at least 10 cells within the viscosity-affected near-wall region
(Rey < 200) to be able to resolve the mean velocity and turbulent quantities in
that region.

Spalart-Allmaras Model
The Spalart-Allmaras model in its complete implementation is a low-Reynolds-number
model. This means that it is designed to be used with meshes that properly resolve the
viscous-affected region, and damping functions have been built into the model in order to
properly attenuate the turbulent viscosity in the viscous sublayer. Therefore, to obtain
the full benefit of the Spalart-Allmaras model, the near-wall mesh spacing should be as
described in Section 12.11.1: Enhanced Wall Treatment for the enhanced wall treatment.
However, as discussed in Section 12.3.7: Wall Boundary Conditions, the boundary condi-
tions for the Spalart-Allmaras model have been implemented so that the model will work
on coarser meshes, such as would be appropriate for the wall function approach. If you are
using a coarse mesh, you should follow the guidelines described in Section 12.11.1: Wall
Functions.

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 12.12 Steps in Using a Turbulence Model

In summary, for best results with the Spalart-Allmaras model, you should use either a
very fine near-wall mesh spacing (on the order of y + = 1) or a mesh spacing such that
y + ≥ 30.

k-ω Models
Both k-ω models available in FLUENT are available as low-Reynolds-number models as
well as high-Reynolds-number models. If the Transitional Flows option is enabled in the
Viscous Model panel, low-Reynolds-number variants will be used, and, in that case, mesh
guidelines should be the same as for the enhanced wall treatment. However, if this option
is not active, then the mesh guidelines should be the same as for the wall functions.

Large Eddy Simulation

For the LES implementation in FLUENT, the wall boundary conditions have been imple-
mented using a law-of-the-wall approach as described in Section 12.9.4: Inlet Boundary
Conditions for the LES Model. This means that there are no computational restrictions
on the near-wall mesh spacing. However, for best results, it might be necessary to use a
very fine near-wall mesh spacing (on the order of y + = 1).

12.12 Steps in Using a Turbulence Model

When your FLUENT model includes turbulence you need to activate the relevant model
and options, and supply turbulent boundary conditions. These inputs are described in
this section.
The procedure for setting up a turbulent flow problem is described below. (Note that
this procedure includes only those steps necessary for the turbulence model itself; you
will need to set up other models, boundary conditions, etc. as usual.)

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Modeling Turbulence

1. To activate the turbulence model, select Spalart-Allmaras, k-epsilon, k-omega, Reynolds

Stress, Detached Eddy Simulation (3D), and Large Eddy Simulation (LES) (3D) under
Model in the Viscous Model panel (Figure 12.12.1).
Define −→ Models −→Viscous...

Figure 12.12.1: The Viscous Model Panel

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 12.12 Steps in Using a Turbulence Model

If you choose the k-epsilon model, select Standard, RNG, or Realizable under k-epsilon
Model. If you choose the k-omega model, select Standard or SST under k-omega
Model.

i The Detached Eddy Simulation and the Large Eddy Simulation (LES) models
are available only for 3D cases.
2. If the flow involves walls, and you are using one of the k- models or the RSM, choose
one of the following options for the Near-Wall Treatment in the Viscous Model panel:
• Standard Wall Functions
• Non-Equilibrium Wall Functions
• Enhanced Wall Treatment
• User-Defined Wall Functions
These near-wall options are described in detail in Section 12.10: Near-Wall Treat-
ments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows. By default, the standard wall function
is enabled.
The near-wall treatment for the Spalart-Allmaras, k-ω, and LES models is defined
automatically, as described in Sections 12.3.7, 12.5.3, and 12.9.4, respectively.

3. Enable the appropriate turbulence modeling options in the Viscous Model panel.
See Section 12.19: Setup Options for all Turbulence Modeling for details.

4. Specify the boundary conditions for the solution variables.

Define −→Boundary Conditions...
See Section 12.20: Defining Turbulence Boundary Conditions for details.

5. Specify the initial guess for the solution variables.

Solve −→ Initialize −→Initialize...
See Section 12.21: Providing an Initial Guess for k and  (or k and ω) for details.
Note that Reynolds stresses are automatically initialized using k, and therefore
need not be initialized.

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12.13 Setting Up the Spalart-Allmaras Model

If you choose the Spalart-Allmaras model, the following options are available:

• vorticity-based production (Section 12.19.3: Vorticity- and Strain/Vorticity-Based

Production)

• strain/vorticity-based production (Section 12.19.3: Vorticity- and Strain/Vorticity-

Based Production)

• viscous heating (always activated for the density-based solvers) (Section 12.19.1: In-
cluding the Viscous Heating Effects)

Figure 12.13.1: The Viscous Model Panel Displaying the Spalart-Allmaras

Options

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 12.14 Setting Up the k- Model

12.14 Setting Up the k- Model

12.14.1 Setting Up the Standard or Realizable k- Model
If you choose the standard k- model or the realizable k- model, the following options
are available:

• viscous heating (always activated for the density-based solvers) (Section 12.19.1: In-
cluding the Viscous Heating Effects)

• inclusion of buoyancy effects on  (Section 12.4.5: Effects of Buoyancy on Turbulence

in the k- Models)

Figure 12.14.1: The Viscous Model Panel Displaying the Standard k- Model

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Modeling Turbulence

12.14.2 Setting Up the RNG k- Model

If you choose the RNG k- model, the following options are available:

• differential viscosity model (Section 12.19.5: Differential Viscosity Modification)

• swirl modification (Section 12.19.6: Swirl Modification)

• viscous heating (always activated for the density-based solvers) (Section 12.19.1: In-
cluding the Viscous Heating Effects)

• inclusion of buoyancy effects on  (Section 12.4.5: Effects of Buoyancy on Turbulence

in the k- Models)

For all k- models, one the following near-wall treatments must be selected (Section 12.10: Near-
Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows):

• standard wall functions

• non-equilibrium wall functions

• enhanced wall treatment

• user-defined wall functions

If you choose the enhanced wall treatment, the following options are available:

• pressure gradient effects (Section 12.19.9: Including Pressure Gradient Effects)

• thermal effects (Section 12.19.10: Including Thermal Effects)

If you choose the user-defined wall functions near-wall treatment, hook your UDF under
Law of the Wall, as shown in Figure 12.14.1.

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 12.14 Setting Up the k- Model

Figure 12.14.2: The Viscous Model Panel Displaying the RNG k- Model

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12.15 Setting Up the k-ω Model

12.15.1 Setting Up the Standard k-ω Model
If you choose the standard k-ω model, the following options are available:

• transitional flows (Section 12.19.7: Transitional Flows)

• shear flow corrections (Section 12.19.8: Shear Flow Corrections)
• viscous heating (always activated for the density-based solvers) (Section 12.19.1: In-
cluding the Viscous Heating Effects)

Figure 12.15.1: The Viscous Model Panel Displaying the Standard k-ω Model

The k-ω models use enhanced wall functions, described in Section 12.10.4: Enhanced
Wall Functions, as the near-wall treatment.

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 12.15 Setting Up the k-ω Model

12.15.2 Setting Up the Shear-Stress Transport k-ω Model

If you choose the shear-stress transport k-ω model, the following options are available:

• transitional flows (Section 12.19.7: Transitional Flows)

• viscous heating (always activated for the density-based solvers) (Section 12.19.1: In-
cluding the Viscous Heating Effects)

Figure 12.15.2: The Viscous Model Panel Displaying the SST k-ω Model

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12.16 Setting Up the Reynolds Stress Model

If you choose the RSM, the following submodels are available:

• Linear pressure-strain model (Section 12.7.4: Linear Pressure-Strain Model)

• Quadratic pressure-strain model (Section 12.19.13: Quadratic Pressure-Strain Model)

• Low-Re Stress-Omega (Section 12.19.14: Low-Re Stress-Omega Pressure-Strain)

Figure 12.16.1: The Viscous Model Panel Displaying the Reynolds Stress
Model Options

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 12.16 Setting Up the Reynolds Stress Model

The following Reynolds-stress options are available:

• wall boundary conditions for the Reynolds stresses from the k equation (Sec-
tion 12.19.12: Solving the k Equation to Obtain Wall Boundary Conditions) for
the linear and quadratic pressure-strain models
• wall reflection effects on Reynolds stresses (Section 12.19.11: Including the Wall
Reflection Term) for the linear pressure-strain model

Other options that are available based on your case setup include:

• viscous heating (always activated for the density-based solvers) (Section 12.19.1: In-
cluding the Viscous Heating Effects)
• inclusion of buoyancy effects on  (Section 12.4.5: Effects of Buoyancy on Turbulence
in the k- Models)

For the Reynolds stress model, the following near-wall treatments are available (Sec-
tion 12.10: Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows):

• standard wall functions

• non-equilibrium wall functions
• enhanced wall treatment

If wall boundary conditions for the Reynolds stresses from the k equation and/or wall
reflection effects on Reynolds stresses are/is selected, then all the above near-wall treat-
ments are available for selection.
If you choose the enhanced wall treatment, the following options are available:

• pressure gradient effects (Section 12.19.9: Including Pressure Gradient Effects)

• thermal effects (Section 12.19.10: Including Thermal Effects)

If the quadratic pressure-strain model is selected, then you can set either the standard
wall functions or the non-equilibrium wall functions.
If Low-Re Stress-Omega is selected, you cannot select any near-wall treatments. You do
have the option of selecting any or all of the following k − ω options:

• transitional flows (Section 12.19.7: Transitional Flows)

• shear flow corrections (Section 12.19.8: Shear Flow Corrections)

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Figure 12.16.2: The Viscous Model Panel Displaying the Low-Re Stress-
Omega Model Options

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 12.17 Setting Up the Detached Eddy Simulation Model

12.17 Setting Up the Detached Eddy Simulation Model

The following submodels are available when selecting the DES model (Section 12.19.4: De-
tached Eddy Simulation (DES) Modeling):

• Spalart-Allmaras

• Realizable k-

• SST k-ω

Figure 12.17.1: The Viscous Model Panel Displaying the Detached Eddy Sim-
ulation Model Options

For the Realizable k- submodel, there are no other model-specific options to set. As for
the SST k-ω sub-model, the model-specific option that you can select is the Transitional
Flows k-omega Option (Section 12.19.7: Transitional Flows).

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Additionally, you can perform the following DES-specific functions by using the
/define/models/viscous/detached-eddy-simulation? text command:

• Use cell volume-based LES length scale (default is to use maximum cell edge)

• Modify only the length scales that appear in the destruction term in νt equation
(the default is to modify all length scales within the νt equation)

12.18 Setting Up the Large Eddy Simulation Model

If you choose the LES model, the following subgrid-scale submodels are available (Sec-
tion 12.19.15: Subgrid-Scale Model):

• Smagorinsky-Lilly

• WALE

• Kinetic-Energy Transport

The LES options that are available for the Smagorinsky-Lilly are

• Dynamic Stress

• Dynamic Energy Flux (available only when the Dynamic Stress Model is enabled)

• Dynamic Scalar Flux

The LES option that is available when the Kinetic-Energy Transport submodel is selected
is the Dynamic Energy Flux Model.
It is also possible to modify the Model Constants, but this is not necessary for most
applications. See Sections 12.3 through 12.9 for details about these constants. Note that
C1-PS and C2-PS are the constants C1 and C2 in the linear pressure-strain approximation
of Equations 12.7-5 and 12.7-6, and C1’-PS and C2’-PS are the constants C10 and C20 in
Equation 12.7-7. C1-SSG-PS, C1’-SSG-PS, C2-SSG-PS, C3-SSG-PS, C3’-SSG-PS, C4-SSG-
PS, and C5-SSG-PS are the constants C1 , C1∗ , C2 , C3 , C3∗ , C4 , and C5 in the quadratic
pressure-strain approximation of Equation 12.7-16.

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 12.18 Setting Up the Large Eddy Simulation Model

Figure 12.18.1: The Viscous Model Panel Displaying the Large Eddy Simu-
lation Model Options

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12.19 Setup Options for all Turbulence Modeling

The various options available for the turbulence models are described in detail in Sec-
tions 12.3 through 12.9. Instructions for activating these options are provided here.

12.19.1 Including the Viscous Heating Effects

See Sections 13.2.1 and 13.2.2 for information on including viscous heating effects in your
model.

12.19.2 Including Turbulence Generation Due to Buoyancy

If you specify a non-zero gravity force (in the Operating Conditions panel), and you are
modeling a non-isothermal flow, the generation of turbulent kinetic energy due to buoy-
ancy (Gb in Equation 12.4-1) is, by default, always included in the k equation. However,
FLUENT does not, by default, include the buoyancy effects on .
To include the buoyancy effects on , you must turn on the Full Buoyancy Effects option
under Options in the Viscous Model panel.
This option is available for the three k- models and for the RSM.

12.19.3 Vorticity- and Strain/Vorticity-Based Production

For the Spalart-Allmaras model, you can choose either Vorticity-Based Production or
Strain/Vorticity-Based Production under Spalart-Allmaras Options in the Viscous Model
panel. If you choose Vorticity-Based Production, FLUENT will use Equation 12.3-8 to
compute the value of the deformation tensor S; if you choose Strain/Vorticity-Based Pro-
duction, it will use Equation 12.3-10.
(These options will not appear unless you have activated the Spalart-Allmaras model.)

12.19.4 Detached Eddy Simulation (DES) Modeling

If you enabled DES for the Spalart-Allmaras model as described at the beginning of this
section, FLUENT will use Equation 12.8-1 to compute the value of the length scale d. ˜ By
default, the empirical constant Cdes is set to 0.65. You can change its value in the Cdes
field under Model Constants. Cdes is set to 0.61 for the Realizable k- and SST k-ω RANS
models (Sections 12.8.2 and 12.8.3).

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 12.19 Setup Options for all Turbulence Modeling

12.19.5 Differential Viscosity Modification

In the RNG turbulence model in FLUENT, you have an option to use a differential formula
for effective viscosity µeff (Equation 12.4-6) to account for low-Reynolds-number effects.
To enable this option, turn on Differential Viscosity Model under RNG Options in the
Viscous Model panel.
(This option will not appear unless you have activated the RNG k- model.)

12.19.6 Swirl Modification

Once you choose the RNG model, the swirl modification takes effect, by default, for all
three-dimensional flows and axisymmetric flows with swirl. The default swirl constant
(αs in Equation 12.4-8) is set to 0.07, which works well for weakly to moderately swirling
flows. However, for strongly swirling flows, you may need to use a larger swirl constant.
To change the value of the swirl constant, you must first turn on the Swirl Dominated
Flow option under RNG Options in the Viscous Model panel. (This option will not appear
unless you have activated the RNG k- model.)

12.19.7 Transitional Flows

If either of the k-ω models are used, you may enable a low-Reynolds-number correction to
the turbulent viscosity by enabling the Transitional Flows option under k-omega Options
in the Viscous Model panel. By default, this option is not enabled, and the damping
coefficient (α∗ in Equation 12.5-6) is equal to 1.

12.19.8 Shear Flow Corrections

In the standard k-ω model, you also have the option of including corrections to improve
the accuracy in predicting free shear flows. The Shear Flow Corrections option under
k-omega Options is enabled by default in the Viscous Model panel, as these corrections
are included in the standard k-ω model [403]. When this option is enabled, FLUENT will
calculate fβ∗ and fβ using Equations 12.5-16 and 12.5-24, respectively. If this option is
disabled, fβ∗ and fβ will be set equal to 1.

12.19.9 Including Pressure Gradient Effects

If the enhanced wall treatment is used, you may include the effects of pressure gradients
by enabling the Pressure Gradient Effects option under Enhanced Wall Treatment Options.
When this option is enabled, FLUENT will include the coefficient α in Equation 12.10-31.

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12.19.10 Including Thermal Effects

If the enhanced wall treatment is used, you may include thermal effects by enabling
the Thermal Effects option under Enhanced Wall Treatment Options. When this option
is enabled, FLUENT will include the coefficient β in Equation 12.10-31. γ will also be
included in Equation 12.10-31 when the Thermal Effects option is enabled if the ideal gas
law is selected for the fluid density in the Materials panel.

12.19.11 Including the Wall Reflection Term

If the RSM is used with the default model for pressure strain, FLUENT will, by default,
include the wall-reflection effects in the pressure-strain term. That is, FLUENT will
calculate φij,w using Equation 12.7-7 and include it in Equation 12.7-4. Note that wall-
reflection effects are not included if you have selected the quadratic pressure-strain model.

i The empirical constants and the function f used in the calculation of φij,w
are calibrated for simple canonical flows such as channel flows and flat-plate
boundary layers involving a single wall. If the flow involves multiple walls
and the wall has significant curvature (e.g., an axisymmetric pipe or curvi-
linear duct), the inclusion of the wall-reflection term in Equation 12.7-7
may not improve the accuracy of the RSM predictions. In such cases,
you can disable the wall-reflection effects by turning off the Wall Reflection
Effects under Reynolds-Stress Options in the Viscous Model panel.

12.19.12 Solving the k Equation to Obtain Wall Boundary Conditions

In the RSM, FLUENT, by default, uses the explicit setting of boundary conditions for
the Reynolds stresses near the walls, with the values computed with Equation 12.7-34.
k is calculated by solving the k equation obtained by summing Equation 12.7-1 for
normal stresses. To disable this option and use the wall boundary conditions given in
Equation 12.7-35, turn off Wall B.C. from k Equation under Reynolds-Stress Options in the
Viscous Model panel. (This option will not appear unless you have activated the RSM.)

12.19.13 Quadratic Pressure-Strain Model

To use the quadratic pressure-strain model described in Section 12.7.4: Quadratic Pressure-
Strain Model, turn on the Quadratic Pressure-Strain Model option under Reynolds-Stress
Options in the Viscous Model panel. (This option will not appear unless you have activated
the RSM.) The following options are not available when the Quadratic Pressure-Strain
Model is enabled:

• Wall Reflection Effects under Reynolds-Stress Options

• Enhanced Wall Treatment under Near-Wall Treatment

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 12.19 Setup Options for all Turbulence Modeling

12.19.14 Low-Re Stress-Omega Pressure-Strain

To use the Low-Re Stress-Omega option described in Section 12.7.4: Low-Re Stress-
Omega Model, turn on the Low-Re Stress-Omega option under Reynolds-Stress Options
in the Viscous Model panel. (This option will not appear unless you have activated the
RSM.) The following options are not available when the Low-Re Stress-Omega is enabled:

• Wall BC from k Equation under Reynolds-Stress Options

• Quadratic Pressure-Strain Model under Reynolds-Stress Options

• Wall Reflection Effects under Reynolds-Stress Options

• Standard Wall Functions under Near-Wall Treatment

• Non-Equilibrium Wall Functions under Near-Wall Treatment

• Enhanced Wall Treatment under Near-Wall Treatment

Instead, the following options have to be set:

• Transitional Flows under k-omega Options

• Shear Flow Corrections under k-omega Options

12.19.15 Subgrid-Scale Model

If you have selected the Large Eddy Simulation model, you will be able to choose one of the
subgrid-scale models described in Section 12.9.3: Subgrid-Scale Models. You can choose
from the Smagorinsky-Lilly, WALE, or Kinetic-Energy Transport subgrid-scale models. Note
that the Dynamic Model is an option with the Smagorinsky-Lilly model, while the Kinetic-
Energy Transport model is always run as a dynamic model.
(These options will not appear unless you have activated the LES model.)

12.19.16 Customizing the Turbulent Viscosity

If you are using the Spalart-Allmaras, k-, k-ω, or LES model, a user-defined function
can be used to customize the turbulent viscosity. This option will enable you to modify
µt in the case of the Spalart-Allmaras, k-, and k-ω models, and incorporate completely
new subgrid models in the case of the LES model. See the separate UDF Manual for
information about user-defined functions.
In the Viscous Model panel, under User-Defined Functions, select the appropriate user-
defined function in the Turbulent Viscosity drop-down list. For the LES model, select the
appropriate UDF in the Subgrid-Scale Turbulent Viscosity drop-down list.

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12.19.17 Customizing the Turbulent Prandtl Numbers

If you are using the standard or realizable k- model or the standard k-ω model, a user-
defined function can be used to customize the turbulent Prandtl numbers. This option
will allow you to calculate σk and either σ or σω (depending on if you have enabled the
appropriate k- or k-ω model) by using a UDF. You will also be able to calculate the
value of the energy Prandtl number (Prt in Equation 12.4-23) and the Prandtl number
at the wall (Prt in Equation 12.10-5) in this way. See the separate UDF Manual for
information about user-defined functions.
In the Viscous Model panel, under User-Defined Functions, select the appropriate user-
defined function from the drop-down lists under Prandtl Numbers. Options include: TKE
Prandtl Number, TDR Prandtl Number (k- models only), SDR Prandtl Number (k-ω model
only), Energy Prandtl Number, and Wall Prandtl Number.

12.19.18 Modeling Turbulence with Non-Newtonian Fluids

If the turbulent flow involves non-Newtonian fluids, you can use the define/models/
viscous/turbulence-expert/turb-non-newtonian? text command to enable the se-
lection of non-Newtonian options for the material viscosity. See Section 8.4.5: Viscosity
for Non-Newtonian Fluids for details about these options.

12.20 Defining Turbulence Boundary Conditions

12.20.1 The Spalart-Allmaras Model
When you are modeling turbulent flows in FLUENT using the Spalart-Allmaras model,
you must provide the boundary conditions for ν̃ in addition to other mean solution vari-
ables. The boundary conditions for ν̃ at the walls are internally taken care of by FLUENT,
which obviates the need for your inputs. The boundary condition input for ν̃ you must
supply to FLUENT is the one at inlet boundaries (velocity inlet, pressure inlet, etc.). In
many situations, it is important to specify correct or realistic boundary conditions at the
inlets, because the inlet turbulence can significantly affect the downstream flow.
See Section 7.2.2: Determining Turbulence Parameters for details about specifying the
boundary condition for ν̃ at the inlets.
You may want to include the effects of the wall roughness on selected wall boundaries.
In such cases, you can specify the roughness parameters (roughness height and roughness
constant) in the panels for the corresponding wall boundaries (see Section 7.13.1: Setting
the Roughness Parameters).

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 12.20 Defining Turbulence Boundary Conditions

12.20.2 k- Models and k-ω Models

When you are modeling turbulent flows in FLUENT using one of the k- models or one
of the k-ω models, you must provide the boundary conditions for k and  (or k and ω)
in addition to other mean solution variables. The boundary conditions for k and  (or k
and ω) at the walls are internally taken care of by FLUENT, which obviates the need for
your inputs. The boundary condition inputs for k and  (or k and ω) you must supply
to FLUENT are the ones at inlet boundaries (velocity inlet, pressure inlet, etc.). In many
situations, it is important to specify correct or realistic boundary conditions at the inlets,
because the inlet turbulence can significantly affect the downstream flow.
See Section 7.2.2: Determining Turbulence Parameters for details about specifying the
boundary conditions for k and  (or k and ω) at the inlets.
You may want to include the effects of the wall roughness on selected wall boundaries.
In such cases, you can specify the roughness parameters (roughness height and roughness
constant) in the panels for the corresponding wall boundaries (see Section 7.13.1: Setting
the Roughness Parameters).
Additionally, you can control whether or not to set the turbulent viscosity to zero within
a laminar zone. If the fluid zone in question is laminar, the text command define/
boundary-conditions/fluid will contain an option called Set Turbulent Viscosity
to zero within laminar zone?. By setting this option to yes, FLUENT will set both
the production term in the turbulence transport equation and µt to zero. In contrast,
when the Laminar Zone option is turned on in a Fluid boundary condition panel, only the
production term is set to zero. See Section 7.17.1: Specifying a Laminar Zone for details
about laminar zones.

i Note that the laminar zone feature is also available for the Spalart-Allmaras
and RSM models.

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12.20.3 Reynolds Stress Model

The specification of turbulent boundary conditions for the RSM is the same as for the
other turbulence models for all boundaries except at boundaries where flow enters the
domain. Additional input methods are available for these boundaries and are described
here.
When you choose to use the RSM, the default inlet boundary condition inputs required
are identical to those required when the k- model is active. You can input the tur-
bulence quantities using any of the turbulence specification methods described in Sec-
tion 7.2.2: Determining Turbulence Parameters. FLUENT then uses the specified tur-
bulence quantities to derive the Reynolds stresses at the inlet from the assumption of
isotropy of turbulence:

0 2
ui2 = k (i = 1, 2, 3) (12.20-1)
3
u0i u0j = 0.0 (12.20-2)

0
where ui2 is the normal Reynolds stress component in each direction. The boundary
condition for  is determined in the same manner as for the k- turbulence models (see
Section 7.2.2: Determining Turbulence Parameters). To use this method, you will select
K or Turbulence Intensity as the Reynolds-Stress Specification Method in the appropriate
boundary condition panel.
Alternately, you can directly specify the Reynolds stresses by selecting Reynolds-Stress
Components as the Reynolds-Stress Specification Method in the boundary condition panel.
When this option is enabled, you should input the Reynolds stresses directly.
You can set the Reynolds stresses by using constant values, profile functions of coordinates
(see Section 7.26: Boundary Profiles), or user-defined functions (see the separate UDF
Manual).

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 12.20 Defining Turbulence Boundary Conditions

Figure 12.20.1: Specifying Inlet Boundary Conditions for the Reynolds

Stresses

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12.20.4 Large Eddy Simulation Model

It is possible to specify the magnitude of random fluctuations of the velocity components
at an inlet only if the velocity inlet boundary condition is selected. In this case, you must
specify a Turbulence Intensity that determines the magnitude of the random perturbations
on individual mean velocity components as described in Section 12.9.4: Inlet Boundary
Conditions for the LES Model. For all boundary types other than velocity inlets, the
boundary conditions for LES remain the same as for laminar flows.

12.21 Providing an Initial Guess for k and  (or k and ω)

For flows using one of the k- models, one of the k-ω models, or the RSM, the converged
solutions or (for unsteady calculations) the solutions after a sufficiently long time has
elapsed should be independent of the initial values for k and  (or k and ω). For better
convergence, however, it is beneficial to use a reasonable initial guess for k and  (or k
and ω).
In general, it is recommended that you start from a fully-developed state of turbulence.
When you use the enhanced wall treatment for the k- models or the RSM, it is critically
important to specify fully-developed turbulence fields. Guidelines are provided below.

• If you were able to specify reasonable boundary conditions at the inlet, it may be
a good idea to compute the initial values for k and  (or k and ω) in the whole
domain from these boundary values. (See Section 25.14: Initializing the Solution
for details.)

• For more complex flows (e.g., flows with multiple inlets with different conditions) it
may be better to specify the initial values in terms of turbulence intensity. 5–10%
is enough to represent fully-developed turbulence. k can then be computed from
the turbulence intensity and the characteristic mean velocity magnitude of your
problem (k = 1.5(Iuavg )2 ).
2
You should specify an initial guess for  so that the resulting eddy viscosity (Cµ k )
is sufficiently large in comparison to the molecular viscosity. In fully-developed
turbulence, the turbulent viscosity is roughly two orders of magnitude larger than
the molecular viscosity. From this, you can compute .

Note that, for the RSM, Reynolds stresses are initialized automatically using Equa-
tions 12.20-1 and 12.20-2.

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 12.22 Solution Strategies for Turbulent Flow Simulations

12.22 Solution Strategies for Turbulent Flow Simulations

Compared to laminar flows, simulations of turbulent flows are more challenging in many
ways. For the Reynolds-averaged approach, additional equations are solved for the tur-
bulence quantities. Since the equations for mean quantities and the turbulent quantities
(µt , k, , ω, or the Reynolds stresses) are strongly coupled in a highly non-linear fashion,
it takes more computational effort to obtain a converged turbulent solution than to ob-
tain a converged laminar solution. The LES model, while embodying a simpler, algebraic
model for the subgrid-scale viscosity, requires a transient solution on a very fine mesh.
The fidelity of the results for turbulent flows is largely determined by the turbulence
model being used. Here are some guidelines that can enhance the quality of your turbulent
flow simulations.

12.22.1 Mesh Generation

The following are suggestions to follow when generating the mesh for use in your turbulent
flow simulation:

• Picture in your mind the flow under consideration using your physical intuition or
any data for a similar flow situation, and identify the main flow features expected
in the flow you want to model. Generate a mesh that can resolve the major features
that you expect.
• If the flow is wall-bounded, and the wall is expected to significantly affect the flow,
take additional care when generating the mesh. You should avoid using a mesh
that is too fine (for the wall function approach) or too coarse (for the enhanced
wall treatment approach). See Section 12.11: Grid Considerations for Turbulent
Flow Simulations for details.

12.22.2 Accuracy
The suggestions below are provided to help you obtain better accuracy in your results:

• Use the turbulence model that is better suited for the salient features you expect
to see in the flow (see Section 12.2: Choosing a Turbulence Model).
• Because the mean quantities have larger gradients in turbulent flows than in laminar
flows, it is recommended that you use high-order schemes for the convection terms.
This is especially true if you employ a triangular or tetrahedral mesh. Note that
excessive numerical diffusion adversely affects the solution accuracy, even with the
most elaborate turbulence model.
• In some flow situations involving inlet boundaries, the flow downstream of the inlet
is dictated by the boundary conditions at the inlet. In such cases, you should
exercise care to make sure that reasonably realistic boundary values are specified.

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12.22.3 Convergence
The suggestions below are provided to help you enhance convergence for turbulent flow
calculations:

• Starting with excessively crude initial guesses for mean and turbulence quantities
may cause the solution to diverge. A safe approach is to start your calculation
using conservative (small) under-relaxation parameters and (for the density-based
solvers) a conservative Courant number, and increase them gradually as the itera-
tions proceed and the solution begins to settle down.

• It is also helpful for faster convergence to start with reasonable initial guesses for
the k and  (or k and ω) fields. Particularly when the enhanced wall treatment
is used, it is important to start with a sufficiently developed turbulence field, as
recommended in Section 12.21: Providing an Initial Guess for k and  (or k and ω),
to avoid the need for an excessive number of iterations to develop the turbulence
field.

• When you are using the RNG k- model, an approach that might help you achieve
better convergence is to obtain a solution with the standard k- model before switch-
ing to the RNG model. Due to the additional non-linearities in the RNG model,
lower under-relaxation factors and (for the density-based solvers) a lower Courant
number might also be necessary.

Note that when you use the enhanced wall treatment, you may sometimes find during
the calculation that the residual for  is reported to be zero. This happens when your
flow is such that Rey is less than 200 in the entire flow domain, and  is obtained from
the algebraic formula (Equation 12.10-25) instead of from its transport equation.

12.22.4 RSM-Specific Solution Strategies

Using the RSM creates a high degree of coupling between the momentum equations and
the turbulent stresses in the flow, and thus the calculation can be more prone to stability
and convergence difficulties than with the k- models. When you use the RSM, therefore,
you may need to adopt special solution strategies in order to obtain a converged solution.
The following strategies are generally recommended:

• Begin the calculations using the standard k- model. Turn on the RSM and use
the k- solution data as a starting point for the RSM calculation.

• Use low under-relaxation factors (0.2 to 0.3) and (for the density-based solvers) a
low Courant number for highly swirling flows or highly complex flows. In these
cases, you may need to reduce the under-relaxation factors both for the velocities
and for all of the stresses.

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 12.22 Solution Strategies for Turbulent Flow Simulations

Instructions for setting these solution parameters are provided below. If you are applying
the RSM to prediction of a highly swirling flow, you will want to consider the solution
strategies discussed in Section 9.5: Swirling and Rotating Flows as well.

Under-Relaxation of the Reynolds Stresses

FLUENT applies under-relaxation to the Reynolds stresses. You can set under-relaxation
factors using the Solution Controls panel.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
The default settings of 0.5 are recommended for most cases. You may be able to increase
these settings and speed up the convergence when the RSM solution begins to converge.

Disabling Calculation Updates of the Reynolds Stresses

In some instances, you may wish to let the current Reynolds stress field remain fixed,
skipping the solution of the Reynolds transport equations while solving the other trans-
port equations. You can activate/deactivate all Reynolds stress equations in the Solution
Controls panel.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

Residual Reporting for the RSM

When you use the RSM for turbulence, FLUENT reports the equation residuals for the
individual Reynolds stress transport equations. You can apply the usual convergence
criteria to the Reynolds stress residuals: normalized residuals in the range of 10−3 usu-
ally indicate a practically-converged solution. However, you may need to apply tighter
convergence criteria (below 10−4 ) to ensure full convergence.

12.22.5 LES-Specific Solution Strategies

Large eddy simulation involves running a transient solution from some initial condition,
on an appropriately fine grid, using an appropriate time step size. The solution must
be run long enough to become independent of the initial condition and to enable the
statistics of the flow field to be determined.

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The following are suggestions to follow when running a large eddy simulation:

1. Start by running a steady state flow simulation using a Reynolds-averaged tur-

bulence model such as standard k-, k-ω, Spalart-Allmaras, or even RSM. Run
until the flow field is reasonably converged and then use the solve/initialize/
init-instantaneous-vel text command to generate the instantaneous velocity
field out of the steady-state RANS results. This command must be executed be-
fore LES is enabled. This option is available for all RANS-based models and it will
create a much more realistic initial field for the LES run. Additionally, it will help
in reducing the time needed for the LES simulation to reach a statistically stable
mode. This step is optional.

2. When you enable LES, FLUENT will automatically turn on the unsteady solver
option and choose the second-order implicit formulation. You will need to set
the appropriate time step size and all the needed solution parameters. (See Sec-
tion 25.17.1: User Inputs for Time-Dependent Problems for guidelines on setting
solution parameters for transient calculations in general.) The bounded central-
differencing spatial discretization scheme will be automatically enabled for momen-
tum equations. Both the bounded central-differencing and pure central-differencing
schemes are available for all equations when running LES simulations.

3. Run LES until the flow becomes statistically steady. The best way to see if the flow
is fully developed and statistically steady is to monitor forces and solution variables
(e.g., velocity components or pressure) at selected locations in the flow.

4. Zero out the initial statistics using the solve/initialize/init-flow-statistics

text command. Before you restart the solution, enable Data Sampling for Time
Statistics in the Iterate panel, as described in Section 25.17.1: User Inputs for Time-
Dependent Problems. With this option enabled, FLUENT will gather data for
time statistics while performing a large eddy simulation. You can set the Sampling
Interval such that Data Sampling for Time Statistics can be performed at the specified
frequency. When Data Sampling for Time Statistics is enabled, the statistics collected
at each sampling interval can be postprocessed and you can then view both the
mean and the root-mean-square (RMS) values in FLUENT.

5. Continue until you get statistically stable data. The duration of the simulation
can be determined beforehand by estimating the mean flow residence time in the
solution domain (L/U , where L is the characteristic length of the solution domain
and U is a characteristic mean flow velocity). The simulation should be run for at
least a few mean flow residence times.

Instructions for setting the solution parameters for LES are provided below.

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 12.23 Postprocessing for Turbulent Flows

Temporal Discretization
FLUENT provides both first-order and second-order temporal discretizations. For LES,
the second-order discretization is recommended.
Define −→ Models −→Solver...

Spatial Discretization
Overly diffusive schemes such as the first-order upwind or power law scheme should be
avoided, because they may unduly damp out the energy of the resolved eddies. The
central-differencing based schemes are recommended for all equations when you use the
LES model. FLUENT provides two central-differencing based schemes: pure central-
differencing and bounded central-differencing. The bounded scheme is the default option
when you select LES or DES.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

12.23 Postprocessing for Turbulent Flows

FLUENT provides postprocessing options for displaying, plotting, and reporting vari-
ous turbulence quantities, which include the main solution variables and other auxiliary
quantities.
Turbulence quantities that can be reported for the k- models are as follows:

• Turbulent Kinetic Energy (k)

• Turbulence Intensity

• Turbulent Dissipation Rate (Epsilon)

• Production of k

• Turbulent Viscosity

• Effective Viscosity

• Turbulent Viscosity Ratio

• Effective Thermal Conductivity

• Effective Prandtl Number

• Wall Yplus

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Modeling Turbulence

• Wall Ystar

• Turbulent Reynolds Number (Re y) (only when the enhanced wall treatment is used
for the near-wall treatment)

Turbulence quantities that can be reported for the k-ω models are as follows:

• Turbulent Kinetic Energy (k)

• Turbulence Intensity

• Specific Dissipation Rate (Omega)

• Production of k

• Turbulent Viscosity

• Effective Viscosity

• Turbulent Viscosity Ratio

• Effective Thermal Conductivity

• Effective Prandtl Number

• Wall Ystar

• Wall Yplus

Turbulence quantities that can be reported for the Spalart-Allmaras model are as follows:

• Modified Turbulent Viscosity

• Turbulent Viscosity

• Effective Viscosity

• Turbulent Viscosity Ratio

• Effective Thermal Conductivity

• Effective Prandtl Number

• Wall Yplus

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 12.23 Postprocessing for Turbulent Flows

Turbulence quantities that can be reported for the RSM are as follows:

• Turbulent Kinetic Energy (k)

• Turbulence Intensity

• UU Reynolds Stress

• VV Reynolds Stress

• WW Reynolds Stress

• UV Reynolds Stress

• VW Reynolds Stress

• UW Reynolds Stress

• Turbulent Dissipation Rate (Epsilon)

• Production of k

• Turbulent Viscosity

• Effective Viscosity

• Turbulent Viscosity Ratio

• Effective Thermal Conductivity

• Effective Prandtl Number

• Wall Yplus

• Wall Ystar

• Turbulent Reynolds Number (Re y)

Turbulence quantities that can be reported for the DES model are as follows:

• Modified Turbulent Viscosity

• Turbulent Viscosity

• Effective Viscosity

• Turbulent Viscosity Ratio

• Effective Thermal Conductivity

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Modeling Turbulence

• Effective Prandtl Number

• Wall Yplus

• Relative Length Scale (DES)

Turbulence quantities that can be reported for the LES model are as follows:

• Turbulence Kinetic Energy

• Turbulence Intensity

• Subgrid Kinetic Energy

• Production of k

• Subgrid Turbulent Viscosity

• Subgrid Effective Viscosity

• Subgrid Turbulent Viscosity Ratio

• Subgrid Filter Length

• Subgrid Test-Filter Length

• Subgrid Dissipation Rate

• Subgrid Dynamic Viscosity Constant

• Subgrid Dynamic Prandtl Number

• Subgrid Dynamic Sc of Species

• Subtest Kinetic Energy

• Effective Thermal Conductivity

• Effective Prandtl Number

• Wall Ystar

• Wall Yplus

All of these variables can be found in the Turbulence... category of the variable selection
drop-down list that appears in postprocessing panels. See Chapter 30: Field Function
Definitions for their definitions.

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 12.23 Postprocessing for Turbulent Flows

12.23.1 Custom Field Functions for Turbulence

In addition to the quantities listed above, you can define your own turbulence quantities
using the Custom Field Function Calculator panel.
Define −→Custom Field Functions...
The following functions may be useful:

• the ratio of production of k to its dissipation (Gk /ρ)

• the ratio of the mean flow to turbulent time scale, η (≡ Sk/)

• the Reynolds stresses derived from the Boussinesq formula (e.g., −uv = νt ∂u
∂y
)

12.23.2 Postprocessing Turbulent Flow Statistics

As described in Section 12.9: Large Eddy Simulation (LES) Model Theory, LES involves
the solution of a transient flow field, but it is the mean flow quantities that are of interest
from an engineering standpoint.
For all other turbulent flow, if Data Sampling for Time Statistics is enabled in the Iterate
panel, FLUENT gathers data for time statistics while performing the simulation. The
statistics that FLUENT collects at each sampling interval (which consists of the mean
and the root-mean-square (RMS) values) can be postprocessed by selecting Unsteady
Statistics... in any of the postprocessing panels. You can view several variables that
include, but are not limited to, shear stresses (Resolved UV/UW/VW Reynolds Stress), flow
heat fluxes (Resolved UT/VT/WT Heat Flux), and species statistics (RMS Mass Fraction
of species and Mean Mass Fraction of species). If you select Unsteady Wall Statistics...
in any of the postprocessing panels, you can view wall statistics such as Mean Pressure
Coefficient, Mean Wall Shear Stress, Mean X-Wall Shear Stress, Mean Y-Wall Shear Stress,
Mean Z-Wall Shear Stress, Mean Skin Friction Coefficient, Mean Surface Heat Flux, Mean
Surface Heat Transfer Coef., Mean Surface Nusselt Number, Mean Surface Stanton Number.
See Section 25.17.4: Postprocessing for Time-Dependent Problems for details.

i Note that mean statistics are collected only in interior cells and not on
wall surfaces. Therefore, when node or cell values of mean quantities are
plotted on the wall surface, you are actually plotting values in nearby cells
attached to the wall.

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Modeling Turbulence

Figure 12.23.1: Postprocessing Choices for Unsteady Wall Statistics...

There may be cases when you want to control what set of variables are available for
postprocessing. To enable or disable certain variables, use the following text command:
solve −→ set −→data-sampling
The text command prompts you with a set of questions that you will answer yes or no
to depending on whether or not you want statistics collected on certain variables. The
following example demonstrates using the text command when do not want to collect
statistics on species:

Data Sampling for Time Statistics? [yes]

Sampling interval [2]
Collect statistics for flow shear stresses? [yes]
Collect statistics for flow heat fluxes? [yes]
Collect wall statistics? [yes]
Collect statistics for ch3oh? [yes] no

i When including or excluding statistics on variables, it is recommended that

you re-initialize the flow statistics.

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12.23.3 Troubleshooting
You can use the postprocessing options not only for the purpose of interpreting your
results but also for investigating any anomalies that may appear in the solution. For
instance, you may want to plot contours of the k field to check if there are any regions
where k is erroneously large or small. You should see a high k region in the region
where the production of k is large. You may want to display the turbulent viscosity
ratio field in order to see whether or not turbulence takes full effect. Usually turbulent
viscosity is at least two orders of magnitude larger than molecular viscosity for fully-
developed turbulent flows modeled using the RANS approach (i.e., not using LES). You
may also want to see whether you are using a proper near-wall mesh for the enhanced
wall treatment. In this case, you can display filled contours of Rey (turbulent Reynolds
number) overlaid on the mesh.

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Chapter 13. Modeling Heat Transfer

This chapter provides details about the heat transfer models available in FLUENT.
Information is presented in the following sections:

• Section 13.1: Introduction

• Section 13.2: Modeling Conductive and Convective Heat Transfer

• Section 13.3: Modeling Radiation

• Section 13.4: Modeling Periodic Heat Transfer

13.1 Introduction
The flow of thermal energy from matter occupying one region in space to matter occu-
pying a different region in space is known as heat transfer. Heat transfer can occur by
three main methods: conduction, convection, and radiation. Physical models involving
conduction and/or convection only are the simplest (Section 13.2: Modeling Conduc-
tive and Convective Heat Transfer), while buoyancy-driven flow or natural convection
(Section 13.2.5: Natural Convection and Buoyancy-Driven Flows), and radiation mod-
els (Section 13.3: Modeling Radiation) are more complex. Depending on your problem,
FLUENT will solve a variation of the energy equation that takes into account the heat
transfer methods you have specified. FLUENT is also able to predict heat transfer in
periodically repeating geometries (Section 13.4: Modeling Periodic Heat Transfer), thus
greatly reducing the required computational effort in certain cases.

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13.2 Modeling Conductive and Convective Heat Transfer

FLUENT allows you to include heat transfer within the fluid and/or solid regions in your
model. Problems ranging from thermal mixing within a fluid to conduction in composite
solids can thus be handled by FLUENT.
When your FLUENT model includes heat transfer you will need to activate the relevant
physical models, supply thermal boundary conditions, and input material properties that
govern heat transfer and/or vary with temperature as part of the setup. Information
about heat transfer theory and how to setup and use heat transfer in your FLUENT
model is presented in the following subsections:

• Section 13.2.1: Heat Transfer Theory

• Section 13.2.2: Steps in Solving Heat Transfer Problems

• Section 13.2.3: Solution Strategies for Heat Transfer Modeling

• Section 13.2.4: Postprocessing Heat Transfer Quantities

• Section 13.2.5: Natural Convection and Buoyancy-Driven Flows

• Section 13.2.6: Shell Conduction Considerations

13.2.1 Heat Transfer Theory

The Energy Equation
FLUENT solves the energy equation in the following form:
 
∂
hj J~j + (τ eff · ~v ) + Sh
X
(ρE) + ∇ · (~v (ρE + p)) = ∇ · keff ∇T − (13.2-1)
∂t j

where keff is the effective conductivity (k + kt , where kt is the turbulent thermal conduc-
tivity, defined according to the turbulence model being used), and J~j is the diffusion flux
of species j. The first three terms on the right-hand side of Equation 13.2-1 represent
energy transfer due to conduction, species diffusion, and viscous dissipation, respectively.
Sh includes the heat of chemical reaction, and any other volumetric heat sources you have
defined.
In Equation 13.2-1,

p v2
E =h− + (13.2-2)
ρ 2

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 13.2 Modeling Conductive and Convective Heat Transfer

where sensible enthalpy h is defined for ideal gases as

X
h= Yj hj (13.2-3)
j

and for incompressible flows as

X p
h= Yj hj + (13.2-4)
j ρ

In Equations 13.2-3 and 13.2-4, Yj is the mass fraction of species j and

Z T
hj = cp,j dT (13.2-5)
Tref

where Tref is 298.15 K.

The Energy Equation for the Non-Premixed Combustion Model

When the non-adiabatic non-premixed combustion model is enabled, FLUENT solves the
total enthalpy form of the energy equation:
!
∂ kt
(ρH) + ∇ · (ρ~v H) = ∇ · ∇H + Sh (13.2-6)
∂t cp

Under the assumption that the Lewis number (Le) = 1, the conduction and species
diffusion terms combine to give the first term on the right-hand side of the above equation
while the contribution from viscous dissipation appears in the non-conservative form as
the second term. The total enthalpy H is defined as

X
H= Yj H j (13.2-7)
j

where Yj is the mass fraction of species j and

Z T
Hj = cp,j dT + h0j (Tref,j ) (13.2-8)
Tref,j

h0j (Tref,j ) is the formation enthalpy of species j at the reference temperature Tref,j .

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Modeling Heat Transfer

Inclusion of Pressure Work and Kinetic Energy Terms

Equation 13.2-1 includes pressure work and kinetic energy terms which are often negli-
gible in incompressible flows. For this reason, the pressure-based solver by default does
not include the pressure work or kinetic energy when you are solving incompressible flow.
If you wish to include these terms, use the define/models/energy? text command to
turn them on.
Pressure work and kinetic energy are always accounted for when you are modeling com-
pressible flow or using the density-based solver.

Inclusion of the Viscous Dissipation Terms

Equations 13.2-1 and 13.2-6 include viscous dissipation terms, which describe the thermal
energy created by viscous shear in the flow.
When the pressure-based solver is used, FLUENT’s default form of the energy equation
does not include them (because viscous heating is often negligible). Viscous heating will
be important when the Brinkman number, Br, approaches or exceeds unity, where

µUe2
Br = (13.2-9)
k∆T
and ∆T represents the temperature difference in the system.
When your problem requires inclusion of the viscous dissipation terms and you are using
the pressure-based solver, you should activate the terms using the Viscous Heating option
in the Viscous Model panel. Compressible flows typically have Br ≥ 1. Note, however,
that when the pressure-based solver is used, FLUENT does not automatically activate
the viscous dissipation if you have defined a compressible flow model.
When the density-based solver is used, the viscous dissipation terms are always included
when the energy equation is solved.

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 13.2 Modeling Conductive and Convective Heat Transfer

Inclusion of the Species Diffusion Term

Equations 13.2-1 and 13.2-6 both include the effect of enthalpy transport due to species
diffusion.
When the pressure-based solver is used, the term
 

∇ ·  hj J~j 
X

is included in Equation 13.2-1 by default. If you do not want to include it, you can turn
off the Diffusion Energy Source option in the Species Model panel.
When the non-adiabatic non-premixed combustion model is being used, this term does
not explicitly appear in the energy equation, because it is included in the first term on
the right-hand side of Equation 13.2-6.
When the density-based solver is used, this term is always included in the energy equation.

Energy Sources Due to Reaction

Sources of energy, Sh , in Equation 13.2-1 include the source of energy due to chemical
reaction:

X h0j
Sh,rxn = − Rj (13.2-10)
j Mj

where h0j is the enthalpy of formation of species j and Rj is the volumetric rate of creation
of species j.
In the energy equation used for non-adiabatic non-premixed combustion (Equation 13.2-6),
the heat of formation is included in the definition of enthalpy (see Equation 13.2-7), so
reaction sources of energy are not included in Sh .

Energy Sources Due To Radiation

When one of the radiation models is being used, Sh in Equation 13.2-1 or 13.2-6 also
includes radiation source terms. See Section 13.3: Modeling Radiation for details.

Interphase Energy Sources

It should be noted that the energy sources, Sh , also include heat transfer between the
continuous and the discrete phase. This is discussed further in Section 22.9.1: Coupling
Between the Discrete and Continuous Phases.

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Energy Equation in Solid Regions

In solid regions, the energy transport equation used by FLUENT has the following form:

∂
(ρh) + ∇ · (~v ρh) = ∇ · (k∇T ) + Sh (13.2-11)
∂t

where ρ = density
= sensible enthalpy, TTref cp dT
R
h
k = conductivity
T = temperature
Sh = volumetric heat source
The second term on the left-hand side of Equation 13.2-11 represents convective energy
transfer due to rotational or translational motion of the solids. The velocity field ~v is
computed from the motion specified for the solid zone (see Section 7.18: Solid Conditions).
The terms on the right-hand side of Equation 13.2-11 are the heat flux due to conduction
and volumetric heat sources within the solid, respectively.

Anisotropic Conductivity in Solids

When you use the pressure-based solver, FLUENT allows you to specify anisotropic con-
ductivity for solid materials. The conduction term for an anisotropic solid has the form

∇ · (kij ∇T ) (13.2-12)

where kij is the conductivity matrix. See Section 8.5.5: Anisotropic Thermal Conductivity
for Solids for details on specifying anisotropic conductivity for solid materials.

Diffusion at Inlets
The net transport of energy at inlets consists of both the convection and diffusion com-
ponents. The convection component is fixed by the inlet temperature specified by you.
The diffusion component, however, depends on the gradient of the computed tempera-
ture field. Thus the diffusion component (and therefore the net inlet transport) is not
specified a priori.
In some cases, you may wish to specify the net inlet transport of energy rather than the
inlet temperature. If you are using the pressure-based solver, you can do this by disabling
inlet energy diffusion. By default, FLUENT includes the diffusion flux of energy at inlets.
To turn off inlet diffusion, use the define/models/energy? text command.
Inlet diffusion cannot be turned off if you are using the density-based solver.

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 13.2 Modeling Conductive and Convective Heat Transfer

13.2.2 Steps in Solving Heat Transfer Problems

The procedure for setting up a heat transfer problem is described below. (Note that this
procedure includes only those steps necessary for the heat transfer model itself; you will
need to set up other models, boundary conditions, etc. as usual.)

1. To activate the calculation of heat transfer, enable the Energy Equation option in
the Energy panel (Figure 13.2.1).
Define −→ Models −→Energy...

Figure 13.2.1: The Energy Panel

2. (Optional, pressure-based solver only.) If you are modeling viscous flow and you
want to include the viscous heating terms in the energy equation, enable the Viscous
Heating option in the Viscous Model panel.
Define −→ Models −→Viscous...
As noted in Section 13.2.1: Inclusion of the Viscous Dissipation Terms, the viscous
heating terms in the energy equation are (by default) ignored by FLUENT when
the pressure-based solver is used. (They are always included for the density-based
solver.) Viscous dissipation should be enabled when the shear stress in the fluid
is large (e.g., in lubrication problems) and/or in high-velocity, compressible flows
(see Equation 13.2-9).

3. Define thermal boundary conditions at flow inlets, flow outlets, and walls.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...
At flow inlets and exits you will set the temperature; at walls you may use any of
the following thermal conditions:
• specified heat flux
• specified temperature
• convective heat transfer
• external radiation
• combined external radiation and external convective heat transfer

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Modeling Heat Transfer

Section 7.13.1: Thermal Boundary Conditions at Walls provides details on the

model inputs that govern these thermal boundary conditions. The default ther-
mal boundary condition at inlets is a specified temperature of 300 K; at walls the
default condition is zero heat flux (adiabatic). See Chapter 7: Boundary Conditions
for details about boundary condition inputs.

i If your heat transfer application involves two separated fluid regions, see
the information provided below.
4. Define material properties for heat transfer.
Define −→Materials...
Heat capacity and thermal conductivity must be defined, and you can specify
many properties as functions of temperature as described in Chapter 8: Physical
Properties.

i If your heat transfer application involves two separated fluid regions, see
the information provided below.

Limiting the Predicted Temperature Range: The Temperature Floor and Ceiling
For stability reasons, FLUENT includes a limit on the predicted temperature range. The
purpose of the temperature ceiling and floor is to improve the stability of calculations
in which the temperature should physically lie within known limits. Sometimes interme-
diate solutions of the equations give rise to temperatures beyond these limits for which
property definitions, etc. are not well defined. The temperature limits keep the temper-
atures within the expected range for your problem. If the FLUENT calculation predicts
a temperature above the maximum limit, the stored temperature values are “pegged” at
this maximum value. The default for the temperature ceiling is 5000 K. If the FLUENT
calculation predicts a temperature below the minimum limit, the stored temperature
values are “pegged” at this minimum value. The default for the temperature minimum
is 1 K.
If you expect the temperature in your domain to exceed 5000 K, you should use the
Solution Limits panel to increase the Maximum Temperature.
Solve −→ Controls −→Limits...

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 13.2 Modeling Conductive and Convective Heat Transfer

Modeling Heat Transfer in Two Separated Fluid Regions

If your heat transfer application involves two fluid regions separated by a solid zone or a
wall, as illustrated in Figure 13.2.2, you will need to define the problem with some care.
Specifically:

• You should not use outflow boundary conditions in either fluid.

• You can establish separate fluid properties by selecting a different fluid material for
each zone. (For species calculations, however, you can only select a single mixture
material for the entire domain.)

➞
fluid 2

➞
fluid 1

Figure 13.2.2: Typical Counterflow Heat Exchanger Involving Heat Transfer

Between Two Separated Fluid Streams

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Modeling Heat Transfer

13.2.3 Solution Strategies for Heat Transfer Modeling

Although many simple heat transfer problems can be successfully solved using the default
solution parameters assumed by FLUENT, you may accelerate the convergence of your
problem and/or improve the stability of the solution process using some of the guidelines
provided in this section.

Under-Relaxation of the Energy Equation

When you use the pressure-based solver, FLUENT under-relaxes the energy equation
using the under-relaxation parameter defined by you in the Solution Controls panel, as
described in Section 25.9.2: Setting Under-Relaxation Factors.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
If you are using the non-adiabatic non-premixed combustion model, you will set the
energy under-relaxation factor as usual but you will also set an under-relaxation factor
for temperature, as described below.
FLUENT uses a default under-relaxation factor of 1.0 for the energy equation, regardless
of the form in which it is solved (temperature or enthalpy). In problems where the
energy field impacts the fluid flow (via temperature-dependent properties or buoyancy)
you should use a lower value for the under-relaxation factor, in the range of 0.8–1.0. In
problems where the flow field is decoupled from the temperature field (no temperature-
dependent properties or buoyancy forces), you can usually retain the default value of
1.0.

Under-Relaxation of Temperature When the Enthalpy Equation is Solved

When the enthalpy form of the energy equation is solved (i.e., when you are using the non-
adiabatic non-premixed combustion model), FLUENT also under-relaxes the temperature,
updating the temperature by only a fraction of the change that would result from the
change in the (under-relaxed) enthalpy values. This second level of under-relaxation can
be used to good advantage when you would like to let the enthalpy field change rapidly,
but the temperature response (and its effect on fluid properties) to lag. FLUENT uses a
default setting of 1.0 for the under-relaxation on temperature and you can modify this
setting using the Solution Controls panel.

Disabling the Species Diffusion Term

If you are solving for species transport using the pressure-based solver and you encounter
convergence difficulties, you may want to consider disabling the Diffusion Energy Source
option in the Species Model panel.
Define −→ Models −→Species...

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 13.2 Modeling Conductive and Convective Heat Transfer

When this option is disabled, FLUENT will neglect the effects of species diffusion on the
energy equation.
Note that species diffusion effects are always included when the density-based solver is
used.

Step-by-Step Solutions
Often the most efficient strategy for predicting heat transfer is to compute an isothermal
flow first and then add the calculation of the energy equation. The procedure differs
slightly, depending on whether or not the flow and heat transfer are coupled.

Decoupled Flow and Heat Transfer Calculations

If your flow and heat transfer are decoupled (no temperature-dependent properties or
buoyancy forces), you can first solve the isothermal flow (energy equation turned off) to
yield a converged flow-field solution and then solve the energy transport equation alone.

i Since the density-based solver always solves the flow and energy equations
together, the procedure for solving for energy alone applies to the pressure-
based solver, only.
You can temporarily disable the flow equations or the energy equation by disabling the
Energy option in the Equations list in the Solution Controls panel.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

Coupled Flow and Heat Transfer Calculations

If the flow and heat transfer are coupled (i.e., your model includes temperature-depen-
dent properties or buoyancy forces), you can first solve the flow equations before enabling
energy. Once you have a converged flow-field solution, you can disable energy and solve
the flow and energy equations simultaneously to complete the heat transfer simulation.

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Modeling Heat Transfer

13.2.4 Postprocessing Heat Transfer Quantities

Available Variables for Postprocessing
FLUENT provides reporting options for simulations involving heat transfer. You can
generate graphical plots or reports of the following variables/functions:

• Static Temperature

• Total Temperature

• Enthalpy

• Relative Total Temperature

• Rothalpy

• Wall Temperature (Outer Surface)

• Wall Temperature (Inner Surface)

• Total Enthalpy

• Total Enthalpy Deviation

• Entropy

• Total Energy

• Internal Energy

• Total Surface Heat Flux

• Surface Heat Transfer Coef.

• Surface Nusselt Number

• Surface Stanton Number

The first 12 variables listed above are contained in the Temperature... category of the
variable selection drop-down list that appears in postprocessing panels, and the remaining
variables are in the Wall Fluxes... category. See Chapter 30: Field Function Definitions
for their definitions.

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 13.2 Modeling Conductive and Convective Heat Transfer

Definition of Enthalpy and Energy in Reports and Displays

The definitions of the reported values of enthalpy and energy will be different depending
on whether the flow is compressible or incompressible.

Reporting Heat Transfer Through Boundaries

You can use the Flux Reports panel to compute the heat transfer through each boundary
of the domain, or to sum the heat transfer through all boundaries to check the heat
balance.
Report −→Fluxes...
It is recommended that you perform a heat balance check to ensure that your solution is
truly converged.

Reporting Heat Transfer Through a Surface

You can use the Surface Integrals panel to compute the heat transfer through any bound-
ary or any surface created using the methods described in Chapter 27: Creating Surfaces
for Displaying and Reporting Data.
Report −→Surface Integrals...
To report the mass flow rate of enthalpy
Z
Q= ~
Hρ~v · dA (13.2-13)

choose Flow Rate for the Report Type in the Surface Integrals panel, select Enthalpy (in
the Temperature... category) as the Field Variable, and select the surface(s) on which to
integrate.

Reporting Averaged Heat Transfer Coefficients

The Surface Integrals panel can also be used to generate a report of averaged heat transfer
1 R
coefficient h on a surface ( A h dA).

Report −→Surface Integrals...

In the Surface Integrals panel, choose Area-Weighted Average for Report Type, select Surface
Heat Transfer Coef. (in the Wall Fluxes... category) as the Field Variable, and select the
surface.

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Exporting Heat Flux Data

It is possible to export heat flux data on wall zones (including radiation) to a generic file
that you can examine or use in an external program. To save a heat flux file, you will
use the custom-heat-flux text command.
file −→ export −→custom-heat-flux
Heat transfer data will be exported in the following free format for each face zone that
you select for export:

zone-name nfaces
x_f y_f z_f A Q T_w T_c HTC
.
.
.

Each block of data starts with the name of the face zone (zone-name) and the number
of faces in the zone (nfaces). Next there is a line for each face (i.e., nfaces lines), each
containing the components of the face centroid (x f, y f, and, in 3D, z f), the face area
(A), the heat transfer rate (Q), the face temperature (T w), the adjacent cell temperature
(T c), and the heat transfer coefficient (HTC). If the heat transfer coefficient is calculated
based on wall function (Equation 30.4-33), then Q is the convective heat transfer rate.
Otherwise, Q will be the total heat transfer rate, including radiation heat transfer.

13.2.5 Natural Convection and Buoyancy-Driven Flows

When heat is added to a fluid and the fluid density varies with temperature, a flow can be
induced due to the force of gravity acting on the density variations. Such buoyancy-driven
flows are termed natural-convection (or mixed-convection) flows and can be modeled by
FLUENT.

Theory
The importance of buoyancy forces in a mixed convection flow can be measured by the
ratio of the Grashof and Reynolds numbers:

Gr gβ∆T L
2 = (13.2-14)
Re v2

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 13.2 Modeling Conductive and Convective Heat Transfer

When this number approaches or exceeds unity, you should expect strong buoyancy
contributions to the flow. Conversely, if it is very small, buoyancy forces may be ignored
in your simulation. In pure natural convection, the strength of the buoyancy-induced
flow is measured by the Rayleigh number:

gβ∆T L3 ρ
Ra = (13.2-15)
µα

where β is the thermal expansion coefficient:

!
1 ∂ρ
β=− (13.2-16)
ρ ∂T p

and α is the thermal diffusivity:

k
α= (13.2-17)
ρcp

Rayleigh numbers less than 108 indicate a buoyancy-induced laminar flow, with transition
to turbulence occurring over the range of 108 < Ra < 1010 .

Modeling Natural Convection in a Closed Domain

When you model natural convection inside a closed domain, the solution will depend
on the mass inside the domain. Since this mass will not be known unless the density is
known, you must model the flow in one of the following ways:

• Perform a transient calculation. In this approach, the initial density will be com-
puted from the initial pressure and temperature, so the initial mass is known. As
the solution progresses over time, this mass will be properly conserved. If the
temperature differences in your domain are large, you must follow this approach.

• Perform a steady-state calculation using the Boussinesq model (described in Sec-

tion 13.2.5: The Boussinesq Model). In this approach, you will specify a constant
density, so the mass is properly specified. This approach is valid only if the tem-
perature differences in the domain are small; if not, you must use the transient
approach.

i For a closed domain, you can use the incompressible ideal gas law only
with a fixed operating pressure. It cannot be used with a floating operating
pressure. You can use the compressible ideal gas law with either floating
or fixed operating pressure.

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See Section 9.6.4: Floating Operating Pressure for more information about the floating
operating pressure option.

The Boussinesq Model

For many natural-convection flows, you can get faster convergence with the Boussinesq
model than you can get by setting up the problem with fluid density as a function of
temperature. This model treats density as a constant value in all solved equations, except
for the buoyancy term in the momentum equation:

(ρ − ρ0 )g ≈ −ρ0 β(T − T0 )g (13.2-18)

where ρ0 is the (constant) density of the flow, T0 is the operating temperature, and β is
the thermal expansion coefficient. Equation 13.2-18 is obtained by using the Boussinesq
approximation ρ = ρ0 (1−β∆T ) to eliminate ρ from the buoyancy term. This approxima-
tion is accurate as long as changes in actual density are small; specifically, the Boussinesq
approximation is valid when β(T − T0 )  1.

Limitations of the Boussinesq Model

The Boussinesq model should not be used if the temperature differences in the domain are
large. In addition, it cannot be used with species calculations, combustion, or reacting
flows.

Steps in Solving Buoyancy-Driven Flow Problems

The procedure for including buoyancy forces in the simulation of mixed or natural con-
vection flows is described below.

1. Activate the calculation of heat transfer.

Define −→ Models −→Energy...
(a) Enable the Energy option in the Energy panel..

2. Define the operating conditions.

Define −→Operating Conditions
(a) Enable the Gravity option under Gravity (Figure 13.2.3).
(b) Enter the appropriate values in the X, Y, and (for 3D) Z fields for Gravitational
Acceleration for each Cartesian coordinate direction. (Note that the default
gravitational acceleration in FLUENT is zero.)
(c) If you are using the incompressible ideal gas law, check that the Operating
Pressure is set to an appropriate (non-zero) value.

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 13.2 Modeling Conductive and Convective Heat Transfer

Figure 13.2.3: The Operating Conditions Panel

(d) Depending on whether or not you use the Boussinesq approximation, specify
the appropriate parameters described below:
• If you are not using the Boussinesq model, the inputs are as follows:
i. If necessary, enable the Specified Operating Density option in the Op-
erating Conditions panel, and enter a value for the Operating Density.
See below for details.
ii. Define the fluid density as a function of temperature as described in
Sections 8.2 and 8.3.
Define −→Materials...
• If you are using the Boussinesq model (described in Section 13.2.5: The
Boussinesq Model) the inputs are as follows:
i. Enter the Operating Temperature (T0 in Equation 13.2-18) in the Op-
erating Conditions panel.
ii. Select boussinesq in the drop-down list for Density in the Materials
panel as described in Sections 8.2 and 8.3, and enter a constant value.

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iii. Also in the Materials panel, enter an appropriate value for the Thermal
Expansion Coefficient (β in Equation 13.2-18) for the fluid material.
Note that if your model involves multiple fluid materials you can choose
whether or not to use the Boussinesq model for each material. As a result, you
may have some materials using the Boussinesq model and others not. In such
cases, you will need to set all the parameters described above in this step.

3. Define the boundary conditions.

Define −→Boundary Conditions...
(a) The boundary pressures that you input at pressure inlet and outlet boundaries
are the redefined pressures as given by Equation 13.2-19. In general you should
enter equal pressures, p0 , at the inlet and exit boundaries of your FLUENT
model if there are no externally-imposed pressure gradients.

4. Set the parameters that control the solution.

Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
(a) Select Body Force Weighted or Second Order in the drop-down list for Pressure
under Discretization in the Solution Controls panel.
You may also want to add cells near the walls to resolve boundary layers.
If you are using the pressure-based solver, selecting PRESTO! as the Discretiza-
tion method for Pressure is another recommended approach.

See also Section 13.2.2: Steps in Solving Heat Transfer Problems for information on
setting up heat transfer calculations.

Operating Density
When the Boussinesq approximation is not used, the operating density ρ0 appears in the
body-force term in the momentum equations as (ρ − ρ0 )g.
This form of the body-force term follows from the redefinition of pressure in FLUENT as

p0s = ps − ρ0 gx (13.2-19)

The hydrostatic pressure in a fluid at rest is then

p0s = 0 (13.2-20)

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 13.2 Modeling Conductive and Convective Heat Transfer

Setting the Operating Density

By default, FLUENT will compute the operating density by averaging over all cells. In
some cases, you may obtain better results if you explicitly specify the operating density
instead of having the solver compute it for you. For example, if you are solving a natural-
convection problem with a pressure boundary, it is important to understand that the
pressure you are specifying is p0s in Equation 13.2-19. Although you will know the actual
pressure ps , you will need to know the operating density ρ0 in order to determine p0s from
ps . Therefore, you should explicitly specify the operating density rather than use the
computed average. The specified value should, however, be representative of the average
value.
In some cases the specification of an operating density will improve convergence behavior,
rather than the actual results. For such cases use the approximate bulk density value
as the operating density and be sure that the value you choose is appropriate for the
characteristic temperature in the domain.
Note that if you are using the Boussinesq approximation for all fluid materials, the
operating density ρ0 does not appear in the body-force term of the momentum equation.
Consequently, you need not specify it.

Solution Strategies for Buoyancy-Driven Flows

For high-Rayleigh-number flows you may want to consider the solution guidelines be-
low. In addition, the guidelines presented in Section 13.2.3: Solution Strategies for
Heat Transfer Modeling for solving other heat transfer problems can also be applied
to buoyancy-driven flows. Note, however that no steady-state solution exists for some
laminar, high-Rayleigh-number flows.

Guidelines for Solving High-Rayleigh-Number Flows

When you are solving a high-Rayleigh-number flow (Ra > 108 ) you should follow one of
the procedures outlined below for best results.
The first procedure uses a steady-state approach:

1. Start the solution with a lower value of Rayleigh number (e.g., 107 ) and run it to
convergence using the first-order scheme.

2. To change the effective Rayleigh number, change the value of gravitational accel-
eration (e.g., from 9.8 to 0.098 to reduce the Rayleigh number by two orders of
magnitude).

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3. Use the resulting data file as an initial guess for the higher Rayleigh number and
start the higher-Rayleigh-number solution using the first-order scheme.

4. After you obtain a solution with the first-order scheme you may continue the cal-
culation with a higher-order scheme.

The second procedure uses a time-dependent approach to obtain a steady-state solu-

tion [139]:

1. Start the solution from a steady-state solution obtained for the same or a lower
Rayleigh number.

2. Estimate the time constant as [32]

L L2 L
τ= ∼ (PrRa)−1/2 = √ (13.2-21)
U α gβ∆T L
where L and U are the length and velocity scales, respectively. Use a time step ∆t
such that

τ
∆t ≈ (13.2-22)
4
Using a larger time step ∆t may lead to divergence.

3. After oscillations with a typical frequency of f τ = 0.05–0.09 have decayed, the

solution reaches steady state. Note that τ is the time constant estimated in Equa-
tion 13.2-21 and f is the oscillation frequency in Hz. In general this solution process
may take as many as 5000 time steps to reach steady state.

Postprocessing Buoyancy-Driven Flows

The postprocessing reports of interest for buoyancy-driven flows are the same as for other
heat transfer calculations. See Section 13.2.4: Postprocessing Heat Transfer Quantities
for details.

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13.2.6 Shell Conduction Considerations

Introduction
By default, FLUENT treats walls as zero thickness presenting no thermal resistance to
heat transfer across them. If a thickness is specified for walls then the appropriate thermal
resistance across the wall thickness is imposed, although conduction is considered in the
wall in the normal direction, only. There are applications, however, where conduction in
the planar direction of the wall is also important. For these applications, you have two
options: you can either mesh the thickness or you can use the shell conduction approach.
Shell conduction can be used to model thin sheets without the need to mesh the wall
thickness in a preprocessor. When the shell conduction approach is utilized, you have the
ability to easily switch on and off conjugate heat transfer on any wall. When you specify
a thickness for the wall, a material property, and toggle the Shell Conduction switch in
the Wall panel, then during the solution process FLUENT automatically grows a layer of
prism cells or hex cells for the wall, depending on the type of face mesh that is utilized.
Shell conduction can be used to account for thermal mass in transient thermal analysis
problems such as soaking. It can also be used for multiple junctions and allows heat
conduction through the junctions. Shell conduction can be applied on boundary walls as
well as internal walls.

Physical Treatment
In the case of shell conduction that is applied on a boundary wall, the boundary condition
that you specify on the original wall is applied to the outer shell wall and the original
wall is treated as a coupled wall (Figure 13.2.4). Note however, that internal emissivity
is applied on the inner shell. The shell boundaries (the sides of the shell zone) need
boundary conditions as well. If the wall with shell conduction is connected to another
wall that has no shell conduction, the shell side will take its boundary condition. The
sides will be adiabatic if they are connected to face zones having a boundary condition
type other than a “wall”. If the shell is connected to another shell of another wall at the
boundary (referred to as shell junctions in FLUENT), then a net flux of zero is imposed
at the shared boundary shell face zone.

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Figure 13.2.4: A Case for Shell Conduction

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 13.2 Modeling Conductive and Convective Heat Transfer

Limitations of Shell Conduction Walls

The following is a list of limitations for the shell conduction model:

• Shells cannot be created on non-conformal interfaces.

• Shell conduction is not available for 2D.

• Shell conduction is available only when the pressure-based solver is used.

• Shell conduction cannot be used with the non-premixed or partially- premixed

combustion model.

• When used in conjunction with the Discrete Ordinates (DO) radiation model, shell
conducting walls cannot be semi-transparent and it should not be used with the
DO/Energy Coupling Method.

• Shell conducting walls cannot be split or merged. If you need to split or merge a
shell conducting wall, you will need to turn off the Shell Conduction option for the
wall (in the Wall panel, perform the split or merge operation, and then enable Shell
Conduction for the new wall zones.

• The shell conduction model cannot be used on a wall zone that has been adapted.
If you want to perform adaption elsewhere in the computational domain, be sure to
use the mask register described in Section 27.11.1. This will ensure that adaption
is not performed on the shell conducting wall.

• Fluxes at the ends of a shell conducting wall are not included in heat balance
reports. These fluxes are accounted for correctly in the FLUENT solution, but are
not listed in the flux report.

Initialization
Shell zones can be patched using the Patch panel.
Solve −→ Initialize −→Patch...

Postprocessing
Shell zones can be postprocessed. The shell cell temperature is stored in the Temperature
variable (inner surface). If a more detailed analysis of he solid zone and surfaces is
required, then you should consider using a layer of solid zones in your model.

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13.3 Modeling Radiation

Information about radiation modeling is presented in the following sections:

• Section 13.3.1: Overview and Limitations

• Section 13.3.2: Radiative Transfer Equation

• Section 13.3.3: P-1 Radiation Model Theory

• Section 13.3.4: Rosseland Radiation Model Theory

• Section 13.3.5: Discrete Transfer Radiation Model (DTRM) Theory

• Section 13.3.6: Discrete Ordinates (DO) Radiation Model Theory

• Section 13.3.7: Surface-to-Surface (S2S) Radiation Model Theory

• Section 13.3.8: Radiation in Combusting Flows

• Section 13.3.9: Choosing a Radiation Model

• Section 13.3.10: Steps in Using the Radiation Models

• Section 13.3.11: Setting Up the DTRM Model

• Section 13.3.12: Setting Up the S2S Model

• Section 13.3.13: Setting Up the DO Model

• Section 13.3.14: Defining Material Properties for Radiation

• Section 13.3.15: Defining Boundary Conditions for Radiation

• Section 13.3.16: Solution Strategies for Radiation Modeling

• Section 13.3.17: Postprocessing Radiation Quantities

• Section 13.3.18: Solar Load Model

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 13.3 Modeling Radiation

13.3.1 Overview and Limitations

FLUENT provides five radiation models which allow you to include radiation, with or
without a participating medium, in your heat transfer simulations:
Heating or cooling of surfaces due to radiation and/or heat sources or sinks due to
radiation within the fluid phase can be included in your model using one of the following
radiation models.

• Discrete Transfer Radiation Model (DTRM) [49, 329]

• P-1 Radiation Model [55, 332]

• Rosseland Radiation Model [332]

• Surface-to-Surface (S2S) Radiation Model [332]

• Discrete Ordinates (DO) Radiation Model [61, 294]

In addition to these radiation models, FLUENT also provides a solar load model that
allows you to include the effects of solar radiation in your simulation.
Typical applications well suited for simulation using radiative heat transfer include the
following:

• radiative heat transfer from flames

• surface-to-surface radiant heating or cooling

• coupled radiation, convection, and/or conduction heat transfer

• radiation through windows in HVAC applications, and cabin heat transfer analysis
in automotive applications

• radiation in glass processing, glass fiber drawing, and ceramic processing

You should include radiative heat transfer in your simulation when the radiant heat flux,
4 4
Qrad = σ(Tmax − Tmin ), is large compared to the heat transfer rate due to convection
or conduction. Typically this will occur at high temperatures where the fourth-order
dependence of the radiative heat flux on temperature implies that radiation will dominate.

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Advantages and Limitations of the DTRM

The primary advantages of the DTRM are threefold: it is a relatively simple model, you
can increase the accuracy by increasing the number of rays, and it applies to a wide range
of optical thicknesses.
You should be aware of the following limitations when using the DTRM in FLUENT:

• DTRM assumes that all surfaces are diffuse. This means that the reflection of
incident radiation at the surface is isotropic with respect to solid angle.

• The effect of scattering is not included.

• The implementation assumes gray radiation.

• Solving a problem with a large number of rays is CPU-intensive.

• DTRM is not compatible with non-conformal interface or sliding meshes.

• DTRM is not compatible with parallel processing.

Advantages and Limitations of the P-1 Model

The P-1 model has several advantages over the DTRM. For the P-1 model, the RTE
(Equation 13.3-1) is a diffusion equation, which is easy to solve with little CPU demand.
The model includes the effect of scattering. For combustion applications where the optical
thickness is large, the P-1 model works reasonably well. In addition, the P-1 model can
easily be applied to complicated geometries with curvilinear coordinates.
You should be aware of the following limitations when using the P-1 radiation model:

• P-1 model assumes that all surfaces are diffuse. This means that the reflection of
incident radiation at the surface is isotropic with respect to the solid angle.

• The implementation assumes gray radiation.

• There may be a loss of accuracy, depending on the complexity of the geometry, if

the optical thickness is small.

• P-1 model tends to over-predict radiative fluxes from localized heat sources or sinks.

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 13.3 Modeling Radiation

Advantages and Limitations of the Rosseland Model

The Rosseland model has two advantages over the P-1 model. Since it does not solve an
extra transport equation for the incident radiation (as the P-1 model does), the Rosseland
model is faster than the P-1 model and requires less memory.
The Rosseland model can be used only for optically thick media. It is recommended for
use when the optical thickness exceeds 3. Note also that the Rosseland model is not
available when the density-based solver is being used; it is available with the pressure-
based solver, only.

Advantages and Limitations of the DO Model

The DO model spans the entire range of optical thicknesses, and allows you to solve prob-
lems ranging from surface-to-surface radiation to participating radiation in combustion
problems. It also allows the solution of radiation at semi-transparent walls. Computa-
tional cost is moderate for typical angular discretizations, and memory requirements are
modest.
The current implementation is restricted to either gray radiation or non-gray radiation
using a gray-band model. Solving a problem with a fine angular discretization may be
CPU-intensive.
The non-gray implementation in FLUENT is intended for use with participating media
with a spectral absorption coefficient aλ that varies in a stepwise fashion across spectral
bands, but varies smoothly within the band. Glass, for example, displays banded be-
havior of this type. The current implementation does not model the behavior of gases
such as carbon dioxide or water vapor, which absorb and emit energy at distinct wave
numbers [248]. The modeling of non-gray gas radiation is still an evolving field. However,
some researchers [108] have used gray-band models to model gas behavior by approxi-
mating the absorption coefficients within each band as a constant. The implementation
in FLUENT can be used in this fashion if desired.
The non-gray implementation in FLUENT is compatible with all the models with which
the gray implementation of the DO model can be used. Thus, it is possible to include
scattering, anisotropy, semi-transparent media, and particulate effects. However, the non-
gray implementation assumes a constant absorption coefficient within each wavelength
band. The weighted sum of gray gases model (WSGGM) cannot be used to specify
the absorption coefficient in each band. The implementation allows the specification of
spectral emissivity at walls. The emissivity is assumed to be constant within each band.

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Advantages and Limitations of the S2S Model

The surface-to-surface (S2S) radiation model is good for modeling the enclosure radia-
tive transfer without participating media (e.g., spacecraft heat rejection systems, solar
collector systems, radiative space heaters, and automotive underhood cooling systems).
In such cases, the methods for participating radiation may not always be efficient. As
compared to the DTRM and the DO radiation models, the S2S model has a much faster
time per iteration, although the view factor calculation itself is CPU-intensive. This
increased time for view factor calculation will be especially pronounced when the emit-
ting/absorbing surfaces are the polygonal faces of polyhedral cells.
You should be aware of the following limitations when using the S2S radiation model:

• S2S model assumes that all surfaces are diffuse.

• The implementation assumes gray radiation.

• The storage and memory requirements increase very rapidly as the number of sur-
face faces increases. This can be minimized by using a cluster of surface faces,
although the CPU time is independent of the number of clusters that are used.

• S2S model cannot be used to model participating radiation problems.

• S2S model cannot be used if your model contains periodic or symmetry boundary
conditions.

• S2S model does not support non-conformal interfaces, hanging nodes, or grid adap-
tion.

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 13.3 Modeling Radiation

13.3.2 Radiative Transfer Equation

The radiative transfer equation (RTE) for an absorbing, emitting, and scattering medium
at position ~r in the direction ~s is

dI(~r, ~s) σT 4 σs Z 4π
+ (a + σs )I(~r, ~s) = an2 + I(~r, ~s 0 ) Φ(~s · ~s 0 ) dΩ0 (13.3-1)
ds π 4π 0

where ~r = position vector

~s = direction vector
~s 0 = scattering direction vector
s = path length
a = absorption coefficient
n = refractive index
σs = scattering coefficient
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.672 × 10−8 W/m2 -K4 )
I = radiation intensity, which depends on position (~r) and direction (~s)
T = local temperature
Φ = phase function
Ω0 = solid angle
(a + σs )s is the optical thickness or opacity of the medium. The refractive index n is
important when considering radiation in semi-transparent media. Figure 13.3.1 illustrates
the process of radiative heat transfer.
Absorption and
scattering loss: Outgoing radiation
I (a+ σs) ds I + (dI/ds)ds

Incoming
radiation (I)

Scattering
Gas emission: addition
(aσT 4/ π) ds

ds

Figure 13.3.1: Radiative Heat Transfer

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Modeling Heat Transfer

The DTRM and the P-1, Rosseland, and DO radiation models require the absorption
coefficient a as input. a and the scattering coefficient σs can be constants, and a can also
be a function of local concentrations of H2 O and CO2 , path length, and total pressure.
FLUENT provides the weighted-sum-of-gray-gases model (WSGGM) for computation of
a variable absorption coefficient. See Section 13.3.8: Radiation in Combusting Flows for
details. The discrete ordinates implementation can model radiation in semi-transparent
media. The refractive index n of the medium must be provided as a part of the calculation
for this type of problem. The Rosseland model also requires you to enter a refractive
index, or use the default value of 1.

13.3.3 P-1 Radiation Model Theory

The P-1 radiation model is the simplest case of the more general P-N model, which is
based on the expansion of the radiation intensity I into an orthogonal series of spherical
harmonics [55, 332]. This section provides details about the equations used in the P-1
model.

The P-1 Model Equations

As mentioned above, the P-1 radiation model is the simplest case of the P-N model. If
only four terms in the series are used, the following equation is obtained for the radiation
flux qr :

1
qr = − ∇G (13.3-2)
3(a + σs ) − Cσs

where a is the absorption coefficient, σs is the scattering coefficient, G is the incident

radiation, and C is the linear-anisotropic phase function coefficient, described below.
After introducing the parameter

1
Γ= (13.3-3)
(3(a + σs ) − Cσs )

Equation 13.3-2 simplifies to

qr = −Γ∇G (13.3-4)

The transport equation for G is

∇ · (Γ∇G) − aG + 4aσT 4 = SG (13.3-5)

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 13.3 Modeling Radiation

where σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and SG is a user-defined radiation source.

FLUENT solves this equation to determine the local radiation intensity when the P-1
model is active.
Combining Equations 13.3-4 and 13.3-5, the following equation is obtained:

− ∇ · qr = aG − 4aσT 4 (13.3-6)

The expression for −∇·qr can be directly substituted into the energy equation to account
for heat sources (or sinks) due to radiation.

Anisotropic Scattering
Included in the P-1 radiation model is the capability for modeling anisotropic scattering.
FLUENT models anisotropic scattering by means of a linear-anisotropic scattering phase
function:

Φ(~s 0 · ~s) = 1 + C~s 0 · ~s (13.3-7)

Here, ~s is the unit vector in the direction of scattering, and ~s 0 is the unit vector in the
direction of the incident radiation. C is the linear-anisotropic phase function coefficient,
which is a property of the fluid. C ranges from −1 to 1. A positive value indicates that
more radiant energy is scattered forward than backward, and a negative value means that
more radiant energy is scattered backward than forward. A zero value defines isotropic
scattering (i.e., scattering that is equally likely in all directions), which is the default in
FLUENT. You should modify the default value only if you are certain of the anisotropic
scattering behavior of the material in your problem.

Particulate Effects in the P-1 Model

When your FLUENT model includes a dispersed second phase of particles, you can include
the effect of particles in the P-1 radiation model. Note that when particles are present,
FLUENT ignores scattering in the gas phase. (That is, Equation 13.3-8 assumes that all
scattering is due to particles.)
For a gray, absorbing, emitting, and scattering medium containing absorbing, emitting,
and scattering particles, the transport equation for the incident radiation can be written
as

σT 4
!
∇ · (Γ∇G) + 4π a + Ep − (a + ap )G = 0 (13.3-8)
π

where Ep is the equivalent emission of the particles and ap is the equivalent absorption
coefficient. These are defined as follows:

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N 4
X σTpn
Ep = lim pn Apn (13.3-9)
V →0
n=1 πV

and

N
X Apn
ap = lim pn (13.3-10)
V →0
n=1 V

In Equations 13.3-9 and 13.3-10, pn , Apn , and Tpn are the emissivity, projected area,
and temperature of particle n. The summation is over N particles in volume V . These
quantities are computed during particle tracking in FLUENT.
The projected area Apn of particle n is defined as

πd2pn
Apn = (13.3-11)
4
where dpn is the diameter of the nth particle.
The quantity Γ in Equation 13.3-8 is defined as

1
Γ= (13.3-12)
3(a + ap + σp )

where the equivalent particle scattering factor is defined as

N
X Apn
σp = lim (1 − fpn )(1 − pn ) (13.3-13)
V →0
n=1 V

and is computed during particle tracking. In Equation 13.3-13, fpn is the scattering factor
associated with the nth particle.
Heat sources (sinks) due to particle radiation are included in the energy equation as
follows:

σT 4
!
− ∇ · qr = −4π a + Ep + (a + ap )G (13.3-14)
π

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Boundary Condition Treatment for the P-1 Model at Walls

To get the boundary condition for the incident radiation equation, the dot product of
the outward normal vector ~n and Equation 13.3-4 is computed:

qr · ~n = −Γ∇G · ~n (13.3-15)
∂G
qr,w = −Γ (13.3-16)
∂n

Thus the flux of the incident radiation, G, at a wall is −qr,w . The wall radiative heat
flux is computed using the following boundary condition:

Iw (~r, ~s) = fw (~r, ~s) (13.3-17)

σT 4
fw (~r, ~s) = w w + ρw I(~r, −~s) (13.3-18)
π

where ρw is the wall reflectivity. The Marshak boundary condition is then used to elim-
inate the angular dependence [275]:

Z 2π Z 2π
Iw (~r, ~s) ~n · ~s dΩ = fw (~r, ~s) ~n · ~s dΩ (13.3-19)
0 0

Substituting Equations 13.3-17 and 13.3-18 into Equation 13.3-19 and performing the
integrations yields

4
4πw σTπw − (1 − ρw )Gw
qr,w =− (13.3-20)
2(1 + ρw )

If it is assumed that the walls are diffuse gray surfaces, then ρw = 1 − w , and Equa-
tion 13.3-20 becomes

w  
qr,w = − 4σTw4 − Gw (13.3-21)
2 (2 − w )

Equation 13.3-21 is used to compute qr,w for the energy equation and for the incident
radiation equation boundary conditions.

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Boundary Condition Treatment for the P-1 Model at Flow Inlets and Exits
The net radiative heat flux at flow inlets and outlets is computed in the same manner
as at walls, as described above. FLUENT assumes that the emissivity of all flow inlets
and outlets is 1.0 (black body absorption) unless you choose to redefine this boundary
treatment.
FLUENT includes an option that allows you to use different temperatures for radiation
and convection at inlets and outlets. This can be useful when the temperature out-
side the inlet or outlet differs considerably from the temperature in the enclosure. See
Section 13.3.15: Defining Boundary Conditions for Radiation for details.

13.3.4 Rosseland Radiation Model Theory

The Rosseland or diffusion approximation for radiation is valid when the medium is
optically thick ((a + σs )L  1), and is recommended for use in problems where the
optical thickness is greater than 3. It can be derived from the P-1 model equations,
with some approximations. This section provides details about the equations used in the
Rosseland model.

The Rosseland Model Equations

As with the P-1 model, the radiative heat flux vector in a gray medium can be approxi-
mated by Equation 13.3-4:

qr = −Γ∇G (13.3-22)

where Γ is given by Equation 13.3-3.

The Rosseland radiation model differs from the P-1 model in that the Rosseland model
assumes that the intensity is the black-body intensity at the gas temperature. (The P-1
model actually calculates a transport equation for G.) Thus G = 4σn2 T 4 , where n is the
refractive index. Substituting this value for G into Equation 13.3-22 yields

qr = −16σΓn2 T 3 ∇T (13.3-23)

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 13.3 Modeling Radiation

Since the radiative heat flux has the same form as the Fourier conduction law, it is
possible to write

q = qc + qr (13.3-24)
= −(k + kr )∇T (13.3-25)
kr = 16σΓn2 T 3 (13.3-26)

where k is the thermal conductivity and kr is the radiative conductivity. Equation 13.3-24
is used in the energy equation to compute the temperature field.

Anisotropic Scattering
The Rosseland model allows for anisotropic scattering, using the same phase function
(Equation 13.3-7) described for the P-1 model in Section 13.3.3: Anisotropic Scattering.

Boundary Condition Treatment for the Rosseland Model at Walls

Since the diffusion approximation is not valid near walls, it is necessary to use a tem-
perature slip boundary condition. The radiative heat flux at the wall boundary, qr,w , is
defined using the slip coefficient ψ:
 
σ Tw4 − Tg4
qr,w = − (13.3-27)
ψ

where Tw is the wall temperature, Tg is the temperature of the gas at the wall, and the
slip coefficient ψ is approximated by a curve fit to the plot given in [332]:


 1/2
 Nw < 0.01
2x +3x2 −12x+7
3
ψ=
 54
0.01 ≤ Nw ≤ 10 (13.3-28)
0 Nw > 10


where Nw is the conduction to radiation parameter at the wall:

k(a + σs )
Nw = (13.3-29)
4σTw3

and x = log10 Nw .

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Boundary Condition Treatment for the Rosseland Model at Flow Inlets and
Exits
No special treatment is required at flow inlets and outlets for the Rosseland model. The
radiative heat flux at these boundaries can be determined using Equation 13.3-24.

13.3.5 Discrete Transfer Radiation Model (DTRM) Theory

The main assumption of the DTRM is that the radiation leaving the surface element in a
certain range of solid angles can be approximated by a single ray. This section provides
details about the equations used in the DTRM.

The DTRM Equations

The equation for the change of radiant intensity, dI, along a path, ds, can be written as

dI aσT 4
+ aI = (13.3-30)
ds π

where a = gas absorption coefficient

I = intensity
T = gas local temperature
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.672 × 10−8 W/m2 -K4 )
Here, the refractive index is assumed to be unity. The DTRM integrates Equation 13.3-30
along a series of rays emanating from boundary faces. If a is constant along the ray, then
I(s) can be estimated as

σT 4
I(s) = (1 − e−as ) + I0 e−as (13.3-31)
π
where I0 is the radiant intensity at the start of the incremental path, which is determined
by the appropriate boundary condition (see the description of boundary conditions, be-
low). The energy source in the fluid due to radiation is then computed by summing the
change in intensity along the path of each ray that is traced through the fluid control
volume.
The “ray tracing” technique used in the DTRM can provide a prediction of radiative
heat transfer between surfaces without explicit view-factor calculations. The accuracy of
the model is limited mainly by the number of rays traced and the computational grid.

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 13.3 Modeling Radiation

Ray Tracing
The ray paths are calculated and stored prior to the fluid flow calculation. At each
radiating face, rays are fired at discrete values of the polar and azimuthal angles (see
Figure 13.3.2). To cover the radiating hemisphere, θ is varied from 0 to π2 and φ from 0
to 2π. Each ray is then traced to determine the control volumes it intercepts as well as
its length within each control volume. This information is then stored in the radiation
file, which must be read in before the fluid flow calculations begin.
n
θ

φ
t
P

Figure 13.3.2: Angles θ and φ Defining the Hemispherical Solid Angle About
a Point P

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Clustering
DTRM is computationally very expensive when there are too many surfaces to trace rays
from and too many volumes crossed by the rays. To reduce the computational time, the
number of radiating surfaces and absorbing cells is reduced by clustering surfaces and
cells into surface and volume “clusters”. The volume clusters are formed by starting from
a cell and simply adding its neighbors and their neighbors until a specified number of
cells per volume cluster is collected. Similarly, surface clusters are made by starting from
a face and adding its neighbors and their neighbors until a specified number of faces per
surface cluster is collected.
The incident radiation flux, qin , and the volume sources are calculated for the surface and
volume clusters respectively. These values are then distributed to the faces and cells in
the clusters to calculate the wall and cell temperatures. Since the radiation source terms
are highly non-linear (proportional to the fourth power of temperature), care must be
taken to calculate the average temperatures of surface and volume clusters and distribute
the flux and source terms appropriately among the faces and cells forming the clusters.
The surface and volume cluster temperatures are obtained by area and volume averaging
as shown in the following equations:

!1/4
Af Tf4
P
f
Tsc = P (13.3-32)
Af

!1/4
Vc Tc4
P
c
Tvc = P (13.3-33)
Vc

where Tsc and Tvc are the temperatures of the surface and volume clusters respectively,
Af and Tf are the area and temperature of face f , and Vc and Tc are the volume and
temperature of cell c. The summations are carried over all faces of a surface cluster and
all cells of a volume cluster.

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 13.3 Modeling Radiation

Boundary Condition Treatment for the DTRM at Walls

The radiation intensity approaching a point on a wall surface is integrated to yield the
incident radiative heat flux, qin , as
Z
qin = Iin~s · ~ndΩ (13.3-34)
~s·~
n>0

where Ω is the hemispherical solid angle, Iin is the intensity of the incoming ray, ~s is the
ray direction vector, and ~n is the normal pointing out of the domain. The net radiative
heat flux from the surface, qout , is then computed as a sum of the reflected portion of qin
and the emissive power of the surface:

qout = (1 − w )qin + w σTw4 (13.3-35)

where Tw is the surface temperature of the point P on the surface and w is the wall
emissivity which you input as a boundary condition. FLUENT incorporates the radiative
heat flux (Equation 13.3-35) in the prediction of the wall surface temperature. Equa-
tion 13.3-35 also provides the surface boundary condition for the radiation intensity I0
of a ray emanating from the point P , as

qout
I0 = (13.3-36)
π

Boundary Condition Treatment for the DTRM at Flow Inlets and Exits
The net radiative heat flux at flow inlets and outlets is computed in the same manner
as at walls, as described above. FLUENT assumes that the emissivity of all flow inlets
and outlets is 1.0 (black body absorption) unless you choose to redefine this boundary
treatment.
FLUENT includes an option that allows you to use different temperatures for radiation
and convection at inlets and outlets. This can be useful when the temperature out-
side the inlet or outlet differs considerably from the temperature in the enclosure. See
Section 13.3.15: Defining Boundary Conditions for Radiation for details.

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13.3.6 Discrete Ordinates (DO) Radiation Model Theory

The discrete ordinates (DO) radiation model solves the radiative transfer equation (RTE)
for a finite number of discrete solid angles, each associated with a vector direction ~s fixed
in the global Cartesian system (x, y, z). The fineness of the angular discretization is
controlled by you, analogous to choosing the number of rays for the DTRM. Unlike the
DTRM, however, the DO model does not perform ray tracing. Instead, the DO model
transforms Equation 13.3-1 into a transport equation for radiation intensity in the spatial
coordinates (x, y, z). The DO model solves for as many transport equations as there are
directions ~s. The solution method is identical to that used for the fluid flow and energy
equations.
Two implementations of the DO model are available in FLUENT: uncoupled and (energy)
coupled. The uncoupled implementation is sequential in nature and uses a conservative
variant of the DO model called the finite-volume scheme [61, 294], and its extension
to unstructured meshes [256]. In the uncoupled case, the equations for the energy and
radiation intensities are solved one by one, assuming prevailing values for other variables.
Alternatively, in the coupled ordinates method (or COMET) [232], the discrete energy
and intensity equations at each cell are solved simultaneously, assuming that spatial
neighbors are known. The advantages of using the coupled approach is that it speeds up
applications involving high optical thicknesses and/or high scattering coefficients. Such
applications slow down convergence drastically when the sequential approach is used.

The DO Model Equations

The DO model considers the radiative transfer equation (RTE) in the direction ~s as a
field equation. Thus, Equation 13.3-1 is written as

4
2 σT σs Z 4π
∇ · (I(~r, ~s)~s) + (a + σs )I(~r, ~s) = an + I(~r, ~s 0 ) Φ(~s · ~s 0 ) dΩ0 (13.3-37)
π 4π 0

FLUENT also allows the modeling of non-gray radiation using a gray-band model. The
RTE for the spectral intensity Iλ (~r, ~s) can be written as

σs Z 4π
∇ · (Iλ (~r, ~s)~s) + (aλ + σs )Iλ (~r, ~s) = aλ n2 Ibλ + Iλ (~r, ~s 0 ) Φ(~s · ~s 0 ) dΩ0 (13.3-38)
4π 0

Here λ is the wavelength, aλ is the spectral absorption coefficient, and Ibλ is the black
body intensity given by the Planck function. The scattering coefficient, the scattering
phase function, and the refractive index n are assumed independent of wavelength.
The non-gray DO implementation divides the radiation spectrum into N wavelength
bands, which need not be contiguous or equal in extent. The wavelength intervals are

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 13.3 Modeling Radiation

supplied by you, and correspond to values in vacuum (n = 1). The RTE is integrated
over each wavelength interval, resulting in transport equations for the quantity Iλ ∆λ,
the radiant energy contained in the wavelength band ∆λ. The behavior in each band is
assumed gray. The black body emission in the wavelength band per unit solid angle is
written as

σT 4
[F (0 → nλ2 T ) − F (0 → nλ1 T )]n2 (13.3-39)
π
where F (0 → nλT ) is the fraction of radiant energy emitted by a black body [248] in the
wavelength interval from 0 to λ at temperature T in a medium of refractive index n. λ2
and λ1 are the wavelength boundaries of the band.
The total intensity I(~r, ~s) in each direction ~s at position ~r is computed using

X
I(~r, ~s) = Iλk (~r, ~s)∆λk (13.3-40)
k

where the summation is over the wavelength bands.

Boundary conditions for the non-gray DO model are applied on a band basis. The
treatment within a band is the same as that for the gray DO model.

Energy Coupling and the DO Model

The coupling between energy and radiation intensities at a cell (which is also known
as COMET) [232] accelerates the convergence of the finite volume scheme for radiative
heat transfer. This method results in significant improvement in the convergence for
applications involving optical thicknesses greater than 10. This is typically encountered
in glass-melting applications. This feature is advantageous when scattering is significant,
resulting in strong coupling between directional radiation intensities. This DO model
implementation is utilized in FLUENT by enabling the DO/Energy Coupling option for
the DO model in the Radiation Model panel. The discrete energy equations for the
coupled method are presented below.
The energy equation when integrated over a control volume i, yields the discrete energy
equation:

N L
µTij Tj − βiT Ti − αiT Iik ωk − SiT Sih
X X
(13.3-41)
j=1 k=1

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where αiT = κ∆Vi

βiT = 16κσTi∗3 ∆Vi
SiT = 12κσTi∗4 ∆Vi
κ = absorption coefficient
∆V = control volume
The coefficient µTij and the source term Sih are due to the discretization of the convection
and diffusion terms as well as the non-radiative source terms.
Combining the discretized form of Equation 13.3-37 and the discretized energy equation,
Equation 13.3-41, yields [232]:

P~i ~qi + ~ri = 0 (13.3-42)

where

Ii1
 

 Ii2 

:
 
 
~qi =   (13.3-43)

 : 

IiL
 
 
Ti

Mii1 + ηi11 + γi1 ω1 ηi12 + γi1 ω2 ...βi1

21 2
ηi + γi ω1 Mii + ηi + γi ω2 ...βi2
2 22 2
 
 
~ 
Pi =  :

 (13.3-44)
 

 : 

−αiT ω1 −αiT ω2 ...MiiT
 PN
µlij Ijl − Si1 − SiB

j=1,i6=j
 : 
~ri =  
(13.3-45)
:
 
 
PN T T h
j=1,i6=j µij Tj + Si + Si

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Limitations of DO/Energy Coupling

There are some instances when using DO/Energy coupling is not recommended or is
incompatible with certain models:

• DO/Energy coupling is not recommended for cases with weak coupling between
energy and directional radiation intensities. This may result in slower convergence
of the coupled approach compared to the sequential approach.

• DO/Energy coupling is not compatible with the shell conduction model.

• DO/Energy coupling is not available when solving enthalpy equations instead of

temperature equations. Typical cases would involve combustion modeling.

To find out how to apply DO/Energy coupling, refer to Section 13.3.13: Setting Up the
DO Model.

Angular Discretization and Pixelation

Each octant of the angular space 4π at any spatial location is discretized into Nθ × Nφ
solid angles of extent ωi , called control angles. The angles θ and φ are the polar and
azimuthal angles respectively, and are measured with respect to the global Cartesian
system (x, y, z) as shown in Figure 13.3.3. The θ and φ extents of the control angle, ∆θ
and ∆φ, are constant. In two-dimensional calculations, only four octants are solved due to
symmetry, making a total of 4Nθ Nφ directions in all. In three-dimensional calculations,
a total of 8Nθ Nφ directions are solved. In the case of the non-gray model, 4Nθ Nφ or
8Nθ Nφ equations are solved for each band.
When Cartesian meshes are used, it is possible to align the global angular discretization
with the control volume face, as shown in Figure 13.3.4. For generalized unstructured
meshes, however, control volume faces do not in general align with the global angular
discretization, as shown in Figure 13.3.5, leading to the problem of control angle over-
hang [256].
Essentially, control angles can straddle the control volume faces, so that they are partially
incoming and partially outgoing to the face. Figure 13.3.6 shows a 3D example of a face
with control angle overhang.
The control volume face cuts the sphere representing the angular space at an arbitrary
angle. The line of intersection is a great circle. Control angle overhang may also occur
as a result of reflection and refraction. It is important in these cases to correctly account
for the overhanging fraction. This is done through the use of pixelation [256].
Each overhanging control angle is divided into Nθp ×Nφp pixels, as shown in Figure 13.3.7.

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θ s

y
x

Figure 13.3.3: Angular Coordinate System

incoming
directions

C0 ● ● C1
n
outgoing
directions

face f

Figure 13.3.4: Face with No Control Angle Overhang

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 13.3 Modeling Radiation

overhanging
control angle

incoming
directions n

C0 ●
● C1
outgoing
directions

face f

Figure 13.3.5: Face with Control Angle Overhang

outgoing
directions
z
overhanging
control
angle
y

x
control
incoming volume
directions face

Figure 13.3.6: Face with Control Angle Overhang (3D)

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control angle ω i

si

control
volume
face pixel

Figure 13.3.7: Pixelation of Control Angle

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 13.3 Modeling Radiation

The energy contained in each pixel is then treated as incoming or outgoing to the face.
The influence of overhang can thus be accounted for within the pixel resolution. FLUENT
allows you to choose the pixel resolution. For problems involving gray-diffuse radiation,
the default pixelation of 1×1 is usually sufficient. For problems involving symmetry, peri-
odic, specular, or semi-transparent boundaries, a pixelation of 3×3 is recommended. You
should be aware, however, that increasing the pixelation adds to the cost of computation.

Anisotropic Scattering
The DO implementation in FLUENT admits a variety of scattering phase functions. You
can choose an isotropic phase function, a linear anisotropic phase function, a Delta-
Eddington phase function, or a user-defined phase function. The linear anisotropic phase
function is described in Equation 13.3-7. The Delta-Eddington function takes the follow-
ing form:

Φ(~s · ~s 0 ) = 2f δ(~s · ~s 0 ) + (1 − f )(1 + C~s · ~s 0 ) (13.3-46)

Here, f is the forward-scattering factor and δ(~s · ~s 0 ) is the Dirac delta function. The
f term essentially cancels a fraction f of the out-scattering; thus, for f = 1, the Delta-
Eddington phase function will cause the intensity to behave as if there is no scattering
at all. C is the asymmetry factor. When the Delta-Eddington phase function is used,
you will specify values for f and C.
When a user-defined function is used to specify the scattering phase function, FLUENT
assumes the phase function to be of the form

Φ(~s · ~s 0 ) = 2f δ(~s · ~s 0 ) + (1 − f )Φ∗ (~s · ~s 0 ) (13.3-47)

The user-defined function will specify Φ∗ and the forward-scattering factor f .

The scattering phase functions available for gray radiation can also be used for non-gray
radiation. However, the scattered energy is restricted to stay within the band.

Particulate Effects in the DO Model

The DO model allows you to include the effect of a discrete second phase of particulates
on radiation. In this case, FLUENT will neglect all other sources of scattering in the gas
phase.
The contribution of the particulate phase appears in the RTE as:

4
2 σT σp Z 4π
∇ · (I~s) + (a + ap + σp )I(~r, ~s) = an + Ep + I(~r, ~s 0 ) Φ(~s · ~s 0 ) dΩ0 (13.3-48)
π 4π 0

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where ap is the equivalent absorption coefficient due to the presence of particulates, and
is given by Equation 13.3-10. The equivalent emission Ep is given by Equation 13.3-9.
The equivalent particle scattering factor σp , defined in Equation 13.3-13, is used in the
scattering terms.
For non-gray radiation, absorption, emission, and scattering due to the particulate phase
are included in each wavelength band for the radiation calculation. Particulate emission
and absorption terms are also included in the energy equation.

Boundary Condition Treatment at Opaque Walls

The discrete ordinates radiation model allows the specification of opaque walls that are
interior to a domain (with adjacent fluid or solid zones on both sides of the wall), or
external to the domain (with an adjacent fluid or solid zone on one side, only). Opaque
walls are treated as gray if gray radiation is being computed, or non-gray if the non-gray
DO model is being used.
Figure 13.3.8 shows a schematic of radiation on an opaque wall in FLUENT.

Medium a
q
Adjacent Fluid or Solid emission

q in, a reflected, specular

q
absorbed

n
q in, a reflected, diffuse

q in, a

Figure 13.3.8: DO Radiation on Opaque Wall

The diagram in Figure 13.3.8 shows incident radiation qin,a on side a of an opaque wall.
Some of the radiant energy is reflected diffusely and specularly, depending on the diffuse
fraction fd for side a of the wall that you specify as a boundary condition.

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Some of the incident radiation is absorbed at the surface of the wall and some radiation is
emitted from the wall surface as shown in Figure 13.3.8. The amount of incident radiation
absorbed at the wall surface and the amount emitted back depends on the emissivity of
that surface and the diffuse fraction. For non-gray DO models, you must specify internal
emissivity for each wavelength band. Radiation is not transmitted through an opaque
wall.
Radiant incident energy that impacts an opaque wall can be reflected back to the sur-
rounding medium and absorbed by the wall. The radiation that is reflected can be
diffusely reflected and/or specularly reflected, depending on the diffuse fraction fd . If qin
is the amount of radiative energy incident on the opaque wall, then the following general
quantities are computed by FLUENT for opaque walls:

• emission from the wall surface = n2 w σTw4

• diffusely reflected energy = fd (1 − w )qin

• specularly reflected energy = (1 − fd )qin

• absorption at the wall surface = fd w qin

where fd is the diffuse fraction, n is the refractive index of the adjacent medium, w is
the wall emissivity, σ is Boltzmann’s Constant, and Tw is the wall temperature.

i There is no emission or absorption in the specular component of reflected

energy for an opaque wall surface.
Note that although FLUENT uses emissivity in its computation of radiation quantities,
it is not available for postprocessing. Absorption at the wall surface assumes that the
absorptivity is equal to the emissivity. For a purely diffused wall, fd is equal to 1 and
there is no specularly reflected energy. Similarly, for a purely specular wall, fd is equal
to 0 and there is no diffusely reflected energy. A diffuse fraction between 0 and 1 will
result in partially diffuse and partially reflected energy.

i Note that in practice, fully specular surfaces (diffuse fraction = 0) do have

some emission and absorption occurring, albeit very low. To define a prob-
lem that has a purely specular surface with emissivity, you can set the
internal emissivity to 1 and set the diffuse fraction to the intended emis-
sivity. To define a problem that has a partially-specular surface, set the
internal emissivity to suit the net surface emissivity (not necessarily 0)
that you expect to achieve (internal emissivity = net emissivity/diffuse
fraction).

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Gray Diffuse Walls

For gray diffuse radiation, the incident radiative heat flux, qin , at the wall is
Z
qin = Iin~s · ~ndΩ (13.3-49)
~s·~
n>0

The net radiative flux leaving the surface is given by

qout = (1 − w )qin + n2 w σTw4 (13.3-50)

where n is the refractive index of the medium next to the wall, w is the wall emissivity,
σ is Boltzmann’s Constant, and Tw is the wall temperature. This equation is also valid
for specular radiation with emissivity = 0.
The boundary intensity for all outgoing directions ~s at the wall is given by

qout
I0 = (13.3-51)
π

Non-Gray Diffuse Walls

There is a special set of equations that apply uniquely to non-gray diffuse opaque walls.
These equations assume that the absorptivity is equal to the emissivity for the wall
surface. For non-gray diffuse radiation, the incident radiative heat flux qin,λ in the band
∆λ at the wall is
Z
qin,λ = ∆λ Iin,λ~s · ~ndΩ (13.3-52)
~s·~
n>0

The net radiative flux leaving the surface in the band ∆λ is given by

qout,λ = (1 − wλ )qin,λ + wλ [F (0 → nλ2 Tw ) − F (0 → nλ1 Tw )]n2 σTw4 (13.3-53)

where wλ is the wall emissivity in the band. F (n, λ, T ) provides the Planck distribution
function. The boundary intensity for all outgoing directions ~s in the band ∆λ at the wall
is given by

qout,λ
I0λ = (13.3-54)
π∆λ

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Boundary Condition Treatment at Semi-Transparent Walls

FLUENT allows the specification of interior and exterior semi-transparent walls for the
DO model. In the case of interior semi-transparent walls, incident radiation can pass
through the wall and be transmitted to the adjacent medium (and possibly refracted),
it can be reflected back into the surrounding medium, and absorbed through the wall
thickness. Transmission and reflection can be diffuse and/or specular. You specify the
diffuse fraction for all transmitted and reflected radiation; the rest is treated specularly.
For exterior semi-transparent walls, there are two possible sources of radiation on the
boundary wall: an irradiation beam from outside the computational domain and incident
radiation from cells in adjacent fluid or solid zones.
For non-gray radiation, semi-transparent wall boundary conditions are applied on a per-
band basis. The radiant energy within a band is transmitted, reflected, and refracted as
in the gray case; there is no transmission, reflection, or refraction of radiant energy from
one band to another.
By default the DO equations are solved in all fluid zones, but not in any solid zones.
Therefore, if you have an adjacent solid zone for your thin wall, you will need to specify
the solid zone as participating in radiation in the Solid panel as part of the boundary
condition setup.

i If you are interested in the detailed temperature distribution inside your

semi-transparent media, then you will need to model a semi-transparent
wall as a solid zone with adjacent fluid zone(s), and treat the solid as a
semi-transparent medium. This is discussed in a subsequent section.

Semi-Transparent Interior Walls

Figure 13.3.9 shows a schematic of an interior (two-sided) wall that is treated as semi-
transparent in FLUENT and has zero thickness. Incident radiant energy depicted by
qin,a can pass through the semi-transparent wall if and only if the contiguous fluid or
solid cell zones participate in radiation, thereby allowing the radiation to be coupled.
Radiation coupling is set when a wall is specified as semi-transparent. Note that by
default, radiation is not coupled and you will need to explicitly specify radiation coupling
on the interior wall by changing the boundary condition type to semi-transparent in the
Wall panel (under the Radiation tab).

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Medium a f (for side a) f d (for side b) Medium b

d
Adjacent Fluid or Solid Adjacent Fluid or Solid

q in, a reflected, specular

q in, a transmitted, specular, refracted

n
q in, a reflected, diffuse q in, a transmitted, diffuse
(fd used is for side a) (f used is for side a)
d

q in, a

na nb

Figure 13.3.9: DO Radiation on Interior Semi-Transparent Wall

Incident radiant energy that is transmitted through a semi-transparent wall can be trans-
mitted specularly and diffusely. Radiation can also be reflected at the interior wall back
to the surrounding medium if the refractive index na for the fluid zone that represents
medium a is different than the refractive index nb for medium b. Reflected radiation can
be reflected specularly and diffusely. The fraction of diffuse versus specular radiation
that is transmitted and reflected depends on the diffuse fraction for the wall. The special
cases of purely diffuse and purely specular transmission and reflection on semi-transparent
walls is presented in the following sections.
If the semi-transparent wall has thickness, then the thickness and the absorption co-
efficient determine the absorptivity of the ’thin’ wall. If either the wall thickness or
absorption coefficient is set to 0, then the wall has no absorptivity. Although incident
radiation can be absorbed in a semi-transparent wall that has thickness, note that the
absorbed radiation flux does not affect the energy equation. FLUENT does not consider
emission from semi-transparent walls except for the case when a specified temperature
boundary condition is defined.

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Specular Semi-Transparent Walls

Consider the special case for a semi-transparent wall, when the diffuse fraction fd is equal
to 0 and all of the transmitted and reflected radiant energy at the semi-transparent wall
is purely specular.
Figure 13.3.10 shows a ray traveling from a semi-transparent medium a with refractive
index na to a semi-transparent medium b with a refractive index nb in the direction
~s. Surface a of the interface is the side that faces medium a; similarly, surface b faces
medium b. The interface normal ~n is assumed to point into side a. We distinguish
between the intensity Ia (~s), the intensity in the direction ~s on side a of the interface, and
the corresponding quantity on the side b, Ib (~s).

s’ st

medium b θb

medium a
θa

s n sr

n b > na

Figure 13.3.10: Reflection and Refraction of Radiation at the Interface Be-

tween Two Semi-Transparent Media

A part of the energy incident on the interface is reflected, and the rest is transmitted.
The reflection is specular, so that the direction of reflected radiation is given by

~sr = ~s − 2 (~s · ~n) ~n (13.3-55)

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The radiation transmitted from medium a to medium b undergoes refraction. The direc-
tion of the transmitted energy, ~st , is given by Snell’s law:

na
sin θb = sin θa (13.3-56)
nb

where θa is the angle of incidence and θb is the angle of transmission, as shown in Fig-
ure 13.3.10. We also define the direction

~s 0 = ~st − 2 (~st · ~n) ~n (13.3-57)

shown in Figure 13.3.10.

The interface reflectivity on side a [248]

!2 !2
1 na cos θb − nb cos θa 1 na cos θa − nb cos θb
ra (~s) = + (13.3-58)
2 na cos θb + nb cos θa 2 na cos θa + nb cos θb

represents the fraction of incident energy transferred from ~s to ~sr .

The boundary intensity Iw,a (~sr ) in the outgoing direction ~sr on side a of the interface is
determined from the reflected component of the incoming radiation and the transmission
from side b. Thus

Iw,a (~sr ) = ra (~s)Iw,a (~s) + τb (~s 0 )Iw,b (~s 0 ) (13.3-59)

where τb (~s 0 ) is the transmissivity of side b in direction ~s0 . Similarly, the outgoing intensity
in the direction ~st on side b of the interface, Iw,b (~st ), is given by

Iw,b (~st ) = rb (~s 0 )Iw,b (~s 0 ) + τa (~s)Iw,a (~s) (13.3-60)

For the case na < nb , the energy transmitted from medium a to medium b in the incoming
solid angle 2π must be refracted into a cone of apex angle θc (see Figure 13.3.11) where

na
θc = sin−1 (13.3-61)
nb

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 13.3 Modeling Radiation

θb
θc
medium b

medium a θa

n b > na

Figure 13.3.11: Critical Angle θc

Similarly, the transmitted component of the radiant energy going from medium b to
medium a in the cone of apex angle θc is refracted into the outgoing solid angle 2π. For
incident angles greater than θc , total internal reflection occurs and all the incoming energy
is reflected specularly back into medium b. The equations presented above can be applied
to the general case of interior semi-transparent walls that is shown in Figure 13.3.9.
When medium b is external to the domain as in the case of an external semi-transparent
wall (Figure 13.3.12), Iw,b (~s 0 ) is given in Equation 13.3-59 as a part of the boundary
condition inputs. You supply this incoming irradiation flux in terms of its magnitude,
beam direction, and the solid angle over which the radiative flux is to be applied. Note
that the refractive index of the external medium is assumed to be 1.

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Diffuse Semi-Transparent Walls

Consider the special case for a semi-transparent wall, when the diffuse fraction fd is equal
to 1 and all of the transmitted and reflected radiant energy at the semi-transparent wall
is purely diffuse.
In many engineering problems, the semi-transparent interface may be a diffuse reflector.
For such a case, the interfacial reflectivity r(~s) is assumed independent of ~s, and equal to
the hemispherically averaged value rd . For n = na /nb > 1, rd,a and rd,b are given by [333]

(1 − rd,b )
rd,a = 1 − (13.3-62)
n2
1 (3n + 1)(n − 1) n2 (n2 − 1)2 n−1
 
rd,b = + + ln −
2 6(n + 1)2 (n2 + 1)3 n+1
2n3 (n2 + 2n − 1) 8n4 (n4 + 1)
+ ln(n) (13.3-63)
(n2 + 1)(n4 − 1) (n2 + 1)(n4 − 1)2

The boundary intensity for all outgoing directions on side a of the interface is given by

rd,a qin,a + τd,b qin,b

Iw,a = (13.3-64)
π
Similarly for side b,

rd,b qin,b + τd,a qin,a

Iw,b = (13.3-65)
π
where

Z
qin,a = − Iw,a~s · ~ndΩ, ~s · ~n < 0 (13.3-66)
4π
Z
qin,b = Iw,b~s · ~ndΩ, ~s · ~n ≥ 0 (13.3-67)
4π

When medium b is external to the domain as in the case of an external semi-transparent

wall (Figure 13.3.12), qin,b is given as a part of the boundary condition inputs. You
supply this incoming irradiation flux in terms of its magnitude, beam direction, and the
solid angle over which the radiative flux is to be applied. Note that the refractive index
of the external medium is assumed to be 1.

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Partially Diffuse Semi-Transparent Walls

When the diffuse fraction fd that you enter for a semi-transparent wall is between 0 and
1, the wall is partially diffuse and partially specular. In this case, FLUENT includes the
reflective and transmitted radiative flux contributions from both diffuse and specular
components to the defining equations.

Semi-Transparent Exterior Walls

Figure 13.3.12 shows the general case of an irradiation beam qirrad applied to an exterior
semi-transparent wall with zero thickness and a non-zero absorption coefficient for the
material property. Refer to the previous section for the radiation effects of wall thickness
on semi-transparent walls.

Outside computational domain Medium A

Adjacent Fluid or Solid Zone

q
irrad reflected, specular
q transmitted, specular & refracted
irrad
q normal
irrad

q
irrad transmitted, diffuse
θ
q
irrad reflected, diffuse

q
irrad

n n
b a

n a not equal to nb

Figure 13.3.12: DO Irradiation on External Semi-Transparent Wall

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An irradiation flux passes through the semi-transparent wall from outside the computa-
tional domain (Figure 13.3.12) into the adjacent fluid or solid medium a. The transmitted
radiation can be refracted (bent) and dispersed specularly and diffusely, depending on
the refractive index and the diffuse fraction that you provide as a boundary condition
input. Note that there is a reflected component of qirrad when the refractive index of the
wall (nb ) is not equal to 1, as shown.
There is an additional flux beyond qirrad that is applied when the Mixed or Radiation
boundary conditions are selected in the Thermal tab. This external flux at the semi-
transparent wall is computed by FLUENT as

4
Qext = external σTrad (13.3-68)

The fraction of the above energy that will enter into the domain depends on the trans-
missivity of the semi-transparent wall under consideration. Note that this energy is
distributed across the solid angles (i.e., similar treatment as diffuse component.)
Incident radiation can also occur on external semi-transparent walls. Refer to the previ-
ous discussion on interior walls for details, since the radiation effects are the same.
The irradiation beam is defined by the magnitude, beam direction, and beam width that
you supply. The irradiation magnitude is specified in terms of an incident radiant heat
flux (W/m2 ). Beam width is specified as the solid angle over which the irradiation is
distributed (i.e., the beam θ and φ extents). The default beam width in FLUENT is 1e−6
degrees which is suitable for collimated beam radiation. Beam direction is defined by the
vector of the centroid of the solid angle. If you select the feature Apply Irradiation Parallel
to Beam in the Wall boundary condition panel, then you supply qirrad for irradiation
(Figure 13.3.12) and FLUENT computes and uses the surface normal flux qirrad,normal in
its radiation calculation. If this feature is not checked, then you must supply the surface
normal flux qirrad,normal for irradiation.
Figure 13.3.13 shows a schematic of the beam direction and beam width for the irradiation
beam. You provide these inputs (in addition to irradiation magnitude) as part of the
boundary conditions for a semi-transparent wall.
The irradiation beam can be refracted in medium a depending on the refractive index
that is specified for the particular fluid or solid zone material.

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External Beam Irradiation

z
θ

Beam Width ( ϕ )

y ∆ ϕ /2
Beam Direction (X, Y, Z)
−∆ ϕ /2
x

Beam Width ( θ )

z
∆ θ /2
Beam Direction (X, Y, Z)
−∆ θ /2
y

Figure 13.3.13: Beam Width and Direction for External Irradiation Beam

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Limitations

The thin wall treatment should be used for semi-transparent walls only where absorption
or emission by the walls is not significant. In cases with significant emission or absorption
of radiation in a participating solid material, such as the absorption of long wavelength
radiation in a glass window, the use of semi-transparent thin walls can result in the
prediction of unphysical temperatures in the numerical solution. To avoid potentially
erroneous results, one or more solid cell zones should be used to represent the solid
material in such a case.

Solid Semi-Transparent Media

The discrete ordinates radiation model allows you to model a solid zone that has adjacent
fluid or solid zones on either side as a “semi-transparent” medium. This is done by
designating the solid zone to participate in radiation as part of the boundary condition
setup. Modeling a solid zone as a semi-transparent medium allows you to obtain a
detailed temperature distribution inside the semi-transparent zone since FLUENT solves
the energy equation on a per-cell basis for the solid and provides you with the thermal
results. By default however, the DO equations are solved in fluid zones, but not in any
solid zones. Therefore, you will need to specify the solid zone as participating in radiation
in the Solid panel as part of the boundary condition setup.

Boundary Condition Treatment at Specular Walls and Symmetry Boundaries

At specular walls and symmetry boundaries, the direction of the reflected ray ~sr corre-
sponding to the incoming direction ~s is given by Equation 13.3-55. Furthermore,

Iw (~sr ) = Iw (~s) (13.3-69)

Boundary Condition Treatment at Periodic Boundaries

When rotationally periodic boundaries are used, it is important to use pixelation in order
to ensure that radiant energy is correctly transferred between the periodic and shadow
faces. A pixelation between 3 × 3 and 10 × 10 is recommended.

Boundary Condition Treatment at Flow Inlets and Exits

The treatment at flow inlets and exits is described in Section 13.3.5: Boundary Condition
Treatment for the DTRM at Flow Inlets and Exits.

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13.3.7 Surface-to-Surface (S2S) Radiation Model Theory

The surface-to-surface radiation model can be used to account for the radiation exchange
in an enclosure of gray-diffuse surfaces. The energy exchange between two surfaces de-
pends in part on their size, separation distance, and orientation. These parameters are
accounted for by a geometric function called a “view factor”.
The main assumption of the S2S model is that any absorption, emission, or scattering of
radiation can be ignored; therefore, only “surface-to-surface” radiation need be considered
for analysis.

Gray-Diffuse Radiation
FLUENT’s S2S radiation model assumes the surfaces to be gray and diffuse. Emissivity
and absorptivity of a gray surface are independent of the wavelength. Also, by Kirchoff’s
law [248], the emissivity equals the absorptivity ( = α). For a diffuse surface, the
reflectivity is independent of the outgoing (or incoming) directions.
The gray-diffuse model is what is used in FLUENT. Also, as stated earlier, for applications
of interest, the exchange of radiative energy between surfaces is virtually unaffected by
the medium that separates them. Thus, according to the gray-body model, if a certain
amount of radiant energy (E) is incident on a surface, a fraction (ρE) is reflected, a
fraction (αE) is absorbed, and a fraction (τ E) is transmitted. Since for most applications
the surfaces in question are opaque to thermal radiation (in the infrared spectrum), the
surfaces can be considered opaque. The transmissivity, therefore, can be neglected. It
follows, from conservation of energy, that α + ρ = 1, since α =  (emissivity), and
ρ = 1 − .

The S2S Model Equations

The energy flux leaving a given surface is composed of directly emitted and reflected
energy. The reflected energy flux is dependent on the incident energy flux from the
surroundings, which then can be expressed in terms of the energy flux leaving all other
surfaces. The energy reflected from surface k is

qout,k = k σTk4 + ρk qin,k (13.3-70)

where qout,k is the energy flux leaving the surface, k is the emissivity, σ is Boltzmann’s
constant, and qin,k is the energy flux incident on the surface from the surroundings.

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The amount of incident energy upon a surface from another surface is a direct function
of the surface-to-surface “view factor,” Fjk . The view factor Fjk is the fraction of energy
leaving surface k that is incident on surface j. The incident energy flux qin,k can be
expressed in terms of the energy flux leaving all other surfaces as

N
X
Ak qin,k = Aj qout,j Fjk (13.3-71)
j=1

where Ak is the area of surface k and Fjk is the view factor between surface k and surface
j. For N surfaces, using the view factor reciprocity relationship gives

Aj Fjk = Ak Fkj for j = 1, 2, 3, . . . N (13.3-72)

so that

N
X
qin,k = Fkj qout,j (13.3-73)
j=1

Therefore,

N
qout,k = k σTk4 + ρk
X
Fkj qout,j (13.3-74)
j=1

which can be written as

N
X
Jk = Ek + ρk Fkj Jj (13.3-75)
j=1

where Jk represents the energy that is given off (or radiosity) of surface k, and Ek
represents the emissive power of surface k. This represents N equations, which can be
recast into matrix form as

KJ = E (13.3-76)

where K is an N × N matrix, J is the radiosity vector, and E is the emissive power

vector.

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Equation 13.3-76 is referred to as the radiosity matrix equation. The view factor between
two finite surfaces i and j is given by

1 Z Z cos θi cos θj
Fij = δij dAi dAj (13.3-77)
Ai Ai Aj πr2

where δij is determined by the visibility of dAj to dAi . δij = 1 if dAj is visible to dAi
and 0 otherwise.

Clustering
The S2S radiation model is computationally very expensive when there are a large number
of radiating surfaces. To reduce the computational time as well as the storage require-
ment, the number of radiating surfaces is reduced by creating surface “clusters”. The
surface clusters are made by starting from a face and adding its neighbors and their
neighbors until a specified number of faces per surface cluster is collected.
A new algorithm has been implemented for the creation of surface clusters which is faster
and supports non-conformal interfaces, hanging nodes, or grid adaption. This algorithm
is now the default. If you wish to use the old algorithm, you may use the TUI command
but adaption and non-conformal interfaces will not be supported.
The radiosity, J, is calculated for the surface clusters. These values are then distributed
to the faces in the clusters to calculate the wall temperatures. Since the radiation source
terms are highly non-linear (proportional to the fourth power of temperature), care must
be taken to calculate the average temperature of the surface clusters and distribute the
flux and source terms appropriately among the faces forming the clusters.
The surface cluster temperature is obtained by area averaging as shown in the following
equation:

!1/4
Af Tf4
P
f
Tsc = P (13.3-78)
Af

where Tsc is the temperature of the surface cluster, and Af and Tf are the area and
temperature of face f . The summation is carried over all faces of a surface cluster.

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Smoothing
Smoothing can be performed on the view factor matrix to enforce the reciprocity rela-
tionship and conservation.
The reciprocity relationship is represented by

Ai Fij = Aj Fji (13.3-79)

where Ai is the area of surface i, Fij is the view factor between surfaces i and j, and Fji
is the view factor between surfaces j and i.
Once the reciprocity relationship has been enforced, a least-squares smoothing method [191]
can be used to ensure that conservation is satisfied, i.e.,

X
Fij = 1.0 (13.3-80)

13.3.8 Radiation in Combusting Flows

The Weighted-Sum-of-Gray-Gases Model
The weighted-sum-of-gray-gases model (WSGGM) is a reasonable compromise between
the oversimplified gray gas model and a complete model which takes into account partic-
ular absorption bands. The basic assumption of the WSGGM is that the total emissivity
over the distance s can be presented as

I
a,i (T )(1 − e−κi ps )
X
= (13.3-81)
i=0

where a,i are the emissivity weighting factors for the ith fictitious gray gas, the bracketed
quantity is the ith fictitious gray gas emissivity, κi is the absorption coefficient of the
ith gray gas, p is the sum of the partial pressures of all absorbing gases, and s is the
path length. For a,i and κi FLUENT uses values obtained from [67] and [344]. These
values depend on gas composition, and a,i also depend on temperature. When the total
pressure is not equal to 1 atm, scaling rules for κi are used (see Equation 13.3-87).
The absorption coefficient for i = 0 is assigned a value of zero to account for windows in
the spectrum between spectral regions of high absorption ( Ii=1 a,i < 1) and the weight-
P

ing factor for i = 0 is evaluated from [344]:

I
X
a,0 = 1 − a,i (13.3-82)
i=1

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The temperature dependence of a,i can be approximated by any function, but the most
common approximation is

J
b,i,j T j−1
X
a,i = (13.3-83)
j=1

where b,i,j are the emissivity gas temperature polynomial coefficients. The coefficients
b,i,j and κi are estimated by fitting Equation 13.3-81 to the table of total emissivities,
obtained experimentally [67, 79, 344].
The absorptivity α of the radiation from the wall can be approximated in a similar
way [344], but, to simplify the problem, it is assumed that  = α [247]. This assumption is
justified unless the medium is optically thin and the wall temperature differs considerably
from the gas temperature.
Since the coefficients b,i,j and κi are slowly varying functions of ps and T , they can be
assumed constant for a wide range of these parameters. In [344] these constant coefficients
are presented for different relative pressures of the CO2 and H2 O vapor, assuming that
the total pressure pT is 1 atm. The values of the coefficients shown in [344] are valid for
0.001 ≤ ps ≤ 10.0 atm-m and 600 ≤ T ≤ 2400 K. For T > 2400 K, coefficient values
suggested by [67] are used. If κi ps  1 for all i, Equation 13.3-81 simplifies to

I
X
= a,i κi ps (13.3-84)
i=0

Comparing Equation 13.3-84 with the gray gas model with absorption coefficient a, it
can be seen that the change of the radiation intensity over the distance s in the WSGGM
is exactly the same as in the gray gas model with the absorption coefficient

I
X
a= a,i κi p (13.3-85)
i=0

which does not depend on s. In the general case, a is estimated as

ln(1 − )
a=− (13.3-86)
s
where the emissivity  for the WSGGM is computed using Equation 13.3-81. a as defined
by Equation 13.3-86 depends on s, reflecting the non-gray nature of the absorption of
thermal radiation in molecular gases. In FLUENT, Equation 13.3-85 is used when s ≤
10−4 m and Equation 13.3-86 is used for s > 10−4 m. Note that for s ≈ 10−4 m, the
values of a predicted by Equations 13.3-85 and 13.3-86 are practically identical (since
Equation 13.3-86 reduces to Equation 13.3-85 in the limit of small s).

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FLUENT allows you to specify s as the mean beam length or the characteristic cell size.
The model based on the mean beam length is the recommended approach, especially
when you have a nearly homogeneous medium and you are interested in the radiation
exchange between the walls of the enclosure. You can specify the mean beam length
or have FLUENT compute it. If you do decide to use the WSGGM based on the char-
acteristic cell size, note that the predicted values of a will be grid dependent (this is a
known limitation of the model). See Section 8.8.1: Inputs for a Composition-Dependent
Absorption Coefficient for details about setting properties for the WSGGM.

i The WSGGM cannot be used to specify the absorption coefficient in each

band when using the non-gray DO model. If the WSGGM is used with
the non-gray DO model, the absorption coefficient will be the same in all
bands.

When ptot 6= 1 atm

The WSGGM, as described above, assumes that ptot —the total (static) gas pressure—is
equal to 1 atm. In cases where ptot is not unity (e.g., combustion at high temperatures),
scaling rules suggested in [94] are used to introduce corrections. When ptot < 0.9 atm or
ptot > 1.1 atm, the values for κi in Equations 13.3-81 and 13.3-85 are rescaled:

κi → κi pm
tot (13.3-87)

where m is a non-dimensional value obtained from [94], which depends on the partial
pressures and temperature T of the absorbing gases, as well as on ptot .

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The Effect of Soot on the Absorption Coefficient

When soot formation is computed, FLUENT can include the effect of the soot concen-
tration on the radiation absorption coefficient. The generalized soot model estimates
the effect of the soot on radiative heat transfer by determining an effective absorption
coefficient for soot. The absorption coefficient of a mixture of soot and an absorbing
(radiating) gas is then calculated as the sum of the absorption coefficients of pure gas
and pure soot:

as+g = ag + as (13.3-88)

where ag is the absorption coefficient of gas without soot (obtained from the WSGGM)
and

as = b1 ρm [1 + bT (T − 2000)] (13.3-89)

with

b1 = 1232.4 m2 /kg and bT ≈ 4.8 × 10−4 K−1

ρm is the soot density in kg/m3 .

The coefficients b1 and bT were obtained [318] by fitting Equation 13.3-89 to data based
on the Taylor-Foster approximation [370] and data based on the Smith et al. approxima-
tion [344].
See Sections 8.8 and 20.3.3 for information about including the soot-radiation interaction
effects.

The Effect of Particles on the Absorption Coefficient

FLUENT can also include the effect of discrete phase particles on the radiation absorption
coefficient, provided that you are using either the P-1 or the DO model. When the P-1
or DO model is active, radiation absorption by particles can be enabled. The particle
emissivity, reflectivity, and scattering effects are then included in the calculation of the
radiative heat transfer. See Section 22.14: Setting Material Properties for the Discrete
Phase for more details on the input of radiation properties for the discrete phase.

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13.3.9 Choosing a Radiation Model

For certain problems one radiation model may be more appropriate than the others.
When deciding which radiation model to use, consider the following:

• Optical thickness: The optical thickness aL is a good indicator of which model to

use in your problem. Here, L is an appropriate length scale for your domain. For
flow in a combustor, for example, L is the diameter of the combustion chamber.
If aL  1, your best alternatives are the P-1 and Rosseland models. The P-1
model should typically be used for optical thicknesses > 1. For optical thickness
> 3, the Rosseland model is cheaper and more efficient. For high optical thickness
cases, a second-order discretization scheme for the DO model is recommended. The
DTRM and the DO model work across the full range of optical thicknesses, but are
substantially more expensive to use. Consequently, you should use the “thick-limit”
models, P-1 and Rosseland, if the problem allows it. For optically thin problems
(aL < 1), the DTRM and the DO model, only, are appropriate.

• Scattering and emissivity: The P-1, Rosseland, and DO models account for scat-
tering, while the DTRM neglects it. Since the Rosseland model uses a temperature
slip condition at walls, it is insensitive to wall emissivity.

• Particulate effects: Only the P-1 and DO models account for exchange of radiation
between gas and particulates (see Equation 13.3-8).

• Semi-transparent walls (interior and exterior): Only the DO model allows you to
model semi-transparent walls of various types (e.g., glass).

• Specular walls: Only the DO model allows specular reflection (e.g., for dust-free
mirror).

• Partially-specular walls: Only the DO model allows specular reflection (e.g., dusty
mirror).

• Non-gray radiation: Only the DO model allows you to compute non-gray radiation
using a gray band model.

• Localized heat sources: In problems with localized sources of heat, the P-1 model
may over-predict the radiative fluxes. The DO model is probably the best suited
for computing radiation for this case, although the DTRM, with a sufficiently large
number of rays, is also acceptable.

• Enclosure radiative transfer with non-participating media: The surface-to-surface

(S2S) model is suitable for this type of problem. The radiation models used with
participating media may, in principle, be used to compute the surface-to-surface
radiation, but they are not always efficient.

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External Radiation
If you need to include radiative heat transfer from the exterior of your physical model,
you can include an external radiation boundary condition in your model (for details, see
Section 7.13.1: Thermal Boundary Conditions at Walls). If you are not concerned with
radiation within the domain, this boundary condition can be used without activating one
of the radiation models.

13.3.10 Steps in Using the Radiation Models

The procedure for setting up and solving a radiation problem is outlined below, and
described in detail in referenced sections. Steps that are relevant only for a particular
radiation model are noted as such. Remember that the steps that are pertinent to
radiation modeling, only, are shown here. For information about inputs related to other
models that you are using in conjunction with radiation, see the appropriate sections for
those models.

1. Activate radiative heat transfer by selecting a radiation model (Rosseland, P1, Dis-
crete Transfer (DTRM), Surface to Surface (S2S), or Discrete Ordinates) under Model
in the Radiation Model panel (Figure 13.3.14).
Note, select Off to deactivate radiation.
Define −→ Models −→Radiation...

2. Set the appropriate radiation parameters.

(a) If you are using the DTRM, define the ray tracing as described in
Section 13.3.11: Setting Up the DTRM Model.
(b) If you are using the S2S model, compute or read the view factors as described
in Section 13.3.12: Setting Up the S2S Model.
(c) If you are using the DO model, choose DO/Energy Coupling if desired, define
the angular discretization as described in Section 13.3.13: Setting Up the DO
Model and, if relevant, define the non-gray radiation parameters as described
in Section 13.3.13: Defining Non-Gray Radiation for the DO Model.
Note that when the DTRM, the S2S, or the DO model is activated, the Radiation
Model panel expands to show additional parameters. These parameters will not
appear if you select one of the other radiation models. If you are running a 3d
case, you will have the added option of using the solar load model. The solar load
options will be displayed in the panel, below the radiation model settings.

i The Rosseland model can be used only with the pressure-based solver.

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Figure 13.3.14: The Radiation Model Panel (DO Model)

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When the radiation model is active, the radiation fluxes will be included in the
solution of the energy equation at each iteration. If you set up a problem with the
radiation model turned on, and you then decide to turn it off completely, you must
select the Off button in the Radiation Model panel.
Note that, when you enable a radiation model, FLUENT will automatically enable
the energy equation so that step is not needed.

3. Define the material properties as described in Section 13.3.14: Defining Material

Properties for Radiation.

4. Define the boundary conditions as described in Section 13.3.15: Defining Boundary

Conditions for Radiation. If your model contains a semi-transparent medium, see
the information below on setting up semi-transparent media.

5. Set the parameters that control the solution (DTRM, DO, S2S, and P-1 only) as
described in Section 13.3.16: Solution Strategies for Radiation Modeling.

6. Iterate the solution as described in Section 13.3.16: Running the Calculation.

7. Postprocess the results as described in Section 13.3.17: Postprocessing Radiation

Quantities.

13.3.11 Setting Up the DTRM Model

Defining the Rays
When you select the Discrete Transfer model and click OK in the Radiation Model panel,
the DTRM Rays panel (Figure 13.3.15) will open automatically. (Should you need to
modify the current settings later in the problem setup or solution procedure, you can
open this panel manually using the Define/DTRM Rays... menu item.)

Figure 13.3.15: The DTRM Rays Panel

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In this panel you will set parameters for and create the rays and clusters discussed in
Section 13.3.5: The DTRM Equations.
The procedure is as follows:

1. To control the number of radiating surfaces and absorbing cells, set the Cells Per
Volume Cluster and Faces Per Surface Cluster. (See the explanation below.)

2. To control the number of rays being traced, set the number of Theta Divisions and
Phi Divisions. (Guidelines are provided below.)

3. When you click OK in the DTRM Rays panel, a Select File dialog box will open
prompting you for the name of the “ray file”. After you have specified the file
name and chosen whether to write a binary ray file, FLUENT will write the ray file
and then read it afterward. During the write process the status of the DTRM ray
tracing will be reported in the FLUENT console window. For example:

Completed 25% tracing of DTRM rays

Completed 50% tracing of DTRM rays

Completed 75% tracing of DTRM rays

Completed 100% tracing of DTRM rays

See below for details on DTRM Rays panel inputs.

i If you cancel the DTRM Rays panel without writing and reading the ray
file, the DTRM will be disabled.

Controlling the Clusters

Your inputs for Cells Per Volume Cluster and Faces Per Surface Cluster will control the
number of radiating surfaces and absorbing cells. By default, each is set to 1, so the
number of surface clusters (radiating surfaces) will be the number of boundary faces,
and the number of volume clusters (absorbing cells) will be the number of cells in the
domain. For small 2D problems, these are acceptable numbers, but for larger problems
you will want to reduce the number of surface and/or volume clusters in order to reduce
the ray-tracing expense. (See Section 13.3.5: Clustering for details about clustering.)

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Controlling the Rays

Your inputs for Theta Divisions and Phi Divisions will control the number of rays being
traced from each surface cluster (radiating surface).
Theta Divisions defines the number of discrete divisions in the angle θ used to define the
solid angle about a point P on a surface. The solid angle is defined as θ varies from
0 to 90 degrees (Figure 13.3.2), and the default setting of 2 for the number of discrete
settings implies that each ray traced from the surface will be located at a 45◦ angle from
the other rays.
Phi Divisions defines the number of discrete divisions in the angle φ used to define the
solid angle about a point P on a surface. The solid angle is defined as φ varies from
0 to 180 degrees in 2D and from 0 to 360 degrees in 3D (Figure 13.3.2). The default
setting of 2 implies that each ray traced from the surface will be located at a 90◦ angle
from the other rays in 2D calculations, and in combination with the default setting for
Theta Divisions, above, implies that 4 rays will be traced from each surface control volume
in your 2D model. Note that the Phi Divisions should be increased to 4 for equivalent
accuracy in 3D models. In many cases, it is recommended that you at least double the
number of divisions in θ and φ.

Writing and Reading the DTRM Ray File

After you have activated the DTRM and defined all of the parameters controlling the
ray tracing, you must create a ray file which will be read back in and used during the
radiation calculation. The ray file contains a description of the ray traces (path lengths,
cells traversed by each ray, etc.). This information is stored in the ray file, instead of
being recomputed, in order to speed up the calculation process.
By default, a binary ray file will be written. You can also create text (formatted) ray
files by turning off the Write Binary Files option in the Select File dialog box.

i Do not write or read a compressed ray file, because FLUENT will not be
able to access the ray tracing information properly from a compressed ray
file.
The ray filename must be specified to FLUENT only once. Thereafter, the filename is
stored in your case file and the ray file will be automatically read into FLUENT whenever
the case file is read. FLUENT will remind you that it is reading the ray file after it finishes
reading the rest of the case file by reporting its progress in the text (console) window.

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Note that the ray filename stored in your case file may not contain the full name of the
directory in which the ray file exists. The full directory name will be stored in the case
file only if you initially read the ray file through the GUI (or if you typed in the directory
name along with the filename when using the text interface). In the event that the full
directory name is absent, the automatic reading of the ray file may fail (since FLUENT
does not know in which directory to look for the file), and you will need to manually
specify the ray file, using the File/Read/DTRM Rays... menu item. The safest approaches
are to use the GUI when you first read the ray file or to supply the full directory name
when using the text interface.

i You should recreate the ray file whenever you do anything that changes
the grid, such as:

• change the type of a boundary zone

• adapt or reorder the grid

• scale the grid

You can open the DTRM Rays panel directly with the Define/DTRM Rays...
menu item.

Displaying the Clusters

Once a ray file has been created or read in manually, you can click on the Display Clusters
button in the DTRM Rays panel to graphically display the clusters in the domain. See
Section 13.3.17: Displaying Rays and Clusters for the DTRM for additional information
about displaying rays and clusters.

13.3.12 Setting Up the S2S Model

When you select the Surface to Surface (S2S) model, the Radiation Model panel will
expand to show additional parameters (see Figure 13.3.16). In this section of the panel,
you will compute the view factors for your problem or read previously computed view
factors into FLUENT.

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Figure 13.3.16: The Radiation Model Panel (S2S Model)

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The S2S radiation model is computationally very expensive when there are a large num-
ber of radiating surfaces. To reduce the memory requirement for the calculation, the
number of radiating surfaces is reduced by creating surface clusters. The surface cluster
information (coordinates and connectivity of the nodes, surface cluster IDs) is used by
FLUENT to compute the view factors for the surface clusters.

i You should recreate the surface cluster information whenever you do any-
thing that changes the grid, such as:

• change the type of a boundary zone

• reorder the grid

• scale the grid

Note that you do not need to recalculate view factors after shell conduction
at any wall has been enabled or disabled. See Section 7.13.1: Thermal
Boundary Conditions at Walls for more information about shell conduction.

i FLUENT will warn you to recreate the cluster/viewfactor file if a boundary

zone has been changed from a wall to an internal wall (or visa versa), or if
a boundary zone has been merged, separated, or fused.

Computing View Factors

FLUENT can compute the view factors for your problem in the current session and save
them to a file for use in the current session and future sessions. Alternatively, you can save
the surface cluster information and view factor parameters to a file, calculate the view
factors outside FLUENT, and then read the view factors into FLUENT. These methods
for computing view factors are described below.

i For large meshes or complex models, it is recommended that you calculate

the view factors outside FLUENT and then read them into FLUENT before
starting your simulation.

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Computing View Factors Inside FLUENT

To compute view factors in your current FLUENT session, you must first set the param-
eters for the view factor calculation in the View Factor and Cluster Parameters panel (see
below for details). When you have set the view factor and surface cluster parameters,
click Compute/Write... under Methods in the Radiation Model panel. A Select File dialog
box will open, prompting you for the name of the file in which FLUENT should save
the surface cluster information and the view factors. After you have specified the file
name, FLUENT will write the surface cluster information to the file. FLUENT will use
the surface cluster information to compute the view factors, save the view factors to the
same file, and then automatically read the view factors. The FLUENT console window
will report the status of the view factor calculation. For example:

Completed 25% calculation of viewfactors

Completed 50% calculation of viewfactors

Completed 75% calculation of viewfactors

Completed 100% calculation of viewfactors

i The view factor file format for this version of FLUENT is known as the
compressed row format (CRF) which is a more efficient way of writing
view factors than in prior versions of FLUENT. In the CRF format, only
non-zero view factors with their associated cluster IDs are stored to the
file. This reduces the size of the .s2s file, and reduces the time it takes
to read the file into FLUENT. While the CRF file format is the default,
you can still use the older file format if necessary. Contact your support
engineer for more information.

Computing View Factors Outside FLUENT

To compute view factors outside FLUENT, you must save the surface cluster information
and view factor parameters to a file.
File −→ Write −→Surface Clusters...
FLUENT will open the View Factor and Cluster Parameters panel, where you will set the
view factor and surface cluster parameters (see below for details). When you click OK in
the View Factor and Cluster Parameters panel, a Select File dialog box will open, prompting
you for the name of the file in which FLUENT should save the surface cluster information
and view factor parameters. After you have specified the file name, FLUENT will write

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the surface cluster information and view factor parameters to the file. If the specified
Filename ends in .gz or .Z, appropriate file compression will be performed.
To calculate the view factors outside FLUENT, enter one of the following commands:

• For the serial solver:

utility viewfac inputfile

where inputfile is the filename, or the correct path to the filename, for the surface
cluster information and view factor parameters file that you saved from FLUENT.
You can then read the view factors into FLUENT, as described below.
• For the network parallel solver:

utility viewfac -p -tn -cnf=host1,host2,. . .,hostn inputfile

where n is the number of compute nodes, and host1, host2,. . . are the names of the
machines being used.

i Note that host1 must be a host machine.

• For a dedicated parallel machine with multiple processors:

utility viewfac -tn inputfile

Reading View Factors into FLUENT

If the view factors for your problem have already been computed (either inside or outside
FLUENT) and saved to a file, you can read them into FLUENT. To read in the view
factors, click Read... under Methods in the Radiation Model panel. A Select File dialog
box will open where you can specify the name of the file containing the view factors. You
can also manually specify the view factors file, using the File/Read/View Factors... menu
item.

i While the previous .s2s view factor file format can still be read seamlessly
into FLUENT, there is now a more efficient compressed row format (CRF)
that can be read into FLUENT (see the section on Computing View Factors
Inside FLUENT). You can take advantage of the reduced size of the CRF
file and thus the reduced time it takes to read the file into FLUENT, by
converting the existing old file format to the new format (without having to
recompute the view factors) using the following command at the command
prompt in your working directory:
utility viewfac -c1 -o new.s2s.gz old.s2s.gz
where new.s2s.gz is the CRF format to which you want the old file format
(old.s2s.gz) converted.

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Setting View Factor and Surface Cluster Parameters

You can use the View Factor and Cluster Parameters panel (Figure 13.3.17) to set view
factor and cluster parameters for the S2S model. To open this panel, click Set... under
Parameters in the Radiation Model panel (Figure 13.3.16) or use the File/Write/Surface
Clusters... menu item.

Figure 13.3.17: The View Factor and Cluster Parameters Panel

Controlling the Clusters

Your input for Faces Per Surface Cluster will control the number of radiating surfaces.
By default, it is set to 1, so the number of surface clusters (radiating surfaces) will be
equal to the number of boundary faces. For small 2D problems, this is an acceptable
number. For larger problems, you may want to reduce the number of surface clusters
to reduce both the size of the view factor file and the memory requirement. Such a
reduction in the number of clusters, however, comes at the cost of some accuracy. (See
Section 13.3.7: Clustering for details about clustering.)
There are certain applications that will require most or all wall boundary zones to have
the same Faces Per Surface Cluster parameter. In typical underhood simulations, for
example, there can be hundreds of walls that you want to apply the same Face Per

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Surface Cluster parameter to. To avoid visiting each Wall boundary condition panel, you
can instead click the Apply to All Walls checkbox in the View Factor and Cluster Parameters
panel (Figure 13.3.17). Once you click OK, the Faces Per Surface Cluster value you specify
will be copied to all wall zones that are adjacent to fluid zones in your model. You can
then visit only the walls you want to define different settings for and set those parameters
individually.
The Faces Per Surface Cluster can be designated for a particular wall in the Wall boundary
condition panel under the Radiation tab (Figure 13.3.18). Under the Radiation tab, you
can also choose to exclude a particular wall from the radiosity calculations by deselecting
Participates in S2S Radiation. Note that if the surface clusters are written with this feature
turned off, then the view factors will not be computed at all for that particular wall. If
you are unsure whether a wall is radiating or not ahead of time, then you should keep
the Participates in S2S Radiation enabled and have the view factors computed. You can
always toggle the switch at a later stage to include or exclude the particular wall for
radiosity calculations.

i The Faces Per Surface Cluster and Participates in S2S Radiation controls will
not be visible in the GUI on wall boundary zones that are attached to a
solid.

Figure 13.3.18: The Wall Panel

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In some cases, you may wish to modify the cutoff or “split” angle between adjacent
face normals for the purpose of controlling surface clustering. The split angle sets the
limit for which adjacent surfaces are clustered. A smaller split angle allows for a better
representation of the view factor. By default, no surface cluster will contain any face
that has a face normal greater than 20◦ . To modify the value of this parameter, you can
use the split-angle text command:
define −→ models −→ radiation −→ s2s-parameters −→split-angle
or
file −→ write-surface-clusters −→split-angle

Specifying the Orientation of Surface Pairs

View factor calculations depend on the geometric orientations of surface pairs with re-
spect to each other. Two situations may be encountered when examining surface pairs:

• If there is no obstruction between the surface pairs under consideration, then they
are referred to as “non-blocking” surfaces.

• If there is another surface blocking the views between the surfaces under consid-
eration, then they are referred to as “blocking” surfaces. Blocking will change the
view factors between the surface pairs and require additional checks to compute
the correct value of the view factors.

For cases with blocking surfaces, select Blocking under Surfaces in the View Factor and
Cluster Parameters panel. For cases with non-blocking surfaces, you can choose either
Blocking or Nonblocking without affecting the accuracy. However, it is better to choose
Nonblocking for such cases, as it takes less time to compute.

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Selecting the Method for Smoothing

In order to enforce reciprocity and conservation (see Section 13.3.7: Smoothing), smooth-
ing can be performed on the view factor matrix. To use the least-squares method for
smoothing of the view factor matrix, select Least Squares under Smoothing in the View
Factor and Cluster Parameters panel. If you do not wish to smooth the view factor matrix,
select None under Smoothing.

Selecting the Method for Computing View Factors

FLUENT provides two methods for computing view factors: the hemicube method and
the adaptive method. The hemicube method is available only for 3D cases.
The adaptive method calculates the view factors on a pair-by-pair basis using a variety of
algorithms (analytic or Gauss quadrature) that are chosen adaptively depending on the
proximity of the surfaces. To maintain accuracy, the order of the quadrature increases
the closer the faces are together. For surfaces that are very close to each other, the
analytic method is used. FLUENT determines the method to use by performing a visibility
calculation. The Gaussian quadrature method is used if none of the rays from a surface
are blocked by the other surface. If some of the rays are blocked by the other surface,
then either a Monte Carlo integration method or a quasi-Monte Carlo integration method
is used.
To use the adaptive method to compute the view factors, select Adaptive in the View Factor
and Cluster Parameters panel. It is recommended that you use the adaptive method for
simple models, because it is faster than the hemicube method for these types of models.
The hemicube method uses a differential area-to-area method and calculates the view
factors on a row-by-row basis. The view factors calculated from the differential areas are
summed to provide the view factor for the whole surface. This method originated from
the use of the radiosity approach in the field of computer graphics [64].
To use the hemicube method to compute the view factors, select Hemicube in the View
Factor and Cluster Parameters panel. It is recommended that you use the hemicube method
for large complex models, because it is faster than the adaptive method for these types
of models.

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The hemicube method is based upon three assumptions about the geometry of the sur-
faces: aliasing, visibility, and proximity. To validate these assumptions, you can specify
three different hemicube parameters, which can help you obtain better accuracy in cal-
culating view factors. In most cases, however, the default settings will be sufficient.

• Aliasing—The true projection of each visible face onto the hemicube can be ac-
curately accounted for by using a finite-resolution hemicube. As described above,
the faces are projected onto a hemicube. Because of the finite resolution of the
hemicube, the projected areas and resulting view factors may be over- or under-
estimated. Aliasing effects can be reduced by increasing the value of the Resolution
of the hemicube under Hemicube Parameters.

• Visibility—The visibility between any two faces does not change. In some cases,
face i has a complete view of face k from its centroid, but some other face j occludes
much of face k from face i. In such a case, the hemicube method will overestimate
the view factor between face i and face k calculated from the centroid of face i.
This error can be reduced by subdividing face i into smaller subfaces. You can
specify the number of subfaces by entering a value for Subdivision under Hemicube
Parameters.

• Proximity—The distance between faces is great compared to the effective diameter

of the faces. The proximity assumption is violated whenever faces are close together
in comparison to their effective diameter or are adjacent to one another. In such
cases, the distances between the centroid of one face and all points on the other
face vary greatly. Since the view factor dependence on distance is non-linear, the
result is a poor estimate of the view factor.
Under Hemicube Parameters, you can set a limit for the Normalized Separation Dis-
tance, which is the ratio of the minimum face separation to the effective diameter of
the face. If the computed normalized separation distance is less than the specified
value, the face will then be divided into a number of subfaces until the normalized
distances of the subfaces are greater than the specified value. Alternatively, you
can specify the number of subfaces to create for such faces by entering a value for
Subdivision.

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13.3.13 Setting Up the DO Model

Angular Discretization
When you select the Discrete Ordinates model, the Radiation Model panel will expand to
show inputs for Angular Discretization (see Figure 13.3.14). In this section, you will set
parameters for the angular discretization and pixelation described in Section 13.3.6: An-
gular Discretization and Pixelation.
Theta Divisions (Nθ ) and Phi Divisions (Nφ ) will define the number of control angles used
to discretize each octant of the angular space (see Figure 13.3.3). Note that higher levels
of discretization are recommended for problems where specular exchange of radiation is
important to increase the likelihood of the correct beam direction being captured. For a
2D model, FLUENT will solve only 4 octants (due to symmetry); thus, a total of 4Nθ Nφ
directions ~s will be solved. For a 3D model, 8 octants are solved, resulting in 8Nθ Nφ
directions ~s. By default, the number of Theta Divisions and the number of Phi Divisions
are both set to 2. For most practical problems, these settings are acceptable, however, a
setting of 2 is considered to be a coarse estimate. Increasing the discretization of Theta
Divisions and Phi Divisions to a minimum of 3, or up to 5, will achieve more reliable
results. A finer angular discretization can be specified to better resolve the influence of
small geometric features or strong spatial variations in temperature, but larger numbers
of Theta Divisions and Phi Divisions will add to the cost of the computation.
Theta Pixels and Phi Pixels are used to control the pixelation that accounts for any control
volume overhang (see Figure 13.3.7 and the figures and discussion preceding it). For prob-
lems involving gray-diffuse radiation, the default pixelation of 1 × 1 is usually sufficient.
For problems involving symmetry, periodic, specular, or semi-transparent boundaries, a
pixelation of 3 × 3 is recommended and will achieve acceptable results. The computa-
tional effort, as a result of increasing the pixelation, is less than the computational effort
caused by increasing the divisions. You should be aware, however, that increasing the
pixelation adds to the cost of computation.

Defining Non-Gray Radiation for the DO Model

If you want to model non-gray radiation using the DO model, you can specify the Num-
ber Of Bands (N ) under Non-Gray Model in the expanded Radiation Model panel (Fig-
ure 13.3.19). For a 2D model, FLUENT will solve 4Nθ Nφ N directions. For a 3D model,
8Nθ Nφ N directions will be solved. By default, the Number of Bands is set to zero, indicat-
ing that only gray radiation will be modeled. Because the cost of computation increases
directly with the number of bands, you should try to minimize the number of bands used.
In many cases, the absorption coefficient or the wall emissivity is effectively constant for
the wavelengths of importance in the temperature range of the problem. For such cases,
the gray DO model can be used with little loss of accuracy. For other cases, non-gray
behavior is important, but relatively few bands are necessary. For typical glasses, for
example, two or three bands will frequently suffice.

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When a non-zero Number Of Bands is specified, the Radiation Model panel will expand
once again to show the Wavelength Intervals (Figure 13.3.19). You can specify a Name for
each wavelength band, as well as the Start and End wavelength of the band in µm. Note
that the wavelength bands are specified for vacuum (n = 1). FLUENT will automatically
account for the refractive index in setting band limits for media with n different from
unity.

Figure 13.3.19: The Radiation Model Panel (Non-Gray DO Model)

The frequency of radiation remains constant as radiation travels across a semi-transparent

interface. The wavelength, however, changes such that nλ is constant. Thus, when
radiation passes from a medium with refractive index n1 to one with refractive index n2 ,
the following relationship holds:

n 1 λ 1 = n 2 λ2 (13.3-90)

Here λ1 and λ2 are the wavelengths associated with the two media. It is conventional to
specify the wavelength rather than frequency. FLUENT requires you to specify wavelength
bands for an equivalent medium with n = 1.
For example, consider a typical glass with a step jump in the absorption coefficient at
a cut-off wavelength of λc . The absorption coefficient is a1 for λ ≤ λc µm and a2 for

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λ > λc µm. The refractive index of the glass is ng . Since nλ is constant across a semi-
transparent interface, the equivalent cut-off wavelength for a medium with n = 1 is ng λc
using Equation 13.3-90. You should choose two bands in this case, with the limits 0 to
ng λc and ng λc to 100. Here, the upper wavelength limit has been chosen to be a large
number, 100, in order to ensure that the entire spectrum is covered by the bands. When
multiple materials exist, you should convert all the cut-off wavelengths to equivalent
cut-off wavelengths for an n = 1 medium, and choose the band boundaries accordingly.
The bands can have different widths and need not be contiguous. You can ensure that
the entire spectrum is covered by your bands by choosing λmin = 0 and nλmax Tmin ≥
50, 000. Here λmin and λmax are the minimum and maximum wavelength bounds of your
wavelength bands, and Tmin is the minimum expected temperature in the domain.

Enabling DO/Energy Coupling

For applications involving optical thicknesses greater than 10, you can enable the DO/Energy
Coupling option in the Radiation Model (Figure 13.3.20) in order to couple the energy and
intensity equations at each cell, solving them simultaneously. This approach accelerates
the convergence of the finite volume scheme for radiative heat transfer and can be used
with the gray or non-gray radiation model.

Figure 13.3.20: The Radiation Model Panel with DO/Energy Coupling En-
abled

i This option should not be used when the shell conduction model is enabled.

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13.3.14 Defining Material Properties for Radiation

When you are using the P-1, DO, or Rosseland radiation model in FLUENT, you should be
sure to define both the absorption and scattering coefficients of the fluid in the Materials
panel. Note that you can either enter a constant value for these parameters, or you can
specify them using a user-defined function (UDF). See Section 2.3.14: DEFINE PROPERTY
UDFs of the separate UDF Manual for details.
If you are modeling semi-transparent media using the DO model, you should also define
the refractive index for the semi-transparent fluid or solid material. When using the
Rosseland model, you should define the refractive index for the fluid or solid material.
For the DTRM, you need to define only the absorption coefficient.
Define −→Materials...
If your model includes gas phase species such as combustion products, absorption and/or
scattering in the gas may be significant. The scattering coefficient should be increased
from the default of zero if the fluid contains dispersed particles or droplets which con-
tribute to scattering. Alternatively, you can specify the scattering coefficient as a user-
defined function (UDF). See Section 2.3.14: DEFINE PROPERTY UDFs of the separate UDF
Manual for details.
FLUENT allows you to input a composition-dependent absorption coefficient for CO2 and
H2 O mixtures, using the WSGGM. The method for computing a variable absorption co-
efficient is described in Section 13.3.8: Radiation in Combusting Flows. Section 8.8: Ra-
diation Properties provides a detailed description of the procedures used for input of
radiation properties.

Absorption Coefficient for a Non-Gray DO Model

If you are using the non-gray DO model, you can specify a different constant absorption
coefficient for each of the bands used by the gray-band model, as described in Sec-
tion 8.8: Radiation Properties. You cannot, however, compute a composition-dependent
absorption coefficient in each band. If you use the WSGGM to compute a variable ab-
sorption coefficient, the value will be the same for all bands. Alternatively, you can
specify a user-defined function (UDF) for the absorption coefficient.
See Section 2.3.14: DEFINE PROPERTY UDFs of the separate UDF Manual for details.

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Refractive Index for a Non-Gray DO Model

If you are using the non-gray DO model, you can specify a different constant refractive
index for each of the bands used by the gray-band model, as described in Section 8.8: Ra-
diation Properties. You cannot, however, compute a composition-dependent refractive
index in each band.

13.3.15 Defining Boundary Conditions for Radiation

When you set up a problem that includes radiation, you will set additional boundary
conditions at inlets, exits, and walls. These inputs are described below.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

Inlet and Exit Boundary Conditions

Emissivity

When radiation is active, you can define the emissivity at each inlet and exit bound-
ary when you are defining boundary conditions in the associated inlet or exit bound-
ary panel (Pressure Inlet panel, Velocity Inlet panel, Pressure Outlet panel, etc.). Enter
the appropriate value for Internal Emissivity. The default value for all boundary types
is 1. Alternatively, you can specify a user-defined function for emissivity. See Sec-
tion 2.3.14: DEFINE PROPERTY UDFs of the separate UDF Manual for details.
For non-gray DO models, the specified constant emissivity will be used for all wavelength
bands.

i The Internal Emissivity boundary condition is not available with the Rosse-
land model.

Black Body Temperature

FLUENT includes an option that allows you to take into account the influence of the tem-
perature of the gas and the walls beyond the inlet/exit boundaries, and specify different
temperatures for radiation and convection at inlets and exits. This is useful when the
temperature outside the inlet or exit differs considerably from the temperature in the
enclosure. For example, if the temperature of the walls beyond the inlet is 2000 K and
the temperature at the inlet is 1000 K, you can specify the outside-wall temperature to
be used for computing radiative heat flux, while the actual temperature at the inlet is
used for calculating convective heat transfer. To do this, you would specify a radiation
temperature of 2000 K as the black body temperature.
Although this option allows you to account for both cooler and hotter outside walls,
you must use caution in the case of cooler walls, since the radiation from the immediate
vicinity of the hotter inlet or outlet almost always dominates over the radiation from

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cooler outside walls. If, for example, the temperature of the outside walls is 250 K and
the inlet temperature is 1500 K, it might be misleading to use 250 K for the radiation
boundary temperature. This temperature might be expected to be somewhere between
250 K and 1500 K; in most cases it will be close to 1500 K. (Its value depends on the
geometry of the outside walls and the optical thickness of the gas in the vicinity of the
inlet.)
In the flow inlet or exit panel (Pressure Inlet panel, Velocity Inlet panel, etc.), select
Specified External Temperature in the External Black Body Temperature Method drop-down
list, and then enter the value of the radiation boundary temperature as the Black Body
Temperature.

i If you want to use the same temperature for radiation and convection,
retain the default selection of Boundary Temperature as the External Black
Body Temperature Method.

i The Black Body Temperature boundary condition is not available with the
Rosseland model.

Wall Boundary Conditions for the DTRM, and the P-1, S2S and Rosseland
Models
The DTRM and the P-1, S2S, and Rosseland models assume all walls to be gray and
diffuse. The only radiation boundary condition required in the Wall panel is the emis-
sivity. For the Rosseland model, the internal emissivity is 1. For the DTRM and the
P-1 and S2S models, you can enter the appropriate value for Internal Emissivity in the
Thermal section of the Wall panel. The default value is 1. Alternatively, you can specify
a user-defined function for emissivity. See Section 2.3.14: DEFINE PROPERTY UDFs of the
separate UDF Manual for details.

Partial Enclosure Wall Boundary Condition for the S2S Model

When the S2S model is used, you can define a “partial enclosure” (i.e., you can disable
view factor calculations for walls and inlet and exit boundaries that are not participating
in the radiative heat transfer calculation). This feature allows you to save time computing
the view factors and also reduce the memory required to store the view factor file during
the FLUENT calculation.

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To make use of this feature for walls, you can disable the Participates in S2S Radia-
tion option in the Radiation section of the Wall panel for each relevant wall. Similarly,
you can disable the view factor calculations for any inlet or exit boundary by high-
lighting the boundary in the Boundary Conditions panel, clicking the Set... button and
turning off the Participates in S2S Radiation option (this can also be done through the
define/boundary-conditions text command). You can specify the Temperature of the
partial enclosure under Partial Enclosure in the Radiation Model panel (Figure 13.3.16).
The partial enclosure is treated like a black body with the specified temperature.

i If you change the definition of the partial enclosure by including or ex-

cluding some of the boundary zones, you will need to recompute the view
factors.

i The Flux Reports panel will not show the exact balance of the Radiation Heat
Transfer Rate because the radiative heat transfer to the partial enclosure is
not included.

Wall Boundary Conditions for the DO Model

When the DO model is used, you can model opaque walls, as discussed in
Section 13.3.6: Boundary Condition Treatment at Opaque Walls, as well as semi-transparent
walls (Section 13.3.6: Boundary Condition Treatment at Semi-Transparent Walls).
You can use a diffuse wall to model wall boundaries in many industrial applications since,
for the most part, surface roughness makes the reflection of incident radiation diffuse. For
highly polished surfaces, such as reflectors or mirrors, the specular boundary condition is
appropriate. The semi-transparent boundary condition can be appropriate, for example,
when modeling for glass panes in air.

Opaque Walls

In the Radiation section of the Wall panel (Figure 13.3.21), select opaque in the BC Type
drop-down list to specify an opaque wall. Opaque walls are treated as gray if gray
radiation is being computed, or non-gray if the non-gray DO model is being used. If the
non-gray DO model is being used, the Diffuse Fraction can be specified for each band.
Once you have selected opaque as the BC Type, you can specify the fraction of reflected
radiation flux that is to be treated as diffuse. By default, the Diffuse Fraction is set to 1,
indicating that all of the radiation is diffuse. A diffuse fraction equal to 0 indicates purely
specular reflected radiation. A diffuse fraction between 0 and 1 will result in partially
diffuse and partially specular reflected energy. See Section 13.3.6: Boundary Condition
Treatment at Opaque Walls for more details.

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Figure 13.3.21: The Wall Panel Showing Radiation Conditions for an Opaque
Wall

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You will also be required to specify the internal emissivity in the Thermal section of
the Wall panel (Figure 13.3.22). For gray-radiation DO models, enter the appropriate
value for Internal Emissivity. (The default value is 1.) The value that you specify will
be applied to the diffuse component only. For non-gray DO models, specify a constant
Internal Emissivity for each wavelength band in the Radiation tab. (The default value in
each band is 1.) Alternatively, you can specify a user-defined function (UDF) for internal
emissivity. See Section 2.3.14: DEFINE PROPERTY UDFs of the separate UDF Manual for
details.

Figure 13.3.22: The Wall Panel Showing Internal Emissivity Thermal Con-
ditions for an Opaque Wall

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You can also specify the external emissivity and external radiation temperature for a
semi-transparent wall when the thermal conditions are set to Radiation or Mixed in the
Wall panel (Figure 13.3.23). Alternatively, you can specify a UDF for these parameters.

Figure 13.3.23: The Wall Panel Showing External Emissivity and External
Radiation Temperature Thermal Conditions

For more information on boundary condition treatment at opaque walls,

see Section 13.3.6: Boundary Condition Treatment at Opaque Walls.

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Semi-Transparent Walls

To define radiation for an exterior semi-transparent wall choose the Radiation tab in the
Wall panel and then select semi-transparent in the BC Type drop-down list(Figure 13.3.24).
The panel will expand to display the semi-transparent wall inputs needed to define an
external irradiation flux.

Figure 13.3.24: The Wall Panel for a Semi-Transparent Wall Boundary

1. Specify the value of the irradiation flux (in W/m2 ) under Irradiation. If the non-gray
DO model is being used, a constant Irradiation can be specified for each band.

2. Apply Irradiation Parallel to Beam is the default means of specifying the scale of
irradiation flux. When active, FLUENT assumes the value of Irradiation that you
specify is the irradiation flux parallel to the Beam Direction. When deselected,
FLUENT instead assumes the valued specified is the flux parallel to the face normals
and will calculate the resulting beam parallel flux for every face. See Figure 13.3.12
in Section 13.3.6: Semi-Transparent Exterior Walls for details.

3. Define the Beam Width by specifying the beam Theta and Phi extents. Beam width
is specified as the solid angle over which the irradiation is distributed. The default
value for beam width is 1e− 6 which is suitable for collimated beam radiation. A
beam width less than this is likely to result in zero irradiation flux.

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4. Specify the (X,Y,Z) vector that defines the Beam Direction. Beam direction is
defined by the vector of the centroid of the solid angle. Only the specular component
of the irradiation flux will be applied with the specified beam direction; the diffuse
irradiation flux will be applied diffusely and hemispherically to the surface.

5. Specify the fraction of the irradiation that is to be treated as diffuse as a real

number between 0 and 1. By default, the Diffuse Fraction is set to 1, indicating
that all of the irradiation is diffuse. A diffuse fraction of 0 treats the radiation as
purely specular. If you specify a value between 0 and 1, the radiation is treated as
partially diffuse and partially specular. If the non-gray DO model is being used,
the Diffuse Fraction can be specified for each band. See Section 13.3.6: Diffuse
Semi-Transparent Walls for details.

i Note that the refractive index of the external medium is assumed to be 1.

i If Heat Flux conditions are specified in the Thermal section of the Wall
panel, the specified heat flux is considered to be only the conduction and
convection portion of the boundary flux. The given irradiation specifies
the incoming exterior radiative flux; the radiative flux transmitted from
the domain interior to the outside is computed as a part of the calculation
by FLUENT. Internal emissivity is ignored for semi-transparent surfaces.
You can also specify the external emissivity and external radiation temperature for a
semi-transparent wall when the thermal conditions are set to Radiation or Mixed in the
Wall panel (Figure 13.3.23). Alternatively, you can specify a user-defined function (UDF)
for these parameters. See Section 2.3.14: DEFINE PROPERTY UDFs of the separate UDF
Manual for details.
For a detailed description of boundary condition treatment at semi-transparent walls, see
Section 13.3.6: Boundary Condition Treatment at Semi-Transparent Walls.

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To define radiation for an interior (two-sided) semi-transparent wall, in the Wall panel
choose the Radiation tab and then select semi-transparent in the BC Type drop-down list
(Figure 13.3.25).

1. Specify the Diffuse Fraction as described for the previous case.

Figure 13.3.25: The Wall Panel for an Interior Semi-Transparent Wall

i Note that the internal emissivity thermal condition is ignored for semi-
transparent surfaces.

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Solid Boundary Conditions for the DO Model

With the DO model, you can specify whether or not you want to solve for radiation
in each cell zone in the domain. By default, the DO equations are solved in all fluid
zones, but not in any solid zones. If you want to model semi-transparent media, for
example, you can enable radiation in the solid zone(s). To do so, turn on the Participates
In Radiation option in the Solid panel (Figure 13.3.26).

Figure 13.3.26: The Solid Panel

i In general, you should not turn off the Participates In Radiation option for
any fluid zones.
See Section 13.3.6: Solid Semi-Transparent Media for more information on solid semi-
transparent media.

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Thermal Boundary Conditions

In general, any well-posed combination of thermal boundary conditions can be used when
any of the radiation models is active. The radiation model will be well-posed in combina-
tion with fixed temperature walls, conducting walls, and/or walls with set external heat
transfer boundary conditions (Section 7.13.1: Thermal Boundary Conditions at Walls).
You can also use any of the radiation models with heat flux boundary conditions defined
at walls, in which case the heat flux you define will be treated as the sum of the convec-
tive and radiative heat fluxes. The exception to this is the case of semi-transparent walls
for the DO model. Here, FLUENT allows you to specify the convective and radiative
portions of the heat flux separately.

13.3.16 Solution Strategies for Radiation Modeling

For the P-1, DTRM, S2S, and the DO radiation models, there are several parameters that
control the radiation calculation. You can use the default solution parameters for most
problems, or you can modify these parameters to control the convergence and accuracy
of the solution. Iteration parameters that are unique for a particular radiation model
are specified in the Radiation Model panel (e.g., Flow Iterations Per Radiation Iteration).
Solution controls such as Discretization (Section 25.3: Discretization) and Under-Relaxation
(Section 25.4.4: Under-Relaxation of Variables) are specified in the Solution Controls
panel. Convergence Criterion (Section 25.18.1: Modifying Convergence Criteria) are set
in the Residual Monitors panel.
There are no solution parameters to be set for the Rosseland model, since it impacts the
solution only through the energy equation.

i If radiation is the only model being solved in FLUENT, and all other equa-
tions are switched off, then the Flow Iterations Per Radiation Iteration solu-
tion parameter that is available for certain radiation models, is automati-
cally reset to 1.

P-1 Model Solution Parameters

For the P-1 radiation model, you can control the convergence criterion and under-
relaxation factor. You should also pay attention to the optical thickness, as described
below.
The default convergence criterion for the P-1 model is 10−6 , the same as that for the en-
ergy equation, since the two are closely linked. See Section 25.18.1: Monitoring Residuals
for details about convergence criteria. You can set the Convergence Criterion for p1 in the
Residual Monitors panel.
Solve −→ Monitors −→Residual...

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The under-relaxation factor for the P-1 model is set with those for other variables, as
described in Section 25.9.2: Setting Under-Relaxation Factors. Note that since the equa-
tion for the radiation temperature (Equation 13.3-5) is a relatively stable scalar transport
equation, in most cases you can safely use large values of under-relaxation (0.9–1.0).
For optimal convergence with the P-1 model, the optical thickness (a + σs )L must be
between 0.01 and 10 (preferably not larger than 5). Smaller optical thicknesses are typical
for very small enclosures (characteristic size of the order of 1 cm), but for such problems
you can safely increase the absorption coefficient to a value for which (a + σs )L = 0.01.
Increasing the absorption coefficient will not change the physics of the problem because
the difference in the level of transparency of a medium with optical thickness = 0.01 and
one with optical thickness < 0.01 is indistinguishable within the accuracy level of the
computation.

DTRM Solution Parameters

When the DTRM is active, FLUENT updates the radiation field during the calculation
and computes the resulting energy sources and heat fluxes via the ray-tracing technique
described in Section 13.3.5: Ray Tracing. FLUENT provides several solution parame-
ters that control the solver and the solution accuracy. These parameters appear in the
expanded portion of the Radiation Model panel (Figure 13.3.27).

Figure 13.3.27: The Radiation Model Panel (DTRM)

You can control the maximum number of sweeps of the radiation calculation during each
global iteration by changing the Number of DTRM Sweeps. The default setting of 1 sweep
implies that the radiant intensity will be updated just once. If you increase this number,
the radiant intensity at the surfaces will be updated multiple times, until the tolerance
criterion is met or the number of radiation sweeps is exceeded.
The Tolerance parameter (0.001 by default) determines when the radiation intensity up-
date is converged. It is defined as the maximum normalized change in the surface intensity
from one DTRM sweep to the next (see Equation 13.3-91).

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You can also control the frequency with which the radiation field is updated as the
continuous phase solution proceeds. The Flow Iterations Per Radiation Iteration parameter
is set to 10 by default. This implies that the radiation calculation is performed once every
10 iterations of the solution process. Increasing the number can speed the calculation
process, but may slow overall convergence.

S2S Solution Parameters

For the S2S model, as for the DTRM, you can control the frequency with which the
radiosity is updated as the continuous-phase solution proceeds. See the description of
Flow Iterations Per Radiation Iteration for the DTRM, above.
If you are using the pressure-based solver and you first solve the flow equations with the
energy equation turned off, you should reduce the Flow Iterations Per Radiation Iteration
from 10 to 1 or 2. This will ensure the convergence of the radiosity. If the default value of
10 is kept in this case, it is possible that the flow and energy residuals may converge and
the solution will terminate before the radiosity is converged. See Section 13.3.16: Residual
Reporting for the S2S Model for more information about residuals for the S2S model.
You can control the maximum number of sweeps of the radiation calculation during each
global iteration by changing the Number of S2S Sweeps. The default setting of 1 sweep
implies that the radiosity will be updated just once. If you increase this number, the
radiosity at the surfaces will be updated multiple times, until the tolerance criterion is
met or the number of radiation sweeps is exceeded.
The Tolerance parameter (0.001 by default) determines when the radiosity update is
converged. It is defined as the maximum normalized change in the radiosity from one
S2S sweep to the next (see Equation 13.3-92).

DO Solution Parameters
For the discrete ordinates model, as for the DTRM, you can control the frequency with
which the surface intensity is updated as the continuous phase solution proceeds. See
the description of Flow Iterations Per Radiation Iteration for the DTRM, above.
For most problems, the default under-relaxation of 1.0 for the DO equations is ade-
quate. For problems with large optical thicknesses (aL > 10), you may experience slow
convergence or solution oscillation. For such cases, under-relaxing the energy and DO
equations is useful. Under-relaxation factors between 0.9 and 1.0 are recommended for
both equations.

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Running the Calculation

Once the radiation problem has been set up, you can proceed as usual with the calcula-
tion. Note that while the P-1 and DO models will solve additional transport equations
and report residuals, the DTRM and the Rosseland and S2S models will not (since they
impact the solution only through the energy equation). Residuals for the DTRM and
S2S model sweeps are reported by FLUENT every time a DTRM or S2S model iteration
is performed, as described below.

Residual Reporting for the P-1 Model

The residual for radiation as calculated by the P-1 model is updated after each iteration
and reported with the residuals for all other variables. FLUENT reports the normalized
P-1 radiation residual as defined in Section 25.18.1: Monitoring Residuals for the other
transport equations.

Residual Reporting for the DO Model

After each DO iteration, the DO model reports a composite normalized residual for all
the DO transport equations. The definition of the residuals is similar to that for the
other transport equations (see Section 25.18.1: Monitoring Residuals).

Residual Reporting for the DTRM

FLUENT does not include a DTRM residual in its usual residual report that is issued
after each iteration. The effect of radiation on the solution can be gathered, instead, via
its impact on the energy field and the energy residual. However, each time a DTRM
iteration is performed, FLUENT will print out the normalized radiation error for each
DTRM sweep. The normalized radiation error is defined as
X
(Inew − Iold )
all radiating surfaces
E= (13.3-91)
N (σT 4 /π)

where the error E is the maximum change in the intensity (I) at the current sweep,
normalized by the maximum surface emissive power, and N is the total number of
radiating surfaces. Note that the default radiation convergence criterion, as noted in
Section 13.3.16: DTRM Solution Parameters, defines the radiation calculation to be con-
verged when E decreases to 10−3 or less.

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Residual Reporting for the S2S Model

FLUENT does not include an S2S residual in its usual residual report that is issued after
each iteration. The effect of radiation on the solution can be gathered, instead, via its
impact on the energy field and the energy residual. However, each time an S2S iteration
is performed, FLUENT will print out the normalized radiation error for each S2S sweep.
The normalized radiation error is defined as
X
(Jnew − Jold )
all radiating surface clusters
E= (13.3-92)
N σT 4
where the error E is the maximum change in the radiosity (J) at the current sweep,
normalized by the maximum surface emissive power, and N is the total number of ra-
diating surface clusters. Note that the default radiation convergence criterion, as noted
in Section 13.3.16: DTRM Solution Parameters, defines the radiation calculation to be
converged when E decreases to 10−3 or less.

Disabling the Update of the Radiation Fluxes

Sometimes, you may wish to set up your FLUENT model with the radiation model active
and then disable the radiation calculation during the initial calculation phase. For the P-
1 and DO models, you can turn off the radiation calculation temporarily by deselecting
P1 or Discrete Ordinates in the Equations list in the Solution Controls panel. For the
DTRM and the S2S model, there is no item in the Equations list. You can instead set a
very large number for Flow Iterations Per Radiation Iteration in the expanded portion of
the Radiation Model panel.
If you turn off the radiation calculation, FLUENT will skip the update of the radiation
field during subsequent iterations, but will leave in place the influence of the current
radiation field on energy sources due to absorption, wall heat fluxes, etc. Turning the
radiation calculation off in this way can thus be used to initiate your modeling work
with the radiation model inactive and/or to focus the computational effort on the other
equations if the radiation model is relatively well converged.

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13.3.17 Postprocessing Radiation Quantities

Available Variables for Postprocessing
FLUENT provides radiation quantities that you can use in postprocessing when your
model includes the solution of radiative heat transfer. You can generate graphical plots
or alphanumeric reports of the following variables/functions:
In the Radiation... category:

• Incident Radiation (P-1 and DO models)

• Absorption Coefficient (DTRM, P-1, DO, and Rosseland models)

• Scattering Coefficient (P-1, DO, and Rosseland models)

• Refractive Index (DO model only)

• Radiation Temperature (P-1 and DO models)

• Surface Cluster ID (S2S model)

In the Wall Fluxes... category:

• Radiation Heat Flux (all radiation models)

• Surface Incident Radiation (S2S, DTRM, and DO models)

• Transmitted Radiation Flux (DO model, semi-transparent wall)

• Reflected Radiation Flux (DO model, semi-transparent wall)

• Absorbed Radiation Flux (DO model, semi-transparent wall)

• Beam Irradiation Flux (DO model, semi-transparent wall)

See Chapter 30: Field Function Definitions for definitions of these postprocessing vari-
ables. Note that in addition, incident radiation, transmitted, reflected and absorbed
radiation flux are also available on a per-band basis for the non-gray DO model.

i The sign convention on the radiative heat flux: heat flux from the wall
surface is a positive quantity.

i It is possible to export heat flux data on wall zones (including radiation)

to a generic file that you can examine or use in an external program. See
Section 13.2.4: Exporting Heat Flux Data for details.

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Reporting Radiative Heat Transfer Through Boundaries

You can use the Flux Reports panel to compute the radiative heat transfer through each
boundary of the domain, or to sum the radiative heat transfer through all boundaries.
Report −→Fluxes...
See Section 29.2: Fluxes Through Boundaries for details about generating flux reports.

Overall Heat Balances When Using the DTRM

The DTRM yields a global heat balance and a balance of radiant heat fluxes only in the
limit of a sufficient number of rays. In any given calculation, therefore, if the number
of rays is insufficient you may find that the radiant fluxes do not obey a strict balance.
Such imbalances are the inevitable consequence of the discrete ray tracing procedure and
can be minimized by selecting a larger number of rays from each wall boundary.

Displaying Rays and Clusters for the DTRM

When you use the DTRM, FLUENT allows you to display surface or volume clusters, as
well as the rays that emanate from a particular surface cluster. You can use the DTRM
Graphics panel (Figure 13.3.28) for all of these displays.
Display −→DTRM Graphics...

Figure 13.3.28: The DTRM Graphics Panel

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Displaying Clusters

To view clusters, select Cluster under Display Type and then select either Surface or Volume
under Cluster Type.
To display all of the surface or volume clusters, select the Display All Clusters option under
Cluster Selection and click the Display button.
To display only the cluster (surface or volume) nearest to a specified point, deselect the
Display All Clusters option and specify the coordinates under Nearest Point. You may also
use the mouse to choose the nearest point. Click on the Select Point With Mouse button
and then right-click on a point in the graphics window.

Displaying Rays

To display the rays emanating from the surface cluster nearest to the specified point,
select Ray under Display Type. Set the appropriate values for Theta and Phi Divisions
under Ray Parameters (see Section 13.3.11: Setting Up the DTRM Model for details),
and then click on the Display button. Figure 13.3.29 shows a ray plot for a simple 2D
geometry.

DTRM Rays

Figure 13.3.29: Ray Display

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Including the Grid in the Display

For some problems, especially complex 3D geometries, you may want to include portions
of the grid in your ray or cluster display as spatial reference points. For example, you may
want to show the location of an inlet and an outlet along with displaying the rays. This
is accomplished by turning on the Draw Grid option in the DTRM Graphics panel. The
Grid Display panel will appear automatically when you turn on the Draw Grid option, and
you can set the grid display parameters there. When you click on Display in the DTRM
Graphics panel, the grid display, as defined in the Grid Display panel, will be included in
the ray or cluster display.

Reporting Radiation in the S2S Model

When you use the S2S model, FLUENT allows you to view the values of the view factor
and radiation emitted from one zone to any other zone. You can use the S2S Information
panel (Figure 13.3.30) to generate a report of these values in the console window or as a
separate file.
Report −→S2S Information...

Figure 13.3.30: The S2S Information Panel

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The steps for generating the report are as follows:

1. Specify the values in which you are interested by selecting View Factors and/or
Incident Radiation.

2. Choose the zones for which you would like data by selecting them in the lists under
From and To (at least one zone must be selected under each list). To select all of
the zones of a particular type, click on that category in the list under Boundary
Types.

3. Specify how you would like the data to be presented. To report the values in the
console window, click the Compute button. To write the data as an S2S Info File
(.sif format), click the Write... button and enter a file name in the Select File
dialog box.

The following is an example of how the data is presented:

S2S Information
From wall1 to:
Viewfactor Incident Radiation
wall1 0.0000 0.0000
wall2 0.2929 171387.7813
wall3 0.2929 155305.7969
wall4 0.4142 29055.9023

From wall2 to:

Viewfactor Incident Radiation
wall1 0.2929 306451.9688
wall2 0.0000 0.0000
wall3 0.4142 214195.0938
wall4 0.2929 19153.2715

Note that the header listed above (S2S Information) is not displayed in the console
window.

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13.3.18 Solar Load Model

FLUENT provides a solar load model that can be used to calculate radiation effects from
the sun’s rays that enter a computational domain. Two options are available for the
model: solar ray tracing and DO irradiation. The ray tracing approach is a highly efficient
and practical means of applying solar loads as heat sources in the energy equations. In
cases where you want to use the discrete ordinates (DO) model to calculate radiation
effects within the domain, an option is available to supply outside beam direction and
intensity parameters directly to the DO model. The solar load model includes a solar
calculator utility that can be used to construct the sun’s location in the sky for a given
time-of-day, date, and position. Solar load is available in the 3d solver only, and can be
used to model steady and unsteady flows.

Introduction
Typical applications that are well-suited for solar load simulations include the following:

• automotive climate control (ACC) applications

• human comfort modeling applications in buildings

The effects of solar loading are needed in many ACC applications, where the temper-
ature, humidity, and velocity fields around passengers (and drivers) are desired. ACC
systems are tested for their capacity to cool down passenger compartments after they
have been “soaked” in intense solar radiation. FLUENT’s solar load model will enable
you to simulate solar loading effects and predict the time it will take to reasonably cool
down the cabin of a car that has been exposed to solar radiation, as well as predict the
time interval needed to lower the temperature in specified points and areas within the
domain.
In the analysis of buildings, solar loading provides a significant burden on the cooling
requirement in warm climates, particularly where architects want to use the aesthetics
of glazed facades. Even in cooler climates, solar loading can provide a burden during
warmer seasons where modern buildings are well insulated against thermal loss during
winter months. As well as providing an engineer with a practical tool for determining
the solar heating effect inside a building, FLUENT’s solar load model will allow the
solar transmission through all glazed surfaces to be determined over the course of a day,
allowing important decisions to be made before undertaking any flow studies.

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Solar Ray Tracing

The solar load model’s ray tracing algorithm can be used to predict the direct illumination
energy source that results from incident solar radiation. It takes a beam that is modeled
using the sun position vector and illumination parameters, applies it to any or all wall or
inlet/outlet boundary zones that you specify, performs a face-by-face shading analysis to
determine well-defined shadows on all boundary faces and interior walls, and computes
the heat flux on the boundary faces that results from the incident radiation.

i The solar ray tracing model includes only boundary zones that are adjacent
to fluid zones in the ray tracing calculation. In other words, boundary zones
that are attached to solid zones are ignored.
The resulting heat flux that is computed by the solar ray tracing algorithm is coupled to
the FLUENT calculation via a source term in the energy equation. The heat sources are
added directly to computational cells bordering each face and are assigned to adjacent
cells in the following order: shell conduction cells, solid cells, and fluid cells. Heat sources
are assigned to one of these types of adjacent cells, only. You can choose to override this
order and include adjacent fluid cells in the solar load calculation by issuing a command
in the text user interface (see Section 13.3.18: Text Interface-Only Commands for details).
Note that the sun position vector and solar intensity can be entered either directly by
you or computed from the solar calculator. Direct and diffuse irradiation parameters
can also be specified using a user-defined function (UDF) and hooked to FLUENT in the
Radiation Model panel.
The solar ray tracing option allows you to include the effects of direct solar illumination
as well as diffuse solar radiation in your FLUENT model. A two-band spectral model
is used for direct solar illumination and accounts for separate material properties in
the visible and infrared bands. A single-band hemispherical-averaged spectral model
is used for diffuse radiation. Opaque materials are characterized in terms of two-band
absorptivities. A semi-transparent material requires specification of absorptivity and
transmissivity. Values that you specify for transmissivity and absorptivity are defined
for normal incident rays. FLUENT recomputes/interpolates these values for the given
angle of incidence.
The solar ray tracing algorithm also accounts for internal scattered and diffusive loading.
The reflected component of direct solar irradiation is tracked. A fraction of this radiative
heat flux, called internally scattered energy is applied to all the surfaces participating
in the solar load calculation, weighted by area. The internally scattered energy depends
on the scattering fraction which is specified in the TUI, and whose default value is
1. Depending on the reflectivity of the primary surface, the scattering fraction can be
responsible for the inclusion (or exclusion) of a large amount of radiation within the rest
of the domain.

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Also included as internally scattered energy is the contribution of the transmitted com-
ponent of diffuse solar irradiation (which enters a domain through semi-transparent walls
depending upon the hemispherical transmissivity). The total value of internally scattered
energy is reported to the FLUENT console. The ambient flux is obtained by dividing the
internally scattered energy by the total surface area of the faces participating in the solar
load calculation.
Note that Solar Ray Tracing is not a participating radiation model. It does not deal
with emission from surfaces, and the reflecting component of the primary incident load
is distributed uniformly across all surfaces rather than being local to the surfaces re-
flected to. If surface emission is an important factor in your case then you can consider
implementing a radiation model (e.g., P1) in conjunction with Solar Ray Tracing.

Shading Algorithm

The shading calculation that is used for solar ray tracing is a straightforward application
of vector geometry. A ray is traced from the centroid of a test face in the direction of
the sun. Every other face is checked to determine if the ray intersects the candidate face
and if the candidate face is in front of the test face. If both conditions are met, then
an opaque face completely shades the test face. A semi-transparent face attenuates the
incident energy.
A Barycentric coordinate formulation is used to construct triangle-ray intersections. A
quadrilateral ray intersection method is used to handle the case when model surfaces
contain quadrilaterals. A quad-tree preprocessing step is applied to reduce the ray tracing
algorithm complexity that can lead to long runtime for 104 faces and greater. The quad-
tree refinement factor can be modified in the text interface. The default value of this
parameter is 7 which is sufficient to cover the entire spectrum of mesh sizes between one
cell and five million cells. If the mesh is greater than five million cells, an increase in this
parameter would reduce the CPU time needed to compute the solar loads.

Glazing Materials

Incident solar radiation can be applied to glass and plastic glazing materials of various
types at wall boundaries, and the effects of coated glazings modeled using the solar
ray tracing algorithm. To model solar optical properties, you will need to specify the
transmissivity and reflectivity of the material in the Wall boundary conditions panel. You
can obtain these values from the glass (or plastic) manufacturer or use data from another
source (e.g., ASHRAE Handbook).
Glazing optical properties are dependent on incident angle, and the variation is significant
for an incident angle greater than 40 degrees. As the incident angle increases from zero,
transmissivity decreases, reflectivity increases, and absorptivity increases initially due to
lengthened optical path, and then decreases as more incident radiation is reflected. The
shape of the property curve varies with glass type and thickness. This difference is more

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pronounced for coated glass or for a multiple-pane glazing system. It cannot be assumed
that all glazing systems have a universal angular dependence.
For coated glazings, the spectral transmissivity and reflectivity at any incident angle are
approximated in the solar load model from the normal angle of incidence (Finlayson and
Arasteh, 1993).
Transmissivity is given by

T (θ, λ) = T (0, λ)T ref (θ) (13.3-93)

where

T ref (θ) = a0 + a1cos(θ) + a2 cos(θ2 ) + a3cos(θ3 ) + a4cos(θ4 ) (13.3-94)

Reflectivity is given by

R(θ, λ) = R(0, λ)[1 − Rref (θ)] + Rref (θ) (13.3-95)

where

Rref (θ) = b0 + b1cos(θ) + b2 cos(θ2 ) + b3cos(θ3 ) + b4cos(θ4 ) − T ref (θ) (13.3-96)

The constants used in Equations 13.3-93 and 13.3-95 are for coated glazings and are
taken from Finlayson, E.U., Arasteh, D.K., Huizenga, C., Rubin, M.D., Reilly, M.S. 1993.
WINDOW 4.0: Documentation of Calculation Procedures. Publication LBL-33493/TA-
309. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Energy and Environmental Division, Berkeley, CA.
URL: http://btech.lpl.gov/papers/33493.pdf. T (0, λ) and R(0, λ) are specified in the
Wall boundary conditions panel.

Inputs

The following inputs are required for the solar ray tracing algorithm:

• sun direction vector

• direct solar irradiation

• diffuse solar irradiation

• spectral fraction

• direct and IR absorptivity (opaque wall)

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• direct and IR absorptivity and transmissivity (semi-transparent wall)

• diffuse hemispherical absorptivity and transmissivity (semi-transparent wall)

• quad tree refinement factor

• scattering fraction

• ground reflectivity

You can enter the sun direction vector components (X, Y, Z) and the direct and diffuse
solar irradiation values as constants in the Radiation Model panel, or you can have these
parameters derived from the solar calculator. Irradiation can also be specified using a
user-defined function (Section 13.3.18: User-Defined Functions (UDFs) for Solar Load.)
The scattering fraction and quad tree refinement factor defaults are used by the solar
ray tracing algorithm. Ground reflectivity is the overall reflectivity of the ground and is
used to calculate the component of diffuse radiation that will result from radiation being
reflected off the ground. You can modify the default values using text commands issued
at the console window (see Section 13.3.18: Text Interface-Only Commands).
The absorptivity and transmissivity parameters are entered in the Wall boundary condi-
tion panel for the particular wall zones you wish to participate in solar ray tracing.

DO Irradiation
The solar load model’s discrete ordinates (DO) irradiation option provides you with an
easy means of applying a solar load directly to the DO model. Unlike the ray tracing
solar load option, the DO irradiation method does not compute heat fluxes and apply
them as heat sources to the energy equation. Instead, the irradiation flux is applied
directly to semi-transparent walls (that you specify) as a boundary condition, and the
radiative heat transfer is derived from the solution of the DO radiative transfer equation.
The following inputs are required for DO irradiation at semi-transparent walls:

• total irradiation (direct and diffuse)

• beam direction

• beam width

• diffuse fraction

In the Wall boundary condition panel for each semi-transparent wall you want to par-
ticipate in DO irradiation, you can specify that the beam direction and total irradiation
be derived from the solar parameters (e.g., solar calculator) that you set (or compute)
in the Radiation Model panel. This is done by checking the Use Beam Direction from

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Solar Parameters and Use Total Irradiation from Solar Parameters boxes. When selected,
FLUENT sets the beam width (the angle subtended by the sun) to the default value of
0.53 degrees for DO irradiation.

i Note that the sign of the beam direction that is needed for the DO model is
opposite the sun direction vector that is entered or derived from the solar
parameters. The beam direction in the DO model is the direction of exter-
nal radiation (e.g., radiation coming from the sun), while the sun direction
vector in the solar load model points to the sun. Incident radiation and
sun angle always have an opposite sign since they are quantities that are
defined from opposite perspectives.

Solar Calculator
FLUENT provides a solar calculator that can be used to compute solar beam direction
and irradiation for a given time, date, and position. These values can be used as inputs
to the solar ray tracing algorithm or as semi-transparent wall boundary conditions for
discrete ordinates (DO) irradiation.

Inputs/Outputs

Inputs needed for the solar calculator are:

• global position (latitude, longitude, time zone)

• starting date and time

• grid orientation

• solar irradiation method

• sunshine factor

Global position consists of latitude, longitude, and time zone (relative to GMT). The
time of day for a transient simulation is the starting time plus the flow-time. For grid
orientation, you will need to specify the North and East direction vector in the CFD
grid. The default solar irradiation method is Fair Weather Conditions. Alternatively,
you can choose the Theoretical Maximum method. The sunshine factor is simply a
linear reduction factor for the computed incident load that allows for cloud cover to be
accounted for, if appropriate.
You can specify these inputs in the Solar Calculator panel that is accessible from the
Radiation Model panel (Figure 13.3.34). Alternatively, you can enter the parameters
using text interface commands (Section 13.3.18: Additional Text Interface Commands).

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The following values are computed by the solar calculator and are displayed on the console
window whenever the solar calculator is invoked:

• sun direction vector

• direct normal solar irradiation at earth’s surface

• diffuse solar irradiation - vertical and horizontal surface

• ground reflected (diffuse) solar irradiation - vertical surface

Direct normal solar irradiation is computed using the ASHRAE Fair Weather Condi-
tions method, when this option is selected in the solar calculator. (Note: Equation 20
and Table 7 from Chapter 30 of the 2001 ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals.) The
theoretical maximum values for direct normal solar irradiation and diffuse solar irradi-
ation are computed using NREL’s Theoretical Maximum method, when this option is
selected. In practice, these values are unlikely to be experienced due to atmospheric
conditions.
FLUENT computes the diffuse solar irradiation components (vertical and horizontal) in-
ternally for each face in the domain. When the Theoretical Maximum method is chosen,
these diffuse irradiation values provide estimates for the maximum vertical and horizontal
surface effects.

Theory

FLUENT provides two options for computing the solar load: Fair Weather Conditions
method and Theoretical Maximum method. Although these methods are similar, there
is a key difference. The Fair Weather Conditions method imposes greater attenuation
on the solar load which is representative of atmospheric conditions that are fair –but not
completely clear.
The equation for normal direct irradiation applying the Fair Weather Conditions Method
is taken from the ASHRAE Handbook:

A
Edn = B (13.3-97)
e sin(β)
where A and B are apparent solar irradiation at air mass m = 0 and atmospheric
extinction coefficient, respectively. These values are based on the earth’s surface on a
clear day. β is the solar altitude (in degrees) above the horizontal.

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The equation for direct normal irradiation that is used for the Theoretical Maximum
Method is taken from NREL’s Solar Position and Intensity Code (Solpos):

Edn = Setrn Sunprime (13.3-98)

where Setrn is the top of the atmosphere direct normal solar irradiance and Sunprime is
the correction factor used to account for reduction in solar load through the atmosphere.
The calculation for the diffuse load in the solar model is based on the approach suggested
in the 2001 ASHRAE Fundamental Handbook (Chapter 20, Fenestration). The equation
for diffuse solar irradiation on a vertical surface is given by:

Ed = CY Edn (13.3-99)

where C is a constant whose values are given in Table 7 from Chapter 30 of the 2001
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, Y is the ratio of sky diffuse radiation on a vertical
surface to that on a horizontal surface, and Edn is the direct normal irradiation at the
earth’s surface on a clear day.
The equation for diffuse solar irradiation for surfaces other than vertical surfaces is given
by:

(1 + cos )
Ed = CEdn (13.3-100)
2
where  is the tilt angle of the surface (in degrees) from the horizontal plane.
The equation for ground reflected solar irradiation on a surface is given by:

(1 − cos )
Er = Edn(C + sin β)ρg (13.3-101)
2
where ρg is the ground reflectivity. The total diffuse irradiation on a given surface will be
the sum of Ed and Er when the input for diffuse solar radiation is taken from the solar
calculator. Otherwise, if the constant option is selected in the Radiation panel, then the
total diffuse irradiation will be the same as specified in the panel.

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Running Solar Load Using a Serial Solver

When you want to run a steady-state solution with solar load enabled on a serial solver,
you simply setup the solar load model (Section 13.3.18: Setting Up the Solar Load
Model) and boundary conditions (Section 13.3.18: Setting Boundary Conditions for Solar
Loading) for your case, and then run the simulation. The solution data file will contain
the solar fluxes that you can use for postprocessing. For a steady-state solution, the solar
loads are computed on initialization. If you want to initially solve a case without solar
loading (say, for stability) and then add the effects of solar loading afterward, you will
need to enable the solar load model through the text user interface (TUI).

i Note that you can compute the solar load at any time once you have
setup the model by using the sol-on-demand text interface command (see
Section 13.3.18: Additional Text Interface Commands for details).
When you want to run a transient solar load simulation on a serial solver, the process is
the same as for the steady-state case but you will need to specify the additional Time Steps
per Solar Load Update parameter in the Radiation Model panel. FLUENT will re-compute
the sun position and irradiation and update solar loads with this specified frequency.

Using Solar Load in the Parallel Solver

The solar ray tracing algorithm is not parallelized in FLUENT. As a result, you will
have to generate solar data for the case in serial mode, and then use that data in your
parallel simulation. Follow the separate procedures below for steady-state and transient
simulations, respectively.

Steady-State Simulation

The general process for a steady-state solar load simulation in parallel is outlined below:

1. Start a serial solver in FLUENT and read (or setup) your case file.

2. Setup the solar load model (Section 13.3.18: Setting Up the Solar Load Model).

3. Setup the boundary conditions (Section 13.3.18: Setting Boundary Conditions for
Solar Loading)

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4. Initialize the solution in the Solution Initialization panel.

Solar load data is computed at solution initialization for steady-state cases. The
data will be written to the console window, as shown in the example below:

Internally Scattered Energy [W]: 2.29688e-05, Ambient Flux [W/m^2]:

0.000314448
Boundary ID: 11, Integral Energy Source [W]: 3.843255e-08
Boundary ID: 10, Integral Energy Source [W]: 1.922111e-08
Boundary ID: 8, Integral Energy Source [W]: 1.642018e-06
Boundary ID: 1, Integral Energy Source [W]: 1.126829e-04
Boundary ID: 3, Integral Energy Source [W]: 1.537705e-07
Boundary ID: 4, Integral Energy Source [W]: 3.074602e-07
Total Integral Energy Source [W]: 1.148438e-04
Compute Time: 1 sec

5. Save the case and data files.

6. Start the parallel solver and read the case and data files.

7. Setup and run your parallel steady-state simulation.

Transient Simulation

The general process for a transient solar load simulation in parallel is outlined below.

1. Start a serial solver in FLUENT and read (or setup) your case file.

2. Setup the solar load model which includes specifying the Time Steps per Solar Load
Update in the Radiation Model panel (Section 13.3.18: Setting Up the Solar Load
Model).

3. Setup the boundary conditions (Section 13.3.18: Setting Boundary Conditions for
Solar Loading).

4. Enable the autosave file capability in the text interface that will write separate
solar data file(s) at specified time intervals to be used by the parallel solver. (See
autosave-solar-data in Section 13.3.18: Text Interface-Only Commands).

i Make sure that the frequency you specify for autosaving solar load data is
the same as for updating. If you choose to make these frequencies different,
then the autosave time step should be a multiple of the solar load update
time step.
5. Disable all transport equations in the Solution Controls panel.

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6. Save the case file.

7. Initialize the solution.

i Solar load data is computed at solution initialization for steady-state cases

and written to the console window. See previous steady-state procedure.
8. Set the Max Iterations per Time Step to 1 in the Iterate panel.

9. Run the simulation. As the solver iterates, FLUENT will write separate data files
for the time step frequency that you specified in the autosave command, and will
report it to the console window. The data files will be saved in your working
directory and will be identified by the time step number that is appended to the
file name. For example, solar data002.dat will contain the solar data for the
second time step.

i The autosave solar data files cannot be used for postprocessing.

10. Start the parallel solver.

11. Read the case file.

12. Enable the autoread file capability in the text interface that will direct the solver to
automatically read the ’autosaved’ solar data file(s) that were generated during the
serial session. (See autoread-solar-data in Section 13.3.18: Text Interface-Only
Commands).

i Make sure that the frequency you specify for autoreading solar load data
is the same that you specified for autosaving and updating solar data. If
you choose to make these frequencies different, then the autosave time step
should be a multiple of the update time step, and the autoread time step
should be a multiple of autosave.
13. Make sure that the equations you want to solve for in your parallel simulation are
set in the Solution Controls panel.

14. Run the transient simulation.

i Note that the solar flux data that will be available at the end of the solution
process is for the last time step that was read using the autoread frequency.

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User-Defined Functions (UDFs) for Solar Load

You can write a user-defined function (UDF) to specify direct and diffuse solar intensity
using the DEFINE SOLAR INTENSITY macro. See Section 2.3.16: DEFINE SOLAR INTENSITY
of the separate UDF Manual for details. Once interpreted or compiled, you can hook
your intensity UDF for direct or diffuse solar irradiation by selecting user-defined in
the drop-down lists for these parameters in the Radiation Model panel. See Step 2 in
Section 13.3.18: Setting Up the Solar Load Model for details.

Setting Up the Solar Load Model

Graphical User Interface

The solar load model is enabled in the Radiation Model panel (Figure 13.3.31).
Define −→ Models −→Radiation...

Figure 13.3.31: The Radiation Model Panel (With Solar Load Model Solar
Ray Tracing Option)

The solar load model has two options: Solar Ray Tracing and DO Irradiation. Solar Ray
Tracing can be applied as a standalone solar loading model, or it can be used in con-
junction with one of the FLUENT radiation models (P1, Rosseland, Discrete Transfer,
Surface-to-Surface, Discrete Ordinates). DO Irradiation is available only when the Discrete
Ordinates (DO) radiation model is enabled.

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1. Enable the solar load model in the Radiation Model panel.

(a) To enable the solar ray tracing algorithm, select Solar Ray Tracing under Solar
Load (Figure 13.3.32).

Figure 13.3.32: The Radiation Model Panel

(b) To enable the DO irradiation option, first select Discrete Ordinates under
Model, and then select DO Irradiation under Solar Load (Figure 13.3.33).

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Figure 13.3.33: The Radiation Model Panel (With Solar Load Model DO Ir-
radiation Option)

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2. Define the solar parameters.

(a) Enter read values for the X, Y, and Z components of the Sun Direction Vector.
Alternatively, you can choose to have this vector computed from the solar
calculator by enabling the Use Direction Computed from Solar Calculator option.
(b) Specify the illumination parameters.
i. Enter a value for Direct Solar Irradiation under Illumination Parameters.
This parameter is the amount of energy per unit area in W/m2 due to
direct solar irradiation. This value may depend on the time of year and
the clearness of the sky. Make your selection in the drop-down list next
to Direct Solar Irradiation and either enter a constant value, have the value
computed from the solar calculator, or specify it using a user-defined func-
tion. (See Section 2.3.16: DEFINE SOLAR INTENSITY for details on writing
solar intensity UDFs.) For transient simulations, you have the additional
option of specifying a time-dependent piecewise-linear and polynomial pro-
file for direct solar irradiation.
ii. Enter a value for Diffuse Solar Irradiation, which is the amount of energy
per unit area in W/m2 due to diffuse solar irradiation. This value may
depend on the time of year, the clearness of the sky, and also on ground
reflectivity. Make your selection in the drop-down list next to Diffuse So-
lar Irradiation and either enter a constant value, have the value computed
from the solar calculator, or specify it using a user-defined function. (See
Section 2.3.16: DEFINE SOLAR INTENSITY for details on writing solar in-
tensity UDFs.) For transient simulations, you have the additional option
of specifying a time-dependent piecewise-linear and polynomial profile for
diffuse solar irradiation.
iii. If you are using the Solar Ray Tracing solar load model (Figure 13.3.32),
then you will need to enter a value for Spectral Fraction. The spectral
fraction is the fraction of incident solar radiation in the visible part of
the solar radiation spectrum. The spectral fraction is not used for DO
irradiation since the DO implementation is intended only for a single band.
Spectral Fraction =
V
(13.3-102)
V + IR
where V is the visible incident solar radiation, and V + IR is the total
incident solar radiation (visible plus infrared).

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3. Use the solar calculator to compute solar beam direction and irradiation.
(a) Click Solar Calculator... in the Radiation Model panel to open the Solar Calcu-
lator panel (Figure 13.3.34).

Figure 13.3.34: The Solar Calculator Panel

(b) In the Solar Calculator panel, define the Global Position by the following pa-
rameters:
i. Enter a real number in degrees for Longitude. Values may range from
−180 to 180 where negative values indicate the Western hemisphere and
positive values indicate the Eastern hemisphere.
ii. Enter a real number for Latitude in degrees. Values can range from −90◦
(the South Pole) to 90◦ (the North Pole), with 0◦ defined as the equator.
iii. Enter an integer for Timezone that is the local time zone in hours relative
to Greenwich Mean Time (+-GMT). This value can range from +12 to
−12.

i Note that you must specify all three Global Position parameters for
the solar calculator.

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(c) Define the local Date and Time by the following parameters:
i. Enter an integer for Day and Month under Day of Year.
ii. Enter an integer for Hour that ranges from 0 to 24 under Time of Day.
Enter an integer or floating point number for Minute.
The time of day is based on a 24-hour clock: 0 hours and 0 minutes
corresponds to 12:00 a.m. and 23 hours 59.99 min corresponds to 11:59.99
p.m. For example, if the local time was 12:01:30 a.m., you would enter 0
for Hour and 1.5 for Minute. If the local time was 4:17 p.m., you would
enter 16 for Hour and 17 for Minute.
(d) Define the Grid Orientation as the vectors for North and East in the CFD grid
system of coordinates.
(e) Select the appropriate Solar Irradiation Method. The Fair Weather Conditions
is the default method.
(f) Enter an integer for Sunshine Fraction (default = 1).
(g) Click Apply.
The solar calculator output parameters are computed and the results are re-
ported in the console window. The default values are shown below:
Fair Weather Conditions:
Sun Direction Vector: X: -0.0785396, Y: 0.170758, X: 0.982178
Sunshine Fraction: 1
Direct Normal Solar Irradiation (at Earth’s surface) [W/m^2]:
881.635
Diffuse Solar Irradiation - vertical surface: [W/m^2]:
152.107
Diffuse Solar Irradiation - horizontal surface: [W/m^2]:
118.727
Ground Reflected Solar Irradiation - vertical surface: [W/m^2]:
96.4649
4. For transient simulations, enter the Time Steps Per Solar Load Update under Update
Parameters. The number of time steps that you specify will direct the FLUENT
solver to update the solar load data for the specified flow-time intervals in the
unsteady solution process.

Setting Boundary Conditions for Solar Loading

Once you have defined the solar parameters for the solar load model (Section 13.3.18: Set-
ting Up the Solar Load Model), you will need to setup boundary conditions for boundary
zones that will participate in solar loading.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

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Solar Ray Tracing

1. Set the boundary condition for each inlet and exit boundary zone that you want
to include in solar loading.
(a) Open the inlet or exit boundary condition panel (e.g., Velocity Inlet) and click
the Radiation tab (Figure 13.3.35).
(b) Enable the Participates in Solar Ray Tracing option. (The default is enabled for
all boundary conditions.) If you deactivate solar ray tracing by disabling this
option the surface will be ignored and the solar ray will pass through it with
no interaction, regardless of the boundary condition type.
(c) Click OK.

Figure 13.3.35: The Velocity Inlet Panel

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2. Set the boundary condition for each wall boundary zone that you want to include
in solar loading.
(a) Open a Wall boundary condition panel and click the Radiation tab.
(b) Define the wall as opaque or semi-transparent. An opaque wall will not allow
any solar radiation to pass through it, while a semi-transparent surface will
allow a portion of the solar radiation to pass through it.)
i. For an opaque wall, select opaque from the drop-down list for BC Type
(Figure 13.3.36). Then enable the Participates in Solar Ray Tracing option
and enter constant values for Direct Visible and Direct IR absorptivity.

i Absorption in the visible and infrared portions of the spectrum

define the surface material for the opaque wall.

Figure 13.3.36: The Wall Panel

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 13.3 Modeling Radiation

ii. For a semi-transparent wall, select semi-transparent from the drop-down

list for BC Type (Figure 13.3.37). Then, enable the Participates in Solar
Ray Tracing option and enter constant values for Direct Visible, Direct IR,
and Diffuse Hemispherical absorptivity and transmissivity.

Figure 13.3.37: The Wall Panel

i Absorption and transmittance in the visible and infrared portions

of the spectrum, as well as the “shading” formulation (Diffuse
Hemispherical), define the surface material for a semi-transparent
wall.
iii. Click OK.

i FLUENT will calculate the reflectivity as the difference between one and
the sum of absorptivity and transmissivity:

ref lectivity = 1 − (absorptivity + transmissivity) (13.3-103)

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DO irradiation
1. For DO Irradiation, all boundary conditions are setup as normal for the DO model,
except that now you can select semi-transparent boundary surfaces which will pro-
vide a source of solar irradiation.
(a) Open a Wall boundary condition panel and click the Radiation tab (Fig-
ure 13.3.38).

Figure 13.3.38: The Wall Panel

(b) Select semi-transparent from the drop-down list for BC Type.

(c) Enable the Use Beam Direction from Solar Parameters option Solar BC Options
to have the values for beam direction applied from the Solar Parameters panel.

i Note that the sign of the beam direction that is needed for the DO model is
opposite the sun direction vector that is entered or derived from the solar
parameters. The beam direction in the DO model is the direction of exter-
nal radiation (e.g., radiation coming from the sun), while the sun direction
vector in the solar load model points to the sun. Incident radiation and
sun angle always have an opposite sign since they are quantities that are
defined from opposite perspectives.

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 13.3 Modeling Radiation

(d) Enable the Use Total Irradiation from Solar Parameters option to have the solar
calculator output be applied for total irradiation. Note that total irradiation is
the sum of the direct and diffuse irradiation values. When Use Total Irradiation
from Solar Parameters is enabled, the beam width will automatically be set to
0.53 degrees - the angle subtended by the sun.
(e) Click OK.

Text Interface-Only Commands

FLUENT has provided some additional commands for solar load setup that are only
available in the text interface. These commands are present below.

Automatically Saving Solar Data

It is possible to direct FLUENT to automatically save solar load data to a generic file
that you can examine or use in an external program. This is done by executing the text
command autosave-solar-data from the text interface.
define −→ models −→ radiation −→ solar-parameters −→autosave-solar-data

1. Enter the Solar Data File Frequency (default=0).

2. Enter the filename, in quotations.
3. Choose to write file in binary format.

The text interface command for autosave-solar-data for a file named solar and a
frequency of 1 is shown below:

/define/models/radiation/solar-parameters> autosave-solar-data
Autosave Solar Data File Frequency [0] 1
Enter Filename [""] "solar"

Automatically Reading Solar Data

When you are executing a transient simulation in parallel FLUENT and you want to take
solar loading conditions into consideration, you can use autoread-solar-data text com-
mand to automatically read the solar load data file you generated during a serial run into
parallel FLUENT. This is done by executing the text command autoread-solar-data
from the text interface.
define −→ models −→ radiation −→ solar-parameters −→autoread-solar-data

1. Enter the Solar Data File Frequency (default=0).

2. Enter the filename, in quotations.

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The text interface command for autosave-read-data for a file named solar and a
frequency of 1 is shown below:

/define/models/radiation/solar-parameters> autosave-solar-data
Autosave Solar Data File Frequency [0] 1
Enter Filename [""] "solar"
Use Binary Format for Reading Data Files [yes]

Aligning the Camera Direction With the Position of the Sun

When the solar load model is enabled, you can direct FLUENT to align the camera
direction with the sun position using the text interface command:
define −→ models −→ radiation −→ solar-parameters −→sol-camera-pos
This command is useful when you are executing a transient simulation and you want
to capture an image of your model with solar load parameters displayed (such as solar
heat flux) as the sun position changes with time in order to create an animation. See
Section 13.3.18: Postprocessing Solar Load Quantities for details.

Specifying the Scattering Fraction

You can modify the default scattering fraction (1) using the text interface command:
define −→ models −→ radiation −→ solar-parameters −→scattering-fraction
The scattering fraction is the amount of direct radiation that has been reflected from
opaque surfaces (after entering through the transparent surfaces) that will be considered
to remain within the space and be evenly distributed among all surfaces. The value is
between 0 and 1.
The text interface command for specifying a scattering-fraction of 0.5 is shown below:

/define/models/radiation/solar-parameters> scattering-fraction
Scattering Fraction [1] .5

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Applying the Solar Load on Adjacent Fluid Cells

You can direct FLUENT to apply the solar load that is computed from the solar ray
tracing algorithm to adjacent fluid cells by issuing the following command at the text
interface:
define −→ models −→ radiation −→ solar-parameters −→
sol-adjacent-fluidcells
The text interface command is shown below:

/define/models/radiation/solar-parameters> sol-adjacent-fluidcells
Apply Solar Load on adjacent Fluid Cells? [no] y

This command allows you to apply solar loads to adjacent fluid cells only, even if solid
or shell conduction zones are present. By applying the solar load on adjacent fluid cells,
you are overruling the default order of the adjacent cell assignment in FLUENT which is
shell, solid, fluid.

Specifying Quad Tree Refinement Factor

You can modify the default value (7) for the maximum quad tree refinement factor in
the solar ray tracing algorithm using the text command:
define −→ models −→ radiation −→ solar-parameters −→quad-tree-parameters
The text interface command is shown below, when a new maximum refinement value of
10 is specified:

/define/models/radiation/solar-parameters> quad-tree-parameters
Maximum Quad-Tree Refinement [7] 10

Specifying Ground Reflectivity

You can modify the default value (0.2) for the ground reflectivity using the text command:
define −→ models −→ radiation −→ solar-parameters −→ground-reflectivity
Ground reflectivity includes the contribution of reflected solar radiation from ground
surfaces. It is treated as part of the total diffuse solar irradiation when the solar calculator
is used in conjunction with the Diffuse Solar Irradiation illumination parameter.
The default value is 0.2.

/define/models/radiation/solar-parameters> ground-reflectivity
Ground Reflectivity [0.2] 0.5

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Modeling Heat Transfer

Additional Text Interface Commands

Some solar load commands that are available in the graphical user interface are also made
available in the text interface. For example, you can turn the solar load model on using
the text command:
define −→ models −→ radiation −→solar?
You can also enter the solar calculator parameters in the text interface by executing the
command:
define −→ models −→ radiation −→solar-calculator
Once invoked, you will be prompted to enter the solar calculator input parameters.
To set the illumination parameters, select this option from the solar-parameters menu:
define −→ models −→ radiation −→ solar-parameters −→
illumination-parameters
And finally, you can direct FLUENT to compute the solar load on demand, by issuing
the text command:
define −→ models −→ radiation −→ solar-parameters −→sol-on-demand
When the command is initiated, the solar data are written to the console window (see
Section 13.3.18: Using Solar Load in the Parallel Solver for a sample).

Postprocessing Solar Load Quantities

The following solar load quantities can be used to visualize the illuminated areas and
shadows created by solar radiation.

• solar heat flux (i.e., sum of visible and IR absorbed solar flux on opaque walls)

• absorbed visible and IR solar flux (semi-transparent walls only)

• reflected visible and IR solar flux (semi-transparent walls only)

• transmitted visible and IR solar flux (semi-transparent walls only)

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These quantities are available for postprocessing of solar loading at wall boundaries and
can be displayed as contours of Wall Fluxes in the Contours panel. For steady-state
simulations, the solar flux data is computed at solution initialization and is available for
postprocessing. You can also compute the solar load at any time during your FLUENT
session, once you have setup the model and applied boundary conditions. To compute the
solar load on demand, you can issue the sol-on-demand command in the text interface
(see Section 13.3.18: Additional Text Interface Commands for details).
Solar heat flux, for example, can be displayed for surfaces using the Contours panel. A
sample panel is shown below (Figure 13.3.39).
Display −→Contours...

Figure 13.3.39: The Contours Panel

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Modeling Heat Transfer

Solar Load Animation at Different Sun Positions

The solar camera alignment command is useful when you want to take timed pictures of
solar loading effects of your model during transient simulations, and later create anima-
tions of the image files using an external program. Follow the procedure below.

1. Read (or set-up) your transient case file in FLUENT.

2. Set-up the automatic execution of solution commands in the Execute Commands

panel that will: 1) display solar load parameter graphics, 2) re-position the solar
camera such that the view is aligned with the instantaneous sun direction, and 3)
generate a hardcopy image file (.tiff) during the solution process in the Execute
Commands panel.
Solve −→Execute Commands...

3. Initialize and iterate the solution.

4. Animate the .tiff files using an external animation tool.

The following commands entered in the Execute Commands panel will direct FLUENT to
display contours of solar heat flux, align the camera with the current direction of the
sun, and then generate a hardcopy image file (.tiff) of the solar heat flux contour every
300 time steps during the unsteady simulation. See Figure 13.3.40.

/di/cont solar-heat-flux ,,
/def/mod/rad/solar-para/sol-camera-pos
/di/hc "flux-%t.tiff"

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Figure 13.3.40: The Execute Commands Panel

Reporting and Displaying Solar Load Quantities

FLUENT provides some additional solar load variables that you can use for postprocess-
ing when your model includes solar ray tracing. You can generate graphical plots or
alphanumeric reports of the following variables:
In the Wall Fluxes... category:

• Solar Heat Flux

• Transmitted Visible Solar Flux (semi-transparent walls)

• Transmitted IR Solar Flux (semi-transparent walls)

• Reflected Visible Solar Flux (semi-transparent walls)

• Reflected IR Solar Flux (semi-transparent walls)

• Absorbed Visible Solar Flux (semi-transparent walls)

• Absorbed IR Solar Flux (semi-transparent walls)

See Chapter 30: Field Function Definitions for their definitions.

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Modeling Heat Transfer

13.4 Modeling Periodic Heat Transfer

FLUENT is able to predict heat transfer in periodically repeating geometries, such as
compact heat exchangers, by including only a single periodic module for analysis.
This section discusses streamwise-periodic heat transfer. The treatment of streamwise-
periodic flows is discussed in Section 9.4: Periodic Flows, and a description of no-pressure-
drop periodic flow is provided in Section 7.15: Periodic Boundary Conditions.
Information about streamwise-periodic heat transfer is presented in the following sections:

• Section 13.4.1: Overview and Limitations

• Section 13.4.2: Theory

• Section 13.4.3: Steps in Using Periodic Heat Transfer

• Section 13.4.4: Solution Strategies for Periodic Heat Transfer

• Section 13.4.5: Monitoring Convergence

• Section 13.4.6: Postprocessing for Periodic Heat Transfer

13.4.1 Overview and Limitations

Overview
As discussed in Section 9.4.1: Overview and Limitations, streamwise-periodic flow con-
ditions exist when the flow pattern repeats over some length L, with a constant pressure
drop across each repeating module along the streamwise direction.
Periodic thermal conditions may be established when the thermal boundary conditions
are of the constant wall temperature or wall heat flux type. In such problems, the temper-
ature field (when scaled in an appropriate manner) is periodically fully-developed [278].
As for periodic flows, such problems can be analyzed by restricting the numerical model
to a single module or periodic length.

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Constraints for Periodic Heat Transfer Predictions

In addition to the constraints for streamwise-periodic flow discussed in Section 9.4.1: Lim-
itations for Modeling Streamwise-Periodic Flow, the following constraints must be met
when periodic heat transfer is to be considered:

• The pressure-based solver must be used.

• The thermal boundary conditions must be of the specified heat flux or constant
wall temperature type. Furthermore, in a given problem, these thermal boundary
types cannot be combined: all boundaries must be either constant temperature
or specified heat flux. (You can, however, include constant-temperature walls and
zero-heat-flux walls in the same problem.) For the constant-temperature case, all
walls must be at the same temperature (profiles are not allowed) or zero heat flux.
For the heat flux case, profiles and/or different values of heat flux may be specified
at different walls.

• When constant-temperature wall boundaries are used, you cannot include viscous
heating effects or any volumetric heat sources.

• In cases that involve solid regions, the regions cannot straddle the periodic plane.

• The thermodynamic and transport properties of the fluid (heat capacity, thermal
conductivity, viscosity, and density) cannot be functions of temperature. (You
cannot, therefore, model reacting flows.) Transport properties may, however, vary
spatially in a periodic manner, and this allows you to model periodic turbulent
flows in which the effective turbulent transport properties (effective conductivity,
effective viscosity) vary with the (periodic) turbulence field.

Sections 13.4.2 and 13.4.3 provide more detailed descriptions of the input requirements
for periodic heat transfer.

13.4.2 Theory
Streamwise-periodic flow with heat transfer from constant-temperature walls is one of
two classes of periodic heat transfer that can be modeled by FLUENT. A periodic fully-
developed temperature field can also be obtained when heat flux conditions are specified.
In such cases, the temperature change between periodic boundaries becomes constant
and can be related to the net heat addition from the boundaries as described in this
section.

i Periodic heat transfer can be modeled only if you are using the pressure-
based solver.

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Definition of the Periodic Temperature for Constant- Temperature Wall

Conditions
For the case of constant wall temperature, as the fluid flows through the periodic domain,
its temperature approaches that of the wall boundaries. However, the temperature can
be scaled in such a way that it behaves in a periodic manner. A suitable scaling of the
temperature for periodic flows with constant-temperature walls is [278]

T (~r) − Twall
θ= (13.4-1)
Tbulk,inlet − Twall

The bulk temperature, Tbulk,inlet , is defined by

R
~
T |ρ~v · dA|
Tbulk,inlet = RA (13.4-2)
~
|ρ~v · dA|
A

where the integral is taken over the inlet periodic boundary (A). It is the scaled temper-
ature, θ, which obeys a periodic condition across the domain of length L.

Definition of the Periodic Temperature Change σ for Specified Heat Flux

Conditions
When periodic heat transfer with heat flux conditions is considered, the form of the
unscaled temperature field becomes analogous to that of the pressure field in a periodic
flow:

~ − T (~r)
T (~r + L) ~ − T (~r + L)
T (~r + 2L) ~
= = σ. (13.4-3)
L L
~ is the periodic length vector of the domain. This temperature gradient, σ, can
where L
be written in terms of the total heat addition within the domain, Q, as

Q Tbulk,exit − Tbulk,inlet
σ= = (13.4-4)
ṁcp L L

where ṁ is the specified or calculated mass flow rate.

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13.4.3 Steps in Using Periodic Heat Transfer

A typical calculation involving both streamwise-periodic flow and periodic heat transfer
is performed in two parts. First, the periodic velocity field is calculated (to conver-
gence) without consideration of the temperature field. Next, the velocity field is frozen
and the resulting temperature field is calculated. These periodic flow calculations are
accomplished using the following procedure:

1. Set up a grid with translationally periodic boundary conditions.

2. Input constant thermodynamic and molecular transport properties.

3. Specify either the periodic pressure gradient or the net mass flow rate through the
periodic boundaries.

4. Compute the periodic flow field, solving momentum, continuity, and (optionally)
turbulence equations.

5. Specify the thermal boundary conditions at walls as either heat flux or constant
temperature.

6. Define an inlet bulk temperature.

7. Solve the energy equation (only) to predict the periodic temperature field.

These steps are detailed below.

In order to model the periodic heat transfer, you will need to set up your periodic model
in the manner described in Section 9.4.3: User Inputs for the Pressure-Based Solver for
periodic flow models with the pressure-based solver, noting the restrictions discussed in
Sections 9.4.1 and 13.4.1. In addition, you will need to provide the following inputs
related to the heat transfer model:

1. Activate solution of the energy equation in the Energy panel.

Define −→ Models −→Energy...

2. Define the thermal boundary conditions according to one of the following proce-
dures:
Define −→Boundary Conditions...
• If you are modeling periodic heat transfer with specified-temperature bound-
ary conditions, set the wall temperature Twall for all wall boundaries in their
respective Wall panels. Note that all wall boundaries must be assigned the
same temperature and that the entire domain (except the periodic boundaries)
must be “enclosed” by this fixed-temperature condition, or by symmetry or
adiabatic (q=0) boundaries.

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Modeling Heat Transfer

• If you are modeling periodic heat transfer with specified-heat-flux boundary

conditions, set the wall heat flux in the Wall panel for each wall boundary.
You can define different values of heat flux on different wall boundaries, but
you should have no other types of thermal boundary conditions active in the
domain.

3. Define solid regions, if appropriate, according to one of the following procedures:

Define −→Boundary Conditions...
• If you are modeling periodic heat transfer with specified-temperature condi-
tions, conducting solid regions can be used within the domain, provided that
on the perimeter of the domain they are enclosed by the fixed-temperature
condition. Heat generation within the solid regions is not allowed when you
are solving periodic heat transfer with fixed-temperature conditions.
• If you are modeling periodic heat transfer with specified-heat-flux conditions,
you can define conducting solid regions at any location within the domain,
including volumetric heat addition within the solid, if desired.

4. Set constant material properties (density, heat capacity, viscosity, thermal conduc-
tivity), not temperature-dependent properties, using the Materials panel.
Define −→Materials...

5. Specify the Upstream Bulk Temperature in the Periodic Conditions panel.

Define −→Periodic Conditions...

i If you are modeling periodic heat transfer with specified-temperature con-

ditions, the bulk temperature should not be equal to the wall temperature,
since this will give you the trivial solution of constant temperature every-
where.
6. Set the solution parameters as described in Section 13.4.4: Solution Strategies for
Periodic Heat Transfer

7. Iterate the solution and monitor the convergence as described in Section 13.4.5: Mon-
itoring Convergence.

8. Postprocess the results as described in Section 13.4.6: Postprocessing for Periodic

Heat Transfer.

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 13.4 Modeling Periodic Heat Transfer

13.4.4 Solution Strategies for Periodic Heat Transfer

After completing the inputs described in Section 13.4.3: Steps in Using Periodic Heat
Transfer, you can solve the flow and heat transfer problem to convergence. The most
efficient approach to the solution, however, is a sequential one in which the periodic flow
is first solved without heat transfer and then the heat transfer is solved leaving the flow
field unaltered. This sequential approach is accomplished as follows:

1. Disable solution of the energy equation under Equations in the Solution Controls
panel.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

2. Solve the remaining equations (continuity, momentum, and, optionally, turbulence

parameters) to convergence to obtain the periodic flow field.

i When you initialize the flow field before beginning the calculation, use the
mean value between the inlet bulk temperature and the wall temperature
for the initialization of the temperature field.
3. Return to the Solution Controls panel and turn off solution of the flow equations
and turn on the energy solution.

4. Solve the energy equation to convergence to obtain the periodic temperature field
of interest.

While you can solve your periodic flow and heat transfer problems by considering both
the flow and heat transfer simultaneously, you will find that the procedure outlined above
is more efficient.

13.4.5 Monitoring Convergence

If you are modeling periodic heat transfer with specified-temperature conditions, you can
monitor the value of the bulk temperature ratio

Twall − Tbulk,inlet
θ= (13.4-5)
Twall − Tbulk,exit

during the calculation using the Statistic Monitors panel to ensure that you reach a con-
verged solution. Select per/bulk-temp-ratio as the variable to be monitored. See Sec-
tion 25.18.2: Monitoring Statistics for details about using this feature.

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13.4.6 Postprocessing for Periodic Heat Transfer

The actual temperature field predicted by FLUENT in periodic models will not be peri-
odic, and viewing the temperature results during postprocessing will display this actual
temperature field (T (~r) of Equation 13.4-1). The displayed temperature may exhibit
values outside the range defined by the inlet bulk temperature and the wall temperature.
This is permissible since the actual temperature profile at the inlet periodic face will have
temperatures that are higher or lower than the inlet bulk temperature.
Static Temperature is found in the Temperature... category of the variable selection drop-
down list that appears in postprocessing panels.
Figure 13.4.1 shows the temperature field in a periodic heat exchanger geometry.

4.00e+02

3.87e+02

3.74e+02

3.61e+02

3.48e+02

3.35e+02

3.22e+02

3.09e+02

2.96e+02

2.83e+02

2.70e+02

Contours of Static Temperature (k)

Figure 13.4.1: Temperature Field in a 2D Heat Exchanger Geometry With

Fixed Temperature Boundary Conditions

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Chapter 14. Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate
Chemistry

FLUENT can model the mixing and transport of chemical species by solving conserva-
tion equations describing convection, diffusion, and reaction sources for each component
species. Multiple simultaneous chemical reactions can be modeled, with reactions occur-
ring in the bulk phase (volumetric reactions) and/or on wall or particle surfaces, and in
the porous region. Species transport modeling capabilities, both with and without reac-
tions, and the inputs you provide when using the model are described in this chapter.
Note that you may also want to consider modeling your turbulent reacting flame using
the mixture fraction approach (for non-premixed systems, described in Chapter 15: Mod-
eling Non-Premixed Combustion), the reaction progress variable approach (for premixed
systems, described in Chapter 16: Modeling Premixed Combustion), the partially pre-
mixed approach (described in Chapter 17: Modeling Partially Premixed Combustion), or
the composition PDF Transport approach (described in Chapter 18: Modeling a Compo-
sition PDF Transport Problem). Modeling multiphase species transport and finite-rate
chemistry can be found in Chapter 23: Modeling Multiphase Flows.
Information is divided into the following sections:

• Section 14.1: Volumetric Reactions

• Section 14.2: Wall Surface Reactions and Chemical Vapor Deposition

• Section 14.3: Particle Surface Reactions

• Section 14.4: Species Transport Without Reactions

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

14.1 Volumetric Reactions

Information about species transport and finite-rate chemistry as related to volumetric
reactions is presented in the following subsections:

• Section 14.1.1: Theory

• Section 14.1.2: Overview of User Inputs for Modeling Species Transport and Reactions

• Section 14.1.3: Enabling Species Transport and Reactions and Choosing the Mix-
ture Material

• Section 14.1.4: Defining Properties for the Mixture and Its Constituent Species

• Section 14.1.5: Defining Boundary Conditions for Species

• Section 14.1.6: Defining Other Sources of Chemical Species

• Section 14.1.7: Solution Procedures for Chemical Mixing and Finite-Rate Chemistry

• Section 14.1.8: Postprocessing for Species Calculations

• Section 14.1.9: Importing a Volumetric Kinetic Mechanism in CHEMKIN Format

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 14.1 Volumetric Reactions

14.1.1 Theory
Species Transport Equations
When you choose to solve conservation equations for chemical species, FLUENT predicts
the local mass fraction of each species, Yi , through the solution of a convection-diffusion
equation for the ith species. This conservation equation takes the following general form:

∂
(ρYi ) + ∇ · (ρ~v Yi ) = −∇ · J~i + Ri + Si (14.1-1)
∂t
where Ri is the net rate of production of species i by chemical reaction (described later
in this section) and Si is the rate of creation by addition from the dispersed phase plus
any user-defined sources. An equation of this form will be solved for N − 1 species where
N is the total number of fluid phase chemical species present in the system. Since the
mass fraction of the species must sum to unity, the N th mass fraction is determined as
one minus the sum of the N − 1 solved mass fractions. To minimize numerical error,
the N th species should be selected as that species with the overall largest mass fraction,
such as N2 when the oxidizer is air.

Mass Diffusion in Laminar Flows

In Equation 14.1-1, J~i is the diffusion flux of species i, which arises due to concentration
gradients. By default, FLUENT uses the dilute approximation, under which the diffusion
flux can be written as

J~i = −ρDi,m ∇Yi (14.1-2)

Here Di,m is the diffusion coefficient for species i in the mixture.

For certain laminar flows, the dilute approximation may not be acceptable, and full
multicomponent diffusion is required. In such cases, the Maxwell-Stefan equations can
be solved; see Section 8.9.2: Full Multicomponent Diffusion for details.

Mass Diffusion in Turbulent Flows

In turbulent flows, FLUENT computes the mass diffusion in the following form:

µt
 
J~i = − ρDi,m + ∇Yi (14.1-3)
Sct
µt
where Sct is the turbulent Schmidt number ( ρD t
where µt is the turbulent viscosity
and Dt is the turbulent diffusivity). The default Sct is 0.7. Note that turbulent diffusion
generally overwhelms laminar diffusion, and the specification of detailed laminar diffusion
properties in turbulent flows is generally not warranted.

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

Treatment of Species Transport in the Energy Equation

For many multicomponent mixing flows, the transport of enthalpy due to species diffusion

n
" #
hi J~i
X
∇·
i=1

can have a significant effect on the enthalpy field and should not be neglected. In par-
ticular, when the Lewis number

k
Lei = (14.1-4)
ρcp Di,m

for any species is far from unity, neglecting this term can lead to significant errors. FLU-
ENT will include this term by default. In Equation 14.1-4, k is the thermal conductivity.

Diffusion at Inlets

For the pressure-based solver in FLUENT, the net transport of species at inlets consists
of both convection and diffusion components. (For the density-based solvers, only the
convection component is included.) The convection component is fixed by the inlet
species mass fraction specified by you. The diffusion component, however, depends on
the gradient of the computed species field at the inlet. Thus the diffusion component (and
therefore the net inlet transport) is not specified a priori. See Section 14.1.5: Defining
Boundary Conditions for Species for information about specifying the net inlet transport
of species.

The Generalized Finite-Rate Formulation for Reaction Modeling

The reaction rates that appear as source terms in Equation 14.1-1 are computed in
FLUENT by one of three models:

• Laminar finite-rate model: The effect of turbulent fluctuations are ignored, and
reaction rates are determined by Arrhenius expressions.

• Eddy-dissipation model: Reaction rates are assumed to be controlled by the tur-

bulence, so expensive Arrhenius chemical kinetic calculations can be avoided. The
model is computationally cheap, but, for realistic results, only one or two step
heat-release mechanisms should be used.

• Eddy-dissipation-concept (EDC) model: Detailed Arrhenius chemical kinetics can

be incorporated in turbulent flames. Note that detailed chemical kinetic calcula-
tions are computationally expensive.

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 14.1 Volumetric Reactions

The generalized finite-rate formulation is suitable for a wide range of applications in-
cluding laminar or turbulent reaction systems, and combustion systems with premixed,
non-premixed, or partially-premixed flames.

The Laminar Finite-Rate Model

The laminar finite-rate model computes the chemical source terms using Arrhenius ex-
pressions, and ignores the effects of turbulent fluctuations. The model is exact for laminar
flames, but is generally inaccurate for turbulent flames due to highly non-linear Arrhenius
chemical kinetics. The laminar model may, however, be acceptable for combustion with
relatively slow chemistry and small turbulent fluctuations, such as supersonic flames.
The net source of chemical species i due to reaction is computed as the sum of the
Arrhenius reaction sources over the NR reactions that the species participate in:

NR
X
Ri = Mw,i R̂i,r (14.1-5)
r=1

where Mw,i is the molecular weight of species i and R̂i,r is the Arrhenius molar rate of
creation/destruction of species i in reaction r. Reaction may occur in the continuous
phase between continuous-phase species only, or at wall surfaces resulting in the surface
deposition or evolution of a continuous-phase species.
Consider the rth reaction written in general form as follows:

N N
kf,r X
0 00
X
νi,r Mi *
) νi,r Mi (14.1-6)
kb,r
i=1 i=1

where
N = number of chemical species in the system
0
νi,r = stoichiometric coefficient for reactant i in reaction r
00
νi,r = stoichiometric coefficient for product i in reaction r
Mi = symbol denoting species i
kf,r = forward rate constant for reaction r
kb,r = backward rate constant for reaction r
Equation 14.1-6 is valid for both reversible and non-reversible reactions. (Reactions in
FLUENT are non-reversible by default.) For non-reversible reactions, the backward rate
constant, kb,r , is simply omitted.
The summations in Equation 14.1-6 are for all chemical species in the system, but only
species that appear as reactants or products will have non-zero stoichiometric coefficients.
Hence, species that are not involved will drop out of the equation.

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

For a non-reversible reaction (that is, the Include Backward Reaction button is disabled),
the molar rate of creation/destruction of species i in reaction r (R̂i,r in Equation 14.1-5)
is given by
 
N
  0 +η 00 )
(ηj,r
00 0
Y
R̂i,r = Γ νi,r − νi,r kf,r [Cj,r ] j,r 
(14.1-7)
j=1

where
Cj,r = molar concentration of species j in reaction r (kgmol/m3 )
0
ηj,r = rate exponent for reactant species j in reaction r
00
ηj,r = rate exponent for product species j in reaction r
For a reversible reaction, the molar rate of creation/destruction of species i in reaction r
is given by
 
N N
  0
ηj,r 00
νj,r
00 0
Y Y
R̂i,r = Γ νi,r − νi,r kf,r [Cj,r ] − kb,r [Cj,r ]  (14.1-8)
j=1 j=1

Note that the rate exponent for the reverse reaction part in Equation 14.1-8 is always
00
the product species stoichiometric coefficient (νj,r ).
See Section 14.1.4: Inputs for Reaction Definition for information about inputting the
stoichiometric coefficients and rate exponents for both global forward (non-reversible)
reactions and elementary (reversible) reactions.
Γ represents the net effect of third bodies on the reaction rate. This term is given by

N
X
Γ= γj,r Cj (14.1-9)
j

where γj,r is the third-body efficiency of the jth species in the rth reaction. By default,
FLUENT does not include third-body effects in the reaction rate calculation. You can,
however, opt to include the effect of third-body efficiencies if you have data for them.
The forward rate constant for reaction r, kf,r , is computed using the Arrhenius expression

kf,r = Ar T βr e−Er /RT (14.1-10)

where
Ar = pre-exponential factor (consistent units)
βr = temperature exponent (dimensionless)
Er = activation energy for the reaction (J/kgmol)
R = universal gas constant (J/kgmol-K)

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 14.1 Volumetric Reactions

0 00 0 00
You (or the database) will provide values for νi,r , νi,r , ηj,r , ηj,r , βr , Ar , Er , and, optionally,
γj,r during the problem definition in FLUENT.
If the reaction is reversible, the backward rate constant for reaction r, kb,r , is computed
from the forward rate constant using the following relation:

kf,r
kb,r = (14.1-11)
Kr

where Kr is the equilibrium constant for the rth reaction, computed from

N
00 0
X
(νi,r − νi,r )
∆Sr0 ∆Hr0
!
patm

Kr = exp − i=1 (14.1-12)
R RT RT

where patm denotes atmospheric pressure (101325 Pa). The term within the exponential
function represents the change in Gibbs free energy, and its components are computed
as follows:

N 
∆Sr0 X 00 0
 S0
i
= νi,r − νi,r (14.1-13)
R i=1 R

N 
∆Hr0 X 00 0
 h0
i
= νi,r − νi,r (14.1-14)
RT i=1 RT

where Si0 and h0i are the standard-state entropy and standard-state enthalpy (heat of
formation). These values are specified in FLUENT as properties of the mixture material.

Pressure-Dependent Reactions

FLUENT can use one of three methods to represent the rate expression in pressure-
dependent (or pressure fall-off) reactions. A “fall-off” reaction is one in which the tem-
perature and pressure are such that the reaction occurs between Arrhenius high-pressure
and low-pressure limits, and thus is no longer solely dependent on temperature.
There are three methods of representing the rate expressions in this fall-off region. The
simplest one is the Lindemann [212] form. There are also two other related methods, the
Troe method [122] and the SRI method [357], that provide a more accurate description
of the fall-off region.

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Arrhenius rate parameters are required for both the high- and low-pressure limits. The
rate coefficients for these two limits are then blended to produce a smooth pressure-
dependent rate expression. In Arrhenius form, the parameters for the high-pressure limit
(k) and the low-pressure limit (klow ) are as follows:

k = AT β e−E/RT (14.1-15)
klow = Alow T βlow e−Elow /RT (14.1-16)

The net rate constant at any pressure is then taken to be

!
pr
knet =k F (14.1-17)
1 + pr

where pr is defined as

klow [M ]
pr = (14.1-18)
k
and [M ] is the concentration of the bath gas, which can include third-body efficiencies.
If the function F in Equation 14.1-17 is unity, then this is the Lindemann form. FLUENT
provides two other forms to describe F , namely the Troe method and the SRI method.
In the Troe method, F is given by

 " #2 −1 
 log pr + c 
log F = 1 + log Fcent (14.1-19)
 n − d(log pr + c) 

where

c = −0.4 − 0.67 log Fcent (14.1-20)

n = 0.75 − 1.27 log Fcent (14.1-21)
d = 0.14 (14.1-22)

and

Fcent = (1 − α)e−T /T3 + αe−T /T1 + e−T2 /T (14.1-23)

The parameters α, T3 , T2 , and T1 are specified as inputs.

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 14.1 Volumetric Reactions

In the SRI method, the blending function F is approximated as

" ! # X
−b −T

F = d a exp + exp Te (14.1-24)
T c

where

1
X= (14.1-25)
1 + log2 pr

In addition to the three Arrhenius parameters for the low-pressure limit (klow ) expression,
you must also supply the parameters a, b, c, d, and e in the F expression.

i Chemical kinetic mechanisms are usually highly non-linear and form a

set of stiff coupled equations. See Section 14.1.7: Solution Procedures
for Chemical Mixing and Finite-Rate Chemistry for solution procedure
guidelines. Also, if you have a chemical mechanism in CHEMKIN [178]
format, you can import this mechanism into FLUENT as described in
Section 14.1.9: Importing a Volumetric Kinetic Mechanism in CHEMKIN
Format.

The Eddy-Dissipation Model

Most fuels are fast burning, and the overall rate of reaction is controlled by turbulent
mixing. In non-premixed flames, turbulence slowly convects/mixes fuel and oxidizer into
the reaction zones where they burn quickly. In premixed flames, the turbulence slowly
convects/mixes cold reactants and hot products into the reaction zones, where reaction
occurs rapidly. In such cases, the combustion is said to be mixing-limited, and the
complex, and often unknown, chemical kinetic rates can be safely neglected.
FLUENT provides a turbulence-chemistry interaction model, based on the work of Mag-
nussen and Hjertager [229], called the eddy-dissipation model. The net rate of production
of species i due to reaction r, Ri,r , is given by the smaller (i.e., limiting value) of the two
expressions below:
!
0  YR
Ri,r = νi,r Mw,i Aρ min 0 (14.1-26)
k R νR,r Mw,R
P
0  P YP
Ri,r = νi,r Mw,i ABρ PN 00
(14.1-27)
k j νj,r Mw,j

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

where YP is the mass fraction of any product species, P

YR is the mass fraction of a particular reactant, R
A is an empirical constant equal to 4.0
B is an empirical constant equal to 0.5
In Equations 14.1-26 and 14.1-27, the chemical reaction rate is governed by the large-
eddy mixing time scale, k/, as in the eddy-breakup model of Spalding [350]. Combustion
proceeds whenever turbulence is present (k/ > 0), and an ignition source is not required
to initiate combustion. This is usually acceptable for non-premixed flames, but in pre-
mixed flames, the reactants will burn as soon as they enter the computational domain,
upstream of the flame stabilizer. To remedy this, FLUENT provides the finite-rate/eddy-
dissipation model, where both the Arrhenius (Equation 14.1-8), and eddy-dissipation
(Equations 14.1-26 and 14.1-27) reaction rates are calculated. The net reaction rate is
taken as the minimum of these two rates. In practice, the Arrhenius rate acts as a ki-
netic “switch”, preventing reaction before the flame holder. Once the flame is ignited,
the eddy-dissipation rate is generally smaller than the Arrhenius rate, and reactions are
mixing-limited.

i Although FLUENT allows multi-step reaction mechanisms (number of reac-

tions > 2) with the eddy-dissipation and finite-rate/eddy-dissipation mod-
els, these will likely produce incorrect solutions. The reason is that multi-
step chemical mechanisms are based on Arrhenius rates, which differ for
each reaction. In the eddy-dissipation model, every reaction has the same,
turbulent rate, and therefore the model should be used only for one-step
(reactant → product), or two-step (reactant → intermediate, intermediate
→ product) global reactions. The model cannot predict kinetically con-
trolled species such as radicals. To incorporate multi-step chemical kinetic
mechanisms in turbulent flows, use the EDC model (described below).

i The eddy-dissipation model requires products to initiate reaction (see

Equation 14.1-27). When you initialize the solution for steady flows, FLU-
ENT sets all species mass fractions to a maximum of the user specified ini-
tial value and 0.01. This is usually sufficient to start the reaction. However,
if you converge a mixing solution first, where all product mass fractions
are zero, you may then have to patch products into the reaction zone to
ignite the flame. See Section 14.1.7: Ignition in Combustion Simulations
for details.

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 14.1 Volumetric Reactions

The Eddy-Dissipation Model for LES

When the LES turbulence model is used, the turbulent mixing rate, /k in Equa-
tions 14.1-26 and 14.1-27, is replaced by the subgrid-scale mixing rate. This is calculated
as

q
−1
τsgs = 2Sij Sij (14.1-28)

where
−1 −1
τsgs = subgrid-scale
  mixing rate (s )
Sij ∂ui
= 12 ∂x j
+ ∂u
∂xi
j
= strain rate tensor (s−1 )

The Eddy-Dissipation-Concept (EDC) Model

The eddy-dissipation-concept (EDC) model is an extension of the eddy-dissipation model

to include detailed chemical mechanisms in turbulent flows [228]. It assumes that reaction
occurs in small turbulent structures, called the fine scales. The length fraction of the fine
scales is modeled as [127]

1/4
ν

∗
ξ = Cξ (14.1-29)
k2
∗
where denotes fine-scale quantities and
Cξ = volume fraction constant = 2.1377
ν = kinematic viscosity
The volume fraction of the fine scales is calculated as ξ ∗ 3 . Species are assumed to react
in the fine structures over a time scale

 1/2
ν
τ ∗ = Cτ (14.1-30)

where Cτ is a time scale constant equal to 0.4082.
In FLUENT, combustion at the fine scales is assumed to occur as a constant pressure reac-
tor, with initial conditions taken as the current species and temperature in the cell. Reac-
tions proceed over the time scale τ ∗ , governed by the Arrhenius rates of Equation 14.1-8,
and are integrated numerically using the ISAT algorithm [290]. ISAT can accelerate the
chemistry calculations by two to three orders of magnitude, offering substantial reduc-
tions in run-times. Details about the ISAT algorithm may be found in Sections 18.2.4
and 18.2.5. ISAT is very powerful, but requires some care. See Section 18.3.9: Using
ISAT Efficiently for details on using ISAT efficiently.

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

The source term in the conservation equation for the mean species i, Equation 14.1-1, is
modeled as

ρ(ξ ∗ )2 ∗
Ri = ∗ ∗ 3 (Yi − Yi ) (14.1-31)
τ [1 − (ξ ) ]

where Yi∗ is the fine-scale species mass fraction after reacting over the time τ ∗ .
The EDC model can incorporate detailed chemical mechanisms into turbulent reacting
flows. However, typical mechanisms are invariably stiff and their numerical integration
is computationally costly. Hence, the model should be used only when the assumption
of fast chemistry is invalid, such as modeling the slow CO burnout in rapidly quenched
flames, or the NO conversion in selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR).
See Section 14.1.7: Solution of Stiff Laminar Chemistry Systems for guidelines on obtain-
ing a solution using the EDC model.

14.1.2 Overview of User Inputs for Modeling Species Transport and Reactions
The basic steps for setting up a problem involving species transport and reactions are
listed below, and the details about performing each step are presented in Sections 14.1.3–
14.1.5. Additional information about setting up and solving the problem is provided in
Sections 14.1.6–14.1.8.

1. Enable species transport and volumetric reactions, and specify the mixture mate-
rial. See Section 14.1.3: Enabling Species Transport and Reactions and Choosing
the Mixture Material. (The mixture material concept is explained below.)

2. If you are also modeling wall or particle surface reactions, turn on wall surface
and/or particle surface reactions as well. See Sections 14.2 and 14.3 for details.

3. Check and/or define the properties of the mixture. (See Section 14.1.4: Defining
Properties for the Mixture and Its Constituent Species.) Mixture properties include
the following:
• species in the mixture
• reactions
• other physical properties (e.g., viscosity, specific heat)

4. Check and/or set the properties of the individual species in the mixture. (See
Section 14.1.4: Defining Properties for the Mixture and Its Constituent Species.)

5. Set species boundary conditions. (See Section 14.1.5: Defining Boundary Condi-
tions for Species.)

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 14.1 Volumetric Reactions

In many cases, you will not need to modify any physical properties because the solver
gets species properties, reactions, etc. from the materials database when you choose
the mixture material. Some properties, however, may not be defined in the database.
You will be warned when you choose your material if any required properties need to
be set, and you can then assign appropriate values for these properties. You may also
want to check the database values of other properties to be sure that they are correct for
your particular application. For details about modifying an existing mixture material or
creating a new one from scratch, see Section 14.1.4: Defining Properties for the Mixture
and Its Constituent Species. Modifications to the mixture material can include the
following:

• Addition or removal of species

• Changing the chemical reactions

• Modifying other material properties for the mixture

• Modifying material properties for the mixture’s constituent species

If you are solving a reacting flow, you will usually want to define the mixture’s specific
heat as a function of composition, and the specific heat of each species as a function of
temperature. You may want to do the same for other properties as well. By default,
constant properties are used, but for the properties of some species, there is a piecewise-
polynomial function of temperature that exists in the database and is available for your
use. You may also choose to specify a different temperature-dependent function if you
know of one that is more suitable for your problem.

Mixture Materials
The concept of mixture materials has been implemented in FLUENT to facilitate the
setup of species transport and reacting flow. A mixture material may be thought of as a
set of species and a list of rules governing their interaction. The mixture material carries
with it the following information:

• A list of the constituent species, referred to as “fluid” materials

• A list of mixing laws dictating how mixture properties (density, viscosity, specific
heat, etc.) are to be derived from the properties of individual species if composition-
dependent properties are desired

• A direct specification of mixture properties if composition-independent properties

are desired

• Diffusion coefficients for individual species in the mixture

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

• Other material properties (e.g., absorption and scattering coefficients) that are not
associated with individual species

• A set of reactions, including a reaction type (finite-rate, eddy-dissipation, etc.) and

stoichiometry and rate constants

Both mixture materials and fluid materials are stored in the FLUENT materials database.
Many common mixture materials are included (e.g., methane-air, propane-air). Gener-
ally, one/two-step reaction mechanisms and many physical properties of the mixture and
its constituent species are defined in the database. When you indicate which mixture
material you want to use, the appropriate mixture material, fluid materials, and proper-
ties are loaded into the solver. If any necessary information about the selected material
(or the constituent fluid materials) is missing, the solver will inform you that you need to
specify it. In addition, you may choose to modify any of the predefined properties. See
Section 8.1.2: Using the Materials Panel for information about the sources of FLUENT’s
database property data.
For example, if you plan to model combustion of a methane-air mixture, you do not need
to explicitly specify the species involved in the reaction or the reaction itself. You will
simply select methane-air as the mixture material to be used, and the relevant species
(CH4 , O2 , CO2 , H2 O, and N2 ) and reaction data will be loaded into the solver from the
database. You can then check the species, reactions, and other properties and define
any properties that are missing and/or modify any properties for which you wish to
use different values or functions. You will generally want to define a composition- and
temperature-dependent specific heat, and you may want to define additional properties
as functions of temperature and/or composition.
The use of mixture materials gives you the flexibility to use one of the many predefined
mixtures, modify one of these mixtures, or create your own mixture material. Cus-
tomization of mixture materials is performed in the Materials panel, as described in
Section 14.1.4: Defining Properties for the Mixture and Its Constituent Species.

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 14.1 Volumetric Reactions

14.1.3 Enabling Species Transport and Reactions and Choosing the Mixture
Material
The problem setup for species transport and volumetric reactions begins in the Species
Model panel (Figure 14.1.1). For cases which involve multiphase species transport and
reactions, refer to Section 23.8: Modeling Species Transport in Multiphase Flows.
Define −→ Models −→ Species −→Transport & Reaction...

Figure 14.1.1: The Species Model Panel

1. Under Model, select Species Transport.

2. Under Reactions, turn on Volumetric.

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

3. In the Mixture Material drop-down list under Mixture Properties, choose which mix-
ture material you want to use in your problem. The drop-down list will include
all of the mixtures that are currently defined in the database. To check the prop-
erties of a mixture material, select it and click the Edit... button. If the mixture
you want to use is not in the list, choose the mixture-template material, and see
Section 14.1.4: Defining Properties for the Mixture and Its Constituent Species for
details on setting your mixture’s properties. If there is a mixture material listed
that is similar to your desired mixture, you may choose that material and see Sec-
tion 14.1.4: Defining Properties for the Mixture and Its Constituent Species for
details on modifying properties of an existing material.
When you choose the Mixture Material, the Number of Volumetric Species in the
mixture will be displayed in the panel for your information.

i Note that if you re-open the Species Model panel after species transport
has already been enabled, only the mixture materials available in your case
will appear in the list. You can add more mixture materials to your case
by copying them from the database, as described in Section 8.1.2: Copying
Materials from the FLUENT Database, or by creating a new mixture, as
described in Sections 8.1.2 and 14.1.4.
As mentioned in Section 14.1.2: Mixture Materials, modeling parameters for the
species transport and (if relevant) reactions will automatically be loaded from the
database. If any information is missing, you will be informed of this after you
click on OK in the Species Model panel. If you want to check or modify any prop-
erties of the mixture material, you will use the Materials panel, as described in
Section 14.1.4: Defining Properties for the Mixture and Its Constituent Species.

4. Choose the Turbulence-Chemistry Interaction model. Four models are available:

Laminar Finite-Rate computes only the Arrhenius rate (see Equation 14.1-8) and
neglects turbulence-chemistry interaction.
Finite-Rate/Eddy-Dissipation (for turbulent flows) computes both the Arrhenius
rate and the mixing rate and uses the smaller of the two.
Eddy-Dissipation (for turbulent flows) computes only the mixing rate (see Equa-
tions 14.1-26 and 14.1-27).
EDC (for turbulent flows) models turbulence-chemistry interaction with detailed
chemical mechanisms (see Equations 14.1-8 and 14.1-31).

5. If you selected EDC, you have the option to modify the Volume Fraction Constant
and the Time Scale Constant (Cξ in Equation 14.1-29 and Cτ in Equation 14.1-30),
although the default values are recommended. Further, to reduce the computational
expense of the chemistry calculations, you can increase the number of Flow Iterations
per Chemistry Update. By default, FLUENT will update the chemistry one per 10

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 14.1 Volumetric Reactions

flow iterations. For details about using the Integration Parameters... option, under
Reactions, see Section 18.3: Steps for Using the Composition PDF Transport Model.

6. (optional) If you want to model full multicomponent diffusion or thermal diffusion,

turn on the Full Multicomponent Diffusion or Thermal Diffusion option.
See Section 8.9.2: Full Multicomponent Diffusion for details.

7. Enabling KINetics from Reaction Design for laminar reactions, will allow you to use
the proprietary reaction-rate utilities and solution algorithms from Reaction Design,
which is based on and compatible with their CHEMKIN technology [178]. For EDC
Turbulence-Chemistry Interaction and the Composition PDF Transport model, en-
abling the KINetics from Reaction Design option will allow you to use reaction rates
from Reaction Design’s KINetics module, instead of the default FLUENT reaction
rates. FLUENT’s ISAT algorithm is employed to integrate these rates. Please refer
to the KINetics for Fluent manual [3] from Reaction Design for details on the chem-
istry formulation options. For more information, or to obtain a license to the Flu-
ent/KINetics module, please contact Reaction Design at [email protected]
or +1 858-550-1920, or go to http://www.reactiondesign.com

14.1.4 Defining Properties for the Mixture and Its Constituent Species
As discussed in Section 14.1.2: Overview of User Inputs for Modeling Species Transport
and Reactions, if you use a mixture material from the database, most mixture and species
properties will already be defined. You may follow the procedures in this section to check
the current properties, modify some of the properties, or set all properties for a brand-new
mixture material that you are defining from scratch.
Remember that you will need to define properties for the mixture material and also for its
constituent species. It is important that you define the mixture properties before setting
any properties for the constituent species, since the species property inputs may depend
on the methods you use to define the properties of the mixture. The recommended
sequence for property inputs is as follows:

1. Define the mixture species, and reaction(s), and define physical properties for the
mixture. Remember to click on the Change/Create button when you are done
setting properties for the mixture material.

2. Define physical properties for the species in the mixture. Remember to click on the
Change/Create button after defining the properties for each species.

These steps, all of which are performed in the Materials panel, are described in detail in
this section.
Define −→Materials...

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

Defining the Species in the Mixture

If you are using a mixture material from the database, the species in the mixture will
already be defined for you. If you are creating your own material or modifying the species
in an existing material, you will need to define them yourself.
In the Materials panel (Figure 14.1.2), check that the Material Type is set to mixture and
your mixture is selected in the Fluent Mixture Materials list. Click on the Edit... button
to the right of Mixture Species to open the Species panel (Figure 14.1.3).

Figure 14.1.2: The Materials Panel (showing a mixture material)

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 14.1 Volumetric Reactions

Figure 14.1.3: The Species Panel

Overview of the Species Panel

In the Species panel, the Selected Species list shows all of the fluid-phase species in the
mixture. If you are modeling wall or particle surface reactions, the Selected Solid Species
list will show all of the bulk solid species in the mixture. Solid species are species that
are created or evolved from wall boundaries or discrete-phase particles (e.g., Si(s)) and
do not exist as fluid-phase species.
If you are modeling wall surface reactions, the Selected Site Species list will show all of the
site species in the mixture. Site species are species that are adsorbed to a wall boundary.
The use of solid and site species with wall surface reactions is described in Section 14.2: Wall
Surface Reactions and Chemical Vapor Deposition. See Section 14.3: Particle Surface
Reactions for information about particle surface reactions.

i The order of the species in the Selected Species list is very important.
FLUENT considers the last species in the list to be the bulk species. You
should therefore be careful to retain the most abundant species (by mass)
as the last species when you add species to or delete species from a mixture
material.
The Available Materials list shows materials that are available but not in the mixture.
Generally you will see air in this list, since air is always available by default.

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Adding Species to the Mixture

If you are creating a mixture from scratch or starting from an existing mixture and adding
some missing species, you will first need to load the desired species from the database
(or create them, if they are not present in the database) so that they will be available to
the solver. The procedure for adding species is listed below. (You will need to close the
Species panel before you begin, since it is a “modal” panel that will not allow you to do
anything else when it is open.)

1. In the Materials panel, click on the Fluent Database... button to open the Flu-
ent Database Materials panel and copy the desired species, as described in Sec-
tion 8.1.2: Copying Materials from the FLUENT Database. Remember that the
constituent species of the mixture are fluid materials, so you should select fluid as
the Material Type in the Fluent Database Materials panel to see the correct list of
choices. Note that available solid species (for surface reactions) are also contained
in the fluid list.

i If you do not see the species you are looking for in the database, you can
create a new fluid material for that species, following the instructions in
Section 8.1.2: Creating a New Material, and then continue with step 2,
below.
2. Re-open the Species panel, as described above. You will see that the fluid materials
you copied from the database (or created) are listed in the Available Materials list.

3. To add a species to the mixture, select it in the Available Materials list and click on
the Add button below the Selected Species list (or below the Selected Site Species
or Selected Solid Species list, to define a site or solid species). The species will be
added to the end of the relevant list and removed from the Available Materials list.

4. Repeat the previous step for all the desired species. When you are finished, click
on the OK button.

i Adding a species to the list will alter the order of the species. You should
be sure that the last species in the list is the bulk species, and you should
check any boundary conditions, under-relaxation factors, or other solution
parameters that you have set, as described in detail below.

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Removing Species from the Mixture

To remove a species from the mixture, simply select it in the Selected Species list (or the
Selected Site Species or Selected Solid Species list) and click on the Remove button below
the list. The species will be removed from the list and added to the Available Materials
list.

i Removing a species from the list will alter the order of the species. You
should be sure that the last species in the list is the bulk species, and you
should check any boundary conditions, under-relaxation factors, or other
solution parameters that you have set, as described in detail below.

Reordering Species

If you find that the last species in the Selected Species list is not the most abundant
species (as it must be), you will need to rearrange the species to obtain the proper order.

1. Remove the bulk species from the Selected Species list. It will now appear in the
Available Species list.

2. Add the species back in again. It will automatically be placed at the end of the
list.

The Naming and Ordering of Species

As discussed above, you must retain the most abundant species as the last one in the
Selected Species list when you add or remove species. Additional considerations you
should be aware of when adding and deleting species are presented here.
There are three characteristics of a species that identify it to the solver: name, chem-
ical formula, and position in the list of species in the Species panel. Changing these
characteristics will have the following effects:

• You can change the Name of a species (using the Materials panel, as described in
Section 8.1.2: Renaming an Existing Material) without any consequences.

• You should never change the given Chemical Formula of a species.

• You will change the order of the species list if you add or remove any species.
When this occurs, all boundary conditions, solver parameters, and solution data
for species will be reset to the default values. (Solution data, boundary conditions,
and solver parameters for other flow variables will not be affected.) Thus, if you
add or remove species you should take care to redefine species boundary conditions
and solution parameters for the newly defined problem. In addition, you should
recognize that patched species concentrations or concentrations stored in any data

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

file that was based on the original species ordering will be incompatible with the
newly defined problem. You can use the data file as a starting guess, but you should
be aware that the species concentrations in the data file may provide a poor initial
guess for the newly defined model.

Defining Reactions
If your FLUENT model involves chemical reactions, you can next define the reactions in
which the defined species participate. This will be necessary only if you are creating a
mixture material from scratch, you have modified the species, or you want to redefine
the reactions for some other reason.
Depending on which turbulence-chemistry interaction model you selected in the Species
Model panel (see Section 14.1.3: Enabling Species Transport and Reactions and Choos-
ing the Mixture Material), the appropriate reaction model will be displayed in the Re-
action drop-down list in the Materials panel. If you are using the laminar finite-rate or
EDC model, the reaction model will be finite-rate; if you are using the eddy-dissipation
model, the reaction model will be eddy-dissipation; if you are using the finite-rate/eddy-
dissipation model, the reaction model will be finite-rate/eddy-dissipation.

Inputs for Reaction Definition

To define the reactions, click on the Edit... button to the right of Reaction. The Reactions
panel (Figure 14.1.4) will open.
The steps for defining reactions are as follows:

1. Set the total number of reactions (volumetric reactions, wall surface reactions, and
particle surface reactions) in the Total Number of Reactions field. (Use the arrows
to change the value, or type in the value and press RETURN.)
Note that if your model includes discrete-phase combusting particles, you should
include the particulate surface reaction(s) (e.g., char burnout, multiple char ox-
idation) in the number of reactions only if you plan to use the multiple surface
reactions model for surface combustion.
2. Specify the Reaction Name of the reaction you want to define.
3. Set the ID of the reaction you want to define. (Again, if you type in the value be
sure to press RETURN.)
4. If this is a fluid-phase reaction, keep the default selection of Volumetric as the
Reaction Type. If this is a wall surface reaction (described in Section 14.2: Wall
Surface Reactions and Chemical Vapor Deposition) or a particle surface reaction
(described in Section 14.3: Particle Surface Reactions), select Wall Surface or Particle
Surface as the Reaction Type. See Section 14.3.2: User Inputs for Particle Surface
Reactions for further information about defining particle surface reactions.

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Figure 14.1.4: The Reactions Panel

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

5. Specify how many reactants and products are involved in the reaction by increas-
ing the value of the Number of Reactants and the Number of Products. Select each
reactant or product in the Species drop-down list and then set its stoichiometric co-
efficient and rate exponent in the appropriate Stoich. Coefficient and Rate Exponent
0 00
fields. (The stoichiometric coefficient is the constant νi,r or νi,r in Equation 14.1-6
and the rate exponent is the exponent on the reactant or product concentration,
0 00
ηj,r or ηj,r in Equation 14.1-8.)
There are two general classes of reactions that can be handled by the Reactions
panel, so it is important that the parameters for each reaction are entered correctly.
The classes of reactions are as follows:
• Global forward reaction (no reverse reaction): Product species generally do
00
not affect the forward rate, so the rate exponent for all products (ηj,r ) should
0
be 0. For reactant species, set the rate exponent (ηj,r ) to the desired value. If
such a reaction is not an elementary reaction, the rate exponent will generally
0
not be equal to the stoichiometric coefficient (νi,r ) for that species. An example
of a global forward reaction is the combustion of methane:

CH4 + 2O2 −→ CO2 + 2H2 O

0 0
where νCH 4
= 1, ηCH 4
= 0.2, νO0 2 = 2, ηO
0
2
00
= 1.3, νCO 2
00
= 1, ηCO 2
= 0, νH00 2 O = 2,
00
and ηH2 O = 0.
Figure 14.1.4 shows the coefficient inputs for the combustion of methane. (See
also the methane-air mixture material in the Database Materials panel.)
Note that, in certain cases, you may wish to model a reaction where product
species affect the forward rate. For such cases, set the product rate exponent
00
(ηj,r ) to the desired value. An example of such a reaction is the gas-shift re-
action (see the carbon-monoxide-air mixture material in the Database Materials
panel), in which the presence of water has an effect on the reaction rate:
CO + 12 O2 + H2 O −→ CO2 + H2 O
In the gas-shift reaction, the rate expression may be defined as:

k[CO][O2 ]1/4 [H2 O]1/2

0 0
where νCO = 1, ηCO = 1, νO0 2 = 0.5, ηO
0
2
00
= 0.25, νCO 2
00
= 1, ηCO 2
= 0, νH00 2 O = 0,
and ηH00 2 O = 0.5.
• Reversible reaction: An elementary chemical reaction that assumes the rate
exponent for each species is equivalent to the stoichiometric coefficient for that
species. An example of an elementary reaction is the oxidation of SO2 to SO3 :
SO2 + 12 O2 *
) SO3

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 14.1 Volumetric Reactions

0 0
where νSO 2
= 1, ηSO 2
= 1, νO0 2 = 0.5, ηO
0
2
00
= 0.5, νSO 3
00
= 1, and ηSO 3
= 1.
See step 6 below for information about how to enable reversible reactions.

6. If you are using the laminar finite-rate, finite-rate/eddy-dissipation, or EDC model

for the turbulence-chemistry interaction, enter the following parameters for the
Arrhenius rate under the Arrhenius Rate heading:
Pre-Exponential Factor (the constant Ar in Equation 14.1-10). The units of Ar
must be specified such that the units of the molar reaction rate, R̂i,r in Equa-
tion 14.1-5, are moles/volume-time (e.g., kgmol/m3 -s) and the units of the
volumetric reaction rate, Ri in Equation 14.1-5, are mass/volume-time (e.g.,
kg/m3 -s).

i It is important to note that if you have selected the British units system,
the Arrhenius factor should still be input in SI units. This is because
FLUENT applies no conversion factor to your input of Ar (the conversion
factor is 1.0) when you work in British units, as the correct conversion
0
factor depends on your inputs for νi,r , βr , etc.
Activation Energy (the constant Er in the forward rate constant expression, Equa-
tion 14.1-10).
Temperature Exponent (the value for the constant βr in Equation 14.1-10).
Third-Body Efficiencies (the values for γj,r in Equation 14.1-9). If you have ac-
curate data for the efficiencies and want to include this effect on the reaction
rate (i.e., include Γ in Equation 14.1-8), turn on the Third Body Efficiencies
option and click on the Specify... button to open the Third-Body Efficiencies
panel (Figure 14.1.5). For each Species in the panel, specify the Third-Body
Efficiencies.

i It is not necessary to include the third-body efficiencies. You should not

enable the Third-Body Efficiencies option unless you have accurate data for
these parameters.

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Figure 14.1.5: The Third-Body Efficiencies Panel

Pressure-Dependent Reaction (if relevant) If you are using the laminar finite-rate
or EDC model for turbulence-chemistry interaction, or have enabled the com-
position PDF transport model (see Chapter 18: Modeling a Composition PDF
Transport Problem), and the reaction is a pressure fall-off reaction (see Sec-
tion 14.1.1: Pressure-Dependent Reactions), turn on the Pressure-Dependent
Reaction option for the Arrhenius Rate and click on the Specify... button to
open the Pressure-Dependent Reaction panel (Figure 14.1.6).
Under Reaction Parameters, select the appropriate Reaction Type (lindemann,
troe, or sri). See Section 14.1.1: Pressure-Dependent Reactions for details
about the three methods. Next, you must specify if the Bath Gas Concentration
([M ] in Equation 14.1-18) is to be defined as the concentration of the mixture,
or as the concentration of one of the mixture’s constituent species, by selecting
the appropriate item in the drop-down list.
The parameters you specified under Arrhenius Rate in the Reactions panel
represent the high-pressure Arrhenius parameters. You can, however, specify
values for the following parameters under Low Pressure Arrhenius Rate:
ln(Pre-Exponential Factor) (Alow in Equation 14.1-16) The pre-exponential
factor Alow is often an extremely large number, so you will input the
natural logarithm of this term.
Activation Energy (Elow in Equation 14.1-16)
Temperature Exponent (βlow in Equation 14.1-16)
If you selected troe for the Reaction Type, you can specify values for Alpha, T1,
T2, and T3 (α, T1 , T2 , and T3 in Equation 14.1-23) under Troe parameters. If
you selected sri for the Reaction Type, you can specify values for a, b, c, d, and
e (a, b, c, d, and e in Equation 14.1-24) under SRI parameters.

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 14.1 Volumetric Reactions

Figure 14.1.6: The Pressure-Dependent Reaction Panel

7. If you are using the laminar finite-rate or EDC model for turbulence-chemistry
interaction, and the reaction is reversible, turn on the Include Backward Reaction
option for the Arrhenius Rate. When this option is enabled, you will not be able
to edit the Rate Exponent for the product species, which instead will be set to be
equivalent to the corresponding product Stoich. Coefficient. If you do not wish to
use FLUENT’s default values, or if you are defining your own reaction, you will also
need to specify the standard-state enthalpy and standard-state entropy, to be used
in the calculation of the backward reaction rate constant (Equation 14.1-11). Note
that the reversible reaction option is not available for either the eddy-dissipation
or the finite-rate/eddy-dissipation turbulence-chemistry interaction model.

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

8. If you are using the eddy-dissipation or finite-rate/eddy-dissipation model for

turbulence-chemistry interaction, you can enter values for A and B under the Mixing
Rate heading. Note, however, that these values should not be changed unless you
have reliable data. In most cases you will simply use the default values.
A is the constant A in the turbulent mixing rate (Equations 14.1-26 and 14.1-27)
when it is applied to a species that appears as a reactant in this reaction. The
default setting of 4.0 is based on the empirically derived values given by Magnussen
et al. [229].
B is the constant B in the turbulent mixing rate (Equation 14.1-27) when it is
applied to a species that appears as a product in this reaction. The default setting
of 0.5 is based on the empirically derived values given by Magnussen et al. [229].

9. Repeat steps 2–8 for each reaction you need to define. When you are finished
defining all reactions, click OK.

Defining Species and Reactions for Fuel Mixtures

Quite often, combustion systems will include fuel that is not easily described as a pure
species (such as CH4 or C2 H6 ). Complex hydrocarbons, including fuel oil or even wood
chips, may be difficult to define in terms of such pure species. However, if you have
available the heating value and the ultimate analysis (elemental composition) of the
fuel, you can define an equivalent fuel species and an equivalent heat of formation for
this fuel. Consider, for example, a fuel known to contain 50% C, 6% H, and 44% O by
weight. Dividing by atomic weights, you can arrive at a “fuel” species with the molecular
formula C4.17 H6 O2.75 . You can start from a similar, existing species or create a species
from scratch, and assign it a molecular weight of 100.04 (4.17 × 12 + 6 × 1 + 2.75 ×
16). The chemical reaction would be considered to be

C4.17 H6 O2.75 + 4.295O2 −→ 4.17CO2 + 3H2 O

You will need to set the appropriate stoichiometric coefficients for this reaction.
The heat of formation (or standard-state enthalpy) for the fuel species can be calculated
from the known heating value ∆H since

N  
00 0
h0i νi,r
X
∆H = − νi,r (14.1-32)
i=1

where h0i is the standard-state enthalpy on a molar basis. Note the sign convention in
Equation 14.1-32: ∆H is negative when the reaction is exothermic.

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 14.1 Volumetric Reactions

Defining Zone-Based Reaction Mechanisms

If your FLUENT model involves reactions that are confined to a specific area of the
domain, you can define “reaction mechanisms” to enable different reactions selectively in
different geometrical zones. You can create reaction mechanisms by selecting reactions
from those defined in the Reactions panel and grouping them. You can then assign a
particular mechanism to a particular zone.

Inputs for Reaction Mechanism Definition

To define a reaction mechanism, click on the Edit... button to the right of Mechanism.
The Reaction Mechanisms panel (Figure 14.1.7) will open.

Figure 14.1.7: The Reaction Mechanisms Panel

The steps for defining a reaction mechanism are as follows:

1. Set the total number of mechanisms in the Number of Mechanisms field. (Use the
arrows to change the value, or type the value and press RETURN.)
2. Set the Mechanism ID of the mechanism you want to define. (Again, if you type in
the value, be sure to press RETURN.)
3. Specify the Name of the mechanism.
4. Select the type of reaction to add to the mechanism under Reaction Type. If you
select Volumetric, the Reactions list will display all available fluid-phase reactions. If

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

you select Wall Surface or Particle Surface, the Reactions list will display all available
wall surface reactions (described in Section 14.2: Wall Surface Reactions and Chem-
ical Vapor Deposition) or particle surface reactions (described in Section 14.3: Par-
ticle Surface Reactions). If you select All, the Reactions list will display all available
reactions. (This option is meant for backward compatibility with FLUENT 6.0 or
earlier cases.)

5. Select the reactions to be included in the mechanism.

• For Volumetric or Particle Surface reactions, select available reactions for the
mechanism in the Reactions list.
• For Wall Surface reactions, use the following procedure:
(a) Select available wall surface reactions for the mechanism in the Reactions
list.
(b) If any site species appear in the selected reaction(s), set the number of
sites in the Number of Sites field. (Use the arrows to change the value,
or type the value and press RETURN.) See Section 14.2.2: Wall Surface
Reaction Boundary Conditions for details about site species in wall surface
reactions.
(c) If you specify a Number of Sites that is greater than zero, specify the
properties of the site.
Site Name (optional)
Site Density (in kgmol/m2 ) This value is typically in the range of 10−8
to 10−6 .
Click on the Define... button. This will open the Site Parameters panel
(Figure 14.1.8), where you will define the parameters of the site species.
Site Name is the optional name of the site that was specified in the
Reaction Mechanisms panel.
Total Number of Site Species is the number of adsorbed species that are
to be modeled at the site. (Use the arrows to change the value, or
type the value and press RETURN.)
Under Site Species, select the appropriate species from the drop-down
list(s) and specify the fractional Initial Site Coverage for each species.
For steady-state calculations, it is recommended (though not strictly
required) that the initial values of Initial Site Coverage sum to unity.
For transient calculations, it is required that these values sum to unity.
Click Apply in the Site Parameters panel to store the new values.

6. Repeat steps 2–5 for each reaction mechanism you need to define. When you are
finished defining all reaction mechanisms, click OK.

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 14.1 Volumetric Reactions

Figure 14.1.8: The Site Parameters Panel

Defining Physical Properties for the Mixture

When your FLUENT model includes chemical species, the following physical properties
must be defined, either by you or by the database, for the mixture material:

• density, which you can define using the gas law or as a volume-weighted function
of composition

• viscosity, which you can define as a function of composition

• thermal conductivity and specific heat (in problems involving solution of the energy
equation), which you can define as functions of composition.

• mass diffusion coefficients and Schmidt number, which govern the mass diffusion
fluxes (Equations 14.1-2 and 14.1-3)

Detailed descriptions of these property inputs are provided in Chapter 8: Physical Properties.

i Remember to click on the Change/Create button when you are done setting
the properties of the mixture material. The properties that appear for each
of the constituent species will depend on your settings for the properties of
the mixture material. If, for example, you specify a composition-dependent
viscosity for the mixture, you will need to define viscosity for each species.

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Defining Physical Properties for the Species in the Mixture

For each of the fluid materials in the mixture, you (or the database) must define the
following physical properties:

• molecular weight, which is used in the gas law and/or in the calculation of reaction
rates and mole-fraction inputs or outputs

• standard-state (formation) enthalpy and reference temperature (in problems in-

volving solution of the energy equation)

• viscosity, if you defined the viscosity of the mixture material as a function of com-
position

• thermal conductivity and specific heat (in problems involving solution of the energy
equation), if you defined these properties of the mixture material as functions of
composition

• standard-state entropy, if you are modeling reversible reactions

• thermal and momentum accommodation coefficients, if you have enabled the low-
pressure boundary slip model.

Detailed descriptions of these property inputs are provided in Chapter 8: Physical Properties.

i Global reaction mechanisms with one or two steps inevitably neglect the
intermediate species. In high-temperature flames, neglecting these disso-
ciated species may cause the temperature to be overpredicted. A more
realistic temperature field can be obtained by increasing the specific heat
capacity for each species. Rose and Cooper [309] have created a set of
specific heat polynomials as a function of temperature.
The specific heat capacity for each species is calculated as

m
ak T k
X
cp (T ) = (14.1-33)
k=0

The modified cp polynomial coefficients (J/kg-K) from [309] are provided in Tables 14.1.1
and 14.1.2.

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 14.1 Volumetric Reactions

Table 14.1.1: Modified cp Polynomial Coefficients (J/kg-K) [309]

N2 CH4 CO H2
a0 1.02705e+03 2.00500e+03 1.04669e+03 1.4147e+04
a1 2.16182e−02 −6.81428e−01 −1.56841e−01 1.7372e−01
a2 1.48638e−04 7.08589e−03 5.39904e−04 6.9e−04
a3 −4.48421e−08 −4.71368e−06 −3.01061e−07 —–
a4 —– 8.51317e−10 5.05048e−11 —–

Table 14.1.2: Modified cp Polynomial Coefficients [309]

CO2 H2 O O2
a0 5.35446e+02 1.93780e+03 8.76317e+02
a1 1.27867e+00 −1.18077e+00 1.22828e−01
a2 −5.46776e−04 3.64357e−03 5.58304e−04
a3 −2.38224e−07 −2.86327e−06 −1.20247e−06
a4 1.89204e−10 7.59578e−10 1.14741e−09
a5 —– —– −5.12377e−13
a6 —– —– 8.56597e−17

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

14.1.5 Defining Boundary Conditions for Species

You will need to specify the inlet mass fraction for each species in your simulation. In
addition, for pressure outlets you will set species mass fractions to be used in case of
backflow at the exit. At walls, FLUENT will apply a zero-gradient (zero-flux) boundary
condition for all species unless you have defined a surface reaction at that wall (see
Section 14.2: Wall Surface Reactions and Chemical Vapor Deposition), you have defined
a reaction mechanism at that wall (see Section 14.1.4: Defining Zone-Based Reaction
Mechanisms), or you choose to specify species mass fractions at the wall. For fluid
zones, you also have the option of specifying a reaction mechanism. Input of boundary
conditions is described in Chapter 7: Boundary Conditions.

i Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions (NRBCs) are not compatible with

species transport models. They are mainly used to solve ideal-gas single-
specie flow. For information about NRBCs, see section Section 7.23: Non-
Reflecting Boundary Conditions.

i Note that you will explicitly set mass fractions only for the first N − 1
species. The solver will compute the mass fraction of the last species
by subtracting the total of the specified mass fractions from 1. If you
want to explicitly specify the mass fraction of the last species, you must
reorder the species in the list (in the Materials panel), as described in
Section 14.1.4: Defining Properties for the Mixture and Its Constituent
Species.

Diffusion at Inlets with the Pressure-Based Solver

For the pressure-based solver in FLUENT the net transport of species at inlets consists
of both convection and diffusion components. The convection component is fixed by the
inlet species concentration, whereas the diffusion component depends on the gradient of
the computed species concentration field (which is not known a priori). In some cases,
you may wish to include only the convective transport of species through the inlets of
your domain. You can do this by disabling inlet species diffusion. By default, FLUENT
includes the diffusion flux of species at inlets. To turn off inlet diffusion, use either
the define/models/species/inlet-diffusion? text command, or the Species Model
panel. Generally, you would want to disable the Inlet Diffusion option if at one of the
inlets the convective flux is very small, resulting in mass loss by diffusion through that
inlet.
Define −→ Models −→ Species −→Transport & Reaction...
Once Species Transport is selected, you can then disable the Inlet Diffusion option.

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14.1.6 Defining Other Sources of Chemical Species

You can define a source or sink of a chemical species within the computational domain
by defining a source term in the Fluid panel. You may choose this approach when species
sources exist in your problem but you do not want to model them through the mecha-
nism of chemical reactions. Section 7.28: Defining Mass, Momentum, Energy, and Other
Sources describes the procedures you follow to define species sources in your FLUENT
model. If the source is not a constant, you can use a user-defined function. See the
separate UDF Manual for details about user-defined functions.

14.1.7 Solution Procedures for Chemical Mixing and Finite-Rate Chemistry

While many simulations involving chemical species may require no special procedures
during the solution process, you may find that one or more of the solution techniques
noted in this section helps to accelerate the convergence or improve the stability of more
complex simulations. The techniques outlined below may be of particular importance if
your problem involves many species and/or chemical reactions, especially when modeling
combusting flows.

Stability and Convergence in Reacting Flows

Obtaining a converged solution in a reacting flow can be difficult for a number of reasons.
First, the impact of the chemical reaction on the basic flow pattern may be strong, leading
to a model in which there is strong coupling between the mass/momentum balances and
the species transport equations. This is especially true in combustion, where the reactions
lead to a large heat release and subsequent density changes and large accelerations in
the flow. All reacting systems have some degree of coupling, however, when the flow
properties depend on the species concentrations. These coupling issues are best addressed
by the use of a two-step solution process, as described below, and by the use of under-
relaxation as described in Section 25.9.2: Setting Under-Relaxation Factors.
A second convergence issue in reacting flows involves the magnitude of the reaction source
term. When the FLUENT model involves very rapid reaction rates (reaction time scales
are much faster than convection and diffusion time scales), the solution of the species
transport equations becomes numerically difficult. Such systems are termed “stiff” sys-
tems. Stiff systems with laminar chemistry can be solved using either the pressure-based
solver with the Stiff Chemistry Solver option enabled, or the density-based solver (see
Section 14.1.7: Solution of Stiff Laminar Chemistry Systems). The laminar chemistry
model may also be used for turbulent flames, where turbulence-chemistry interactions
are neglected. However, for such flames, the EDC or PDF Transport models, which
account for turbulence-chemistry interactions, may be a better choice.

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Two-Step Solution Procedure (Cold Flow Simulation)

Solving a reacting flow as a two-step process can be a practical method for reaching
a stable converged solution to your FLUENT problem. In this process, you begin by
solving the flow, energy, and species equations with reactions disabled (the “cold-flow”,
or unreacting flow). When the basic flow pattern has thus been established, you can re-
enable the reactions and continue the calculation. The cold-flow solution provides a good
starting solution for the calculation of the combusting system. This two-step approach
to combustion modeling can be accomplished using the following procedure:

1. Set up the problem including all species and reactions of interest.

2. Temporarily disable reaction calculations by turning off Volumetric in the Species

Model panel.
Define −→ Models −→ Species −→Transport & Reaction...

3. Turn off calculation of the product species in the Solution Controls panel.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

4. Calculate an initial (cold-flow) solution. (Note that it is generally not productive

to obtain a fully converged cold-flow solution unless the non-reacting solution is
also of interest to you.)

5. Enable the reaction calculations by turning on Volumetric again in the Species Model
panel.

6. Turn on all equations. If you are using the laminar finite-rate, finite-rate/eddy-
dissipation, EDC or PDF Transport model for turbulence-chemistry interaction,
you may need to patch an ignition source (as described below).

Density Under-Relaxation
One of the main reasons a combustion calculation can have difficulty converging is that
large changes in temperature cause large changes in density, which can, in turn, cause
instabilities in the flow solution. When you use the pressure-based solver, FLUENT allows
you to under-relax the change in density to alleviate this difficulty. The default value for
density under-relaxation is 1, but if you encounter convergence trouble you may wish to
reduce this to a value between 0.5 and 1 (in the Solution Controls panel).

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 14.1 Volumetric Reactions

Ignition in Combustion Simulations

If you introduce fuel to an oxidant, spontaneous ignition does not occur unless the tem-
perature of the mixture exceeds the activation energy threshold required to maintain
combustion. This physical issue manifests itself in a FLUENT simulation as well. If you
are using the laminar finite-rate, finite-rate/eddy-dissipation, EDC or PDF Transport
model for turbulence-chemistry interaction, you have to supply an ignition source to ini-
tiate combustion. This ignition source may be a heated surface or inlet mass flow that
heats the gas mixture above the required ignition temperature. Often, however, it is the
equivalent of a spark: an initial solution state that causes combustion to proceed. You
can supply this initial spark by patching a hot temperature into a region of the FLUENT
model that contains a sufficient fuel/air mixture for ignition to occur.
Solve −→ Initialize −→Patch...
Depending on the model, you may need to patch both the temperature and the fuel/
oxidant/product concentrations to produce ignition in your model. The initial patch
has no impact on the final steady-state solution—no more than the location of a match
determines the final flow pattern of the torch that it lights. See Section 25.14.2: Patching
Values in Selected Cells for details about patching initial values.

Solution of Stiff Laminar Chemistry Systems

When modeling stiff laminar flames with the laminar finite-rate model, you can either
use the pressure-based solver with the Stiff Chemistry Solver option enabled as seen in the
Species Model panel (Figure 14.1.1), or the density-based solver.
When using the pressure-based solver for unsteady simulations, the Stiff Chemistry Solver
option applies a fractional step algorithm. In the first fractional step, the chemistry in
each cell is reacted at constant pressure for the flow time-step, using the ISAT integrator.
In the second fractional step, the convection and diffusion terms are treated just as in a
non-reacting simulation.
For steady simulations using the pressure-based solver, the Stiff Chemistry Solver option
approximates the reaction rate Ri in the species transport equation (see Equation 14.1-5)
as,

1Zτ
Ri∗ = Ri dt (14.1-34)
τ 0
where τ is some time-step that requires careful selection. Note that as τ tends to zero
the approximation becomes exact but the stiff numerics will cause the pressure-based
solver to diverge. On the other hand, as τ tends to infinity, the approximated reaction
rate Ri∗ tends to zero and, while the numerical stiffness is alleviated, there is no reaction.
In FLUENT, the default value for τ is set to one-tenth of the minimum convective or
diffusive time-scale in the cell. This value was found to be sufficiently accurate and

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

robust, although it can be modified via the solve/set/stiff-chemistry text command.

ISAT is employed to integrate the stiff chemistry in Equation 14.1-34.
Details about the ISAT algorithm may be found in Sections 18.2.4 and Section 18.3.9: Us-
ing ISAT Efficiently. For efficient and accurate use of ISAT, a review of this section is
highly recommended.
Choosing the density-based implicit solver can provide further solution stability by en-
abling the Stiff Chemistry Solver option. This option allows a larger stable Courant
(CFL) number specification, although additional calculations are required to calculate
the eigenvalues of the chemical Jacobian [393]. When enabling the stiff-chemistry solver,
the following must be specified:

• Temperature Positivity Rate Limit: limits new temperature changes by this factor
multiplied by the old temperature. Its default value is 0.2.

• Temperature Time Step Reduction: limits the local CFL number when the temper-
ature is changing too rapidly. Its default value is 0.25.

• Max. Chemical Time Step Ratio: limits the local CFL number when the chemical
time scales (eigenvalues of the chemical Jacobian) become too large to maintain a
well-conditioned matrix. Its default value is 0.9.

If the density-based explicit solver is used, then the stiff-chemistry solver has to be
enabled via the text command:
solve −→ set −→stiff-chemistry
You will be prompted to specify the following:

• Positivity Rate Limit (for temperature): limits new temperature changes by this
factor multiplied by the old temperature. Its default value is 0.2.

• Temperature time-step reduction factor: limits the local CFL number when the
temperature is changing too rapidly. Its default value is 0.25.

• Maximum allowable time-step/chemical-time-scale ratio: limits the local CFL num-

ber when the chemical time scales (eigenvalues of the chemical Jacobian) become
too large to maintain a well-conditioned matrix. Its default value is 0.9.

The default values of these parameters are applicable in most cases.

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EDC Model Solution Procedure

Due to the high computational expense of the EDC model, it is recommended that you
use the following procedure to obtain a solution using the pressure-based solver:

1. Calculate an initial solution using the equilibrium Non-premixed or Partially-premixed

model (see Chapters 15 and 17).

2. Import a CHEMKIN format reaction mechanism (see Section 14.1.9: Importing a

Volumetric Kinetic Mechanism in CHEMKIN Format).

3. Enable the reaction calculations by turning on Volumetric Reactions in the Species

Model panel and selecting EDC under Turbulence-Chemistry Interaction. Select the
mechanism that you just imported as the Mixture Material.
Define −→ Models −→Species...

4. Set the species boundary conditions.

Define −→Boundary Conditions...

5. Disable the flow and turbulence and solve for the species and temperature only.

6. Enable all equations and iterate to convergence. Note that the default numerical
parameters for the solution of the EDC equations are set to provide maximum
robustness with slowest convergence. The convergence rate can be increased by
setting the Acceleration Factor with the text command:
define/models/species/set-turb-chem-interaction
The Acceleration Factor can be set from 0 (slow but stable) to 1 (fast but
unstable).

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14.1.8 Postprocessing for Species Calculations

FLUENT can report chemical species as mass fractions, mole fractions, and molar con-
centrations. You can also display laminar and effective mass diffusion coefficients. The
following variables are available for postprocessing of species transport and reaction sim-
ulations:

• Mass fraction of species-n

• Mole fraction of species-n

• Molar Concentration of species-n

• Lam Diff Coef of species-n

• Eff Diff Coef of species-n

• Thermal Diff Coef of species-n

• Enthalpy of species-n (pressure-based solver calculations only)

• species-n Source Term (density-based solver calculations only)

• Relative Humidity

• Time Step Scale (stiff-chemistry solver only)

• Fine Scale Mass fraction of species-n (EDC model only)

• Fine Scale Transfer Rate (EDC model only)

• 1-Fine Scale Volume Fraction (EDC model only)

• Fine Scale Temperature (EDC model only)

• Rate of Reaction-n

• Arrhenius Rate of Reaction-n

• Turbulent Rate of Reaction-n

These variables are contained in the Species..., Temperature..., and Reactions... categories
of the variable selection drop-down list that appears in postprocessing panels. See Chap-
ter 30: Field Function Definitions for a complete list of flow variables, field functions,
and their definitions. Chapters 28 and 29 explain how to generate graphics displays and
reports of data.

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 14.1 Volumetric Reactions

Averaged Species Concentrations

Averaged species concentrations at inlets and exits, and across selected planes (i.e., sur-
faces that you have created using the Surface menu items) within your model can be ob-
tained using the Surface Integrals panel, as described in Section 29.5: Surface Integration.
Report −→Surface Integrals...
Select the Molar Concentration of species-n for the appropriate species in the Field Variable
drop-down list.

14.1.9 Importing a Volumetric Kinetic Mechanism in CHEMKIN Format

If you have a gas phase chemical mechanism in CHEMKIN format, you can import the
mechanism file into FLUENT using the CHEMKIN Mechanism Import panel (Figure 14.1.9).
File −→ Import −→CHEMKIN Mechanism...

Figure 14.1.9: The CHEMKIN Mechanism Import Panel for Volumetric Kinet-
ics

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

In the CHEMKIN Mechanism Import panel

1. Enter a name for the chemical mechanism under Material Name.

2. Enter the path to the CHEMKIN file (e.g., path/file.che) under Gas Phase CHEMKIN
Mechanism File.

3. Specify the location of the Gas Phase Thermodynamic Data File (thermo.db). The
format for thermo.db is detailed in the CHEMKIN manual [178]. The default
thermo.db file in CHEMKIN is available only for gas phase species.

4. (Optional). Import transport properties by enabling the Import Transport Property

Database and entering the path to that file. If you want to use KINetics transport
properties, you must first enable the KINetics from Reaction Design option in the
Species panel (Figure 14.1.1). Once a file with KINetics transport properties is
read, FLUENT will create a material with the specified name, which will contain
the data for the species and reactions, and add it to the list of available Mixture
Materials in the Materials panel. For material properties such as Viscosity, Thermal
Conductivity, Mass Diffusivity, and Thermal Diffusion, listed in the Materials panel,
the option reaction-design will appear in the drop-down list of each of the prop-
erties (Figure 14.1.10), allowing you to use material property values computed by
KINetics.
Note that when Full Multicomponent Diffusion is enabled in the Species panel, KI-
Netics returns full multicomponent diffusivities. If Full Multicomponent Diffusion is
disabled, KINetics returns mixture averaged mass diffusivities for each species.
Note that since FLUENT does not solve for the last species, you should ensure that
the last species in the CHEMKIN mechanism species list is the bulk species. If not,
edit the CHEMKIN mechanism file before importing it into FLUENT, and move
the bulk species (i.e. the species in your system with the largest total mass) to the
end of the species list.

5. Click the Import button.

i Note that the CHEMKIN import facility does not provide full compatibility
with all CHEMKIN rate formulations and that to access more complete
functionality, you should consider the KINetics module option described
in Section 14.1.3: Enabling Species Transport and Reactions and Choosing
the Mixture Material
For information on importing a surface kinetic mechanism in CHEMKIN format, see
Section 14.2.6: Importing a Surface Kinetic Mechanism in CHEMKIN Format.

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 14.1 Volumetric Reactions

Figure 14.1.10: The Material Panel When Importing CHEMKIN Transport

Properties

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

14.2 Wall Surface Reactions and Chemical Vapor Deposition

For gas-phase reactions, the reaction rate is defined on a volumetric basis and the rate
of creation and destruction of chemical species becomes a source term in the species
conservation equations. The rate of deposition is governed by both chemical kinetics and
the diffusion rate from the fluid to the surface. Wall surface reactions thus create sources
(and sinks) of chemical species in the bulk phase and determine the rate of deposition of
surface species.
Information about wall surface reactions and chemical vapor deposition is presented in
the following subsections:

• Section 14.2.1: Overview of Surface Species and Wall Surface Reactions

• Section 14.2.2: Theory

• Section 14.2.3: User Inputs for Wall Surface Reactions

• Section 14.2.4: Solution Procedures for Wall Surface Reactions

• Section 14.2.5: Postprocessing for Surface Reactions

14.2.1 Overview of Surface Species and Wall Surface Reactions

FLUENT treats chemical species deposited on surfaces as distinct from the same chemical
species in the gas. Similarly, reactions involving surface deposition are defined as distinct
surface reactions and hence treated differently than bulk phase reactions involving the
same chemical species.
Surface reactions can be limited so that they occur on only some of the wall boundaries
(while the other wall boundaries remain free of surface reaction). The surface reaction
rate is defined and computed per unit surface area, in contrast to the fluid-phase reactions,
which are based on unit volume.

14.2.2 Theory
Consider the rth wall surface reaction written in general form as follows:

Ng Nb Ns Ng Nb Ns
0 Kr
b0i,r Bi s0i,r Si * 00
b00i,r Bi s00i,r Si
X X X X X X
gi,r Gi + + ) gi,r Gi + + (14.2-1)
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1

where Gi , Bi , and Si represent the gas phase species, the bulk (or solid) species, and the
surface-adsorbed (or site) species, respectively. Ng , Nb , and Ns are the total numbers of
0
these species. gi,r , b0i,r , and s0i,r are the stoichiometric coefficients for each reactant species

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 14.2 Wall Surface Reactions and Chemical Vapor Deposition

00
i, and gi,r , b00i,r , and s00i,r are the stoichiometric coefficients for each product species i. Kr
is the overall reaction rate constant.
The summations in Equation 14.2-1 are for all chemical species in the system, but only
species involved as reactants or products will have non-zero stoichiometric coefficients.
Hence, species that are not involved will drop out of the equation.
The rate of the rth reaction is

Ng
Y g0
i,r s0i,r
Rr = kf,r [Gi ]wall [Si ]wall (14.2-2)
i=1

where [ ]wall represents molar concentrations on the wall. It is assumed that the reaction
rate does not depend on concentrations of the bulk (solid) species. From this, the net
molar rate of production or consumption of each species i is given by

N rxn
00 0
X
R̂i,gas = (gi,r − gi,r )Rr i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , Ng (14.2-3)
r=1
N rxn

(b00i,r − b0i,r )Rr

X
R̂i,bulk = i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , Nb (14.2-4)
r=1
N rxn

(s00i,r − s0i,r )Rr

X
R̂i,site = i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , Ns (14.2-5)
r=1

The forward rate constant for reaction r (kf,r ) is computed using the Arrhenius expres-
sion. For example,

kf,r = Ar T βr e−Er /RT (14.2-6)

where Ar = pre-exponential factor (consistent units)

βr = temperature exponent (dimensionless)
Er = activation energy for the reaction (J/kgmol)
R = universal gas constant (J/kgmol-K)
0 00
You (or the database) will provide values for gi,r , gi,r , b0i,r , b00i,r , s0i,r , s00i,r , βr , Ar , and Er .

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Wall Surface Reaction Boundary Conditions

As shown in Equations 14.2-2–14.2-5, the goal of surface reaction modeling is to com-
pute concentrations of gas species and site species at the wall; i.e., [Gi ]wall and [Si ]wall .
Assuming that, on a reacting surface, the mass flux of each gas species is balanced with
its rate of production/consumption, then

∂Yi,wall
ρwall Di − ṁdep Yi,wall = Mw,i R̂i,gas i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , Ng (14.2-7)
∂n
∂ [Si ]wall
= R̂i,site i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , Ns (14.2-8)
∂t

The mass fraction Yi,wall is related to concentration by

ρwall Yi,wall
[Gi ]wall = (14.2-9)
Mw,i

ṁdep is the net rate of mass deposition or etching as a result of surface reaction; i.e.,

Nb
X
ṁdep = Mw,i R̂i,bulk (14.2-10)
i=1

[Si ]wall is the site species concentration at the wall, and is defined as

[Si ]wall = ρsite zi (14.2-11)

where ρsite is the site density and zi is the site coverage of species i.
Using Equations 14.2-7 and 14.2-8, expressions can be derived for the mass fraction of
species i at the wall and for the net rate of creation of species i per unit area. These
expressions are used in FLUENT to compute gas phase species concentrations, and if
applicable, site coverages, at reacting surfaces using a point-by-point coupled stiff solver.

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 14.2 Wall Surface Reactions and Chemical Vapor Deposition

Including Mass Transfer To Surfaces in Continuity

In the surface reaction boundary condition described above, the effects of the wall normal
velocity or bulk mass transfer to the wall are not included in the computation of species
transport. The momentum of the net surface mass flux from the surface is also ignored
because the momentum flux through the surface is usually small in comparison with the
momentum of the flow in the cells adjacent to the surface. However, you can include the
effect of surface mass transfer in the continuity equation by activating the Mass Deposition
Source option in the Species Model panel.

Wall Surface Mass Transfer Effects in the Energy Equation

Species diffusion effects in the energy equation due to wall surface reactions are included
in the normal species diffusion term described in Section 14.1.1: Treatment of Species
Transport in the Energy Equation.
If you are using the pressure-based solver, you can neglect this term by turning off
the Diffusion Energy Source option in the Species Model panel. (For the density-based
solvers, this term is always included; you cannot turn it off.) Neglecting the species
diffusion term implies that errors may be introduced to the prediction of temperature in
problems involving mixing of species with significantly different heat capacities, especially
for components with a Lewis number far from unity. While the effect of species diffusion
should go to zero at Le = 1, you may see subtle effects due to differences in the numerical
integration in the species and energy equations.

Modeling the Heat Release Due to Wall Surface Reactions

The heat release due to a wall surface reaction is, by default, ignored by FLUENT. You
can, however, choose to include the heat of surface reaction by activating the Heat of
Surface Reactions option in the Species Model panel and setting appropriate formation
enthalpies in the Materials panel.

Slip Boundary Formulation for Low-Pressure Gas Systems

Most semiconductor fabrication devices operate far below atmospheric pressure, typically
only a few millitorrs. At such low pressures, the fluid flow is in the slip regime and the
normally used no-slip boundary conditions for velocity and temperature are no longer
valid.
Knudsen number, Kn, which is defined as the ratio of mean free path to a characteristic
length scale of the system, is used to describe various flow regimes. Since the mean
free path increases as the pressure is lowered, the high end of Kn values represents free
molecular flow and the low end the continuum regime. The range in between these two
extremes is called the slip regime (0.001 < Kn < 0.1).

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

In the slip regime, the gas-phase velocity at a solid surface differs from the velocity
at which the wall moves, and the gas temperature at the surface differs from the wall
temperature. Maxwell’s models are adopted for these physical phenomena in FLUENT
for their simplicity and effectiveness.

• velocity slip

2 − αv ∂U 2 − αv λ
   
Uw − Ug = Kn ≈ (Ug − Uc ) (14.2-12)
αv ∂n αv δ

Vg ≡ (V~ · ~n)g = Vw (14.2-13)

Here, U and V represents the velocity component that is parallel and normal to
the wall, respectively. The subscripts g, w and c indicate gas, wall and cell-center
velocities. δ is the distance from cell center to the wall. αv is the momentum
accommodation coefficient of the gas mixture and its value is calculated as mass-
fraction weighted average of each gas species in the system.

Ng
X
αv = Yi αi (14.2-14)
i=1

The mean free path, λ, is computed as follows:

kB T
λ = √ (14.2-15)
2πσ 2 p
Ng
X
σ = Yi σi (14.2-16)
i=1

σi is the Lennard-Jones characteristic length of species i. kB is the Boltzmann

constant, 1.38066 × 10−23 J/K.
Equations 14.2-12 and 14.2-13 indicate that while the gas velocity component nor-
mal to the wall is the same as the wall normal velocity, the tangential components
slip. The values lie somewhere between the cell-center and the wall values. These
two equations can be combined to give a generalized formulation:

~ V~w + kδ [(V~w · ~n)~n + V~c − (V~c · ~n)~n]

Vg = (14.2-17)
1 + kδ
where

2 − αv
 
k≡λ (14.2-18)
αv

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 14.2 Wall Surface Reactions and Chemical Vapor Deposition

• temperature jump

2 − αT ∂T 2 − αT λ
   
Tw − Tg = 2 Kn ≈2 (Tg − Tc ) (14.2-19)
αT ∂n αT δ
or equivalently

Tw + βTc
Tg = (14.2-20)
1+β
where

2(2 − αT )
β= (14.2-21)
αT δ
αT is the thermal accommodation coefficient of the gas mixture and is calculated
P
as αT = Yi αT,i .

i The low-pressure slip boundary formulation is available only with the

pressure-based solver.

14.2.3 User Inputs for Wall Surface Reactions

The basic steps for setting up a problem involving wall surface reactions are the same as
those presented in Section 14.1.2: Overview of User Inputs for Modeling Species Trans-
port and Reactions for setting up a problem with only fluid-phase reactions, with a few
additions:

1. In the Species Model panel:

Define −→ Models −→ Species −→Transport & Reaction...
(a) Enable Species Transport, select Volumetric and Wall Surface under Reactions,
and specify the Mixture Material. See Section 14.1.3: Enabling Species Trans-
port and Reactions and Choosing the Mixture Material for details about this
procedure, and Section 14.1.2: Mixture Materials for an explanation of the
mixture material concept.
(b) (optional) If you want to model the heat release due to wall surface reactions,
turn on the Heat of Surface Reactions option.
(c) (optional) If you want to include the effect of surface mass transfer in the
continuity equation, turn on the Mass Deposition Source option.

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

(d) (optional) If you are using the pressure-based solver and you do not want to
include species diffusion effects in the energy equation, turn off the Diffusion
Energy Source option. See Section 14.2.2: Wall Surface Mass Transfer Effects
in the Energy Equation for details.
(e) (optional, but recommended for CVD) If you want to model full multicompo-
nent diffusion or thermal diffusion, turn on the Full Multicomponent Diffusion
or Thermal Diffusion option. See Section 8.9.2: Full Multicomponent Diffusion
for details.

2. Check and/or define the properties of the mixture. (See Section 14.1.4: Defining
Properties for the Mixture and Its Constituent Species.)
Define −→Materials...
Mixture properties include the following:
• species in the mixture
• reactions
• other physical properties (e.g., viscosity, specific heat)

i You will find all species (including the solid/bulk and site species) in the
list of Fluent Fluid Materials. For a species such as Si, you will find both
Si(g) and Si(s) in the materials list for the fluid material type.
Note that if you were modeling the silicon deposition reactions in the example
at the beginning of Section 14.2.1: Overview of Surface Species and Wall Surface
Reactions, you would need to include both Si species (gas and solid) in the mixture.

i Note that the final gas phase species named in the Selected Species list
should be the carrier gas if your model includes species in dilute mixtures.
(This is because FLUENT will not solve the transport equation for the
final species.) Note also that any reordering, adding or deleting of species
should be handled with caution, as described in Section 14.1.4: Reordering
Species.

3. Check and/or set the properties of the individual species in the mixture. (See
Section 14.1.4: Defining Properties for the Mixture and Its Constituent Species.)
Note that if you are modeling the heat of surface reactions, you should be sure to
check (or define) the formation enthalpy for each species.

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 14.2 Wall Surface Reactions and Chemical Vapor Deposition

4. Set species boundary conditions.

Define −→Boundary Conditions...
In addition to the boundary conditions described in Section 14.1.5: Defining Bound-
ary Conditions for Species, you will first need to indicate whether or not surface
reactions are in effect on each wall. If so, you will then need to assign a reaction
mechanism to the wall. To enable the effect of surface reaction on a wall, turn on
the Reaction option in the Species section of the Wall panel.

i If you have enabled the global Low-Pressure Boundary Slip option in the
Viscous Model panel, the Shear Condition for each wall will be reset to No
Slip even though the slip model will be in effect. Note that the Low-Pressure
Boundary Slip option is available only when the Laminar model is selected
in the Viscous Model panel.
See Section 7.13.1: Inputs at Wall Boundaries for details about boundary condition
inputs for walls. See Section 7.19.6: User Inputs for Porous Media for details about
boundary condition inputs for porous media.

14.2.4 Solution Procedures for Wall Surface Reactions

As in all CFD simulations, your surface reaction modeling effort may be more successful if
you start with a simple problem description, adding complexity as the solution proceeds.
For wall surface reactions, you can follow the same guidelines presented for fluid-phase
reactions in Section 14.1.7: Solution Procedures for Chemical Mixing and Finite-Rate
Chemistry.
In addition, if you are modeling the heat release due to surface reactions and you are
having convergence trouble, you should try temporarily turning off the Heat of Surface
Reactions and Mass Deposition Source options in the Species Model panel.

14.2.5 Postprocessing for Surface Reactions

In addition to the variables listed in Section 14.1.8: Postprocessing for Species Calculations,
for surface reactions you can also display/report the surface coverage as well as the depo-
sition rate of the solid species deposited on a surface. Select Surface Coverage of species-n
or Surface Deposition Rate of species-n in the Species... category of the variable selection
drop-down list.

i For surface reactions involving porous media, you can display/report the
surface reaction rates using the Arrhenius Rate of Reaction-n in the Reac-
tions... category of the variable selection drop-down list.

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14.2.6 Importing a Surface Kinetic Mechanism in CHEMKIN Format

Importing surface kinetic mechanisms in CHEMKIN format (Section 14.1.9: Importing a
Volumetric Kinetic Mechanism in CHEMKIN Format) requires that the gas phase mech-
anism file accompany the surface mechanism file for full compatibility with CHEMKIN.
If the gas phase mechanism file is not available, then you will need to create one that
you will import along with the surface mechanism file. The mechanism files are imported
into FLUENT using the CHEMKIN Mechanism Import panel (Figure 14.2.1).
File −→ Import −→CHEMKIN Mechanism...

Figure 14.2.1: The CHEMKIN Mechanism Import Panel for Surface Kinetics

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 14.2 Wall Surface Reactions and Chemical Vapor Deposition

In the CHEMKIN Mechanism Import panel

1. Enter a name for the chemical mechanism under Material Name.

2. Enable Import Surface CHEMKIN Mechanism.

3. Enter the path to the Gas Phase CHEMKIN Mechanism File (e.g., path/gas-file.che)
and the Surface CHEMKIN Mechanism File (e.g., path/surface-file.che).

4. Specify the location of the Thermodynamic Data File (thermo.db). The format for
thermo.db is detailed in the CHEMKIN User’s Guide [178]. The default thermo.db
file supplied with FLUENT has only gas phase species available. You will need to
supply a surface thermo.db file for your surface species if this thermo information
is not in the mechanism file.

i Note that FLUENT will initially search for the thermodynamic data in
the Surface CHEMKIN Mechanism File. If the data does not exist in the
mechanism file, then FLUENT will search for the thermodynamic data in
the specified Thermodynamic Database File.

5. (Optional). Import transport properties by enabling the Import Transport Property

Database and entering the path to that file.
To read in KINetics transport properties, go to Section 14.1.9: Importing a Volu-
metric Kinetic Mechanism in CHEMKIN Format for detailed information.

6. Click the Import button.

FLUENT will create a material with the specified name, which will contain the CHEMKIN
data for the species and reactions, and add it to the list of Fluent Mixture Materials. You
can view all of the reactions by clicking on the Edit... button to the right of Mechanism,
under Properties in the Materials panel.
Note that for surface reaction mechanisms, the surface reaction rate constant can be
expressed in terms of a sticking coefficient. FLUENT will convert this sticking coefficient
form to the Arrhenius rate expression [177].

i The CHEMKIN import facility does not provide full compatibility with
all CHEMKIN rate formulations. To access more complete functional-
ity, you should consider the KINetics module option described in Sec-
tion 14.1.3: Enabling Species Transport and Reactions and Choosing the
Mixture Material.

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

Compatibility and Limitations for Gas Phase Reactions

FLUENT will allow for the following reaction types:

• Arrhenius reactions with arbitrary reaction order, third-body efficiencies and non-
integer stoichiometric coefficients.

• Pressure dependent reactions (Lindemann, Troe and SRI forms)

• Arbitrary reaction units

• Duplicate reactions (keyword DUP)

FLUENT will not allow for the following reaction types:

• Landau-Teller reactions (keyword LT)

• Reverse Landau-Teller reactions (keyword RLT)

• Janev reactions (keyword JAN)

• Exponential modified power series reactions(keyword FIT1)

• Radiation reactions (keyword HV)

• Energy loss reactions (keyword EXCI)

• Multi-fluid temperature dependence reactions (keyword TDEP)

• Electron momentum transfer collision frequency (keyword MOME)

• Arbitrary reverse reaction (keyword REV)

i Note that the reaction types that FLUENT will not allow are mostly appli-
cable to plasmas.

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 14.2 Wall Surface Reactions and Chemical Vapor Deposition

Compatibility and Limitations for Surface Reactions

FLUENT will allow for the following reaction types:

• Arrhenius reactions with arbitrary reaction order, third-body efficiencies and non-
integer stoichiometric coefficients.

• Sticking coefficients (keyword STICK). Fluent converts these to an equivalent Ar-

rhenius expression.

• Arbitrary reaction units

• Duplicate reactions (keyword DUP)

FLUENT will not allow for the following reaction types:

• Surface Coverage modification (keyword COV)

• Ion-Energy Dependent reaction (keyword ENRGDEP)

• Bohm rate expressions (keyword BOHM)

• Ion-Enhanced reaction

• Motz-Wise correction (keywords MWON and MWOFF)

i FLUENT will warn you of any incompatibilities.

For a detailed description of the keywords, see [177].

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

14.3 Particle Surface Reactions

As described in Section 22.9.2: The Multiple Surface Reactions Model, it is possible to
define multiple particle surface reactions to model the surface combustion of a combusting
discrete-phase particle. Information about particle surface reactions is provided in the
following subsections:

• Section 14.3.1: Theory

• Section 14.3.2: User Inputs for Particle Surface Reactions

• Section 14.3.3: Using the Multiple Surface Reactions Model for Discrete-Phase Par-
ticle Combustion

14.3.1 Theory
General Description
The relationships for calculating char particle burning rates are presented and discussed
in detail by Smith [342]. The particle reaction rate, R (kg/m2 -s), can be expressed as

R = D0 (Cg − Cs ) = Rc (Cs )N (14.3-1)

where
D0 = bulk diffusion coefficient (m/s)
Cg = mean reacting gas species concentration in the bulk (kg/m3 )
Cs = mean reacting gas species concentration at the particle surface (kg/m3 )
Rc = chemical reaction rate coefficient (units vary)
N = apparent reaction order (dimensionless)
In Equation 14.3-1, the concentration at the particle surface, Cs , is not known, so it
should be eliminated, and the expression is recast as follows:

N
R

R = Rc Cg − (14.3-2)
D0

This equation has to be solved by an iterative procedure, with the exception of the cases
when N = 1 or N = 0. When N = 1, Equation 14.3-2 can be written as

Cg Rc D0
R= (14.3-3)
D0 + R c

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 14.3 Particle Surface Reactions

In the case of N = 0, if there is a finite concentration of reactant at the particle surface,

the solid depletion rate is equal to the chemical reaction rate. If there is no reactant
at the surface, the solid depletion rate changes abruptly to the diffusion-controlled rate.
In this case, however, FLUENT will always use the chemical reaction rate for stability
reasons.

FLUENT Model Formulation

A particle undergoing an exothermic reaction in the gas phase is shown schematically in
Figure 14.3.1. Tp and T∞ are the temperatures in Equation 22.9-86.

Cd,b

Cd,s
Tp
Concentration

Temperature
Ck T∞

Distance

Figure 14.3.1: A Reacting Particle in the Multiple Surface Reactions Model

Based on the analysis above, FLUENT uses the following equation to describe the rate
of reaction r of a particle surface species j with the gas phase species n. The reaction
stoichiometry of reaction r in this case is described by

particle species j(s) + gas phase species n → products

and the rate of reaction is given as

Rj,r = Ap ηr Yj Rj,r (14.3-4)

!N
Rj,r
Rj,r = Rkin,r pn − (14.3-5)
D0,r

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

where
Rj,r = rate of particle surface species depletion (kg/s)
Ap = particle surface area (m2 )
Yj = mass fraction of surface species j in the particle
ηr = effectiveness factor (dimensionless)
Rj,r = rate of particle surface species reaction per unit area (kg/m2 -s)
pn = bulk partial pressure of the gas phase species (Pa)
D0,r = diffusion rate coefficient for reaction r
Rkin,r = kinetic rate of reaction r (units vary)
Nr = apparent order of reaction r
The effectiveness factor, ηr , is related to the surface area, and can be used in each reaction
in the case of multiple reactions. D0,r is given by

[(Tp + T∞ )/2]0.75
D0,r = C1,r (14.3-6)
dp

The kinetic rate of reaction r is defined as

Rkin,r = Ar T βr e−(Er /RT ) (14.3-7)

The rate of the particle surface species depletion for reaction order Nr = 1 is given by

Rkin,r D0,r
Rj,r = Ap ηr Yj pn (14.3-8)
D0,r + Rkin,r

For reaction order Nr = 0,

Rj,r = Ap ηr Yj Rkin,r (14.3-9)

Extension for Stoichiometries with Multiple Gas Phase Reactants

When more than one gas phase reactant takes part in the reaction, the reaction stoi-
chiometry must be extended to account for this case:

particle species j(s) + gas phase species 1 + gas phase species 2 + . . .

+ gas phase species nmax → products

To describe the rate of reaction r of a particle surface species j in the presence of nmax
gas phase species n, it is necessary to define the diffusion-limited species for each solid
particle reaction, i.e., the species for which the concentration gradient between the bulk
and the particle surface is the largest. For the rest of the species, the surface and the

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 14.3 Particle Surface Reactions

bulk concentrations are assumed to be equal. The concentration of the diffusion-limited

species is shown as Cd,b and Cd,s in Figure 14.3.1, and the concentrations of all other
species are denoted as Ck . For stoichiometries with multiple gas phase reactants, the
bulk partial pressure pn in Equations 14.3-4 and 14.3-8 is the bulk partial pressure of the
diffusion-limited species, pr,d for reaction r.
The kinetic rate of reaction r is then defined as

Ar T βr e−(Er /RT ) nY
max

Rkin,r = N
pN
n
r,n
(14.3-10)
(pr,d ) r,d
n=1

where
pn = bulk partial pressure of gas species n
Nr,n = reaction order in species n
When this model is enabled, the constant C1,r (Equation 14.3-6) and the effectiveness
factor ηr (Equation 14.3-4) are entered in the Reactions panel, as described in Sec-
tion 14.3.2: User Inputs for Particle Surface Reactions.

Solid-Solid Reactions
Reactions involving only particle surface reactants can be modeled, provided that the
particle surface reactants and products exist on the same particle.

particle species 1(s) + particle species 2(s) + . . . → products

The reaction rate for this case is given by Equation 14.3-9.

Solid Decomposition Reactions

The decomposition reactions of particle surface species can be modeled.

particle species 1(s) + particle species 2(s) + . . . + particle species nmax (s) →

gas species j + products

The reaction rate for this case is given by Equations 14.3-4–14.3-10, where the diffusion-
limited species is now the gaseous product of the reaction. If there are more than one
gaseous product species in the reaction, it is necessary to define the diffusion-limited
species for the particle reaction as the species for which the concentration gradient be-
tween the bulk and the particle surface is the largest.

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

Solid Deposition Reactions

The deposition reaction of a solid species on a particle can be modeled with the following
assumptions:

gas species 1 + gas species 2 + . . . + gas species nmax → solid species j(s) + products

The theoretical analysis and Equations 14.3-4–14.3-10 are applied for the surface re-
action rate calculation, with the mass fraction of the surface species set to unity in
Equations 14.3-4, 14.3-8, and 14.3-9.
In FLUENT, for the particle surface species to be deposited on a particle, a finite mass
of the species must already exist in the particle. This allows for activation of the depo-
sition reaction selectively to particular injection particles. It follows that, to initiate the
solid species deposition reaction on a particle, the particle must be defined in the Set
Injection Properties panel (or Set Multiple Injection Properties panel) to contain a small
mass fraction of the solid species to be deposited. See Section 14.3.3: Using the Multiple
Surface Reactions Model for Discrete-Phase Particle Combustion for details on defining
the particle surface species mass fractions.

Gaseous Solid Catalyzed Reactions on the Particle Surface

Reactions of gaseous species catalyzed on the particle surface can also be modeled fol-
lowing Equations 14.3-4–14.3-10 for the surface reaction rate calculation, with the mass
fraction of the surface species set to unity in Equations 14.3-4, 14.3-8, and 14.3-9.
The catalytic particle surface reaction option is enabled in FLUENT when Particle Surface
is selected as the Reaction Type in the Reactions panel and there are no solid species in
the reaction stoichiometry. The solid species acting as a catalyst for the reaction is
defined in the Reactions panel. The catalytic particle surface reaction will proceed only
on those particles containing the catalyst species. See Section 14.3.3: Using the Multiple
Surface Reactions Model for Discrete-Phase Particle Combustion for details on defining
the particle surface species mass fractions.

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 14.3 Particle Surface Reactions

14.3.2 User Inputs for Particle Surface Reactions

The setup procedure for particle surface reactions requires only a few inputs in addition
to the procedure for volumetric reactions described in Sections 14.1.2–14.1.6. These
additional inputs are as follows:

• In the Species Model panel, turn on the Particle Surface option under Reactions.
Define −→ Models −→ Species −→Transport & Reaction...

• When you specify the species involved in the particle surface reaction, be sure to
identify the surface species, as described in Section 14.1.4: Defining Properties for
the Mixture and Its Constituent Species.

i You will find all species (including the surface species) in the list of Fluent
Fluid Materials. If, for example, you are modeling coal gasification, you will
find solid carbon, C(s), in the materials list for the fluid material type.
• For each particle surface reaction, select Particle Surface as the Reaction Type in
the Reactions panel, and specify the following parameters (in addition to those
described in Section 14.1.4: Defining Reactions):
Diffusion-Limited Species When there is more than one gaseous reactant taking
part in the particle surface reaction, the diffusion-limited species is the species
for which the concentration gradient between the bulk and the particle surface
is the largest. See Figure 14.3.1 for an illustration of this concept. In most
cases, there is a single gas phase reactant and the diffusion-limited species
does not need to be defined.
Catalyst Species This option is available only when there are no solid species
defined in the stoichiometry of the particle surface reaction. In such a case,
you will need to specify the solid species that acts as a catalyst for the reaction.
The reaction will proceed only on the particles that contain this solid species.
See Section 14.3.3: Using the Multiple Surface Reactions Model for Discrete-
Phase Particle Combustion for details on defining the particle surface species
mass fractions.
Diffusion Rate Constant (C1,r in Equation 14.3-6)
Effectiveness Factor (ηr in Equation 14.3-4)

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

14.3.3 Using the Multiple Surface Reactions Model for Discrete-Phase Particle
Combustion
When you use the multiple surface reactions model, the procedure for setting up a prob-
lem involving a discrete phase is slightly different from that outlined in Section 22.11: Steps
for Using the Discrete Phase Models. The revised procedure is as follows:

1. Enable any of the discrete phase modeling options, if relevant, as described in

Section 22.11.5: Physical Models for the Discrete Phase Model.

2. Specify the initial conditions, as described in Section 22.12: Setting Initial Condi-
tions for the Discrete Phase.

3. Define the boundary conditions, as described in Section 22.13: Setting Boundary

Conditions for the Discrete Phase.

4. Define the material properties, as described in Section 22.14: Setting Material Prop-
erties for the Discrete Phase.

i You must select multiple-surface-reactions in the Combustion Model drop-

down list in the Materials panel before you can proceed to the next step.
5. If you have defined more than one particle surface species, for example, carbon
(C<s>) and sulfur (S<s>), you will need to return to the Set Injection Properties
panel (or Set Multiple Injection Properties panel) to specify the mass fraction of each
particle surface species in the combusting particle. Click the Multiple Reactions tab,
and enter the Species Mass Fractions. These mass fractions refer to the combustible
fraction of the combusting particle, and should sum to 1. If there is only one surface
species in the mixture material, the mass fraction of that species will be set to 1,
and you will not specify anything under Multiple Surface Reactions.

6. Set the solution parameters and solve the problem, as described in Section 22.15: So-
lution Strategies for the Discrete Phase.

7. Examine the results, as described in Section 22.16: Postprocessing for the Discrete
Phase.

i Unsteady particle tracking cannot be performed when the multiple surface

reactions model is used.

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 14.4 Species Transport Without Reactions

14.4 Species Transport Without Reactions

In addition to the volumetric and surface reactions described in the previous sections, you
can also use FLUENT to solve a species mixing problem without reactions. The species
transport equations that FLUENT will solve are described in Section 14.1.1: Theory, and
the procedure you will follow to set up the non-reacting species transport problem is the
same as that described in Sections 14.1.2–14.1.6, with some simplifications.
The basic steps are listed below:

1. Enable Species Transport in the Species Model panel and select the appropriate
Mixture Material.
Define −→ Models −→ Species −→Transport & Reaction...
See Section 14.1.2: Overview of User Inputs for Modeling Species Transport and
Reactions for information about the mixture material concept, and Section 14.1.3: En-
abling Species Transport and Reactions and Choosing the Mixture Material for
more details about using the Species Model panel.

2. (optional) If you want to model full multicomponent diffusion or thermal diffusion,

turn on the Full Multicomponent Diffusion or Thermal Diffusion option.

3. Check and/or define the properties of the mixture and its constituent species.
Define −→Materials...
Mixture properties include the following:
• species in the mixture
• other physical properties (e.g., viscosity, specific heat)
See Section 14.1.4: Defining Properties for the Mixture and Its Constituent Species
for details.

4. Set species boundary conditions, as described in Section 14.1.5: Defining Boundary

Conditions for Species.

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Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry

No special solution procedures are usually required for a non-reacting species transport
calculation. Upon completion of the calculation, you can display or report the following
quantities:

• Mass fraction of species-n

• Mole fraction of species-n

• Concentration of species-n

• Lam Diff Coef of species-n

• Eff Diff Coef of species-n

• Enthalpy of species-n (pressure-based solver calculations only)

• Relative Humidity

• Mean Molecular Weight

These variables are contained in the Species... and Properties... categories of the variable
selection drop-down list that appears in postprocessing panels. See Chapter 30: Field
Function Definitions for a complete list of flow variables, field functions, and their def-
initions. Chapters 28 and 29 explain how to generate graphics displays and reports of
data.

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Chapter 15. Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

In non-premixed combustion, fuel and oxidizer enter the reaction zone in distinct streams.
This is in contrast to premixed systems, in which reactants are mixed at the molecular
level before burning. Examples of non-premixed combustion include pulverized coal
furnaces, diesel internal-combustion engines and pool fires.
Under certain assumptions, the thermochemistry can be reduced to a single parameter:
the mixture fraction. The mixture fraction, denoted by f , is the mass fraction that
originated from the fuel stream. In other words, it is the local mass fraction of burnt
and unburnt fuel stream elements (C, H, etc.) in all the species (CO2 , H2 O, O2 , etc.).
The approach is elegant because atomic elements are conserved in chemical reactions.
In turn, the mixture fraction is a conserved scalar quantity, and therefore its governing
transport equation does not have a source term. Combustion is simplified to a mixing
problem, and the difficulties associated with closing non-linear mean reaction rates are
avoided. Once mixed, the chemistry can be modeled as being in chemical equilibrium
with the Equilibrium model, being near chemical equilibrium with the Steady Laminar
Flamelet model, or significantly departing from chemical equilibrium with the Unsteady
Laminar Flamelet model.
The non-premixed combustion model is presented in the following sections:

• Section 15.1: Introduction

• Section 15.2: Non-Premixed Combustion and Mixture Fraction Theory

• Section 15.3: The Laminar Flamelet Models Theory

• Section 15.4: The Steady Laminar Flamelet Model Theory

• Section 15.5: The Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Model Theory

• Section 15.6: Steps in Using the Non-Premixed Model

• Section 15.7: Setting Up the Equilibrium Chemistry Model

• Section 15.8: Setting Up the Steady and Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Models

• Section 15.9: Defining the Stream Compositions

• Section 15.10: Setting Up Control Parameters

• Section 15.11: Calculating the Flamelets

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

• Section 15.12: Calculating the Look-Up Tables

• Section 15.13: Defining Non-Premixed Boundary Conditions
• Section 15.14: Defining Non-Premixed Physical Properties
• Section 15.15: Coal Modeling Inputs in FLUENT
• Section 15.16: Solution Strategies for Non-Premixed Modeling
• Section 15.17: Postprocessing the Non-Premixed Model Results

15.1 Introduction
Non-premixed modeling involves the solution of transport equations for one or two con-
served scalars (the mixture fractions). Equations for individual species are not solved.
Instead, species concentrations are derived from the predicted mixture fraction fields. The
thermochemistry calculations are preprocessed and then tabulated for look-up in FLU-
ENT. Interaction of turbulence and chemistry is accounted for with an assumed-shape
Probability Density Function (PDF).

15.1.1 Overview of the Non-Premixed Approach

The non-premixed modeling approach has been specifically developed for the simulation
of turbulent diffusion flames with fast chemistry. For such systems, the method offers
many benefits over the eddy-dissipation formulation described in Chapter 14: Modeling
Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry. The non-premixed model allows interme-
diate (radical) species prediction, dissociation effects, and rigorous turbulence-chemistry
coupling. The method is computationally efficient in that it does not require the solution
of a large number of species transport equations. When the underlying assumptions are
valid, the non-premixed approach is preferred over the eddy-dissipation formulation.

15.2 Non-Premixed Combustion and Mixture Fraction Theory

Information about non-premixed combustion and mixture fraction theory are presented
in the following sections:

• Section 15.2.1: Mixture Fraction Theory

• Section 15.2.2: Modeling of Turbulence-Chemistry Interaction
• Section 15.2.3: Non-Adiabatic Extensions of the Non-Premixed Model
• Section 15.2.4: Chemistry Tabulation
• Section 15.2.5: Restrictions and Special Cases for Using the Non-Premixed Model

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 15.2 Non-Premixed Combustion and Mixture Fraction Theory

15.2.1 Mixture Fraction Theory

Definition of the Mixture Fraction
The basis of the non-premixed modeling approach is that under a certain set of simplifying
assumptions, the instantaneous thermochemical state of the fluid is related to a conserved
scalar quantity known as the mixture fraction, f . The mixture fraction can be written
in terms of the atomic mass fraction as [336]

Zi − Zi,ox
f= (15.2-1)
Zi,fuel − Zi,ox

where Zi is the elemental mass fraction for element, i. The subscript ox denotes the
value at the oxidizer stream inlet and the subscript fuel denotes the value at the fuel
stream inlet. If the diffusion coefficients for all species are equal, then Equation 15.2-1
is identical for all elements, and the mixture fraction definition is unique. The mixture
fraction is thus the elemental mass fraction that originated from the fuel stream.
If a secondary stream (another fuel or oxidant, or a non-reacting stream) is included,
the fuel and secondary mixture fractions are simply the elemental mass fractions of the
fuel and secondary streams, respectively. The sum of all three mixture fractions in the
system (fuel, secondary stream, and oxidizer) is always equal to 1:

ffuel + fsec + fox = 1 (15.2-2)

This indicates that only points on the plane ABC (shown in Figure 15.2.1) in the mixture
fraction space are valid. Consequently, the two mixture fractions, ffuel and fsec , cannot
vary independently; their values are valid only if they are both within the triangle OBC
shown in Figure 15.2.1.
FLUENT discretizes the triangle OBC as shown in Figure 15.2.2. Essentially, the primary
mixture fraction, ffuel , is allowed to vary between zero and one, as for the single mix-
ture fraction case, while the secondary mixture fraction lies on lines with the following
equation:

fsec = psec × (1 − ffuel ) (15.2-3)

where psec is the normalized secondary mixture fraction and is the value at the intersection
of a line with the secondary mixture fraction axis. Note that unlike fsec , psec is bounded
between zero and one, regardless of the ffuel value.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

fox

A fsec
1

1
C

O
B
0 1
ffuel
Figure 15.2.1: Relationship of ffuel , fsec , and fox

1 C

p
sec

f sec

O B
0
f fuel 1

Figure 15.2.2: Relationship of ffuel , fsec , and psec

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 15.2 Non-Premixed Combustion and Mixture Fraction Theory

An important characteristic of the normalized secondary mixture fraction, psec , is its as-
sumed statistical independence from the fuel mixture fraction, ffuel . Note that unlike fsec ,
psec is not a conserved scalar. The normalized mixture fraction definition for the second
scalar variable is used everywhere except when defining the rich limit for a secondary
fuel stream, which is defined in terms of fsec .

Transport Equations for the Mixture Fraction

Under the assumption of equal diffusivities, the species equations can be reduced to a
single equation for the mixture fraction, f . The reaction source terms in the species
equations cancel, and thus f is a conserved quantity. While the assumption of equal
diffusivities is problematic for laminar flows, it is generally acceptable for turbulent flows
where turbulent convection overwhelms molecular diffusion. The Favre mean (density-
averaged) mixture fraction equation is

∂ µt
 
(ρf ) + ∇ · (ρ~v f ) = ∇ · ∇f + Sm + Suser (15.2-4)
∂t σt

The source term Sm is due solely to transfer of mass into the gas phase from liquid fuel
droplets or reacting particles (e.g., coal). Suser is any user-defined source term.
In addition to solving for the Favre mean mixture fraction, FLUENT solves a conservation
equation for the mixture fraction variance, f 0 2 [167]:

∂  02 µt 
    2
ρf + ∇ · ρ~v f 0 2 = ∇ · ∇f 0 2 + Cg µt ∇f − Cd ρ f 0 2 + Suser (15.2-5)
∂t σt k

where f 0 = f − f . The default values for the constants σt , Cg , and Cd are 0.85, 2.86, and
2.0, respectively, and Suser is any user-defined source term.
The mixture fraction variance is used in the closure model describing turbulence-chemistry
interactions (see Section 15.2.2: Modeling of Turbulence-Chemistry Interaction).
2 0
For a two-mixture-fraction problem, ffuel and ffuel are obtained from Equations 15.2-4 and
02 02
15.2-5 by substituting ffuel for f and ffuel for f . fsec is obtained from Equation 15.2-4 by
substituting fsec for f . psec is then calculated using Equation 15.2-3, and p0sec2 is obtained

by solving Equation 15.2-5 with psec substituted for f . To a first-order approximation,

the variances in psec and fsec are relatively insensitive to ffuel , and therefore the equation
for p0sec
2 is essentially the same as f 0 2 .
sec

i The equation for p0sec

2 instead of f 0 2 is valid when the mass flow rate of
sec
the secondary stream is relatively small compared with the total mass flow
rate.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

The Non-Premixed Model for LES

A transport equation is not solved for the mixture fraction variance. Instead, it is modeled
as

2
f 0 2 = Cvar L2s |∇f | (15.2-6)

where
Cvar = constant
Ls = subgrid length scale (see Equation 12.9-16)
The constant Cvar is computed dynamically when the Dynamic Stress option is enabled
in the Viscous panel, else a constant value (with a default of 0.5) is used.
If the Dynamic Scalar Flux option is enabled, the turbulent Sc (σt in Equation 15.2-5) is
computed dynamically.

Mixture Fraction vs. Equivalence Ratio

The mixture fraction definition can be understood in relation to common measures of
reacting systems. Consider a simple combustion system involving a fuel stream (F), an
oxidant stream (O), and a product stream (P) symbolically represented at stoichiometric
conditions as

F + r O → (1 + r) P (15.2-7)

where r is the air-to-fuel ratio on a mass basis. Denoting the equivalence ratio as φ,
where

(fuel/air)actual
φ= (15.2-8)
(fuel/air)stoichiometric

the reaction in Equation 15.2-7, under more general mixture conditions, can then be
written as

φ F + r O → (φ + r) P (15.2-9)

Looking at the left side of this equation, the mixture fraction for the system as a whole
can then be deduced to be

φ
f= (15.2-10)
φ+r

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 15.2 Non-Premixed Combustion and Mixture Fraction Theory

Equation 15.2-10 allows the computation of the mixture fraction at stoichiometric con-
ditions (φ = 1) or at fuel-rich conditions (e.g., φ > 1), or fuel-lean conditions (e.g.,
φ < 1).

Relationship of f to Species Mass Fraction, Density, and Temperature

The power of the mixture fraction modeling approach is that the chemistry is reduced to
one or two conserved mixture fractions. Under the assumption of chemical equilibrium,
all thermochemical scalars (species fractions, density, and temperature) are uniquely
related to the mixture fraction(s).
For single mixture fraction, adiabatic systems, the instantaneous values of mass fractions,
density, and temperature depend solely on the instantaneous mixture fraction, f :

φi = φi (f ) (15.2-11)

If a secondary stream is included, the instantaneous values will depend on the instanta-
neous fuel mixture fraction, ffuel , and the secondary partial fraction, psec :

φi = φi (ffuel , psec ) (15.2-12)

In Equations 15.2-11 and 15.2-12, φi represents the instantaneous species mass fraction,
density, or temperature. In the case of non-adiabatic systems, the effect of heat loss/gain
is parameterized as

φi = φi (f, H) (15.2-13)

for a single mixture fraction system, where H is the instantaneous enthalpy (see Equa-
tion 13.2-7).
If a secondary stream is included,

φi = φi (ffuel , psec , H) (15.2-14)

Examples of non-adiabatic flows include systems with radiation, heat transfer through
walls, heat transfer to/from discrete phase particles or droplets, and multiple inlets at
different temperatures. Additional detail about the mixture fraction approach in such
non-adiabatic systems is provided in Section 15.2.3: Non-Adiabatic Extensions of the
Non-Premixed Model.
In many reacting systems, the combustion is not in chemical equilibrium. FLUENT offers
several approaches to model chemical non-equilibrium, including the finite-rate (see Sec-
tion 14.1.1: The Generalized Finite-Rate Formulation for Reaction Modeling), EDC (see

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

Section 14.1.1: The Eddy-Dissipation-Concept (EDC) Model), and PDF transport (see
Chapter 18: Modeling a Composition PDF Transport Problem) models, where detailed
kinetic mechanisms can be incorporated.
There are three approaches in the non-premixed combustion model to simulate chemical
non-equilibrium. The first is to use the Rich Flammability Limit (RFL) option in the
Equilibrium model, where rich regions are modeled as a mixed but unburnt mixture
of pure fuel and a leaner equilibrium burnt mixture (see Section 15.7.5: Enabling the
Rich Flammability Limit (RFL) Option). The second approach is the Steady Laminar
Flamelet model, where chemical non-equilibrium due to diffusion flame stretching by
turbulence can be modeled. The third approach is the Unsteady Laminar Flamelet
model where slow-forming product species that are far from chemical equilibrium can be
modeled. See Sections 15.3 and 15.5 for details about the Steady and Unsteady Laminar
Flamelet models in FLUENT.

15.2.2 Modeling of Turbulence-Chemistry Interaction

Equations 15.2-11 through 15.2-14 describe the instantaneous relationships between mix-
ture fraction and species fractions, density, and temperature under the assumption of
chemical equilibrium. The FLUENT prediction of the turbulent reacting flow, however,
is concerned with prediction of the averaged values of these fluctuating scalars. How
these averaged values are related to the instantaneous values depends on the turbulence-
chemistry interaction model. FLUENT applies the assumed-shape probability density
function (PDF) approach as its closure model when the non-premixed model is used.
The assumed shape PDF closure model is described in this section.

Description of the Probability Density Function

The Probability Density Function, written as p(f ), can be thought of as the fraction of
time that the fluid spends in the vicinity of the state f . Figure 15.2.3 plots the time trace
of mixture fraction at a point in the flow (right-hand side) and the probability density
function of f (left-hand side). The fluctuating value of f , plotted on the right side of the
figure, spends some fraction of time in the range denoted as ∆f . p(f ), plotted on the left
side of the figure, takes on values such that the area under its curve in the band denoted,
∆f , is equal to the fraction of time that f spends in this range. Written mathematically,

1X
p(f ) ∆f = lim τi (15.2-15)
T →∞ T
i

where T is the time scale and τi is the amount of time that f spends in the ∆f band. The
shape of the function p(f ) depends on the nature of the turbulent fluctuations in f . In
practice, p(f ) is unknown and is modeled as a mathematical function that approximates
the actual PDF shapes that have been observed experimentally.

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 15.2 Non-Premixed Combustion and Mixture Fraction Theory

Figure 15.2.3: Graphical Description of the Probability Density Function,

p(f )

Derivation of Mean Scalar Values from the Instantaneous Mixture Fraction

The probability density function p(f ), describing the temporal fluctuations of f in the
turbulent flow, can be used to compute averaged values of variables that depend on
f . Density-weighted mean species mass fractions and temperature can be computed (in
adiabatic systems) as

Z 1
φi = p(f )φi (f )df (15.2-16)
0

for a single-mixture-fraction system. When a secondary stream exists, mean values are
calculated as

Z 1 Z 1
φi = p1 (ffuel )p2 (psec )φi (ffuel , psec )dffuel dpsec (15.2-17)
0 0

where p1 is the PDF of ffuel and p2 is the PDF of psec . Here, statistical independence of
ffuel and psec is assumed, so that p(ffuel , psec ) = p1 (ffuel )p2 (psec ).

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

Similarly, the mean time-averaged fluid density, ρ, can be computed as

1 Z 1 p(f )
= df (15.2-18)
ρ 0 ρ(f )

for a single-mixture-fraction system, and

1 Z 1 Z 1 p1 (ffuel )p2 (psec )

= dffuel dpsec (15.2-19)
ρ 0 0 ρ(ffuel , psec )

when a secondary stream exists. ρ(f ) or ρ(ffuel , psec ) is the instantaneous density obtained
using the instantaneous species mass fractions and temperature in the ideal gas law
equation.
Using Equations 15.2-16 and 15.2-18 (or Equations 15.2-17 and 15.2-19), it remains only
to specify the shape of the function p(f ) (or p1 (ffuel ) and p2 (psec )) in order to determine
the local mean fluid state at all points in the flow field.

The Assumed-Shape PDF

The shape of the assumed PDF, p(f ), is described in FLUENT by one of two mathematical
functions:

• the double-delta function (two-mixture-fraction cases only)

• the β-function (single- and two-mixture-fraction cases)

The double-delta function is the most easily computed, while the β-function most closely
represents experimentally observed PDFs. The shape produced by this function depends
solely on the mean mixture fraction, f , and its variance, f 0 2 . A detailed description of
each function follows.

The Double Delta Function PDF

The double delta function is given by

 q
 0.5,

 f = f − qf 0 2
p(f ) = 0.5, f = f + f 02 (15.2-20)


0, elsewhere


with suitable bounding near f = 1 and f = 0. One example of the double delta function
is illustrated in Figure 15.2.4. As noted above, the double delta function PDF is very easy
to compute but is invariably less accurate than the alternate β-function PDF because it

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 15.2 Non-Premixed Combustion and Mixture Fraction Theory

assumes that only two states occur in the turbulent flow. For this reason, it is available
only for two-mixture-fraction simulations where the savings in computational cost is
significant.
p(f)

0.5

0
0 f f

Figure 15.2.4: Example of the Double Delta Function PDF Shape

The β-Function PDF

The β-function PDF shape is given by the following function of f and f 0 2 :

f α−1 (1 − f )β−1
p(f ) = R (15.2-21)
f α−1 (1 − f )β−1 df

where
" #
f (1 − f )
α=f −1 (15.2-22)
f 02

and
" #
f (1 − f )
β = (1 − f ) −1 (15.2-23)
f 02

Importantly, the PDF shape p(f ) is a function of only its first two moments, namely the
mean mixture fraction, f , and the mixture fraction variance, f 0 2 . Thus, given FLUENT’s
prediction of f and f 0 2 at each point in the flow field (Equations 15.2-4 and 15.2-5), the
assumed PDF shape can be computed and used as the weighting function to determine the
mean values of species mass fractions, density, and temperature using, Equations 15.2-16
and 15.2-18 (or, for a system with a secondary stream, Equations 15.2-17 and 15.2-19).

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This logical dependence is depicted visually in Figure 15.2.5 for a single mixture fraction.

PDF Shape
p(f ) = p (f , f ’ 2 )

Chemistry Model
φ i (f )

1
φ i = ∫ p(f ) φ i (f ) df
o

Look-up Table φi = φi (f , f ’2)

Figure 15.2.5: Logical Dependence of Averaged Scalars φi on f , f 0 2 , and the

Chemistry Model (Adiabatic, Single-Mixture-Fraction Sys-
tems)

15.2.3 Non-Adiabatic Extensions of the Non-Premixed Model

Many reacting systems involve heat transfer through wall boundaries, droplets, and/or
particles. In such flows the local thermochemical state is no longer related only to f ,
but also to the enthalpy, H. The system enthalpy impacts the chemical equilibrium
calculation and the temperature and species of the reacting flow. Consequently, changes
in enthalpy due to heat loss must be considered when computing scalars from the mixture
fraction, as in Equation 15.2-13.
In such non-adiabatic systems, turbulent fluctuations should be accounted for by means
of a joint PDF, p(f, H). The computation of p(f, H), however, is not practical for
most engineering applications. The problem can be simplified significantly by assuming
that the enthalpy fluctuations are independent of the enthalpy level (i.e., heat losses
do not significantly impact the turbulent enthalpy fluctuations). With this assumption,
p(f, H) = p(f )δ(H − H) and mean scalars are calculated as

Z 1
φi = φi (f, H)p(f )df (15.2-24)
0

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 15.2 Non-Premixed Combustion and Mixture Fraction Theory

Determination of φi in the non-adiabatic system thus requires solution of the modeled

transport equation for mean enthalpy:
!
∂ kt
(ρH) + ∇ · (ρ~v H) = ∇ · ∇H + Sh (15.2-25)
∂t cp

where Sh accounts for source terms due to radiation, heat transfer to wall boundaries,
and heat exchange with the dispersed phase.
Figure 15.2.6 depicts the logical dependence of mean scalar values (species mass fraction,
density, and temperature) on FLUENT’s prediction of f , f 0 2 , and H in non-adiabatic
single-mixture-fraction systems.

Figure 15.2.6: Logical Dependence of Averaged Scalars φi on f , f 0 2 , H,

and the Chemistry Model (Non-Adiabatic, Single-Mixture-
Fraction Systems)

When a secondary stream is included, the mean values are calculated from

Z 1 Z 1
φi = φi (ffuel , psec , H)p1 (ffuel )p2 (psec )dffuel dpsec (15.2-26)
0 0

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

As noted above, the non-adiabatic extensions to the PDF model are required in systems
involving heat transfer to walls and in systems with radiation included. In addition, the
non-adiabatic model is required in systems that include multiple fuel or oxidizer inlets
with different inlet temperatures. Finally, the non-adiabatic model is required in particle-
laden flows (e.g., liquid fuel systems or coal combustion systems) when such flows include
heat transfer to the dispersed phase. Figure 15.2.7 illustrates several systems that must
include the non-adiabatic form of the PDF model.

Q wall or Q radiation

Fuel f=1

Oxidant f=0

(a) Heat Transfer to Domain Boundaries and/or

Radiation Heat Transfer

Oxidant
T = T1

Fuel

Oxidant
T = T2

(b) Multiple Fuel or Oxidant Inlets at Different

Temperatures

Liquid Fuel or
Oxidant
Pulverized Coal

(c) Dispersed Phase Heat or Mass Transfer (e.g.,

Liquid Fuel or Coal Combustion)

Figure 15.2.7: Reacting Systems Requiring Non-Adiabatic Non-Premixed

Model Approach

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 15.2 Non-Premixed Combustion and Mixture Fraction Theory

15.2.4 Chemistry Tabulation

Look-Up Tables for Adiabatic Systems
For an equilibrium, adiabatic, single-mixture-fraction case, the mean temperature, den-
sity, and species fraction are functions of the f and f 02 only (see Equations 15.2-16 and
15.2-21). Significant computational time can be saved by computing these integrals once,
storing them in a look-up table, and retrieving them during the FLUENT simulation.
Figure 15.2.8 illustrates the concept of the look-up tables generated for a single-mixture-
fraction system. Given FLUENT’s predicted value for f and f 0 2 at a point in the flow
domain, the mean value of mass fractions, density, or temperature (φi ) at that point can
be obtained by table interpolation.
The table, Figure 15.2.8, is the mathematical result of the integration of Equation 15.2-16.
There is one look-up table of this type for each scalar of interest (species mass fractions,
density, and temperature). In adiabatic systems, where the instantaneous enthalpy is
a function of only the instantaneous mixture fraction, a two-dimensional look-up table,
like that in Figure 15.2.8, is all that is required.
Scalar
Value

Scaled
Variance

Mean
Mixture
Fraction

Figure 15.2.8: Visual Representation of a Look-Up Table for the Scalar φi as

a Function of f and f 0 2 in Adiabatic Single-Mixture-Fraction
Systems

For systems with two mixture fractions, the storage and interpolation costs of look-up
tables are too expensive since four-dimensional tables would be necessary. Instead, the
instantaneous properties φi are tabulated as a function of the fuel mixture fraction ffuel
and the secondary partial fraction psec (see Equation 15.2-12), and the PDF integra-
tions (see Equation 15.2-14) are performed at run-time. This two-dimensional table is
illustrated in Figure 15.2.9.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

Instantaneous
Scalar
Value

Secondary
Partial
Fraction

Fuel
Mixture
Fraction

Figure 15.2.9: Visual Representation of a Look-Up Table for the Scalar φi as

a Function of ffuel and psec in Adiabatic Two-Mixture-Fraction
Systems

3D Look-Up Tables for Non-Adiabatic Systems

In non-adiabatic systems, where the enthalpy is not linearly related to the mixture frac-
tion, but depends also on wall heat transfer and/or radiation, a look-up table is required
for each possible enthalpy value in the system. The result, for single mixture fraction
systems, is a three-dimensional look-up table, as illustrated in Figure 15.2.10, which con-
sists of layers of two-dimensional tables, each one corresponding to a normalized heat loss
or gain. The first slice corresponds to the maximum heat loss from the system, the last
slice corresponds to the maximum heat gain to the system, and the zero heat loss/gain
slice corresponds to the adiabatic table. Slices interpolated between the adiabatic and
maximum slices correspond to heat gain, and those interpolated between the adiabatic
and minimum slices correspond to heat loss.
The three-dimensional look-up table allows FLUENT to determine the value of each mass
fraction, density, and temperature from calculated values of f , f 0 2 , and H. This three-
dimensional table in Figure 15.2.10 is the visual representation of the integral in Equa-
tion 15.2-24.

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 15.2 Non-Premixed Combustion and Mixture Fraction Theory

normalized
heat loss/gain
n+1

normalized
heat loss/gainn

normalized
Scalar heat loss/gainn-1
Value

Scaled
Variance

Mean
Mixture
Fraction

Figure 15.2.10: Visual Representation of a Look-Up Table for the Scalar φi

as a Function of f and f 0 2 and Normalized Heat Loss/Gain
in Non-Adiabatic Single-Mixture-Fraction Systems

For non-adiabatic, two-mixture-fraction problems, it is unreasonable to tabulate and

retrieve Equation 15.2-26 since five-dimensional tables are required. Instead, 3D look-
up tables of the instantaneous state relationship given by Equation 15.2-14 are created.
The 3D table in Figure 15.2.11 is the visual representation of Equation 15.2-14. The
mean density during the FLUENT solution is calculated by integrating the instantaneous
density over the fuel and secondary mixture fraction space (see Equation 15.2-26).

i Note that the computation time in FLUENT for a two-mixture-fraction

case will be much greater than for a single-mixture-fraction problem. This
expense should be carefully considered before choosing the two-mixture-
fraction model. Also, it is usually expedient to start a two-mixture-fraction
simulation from a converged single-mixture-fraction solution.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

normalized
heat loss/gain
n+1

Instantaneous
Scalar
Value normalized
heat loss/gain n

normalized
heat loss/gain
n-1

Secondary
Partial
Fraction

Fuel
Mixture
Fraction

Figure 15.2.11: Visual Representation of a Look-Up Table for the Scalar φi

as a Function of ffuel , psec , and Normalized Heat Loss/Gain
in Non-Adiabatic Two-Mixture-Fraction Systems

15.2.5 Restrictions and Special Cases for Using the Non-Premixed Model
Restrictions on the Mixture Fraction Approach
The unique dependence of φi (species mass fractions, density, or temperature) on f
(Equation 15.2-11 or 15.2-13) requires that the reacting system meet the following con-
ditions:

• The chemical system must be of the diffusion type with discrete fuel and oxidizer
inlets (spray combustion and pulverized fuel flames may also fall into this category).
• The Lewis number must be unity. (This implies that the diffusion coefficients for
all species and enthalpy are equal, a good approximation in turbulent flow).

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 15.2 Non-Premixed Combustion and Mixture Fraction Theory

• When a single mixture fraction is used, the following conditions must be met:
– Only one type of fuel is involved. The fuel may be made up of a burnt mixture
of reacting species (e.g., 90% CH4 and 10% CO) and you may include multiple
fuel inlets. The multiple fuel inlets must have the same composition; however,
two or more fuel inlets with different fuel composition are not allowed (e.g.,
one inlet of CH4 and one inlet of CO). Similarly, in spray combustion systems
or in systems involving reacting particles, only one off-gas is permitted.
– Only one type of oxidizer is involved. The oxidizer may consist of a mixture of
species (e.g., 21% O2 and 79% N2 ) and you may have multiple oxidizer inlets.
The multiple oxidizer inlets must, however, have the same composition. Two
or more oxidizer inlets with different composition are not allowed (e.g., one
inlet of air and a second inlet of pure oxygen).
• When two mixture fractions are used, three streams can be involved in the system.
Valid systems are as follows:
– Two fuel streams with different compositions and one oxidizer stream. Each
fuel stream may be made up of a mixture of reacting species (e.g., 90% CH4
and 10% CO). You may include multiple inlets of each fuel stream, but each
fuel inlet must have one of the two defined compositions (e.g., one inlet of CH4
and one inlet of CO).
– Mixed fuel systems including gas-liquid, gas-coal, or liquid-coal fuel mixtures
with a single oxidizer. In systems with a gas-coal or liquid-coal fuel mixture,
the coal volatiles and char are treated as a single composite fuel stream.
– Coal combustion in which volatile and char off-gases are tracked separately.
– Two oxidizer streams with different compositions and one fuel stream. Each
oxidizer stream may consist of a mixture of species (e.g. 21% O2 and 79%
N2 ). You may have multiple inlets of each oxidizer stream, but each oxidizer
inlet must have one of the two defined compositions (e.g., one inlet of air and
a second inlet of pure oxygen).
– A fuel stream, an oxidizer stream, and a non-reacting secondary stream.
• The flow must be turbulent.

It is important to emphasize that these restrictions eliminate the use of the non-premixed
approach for directly modeling premixed combustion. This is because the unburned pre-
mixed stream is far from chemical equilibrium. Note, however, that an extended mixture
fraction formulation, the partially premixed model (see Chapter 17: Modeling Partially
Premixed Combustion), can be applied to non-premixed, premixed, and partially pre-
mixed flames.
Figures 15.2.12 and 15.2.13 illustrate typical reacting system configurations that can
be handled by the non-premixed model in FLUENT. Figure 15.2.14 shows a premixed
configuration that cannot be modeled using the non-premixed model.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

60% CH4
f=1
40% CO

21% O2
f=0
79% N2

(a) Simple Fuel/Oxidant Diffusion Flame

35% O 2
65% N 2

f=0
60% CH 4
f=1
40% CO
35% O2
f=0
65% N 2

(b) Diffusion System Using Multiple Oxidant Inlets

60% CH 4
20% CO
f=1
10% C3H8
10% CO2
21% O2
f=0
79% N2

60% CH 4
20% CO f=1
10% C3H8
10% CO2

(c) System Using Multiple Fuel Inlets

Figure 15.2.12: Chemical Systems That Can Be Modeled Using a Single Mix-
ture Fraction

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 15.2 Non-Premixed Combustion and Mixture Fraction Theory

CH 4/CO/C 3H 8

Oxidant

CH 4/C 3H 8

(a) System Containing Two Dissimilar Fuel Inlets

21% O2

Fuel

35% O2

(b) System Containing Two Dissimilar Oxidant Inlets

Figure 15.2.13: Chemical System Configurations That Can Be Modeled Us-

ing Two Mixture Fractions

CH
4
O
2
N
2

Figure 15.2.14: Premixed Systems CANNOT Be Modeled Using the Non-

Premixed Model

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

Using the Non-Premixed Model for Liquid Fuel or Coal Combustion

You can use the non-premixed model if your FLUENT simulation includes liquid droplets
and/or coal particles. In this case, fuel enters the gas phase within the computational do-
main at a rate determined by the evaporation, devolatilization, and char combustion laws
governing the dispersed phase. In the case of coal, the volatiles and the products of char
can be defined as two different types of fuel (using two mixture fractions) or as a single
composite off-gas (using one mixture fraction), as described in Section 15.9.5: Modeling
Coal Combustion Using the Non-Premixed Model.

Using the Non-Premixed Model with Flue Gas Recycle

While most problems you solve using the non-premixed model will involve inlets that
contain either pure oxidant or pure fuel (f = 0 or 1), you can include an inlet that has
an intermediate value of mixture fraction (0 < f < 1) provided that this inlet represents
a completely reacted mixture. Such cases arise when there is flue gas recirculation, as
depicted schematically in Figure 15.2.15. Since f is a conserved quantity, the mixture
fraction at the flue gas recycle inlet can be computed as

ṁfuel + ṁrecyc fexit = (ṁfuel + ṁox + ṁrecyc )fexit (15.2-27)

or

ṁfuel
fexit = (15.2-28)
ṁfuel + ṁox

where fexit is the exit mixture fraction (and the mixture fraction at the flue gas recycle
inlet), ṁox is the mass flow rate of the oxidizer inlet, ṁfuel is the mass flow rate of the
fuel inlet, ṁrecyc is the mass flow rate of the recycle inlet.
If a secondary stream is included,

ṁfuel
ffuel,exit = (15.2-29)
ṁfuel + ṁsec + ṁox

and

ṁsec
psec,exit = (15.2-30)
ṁsec + ṁox

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 15.2 Non-Premixed Combustion and Mixture Fraction Theory

.
m
R

fexit
.
m f=1
F

. fexit
m f=0
O

Figure 15.2.15: Using the Non-Premixed Model with Flue Gas Recycle

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

15.3 The Laminar Flamelet Models Theory

Information about the flamelet models are presented in the following sections:

• Section 15.3.1: Restrictions and Assumptions

• Section 15.3.2: The Flamelet Concept

• Section 15.3.3: Flamelet Generation

• Section 15.3.4: Flamelet Import

15.3.1 Restrictions and Assumptions

The following restrictions apply to all flamelet models in FLUENT:

• Only a single mixture fraction can be modeled; two-mixture-fraction flamelet mod-

els are not allowed.

• The mixture fraction is assumed to follow the β-function PDF, and scalar dissipa-
tion fluctuations are ignored.

• Empirically-based streams cannot be used with the flamelet model.

15.3.2 The Flamelet Concept

Overview
The flamelet concept views the turbulent flame as an ensemble of thin, laminar, locally
one-dimensional flamelet structures embedded within the turbulent flow field [42, 280,
281] (see Figure 15.3.1).
A common laminar flame used to represent a flamelet in a turbulent flow is the counterflow
diffusion flame. This geometry consists of opposed, axisymmetric fuel and oxidizer jets.
As the distance between the jets is decreased and/or the velocity of the jets increased, the
flame is strained and increasingly departs from chemical equilibrium until it is eventually
extinguished. The species mass fraction and temperature fields can be measured in
laminar counterflow diffusion flame experiments, or, most commonly, calculated. For
the latter, a self-similar solution exists, and the governing equations can be simplified
to one dimension along the axis of the fuel and oxidizer jets, where complex chemistry
calculations can be affordably performed.
In the laminar counterflow flame, the mixture fraction, f , (see Section 15.2.1: Definition
of the Mixture Fraction for definition) decreases monotonically from unity at the fuel
jet to zero at the oxidizer jet. If the species mass fraction and temperature along the

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 15.3 The Laminar Flamelet Models Theory

turbulent flame
laminar flamelet structure
(see detail below)

flame

fuel oxidizer

x
velocity (u fuel ) velocity (u ox )

velocity velocity
gradient (a fuel ) gradient (a ox )

temperature (T fuel ) temperature (Tox )

fuel composition oxidizer composition

fuel-oxidizer distance

Figure 15.3.1: Laminar Opposed-Flow Diffusion Flamelet

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axis are mapped from physical space to mixture fraction space, they can be uniquely
described by two parameters: the mixture fraction and the strain rate (or, equivalently,
the scalar dissipation, χ, defined in Equation 15.3-2). Hence, the chemistry is reduced
and completely described by the two quantities, f and χ.
This reduction of the complex chemistry to two variables allows the flamelet calcula-
tions to be preprocessed, and stored in look-up tables. By preprocessing the chemistry,
computational costs are reduced considerably.
The balance equations, solution methods, and sample calculations of the counterflow
laminar diffusion flame can be found in several references. Comprehensive reviews and
analyses are presented in the works of Bray and Peters, and Dixon-Lewis [42, 82].

Strain Rate and Scalar Dissipation

A characteristic strain rate for a counterflow diffusion flamelet can be defined as as =
v/2d, where v is the relative speed of the fuel and oxidizer jets, and d is the distance
between the jet nozzles.
Instead of using the strain rate to quantify the departure from equilibrium, it is expedient
to use the scalar dissipation, denoted by χ. The scalar dissipation is defined as

χ = 2D|∇f |2 (15.3-1)

where D is a representative diffusion coefficient.

Note that the scalar dissipation, χ, varies along the axis of the flamelet. For the coun-
terflow geometry, the flamelet strain rate as can be related to the scalar dissipation at
the position where f is stoichiometric by [280]:
 
as exp −2[erfc−1 (2fst )]2
χst = (15.3-2)
π
where
χst = scalar dissipation at f = fst
as = characteristic strain rate
fst = stoichiometric mixture fraction
erfc−1 = inverse complementary error function
Physically, as the flame is strained, the width of the reaction zone diminishes, and the
gradient of f at the stoichiometric position f = fst increases. The instantaneous stoi-
chiometric scalar dissipation, χst , is used as the essential non-equilibrium parameter. It
has the dimensions s−1 and may be interpreted as the inverse of a characteristic diffusion
time. In the limit χst → 0 the chemistry tends to equilibrium, and as χst increases due
to aerodynamic straining, the non-equilibrium increases. Local quenching of the flamelet
occurs when χst exceeds a critical value.

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 15.3 The Laminar Flamelet Models Theory

Embedding Laminar Flamelets in Turbulent Flames

A turbulent flame brush is modeled as an ensemble of discrete laminar flamelets. Since,
for adiabatic systems, the species mass fraction and temperature in the laminar flamelets
are completely parameterized by f and χst , density-weighted mean species mass fractions
and temperature in the turbulent flame can be determined from the PDF of f and χst as
Z Z
φ= φ(f, χst )p(f, χst ) df dχst (15.3-3)

where φ represents species mass fractions and temperature.

In FLUENT, f and χst are assumed to be statistically independent, so the joint PDF
p(f, χst ) can be simplified as pf (f )pχ (χst ). A β PDF shape is assumed for pf , and
transport equations for f and f 0 2 are solved in FLUENT to specify pf . Fluctuations in
χst are ignored so that the PDF of χ is a delta function: pχ = δ(χ−χ). The first moment,
namely the mean scalar dissipation, χst , is modeled in FLUENT as

Cχ f 0 2
χst = (15.3-4)
k
where Cχ is a constant with a default value of 2.
For LES, the mean scalar dissipation is modeled as

(µt + µ) 2
χst = Cχ |∇f | (15.3-5)
ρσt

To avoid the PDF convolutions at FLUENT run-time, the integrations in Equation 15.3-3
are preprocessed and stored in look-up tables. For adiabatic flows, single-flamelet ta-
bles have two dimensions: f and f 0 2 . The multiple-flamelet tables have the additional
dimension χst .
For non-adiabatic steady laminar flamelets, the additional parameter of enthalpy is re-
quired. However, the computational cost of modeling steady flamelets over a range of
enthalpies is prohibitive, so some approximations are made. Heat gain/loss to the system
is assumed to have a negligible effect on the species mass fractions, and adiabatic mass
fractions are used [35, 254]. The temperature is then calculated from Equation 13.2-7
for a range of mean enthalpy gain/loss, H. Accordingly, mean temperature and density
PDF tables have an extra dimension of mean enthalpy. The approximation of constant
adiabatic species mass fractions is, however, not applied for the case corresponding to a
scalar dissipation of zero. Such a case is represented by the non-adiabatic equilibrium
solution. For χst = 0, the species mass fractions are computed as functions of f , f 0 2 , and
H.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

In FLUENT, you can either generate your own flamelets, or import them as flamelet
files calculated with other stand-alone packages. Such stand-alone codes include OP-
PDIF [224], RIF [22, 23, 285] and RUN-1DL [283]. FLUENT can import flamelet files in
OPPDIF format or standard flamelet file format.
Instructions for generating and importing flamelets are provided in Section 15.3.3: Flamelet
Generation and Section 15.3.4: Flamelet Import.

15.3.3 Flamelet Generation

The laminar counterflow diffusion flame equations can be transformed from physical space
(with x as the independent variable) to mixture fraction space (with f as the independent
variable) [286]. In FLUENT, a simplified set of the mixture fraction space equations are
solved [285]. Here, N equations are solved for the species mass fractions, Yi ,

∂Yi 1 ∂ 2 Yi
ρ = ρχ 2 + Si (15.3-6)
∂t 2 ∂f

and one equation for temperature:

1 ∂2T
" #
∂T 1 X 1 ∂cp X ∂Yi ∂T
ρ = ρχ 2 − Hi Si + ρχ + cp,i (15.3-7)
∂t 2 ∂f cp i 2cp ∂f i ∂f ∂f

The notation in Equations 15.3-6 and 15.3-7 is as follows: Yi , T , ρ, and f are the ith
species mass fraction, temperature, density, and mixture fraction, respectively. cp,i and
cp are the ith species specific heat and mixture-averaged specific heat, respectively. Si is
the ith species reaction rate, and Hi is the specific enthalpy of the ith species.
The scalar dissipation, χ, must be modeled across the flamelet. An extension of Equa-
tion 15.3-2 to variable density is used [180]:

q 2
as 3( ρ∞ /ρ + 1)  
χ(f ) = q exp −2[erfc−1 (2f )]2 (15.3-8)
4π 2 ρ∞ /ρ + 1

where ρ∞ is the density of the oxidizer stream.

15.3.4 Flamelet Import

FLUENT can import one or more flamelet files, convolute these flamelets with the assumed-
shape PDFs (see Equation 15.3-3), and construct look-up tables. The flamelet files can
be generated in FLUENT, or with separate, stand-alone computer codes.

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 15.3 The Laminar Flamelet Models Theory

Two types of flamelet files can be imported into FLUENT: binary files generated by the
OPPDIF code [224], and standard format files described in Section 15.12.3: Standard
Flamelet Files and in Peters and Rogg [283].
When flamelets are generated in physical space (such as with OPPDIF), the species and
temperature vary in one spatial dimension. The species and temperature must then be
mapped from physical space to mixture fraction space. If the diffusion coefficients of
all species are equal, a unique definition of the mixture fraction exists. However, with
differential diffusion, the mixture fraction can be defined in a number of ways.
FLUENT provides four methods of computing the mixture fraction profile along the lam-
inar flamelet:

• Average of C and H: Following the work of Drake and Blint [87], the mixture
fraction is calculated as the mean value of fC and fH , where fC and f H are the
mixture fraction values based on the carbon and hydrogen elements.
• Hydrocarbon formula: Following the work of Bilger et al. [34], the mixture fraction
is calculated as

b − box
f= (15.3-9)
bfuel − box
where

YC YH YO
b=2 + 0.5 − (15.3-10)
Mw,C Mw,H Mw,O
YC , YH , and YO are the mass fractions of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, and
Mw,C , Mw,H , and Mw,O are the molecular weights. box and bfuel are the values of b
at the oxidizer and fuel inlets.
• Nitrogen method: The mixture fraction is computed in terms of the mass fraction
of the nitrogen species:

YN − YN,ox
f= (15.3-11)
YN,fuel − YN,ox
where YN is the elemental mass fraction of nitrogen along the flamelet, YN,ox is the
mass fraction of nitrogen at the oxidizer inlet, and YN,fuel is the mass fraction of
nitrogen at the fuel inlet.
• Read from a file (standard format files only): This option is for flamelets solved
in mixture fraction space. If you choose this method, FLUENT will search for
the mixture fraction keyword Z, as specified in Peter and Roggs’s work [283], and
retrieve the data. If FLUENT does not find mixture fraction data in the flamelet
file, it will instead use the hydrocarbon formula method described above.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

The flamelet profiles in the multiple-flamelet data set should vary only in the strain rate
imposed; the species and the boundary conditions should be the same. In addition, it is
recommended that an extinguished flamelet is excluded from the multiple-flamelet data
set. The formats for multiple flamelets are as follows:

• OPPDIF format: The multiple-flamelet OPPDIF files should be produced using

the CNTN keyword in the OPPDIF script. Alternatively, you can use FLUENT to
merge a number of single-flamelet OPPDIF files into a multiple-flamelet file.
• Standard format: If you have a set of standard format flamelet files, you can import
them all at the same time, and FLUENT will merge them internally into a multiple-
flamelet file. When you import the set of flamelet files, FLUENT will search for and
count the occurrences of the HEADER keyword to determine the number of flamelets
in the file.

For either type of file, FLUENT will determine the number of flamelet profiles and sort
them in ascending strain-rate order. For flamelets generated in physical space, you can
select one of the four methods available for the calculation of mixture fraction. The scalar
dissipation will be calculated from the strain rate using Equation 15.3-2.

15.4 The Steady Laminar Flamelet Model Theory

The steady laminar flamelet approach models a turbulent flame brush as an ensemble of
discrete, steady laminar flames, called flamelets. The individual flamelets are assumed to
have the same structure as laminar flames in simple configurations, and are obtained by
experiments or calculations. Using detailed chemical mechanisms, FLUENT can calcu-
late laminar opposed-flow diffusion flamelets for non-premixed combustion. The laminar
flamelets are then embedded in a turbulent flame using statistical PDF methods.
The advantage of the laminar flamelet approach is that realistic chemical kinetic effects
can be incorporated into turbulent flames. The chemistry can then be preprocessed
and tabulated, offering tremendous computational savings. However, the steady laminar
flamelet model is limited to modeling combustion with relatively fast chemistry. The
flame is assumed to respond instantaneously to the aerodynamic strain, and thus the
model cannot capture deep non-equilibrium effects such as ignition, extinction, and slow
chemistry (like NOx ).
Information pertaining strictly to the steady flamelet model is presented in the following
sections:

• Section 15.4.1: Overview

• Section 15.4.2: Multiple Steady Flamelet Libraries
• Section 15.4.3: Non-Adiabatic Steady Laminar Flamelets

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 15.4 The Steady Laminar Flamelet Model Theory

For general information about the mixture fraction model, see Section 15.1: Introduction.

15.4.1 Overview
In a diffusion flame, at the molecular level, fuel and oxidizer diffuse into the reaction
zone. Here they encounter high temperatures and radical species, and ignite. More heat
and radicals are generated in the reaction zone, and some diffuse out. In near-equilibrium
flames, the reaction rate is much faster than the diffusion rate. However, as the flame
is stretched and strained by the turbulence, species and temperature gradients increase,
and radicals and heat diffuse more quickly out of the flame. The species have less time
to reach chemical equilibrium, and the degree of local non-equilibrium increases.
The steady laminar flamelet model is suited to predict chemical non-equilibrium due
to aerodynamic straining of the flame by the turbulence. The chemistry, however, is
assumed to respond rapidly to this strain, so as the strain relaxes to zero, the chemistry
tends to equilibrium.
When the chemical time-scale is comparable to the fluid mixing time-scale, the species
can be considered to be in global chemical non-equilibrium. Such cases include NOx
formation and low-temperature CO oxidation. The steady laminar flamelet model is not
suitable for such slow-chemistry flames. Instead, you can model slow chemistry using one
of the following:

• the Unsteady Laminar Flamelet model (see Section 15.5: The Unsteady Laminar
Flamelet Model Theory)

• the trace species assumption in the NOx model (see Chapter 20: Modeling Pollutant
Formation)

• the Laminar Finite-Rate model (see Section 14.1.1: The Generalized Finite-Rate
Formulation for Reaction Modeling), where the turbulence-chemistry interaction is
ignored.

• the EDC model (see Section 14.1.1: The Eddy-Dissipation-Concept (EDC) Model)

• the PDF transport model (see Chapter 18: Modeling a Composition PDF Transport
Problem).

15.4.2 Multiple Steady Flamelet Libraries

FLUENT can generate multiple steady flamelets over a range of strain rates to account for
the varying strain field in your multi-dimensional simulation. If you specify the number
of flamelets to be greater than one, flamelets are generated at scalar dissipation values
as determined by Equation 15.4-1.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

for χi−1 < 1 s−1



 10χi−1
χi = (15.4-1)
−1
χi−1 + ∆χ for χi−1 ≥ 1 s



where i ranges from 1 up to the specified maximum number of flamelets, χ0 is the

initial scalar dissipation, and ∆χ is the scalar dissipation step. Flamelets are generated
until either the maximum number of flamelets is reached, or the flamelet extinguishes.
Extinguished flamelets are excluded from the flamelet library.

15.4.3 Non-Adiabatic Steady Laminar Flamelets

For non-adiabatic steady flamelets, FLUENT follows the approach of [35, 254] and as-
sumes that flamelet species profiles are unaffected by heat loss/gain from the flamelet.
This implementation treats the heat losses accurately and consistently. Furthermore,
no special non-adiabatic flamelet profiles need to be generated, avoiding a very cumber-
some preprocessing step. In addition, the compatibility of FLUENT with external steady
flamelet generation packages (e.g., OPPDIF, RIF, RUN-1DL) is retained. The disadvan-
tage to this model is that the effect of the heat losses on the species mass fractions is not
taken into account. Also, the effect of the heat loss on the extinction limits is not taken
into account.
After flamelet generation, the flamelet profiles are convoluted with the assumed-shape
PDFs as in Equation 15.3-3, and then tabulated for look-up in FLUENT. The non-
adiabatic PDF tables have the following dimensions:
T (f , f 0 2 , H, χ)
Yi (f , f 0 2 , H) for χ = 0 (i.e., equilibrium solution)
Yi (f , f 0 2 , χ) for χ 6= 0
ρ(f , f 0 2 , H, χ)
During the FLUENT solution, the equations for the mean mixture fraction, mixture frac-
tion variance, and mean enthalpy are solved. The scalar dissipation field is calculated
from the turbulence field and the mixture fraction variance (Equation 15.3-4). The mean
values of cell temperature, density, and species mass fraction are obtained from the PDF
look-up table.

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 15.5 The Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Model Theory

15.5 The Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Model Theory

The steady laminar flamelet model, described in Sections 15.3 and 15.4, models local
chemical non-equilibrium due to the straining effect of turbulence. In many combustors
the strain is small at the outlet and the steady flamelet model predicts all species, in-
cluding slow-forming species like NOx , to be near equilibrium, which is often inaccurate.
The cause of this inaccuracy is the disparity between the flamelet time-scale, which is
the inverse of the scalar dissipation, and the slow-forming species time-scale, which is the
residence time since the species started accumulating after mixing in the combustor.
The unsteady laminar flamelet model in FLUENT can predict slow-forming species, such
as gaseous pollutants or product yields in liquid reactors, more accurately than the steady
laminar flamelet model. Computationally expensive chemical kinetics are reduced to one
dimension and the model is significantly faster than the laminar-finite-rate, EDC or PDF
Transport models where kinetics are calculated in two or three dimensions. There are two
variants of the unsteady laminar flamelet model, namely an Eulerian unsteady flamelet
model (described in Section 15.5.1: The Eulerian Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Model)
and a diesel unsteady flamelet model for predicting combustion in compression-ignition
engines (described in Section 15.5.2: The Diesel Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Model).
Information pertaining strictly to the unsteady flamelet model is presented in the follow-
ing sections:

• Section 15.5.1: The Eulerian Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Model

• Section 15.5.2: The Diesel Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Model

15.5.1 The Eulerian Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Model

The Eulerian unsteady laminar flamelet model can be used to predict slow-forming inter-
mediate and product species which are not in chemical equilibrium. Typical examples of
slow-forming species are gas-phase pollutants like NOx , and product compounds in liq-
uid reactors. By reducing the chemistry computation to one dimension, detailed kinetics
with multiple species and stiff reactions can be economically simulated in complex 3D
geometries.
The model, following the work of Barths et al. [23], postprocesses an unsteady marker
probability equation on a steady-state, converged flow field. In FLUENT, the steady flow
solution must be computed with the steady laminar flamelet model (see Section 15.4: The
Steady Laminar Flamelet Model Theory). Since the unsteady flamelet equations are
postprocessed on a steady-state, steady flamelet solution, the effect of the unsteady
flamelet species on the flow-field are neglected.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

The transport equation for the unsteady flamelet marker probability, I, is

∂ µt
 
(ρI) + ∇ · (ρ~v I) = ∇ · ∇I (15.5-1)
∂t σt

Equation 15.5-1 is always solved unsteady, and is initialized as


 1 for f ≥ finit

I= (15.5-2)


0 for f < finit

where f is the mean mixture fraction and finit is a user supplied constant, which should
be set greater than the stoichiometric mixture fraction. At inlet boundaries, FLUENT
always sets I toward zero, and hence the I field decreases to zero with time as I is
convected and diffused out of the domain (for cases with outlet boundaries).
The unsteady flamelet species equations (Equation 15.3-6) are integrated simultaneously
with the marker probability equation, I. For liquid-phase chemistry, the initial flamelet
field is the mixed-but-unburnt flamelet, as liquid reactions are assumed to proceed im-
mediately upon mixing. However, gas-phase chemistry invariably requires ignition, so
the initial flamelet field is calculated from a steady flamelet solution. All slow-forming
species, such as NOx , are zeroed in this initial flamelet profile since, at ignition, little
time has elapsed for any significant formation. The slow-forming species are identified
by the user before solution of the unsteady flamelet equations.
The scalar dissipation at stoichiometric mixture fraction (χst ) is required by the flamelet
species equation. This is calculated from the steady-state FLUENT field at each time
step as a probability-weighted volume integral:

I(~x, t) ρ(~x) χst 3/2 (~x) dV

R
χst (t) = RV (15.5-3)
V I(~x, t) ρ(~x) χst 1/2 (~x) dV

where χst is defined in Equation 15.5-3, and V denotes the fluid volume. FLUENT
provides the option of limiting χst to a user-specified maximum value, which should
be approximately equal to the flamelet extinction scalar dissipation (the steady flamelet
solver can be used to calculate this extinction scalar dissipation in a separate simulation).

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 15.5 The Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Model Theory

The unsteady flamelet energy equation is not solved in order to avoid flamelet extinc-
tion for high scalar dissipation, and to account for non-adiabatic heat loss or gain. For
adiabatic cases, the flamelet temperature T ad (f, t) is calculated at each time step from
the steady flamelet library at the probability-weighted scalar dissipation χst from Equa-
tion 15.5-3. For non-adiabatic cases, the flamelet temperature at time t is calculated
from

T (f, t) = T ad (f, t) ξ(f, t) (15.5-4)

where

I ρ T (~x|f )/Tad (f, t) dV

R
V
ξ(f, t) = R (15.5-5)
V I ρ dV

In Equation 15.5-5, T (~x|f ) denotes the FLUENTsteady-state mean cell temperature con-
ditioned on the local cell mixture fraction.
Unsteady flamelet mean species mass fractions in each cell are accumulated over time as

Rt hR i
1
uf la 0 Iρ 0 Yk (f, t) P (f ) df dt
Yk = Rt (15.5-6)
0 I ρ dt

where Yk (f, t) is the k’th species unsteady flamelet mass fraction, and P (f ) denotes the
Beta PDF.
The probability marker equation (Equation 15.5-1) and the flamelet species equation
(Equation 15.3-6) are advanced together in time until the probability marker has sub-
stantially convected and diffused out of the domain. The unsteady flamelet mean species,
calculated from Equation 15.5-5, reaches steady-state as the probability marker I van-
ishes.

Liquid Reactions
Liquid reactors are typically characterized by:

• Near constant density and temperature.

• Relatively slow reactions and species far from chemical equilibrium.
• High Schmidt number (Sc) and hence reduced molecular diffusion.

The Eulerian unsteady laminar flamelet model can be used to model liquid reactions.
When the Liquid Micro-Mixing model is invoked, FLUENT uses the volume-weighted-
mixing-law formula to calculate the density.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

The effect of high Sc is to decrease mixing at the smallest (micro) scales and increase
the mixture fraction variance, which is modeled with the Turbulent Mixer Model [17].
0
Three transport equations are solved for the inertial-convective (fic2 ), viscous-convective
02 0
(fvc ) and viscous-diffusive (fvd2 ) subranges of the turbulent scalar spectrum,

∂  02 µt  0
     2
0 0
ρfic + ∇ · ρ~v fic2 = ∇ · ∇fic2 + C1 µt ∇f − C2 ρ fic2 (15.5-7)
∂t σt k

∂  02 µt  02 
    r
02 02
ρfvc + ∇ · ρ~v fvc =∇· ∇fvc + C2 ρ fvc − C3 (15.5-8)
∂t σt k ν

∂  02  µt  C5
    r  
0 0
ρfvd + ∇ · ρ~v fvd2 = ∇ · ∇fvd2 + C3 1 − C4 − (15.5-9)
∂t σt ν Sc

where the constants C1 through C5 have values of 2, 1.86, 0.058, 0.303 and 17050 respec-
0 02 0
tively. The total mixture fraction variance is the sum of fic2 , fvc and fvd2 .
In Equation 15.5-9, the cell Schmidt number, Sc, is calculated as Sc = µ/ρD where µ
is the viscosity, ρ the density and D the mass diffusivity as defined for the pdf-mixture
material.
Since liquid species are invariably in chemical non-equilibrium, the unsteady laminar
flamelet model should be used, postprocessing on a converged, steady-state, steady
flamelet FLUENTcase and data.

15.5.2 The Diesel Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Model

In diesel engines, fuel sprayed into the cylinder evaporates, mixes with the surrounding
gases, and then auto-ignites as compression raises the temperature and pressure. The
diesel unsteady laminar flamelet model, based on the work of Pitsch et al. and Barths
et al. [285, 22], models the chemistry in a single, one-dimensional laminar flamelet. By
reducing the costly chemical kinetic calculation to 1D, substantial savings in run-time
can be achieved over the laminar-finite-rate, EDC or PDF Transport models.
The flamelet species and energy equations (Equations 15.3-6 and 15.3-7) are solved si-
multaneously with the flow. The flamelet equations are advanced for a fractional step
using properties from the flow, and then the flow is advanced for the same fractional
time-step using properties from the flamelet.
The initial flamelet condition at the start of the diesel simulation is a mixed-but-unburnt
distribution. For the flamelet fractional time-step, the volume-averaged scalar dissipation
and pressure, as well as the fuel and oxidizer temperatures, are passed from the flow solver
to the flamelet solver. To account for temperature rise during compression, the flamelet
energy equation (Equation 15.3-7) has an additional term on the right-hand side as

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 15.6 Steps in Using the Non-Premixed Model

1 ∂p
q̇ = (15.5-10)
cp ∂t

where cp is a the specific heat and p is the volume-averaged pressure in the cylinder.
This rise in flamelet temperature due to compression eventually leads to ignition of the
flamelet.
After the flamelet equations have been advanced for the fractional time-step, the PDF
Table is created as a Non-Adiabatic Steady Flamelet table (see Section 15.4.3: Non-
Adiabatic Steady Laminar Flamelets). Using the properties of this table, the CFD flow
field is then advanced for the same fractional time-step.
The diesel unsteady flamelet approach can model ignition as well as formation of prod-
uct, intermediate and pollutant species. Enabling the Diesel Unsteady Flamelet model is
described in Section 15.8.6: Using the Diesel Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Model

15.6 Steps in Using the Non-Premixed Model

A description of the user inputs for the non-premixed model is provided in the following
sections:

• Section 15.7: Setting Up the Equilibrium Chemistry Model

• Section 15.8: Setting Up the Steady and Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Models

• Section 15.9: Defining the Stream Compositions

• Section 15.10: Setting Up Control Parameters

• Section 15.11: Calculating the Flamelets

• Section 15.12: Calculating the Look-Up Tables

• Section 15.13: Defining Non-Premixed Boundary Conditions

• Section 15.14: Defining Non-Premixed Physical Properties

• Section 15.15: Coal Modeling Inputs in FLUENT

• Section 15.16: Solution Strategies for Non-Premixed Modeling

• Section 15.17: Postprocessing the Non-Premixed Model Results

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

15.6.1 Preliminaries
Before turning on the non-premixed combustion model, you must enable turbulence
calculations in the Viscous Model panel.
Define −→ Models −→Viscous...
If your model is non-adiabatic, you should also enable heat transfer (and radiation, if
required).
Define −→ Models −→Energy...
Define −→ Models −→Radiation...
Figure 15.2.7 illustrates the types of problems that must be treated as non-adiabatic.

15.6.2 Defining the Problem Type

Your first task is to define the type of reaction system and reaction model that you intend
to use. This includes selection of the following options:

• Non-premixed or partially premixed model option (see Chapter 17: Modeling Par-
tially Premixed Combustion).

• Equilibrium chemistry model, steady laminar flamelet model, unsteady laminar

flamelet model, or diesel unsteady flamelet.

• Adiabatic or non-adiabatic modeling options (see Section 15.2.3: Non-Adiabatic

Extensions of the Non-Premixed Model).

• Addition of a secondary stream (equilibrium model only).

• Empirically defined fuel and/or secondary stream composition (equilibrium model

only).

You can make these model selections using the Species Model panel (Figure 15.7.1).
Define −→ Models −→ Species −→Transport & Reaction...

15.6.3 Overview of the Problem Setup Procedure

For a single-mixture-fraction problem, you will perform the following steps:

1. Choose the chemical description of the system: equilibrium, steady flamelet, un-
steady flamelet, or diesel unsteady flamelet (Figure 15.6.1).

2. Indicate whether the problem is adiabatic or non-adiabatic.

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 15.6 Steps in Using the Non-Premixed Model

Figure 15.6.1: Defining Equilibrium Chemistry

3. (steady laminar flamelet model only) Import a flamelet file or appropriate CHEMKIN
mechanism file if generating flamelets (Figure 15.6.2).

4. (unsteady laminar flamelet model only) Import a flamelet file for restart (Fig-
ure 15.8.1).

5. Define the chemical boundary species to be considered for the streams in the react-
ing system model. Note that this step is not relevant in the case of flamelet import
(Figure 15.6.3).

6. (steady and unsteady laminar flamelet model only) If you are generating flamelets,
compute the flamelet state relationships of species mass fractions, density, and
temperature as a function of mixture fraction and scalar dissipation (Figure 15.6.4).
For unsteady laminar flamelets, you will initialize the unsteady flamelet probability
(Figure 15.11.2).

7. Compute the final chemistry look-up table, containing mean values of species frac-
tions, density, and temperature as a function of mean mixture fraction, mixture
fraction variance, and possibly enthalpy and scalar dissipation. The contents of
this look-up table will reflect your preceding inputs describing the turbulent react-
ing system (Figure 15.6.5).

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

Figure 15.6.2: Defining Steady Laminar Flamelet Chemistry

Figure 15.6.3: Defining Chemical Boundary Species

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 15.6 Steps in Using the Non-Premixed Model

Figure 15.6.4: Calculating Steady Flamelets

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

Figure 15.6.5: Calculating the Chemistry Look-Up Table

The look-up table is the stored result of the integration of Equations 15.2-16 (or 15.2-24)
and 15.2-18. The look-up table will be used in FLUENT to determine mean species mass
fractions, density, and temperature from the values of mean mixture fraction (f ), mixture
fraction variance (f 0 2 ), and possibly mean enthalpy (H) and mean scalar dissipation
(χ) as they are computed during the FLUENT calculation of the reacting flow. See
Section 15.2.4: Look-Up Tables for Adiabatic Systems and Figures 15.2.8 and 15.2.10.
For a problem that includes a secondary stream (and, therefore, a second mixture frac-
tion), you will perform the first two steps listed above for the single-mixture-fraction
approach and then prepare a look-up table of instantaneous properties using Equa-
tion 15.2-12 or 15.2-14.

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 15.7 Setting Up the Equilibrium Chemistry Model

15.7 Setting Up the Equilibrium Chemistry Model

In the equilibrium chemistry model, the concentrations of species of interest are de-
termined from the mixture fraction using the assumption of chemical equilibrium (see
Section 15.2.1: Relationship of f to Species Mass Fraction, Density, and Temperature).
With this model, you can include the effects of intermediate species and dissociation
reactions, producing more realistic predictions of flame temperatures than the Eddy-
Dissipation model. When you choose the equilibrium chemistry option, you will have the
opportunity to use the rich flammability limit (RFL) option.
To enable the equilibrium chemistry model

1. Select Non-Premixed Combustion in the Species Model panel.

2. Enable Create Table under PDF Options.

3. Select Equilibrium in the Chemistry tab of the Species Model panel.

Figure 15.7.1: The Species Model Panel (Chemistry Tab)

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

15.7.1 Choosing Adiabatic or Non-Adiabatic Options

You should use the non-adiabatic modeling option if your problem definition in FLUENT
will include one or more of the following:

• radiation or wall heat transfer

• multiple fuel inlets at different temperatures

• multiple oxidant inlets at different temperatures

• liquid fuel, coal particles, and/or heat transfer to inert particles

Note that the adiabatic model is a simpler model involving a two-dimensional look-up
table in which scalars depend only on f and f 0 2 (or on ffuel and psec ). If your model
is defined as adiabatic, you will not need to solve the energy equation in FLUENT and
the system temperature will be determined directly from the mixture fraction and the
fuel and oxidant inlet temperatures. The non-adiabatic case will be more complex and
more time-consuming to compute, requiring the generation of three-dimensional look-
up tables. However, the non-adiabatic model option allows you to include the types of
reacting systems described above.
Select Adiabatic or Non-Adiabatic in the Chemistry tab of the Species Model panel.

15.7.2 Specifying the Operating Pressure for the System

The system Operating Pressure is used to calculate density using the ideal gas law. For
non-adiabatic simulations, the Compressibility Effects under PDF Options can be enabled
to account for cases where substantial pressure changes occur in time and/or space. In
such cases it is assumed that the species mass fractions do not change with pressure, and
the density is calculated as

p
ρ = ρop (15.7-1)
pop

where ρop is the density at the specified Operating Pressure (pop ), and p is the local mean
pressure in a FLUENT cell.
When the Compressibility Effects option is enabled, the flow operating pressure (set in the
Operating Conditions panel) can differ from the Non-Premixed model operating pressure.
To distinguish this difference, the Operating Pressure name tag in the Species Model
panel changes to Equilibrium Operating Pressure when the compressibility effects option
is enabled.
SeeSection 15.16: Solution Strategies for Non-Premixed Modeling for details about en-
abling compressibility effects.

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 15.7 Setting Up the Equilibrium Chemistry Model

15.7.3 Enabling a Secondary Inlet Stream

If you are modeling a system consisting of a single fuel and a single oxidizer stream,
you do not need to enable a secondary stream in your PDF calculation. As discussed in
Section 15.2.1: Definition of the Mixture Fraction, a secondary stream should be enabled
if your PDF reaction model will include any of the following:

• two dissimilar gaseous fuel streams

– In these simulations, the fuel stream defines one of the fuels and the secondary
stream defines the second fuel.

• mixed fuel systems of dissimilar gaseous and liquid fuel

– In these simulations, the fuel stream defines the gaseous fuel and the secondary
stream defines the liquid fuel (or vice versa).

• mixed fuel systems of dissimilar gaseous and coal fuels

– In these simulations, you can use the fuel stream or the secondary stream
to define either the coal or the gaseous fuel. See Section 15.9.5: Modeling
Coal Combustion Using the Non-Premixed Model regarding coal combustion
simulations with the non-premixed combustion model.

• mixed fuel systems of coal and liquid fuel

– In these simulations, you can use the fuel stream or the secondary stream to
define either the coal or the liquid fuel. See Section 15.9.5: Modeling Coal
Combustion Using the Non-Premixed Model regarding coal combustion sim-
ulations with the non-premixed combustion model.

• coal combustion
– Coal combustion can be more accurately modeled by using a secondary stream.
The fuel stream must define the char and the secondary stream must define the
volatile components of the coal. See Section 15.9.5: Modeling Coal Combustion
Using the Non-Premixed Model regarding coal combustion simulations with
the non-premixed combustion model.

• a single fuel with two dissimilar oxidizer streams

– In these simulations, the fuel stream defines the fuel, the oxidizer stream
defines one of the oxidizers, and the secondary stream defines the second
oxidizer.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

To include a secondary stream in your model, turn on the Secondary Stream option under
Options in the Chemistry tab.

i Using a secondary stream substantially increases the calculation time for

your simulation since the multi-dimensional PDF integrations are per-
formed in FLUENT at run-time.

15.7.4 Choosing to Define the Fuel Stream(s) Empirically

The empirical fuel option provides an alternative method for defining the composition
of the fuel or secondary stream when the individual species components of the fuel are
unknown. When you do not select this option, you will define which chemical species
are present in each stream and the mass or mole fraction of each species, as described in
Section 15.9: Defining the Stream Compositions. The option for defining an empirical fuel
stream is particularly useful for coal combustion simulations (see Section 15.9.5: Modeling
Coal Combustion Using the Non-Premixed Model) or for simulations involving other
complex hydrocarbon mixtures.
To define a fuel or secondary stream empirically

1. Turn on the Empirical Fuel Stream option under Options in the Chemistry tab of the
Species Model panel. If you have a secondary stream, enable the Empirical Secondary
Stream option, or both as appropriate.

2. Specify the appropriate lower heating value (e.g., Fuel Lower Caloric Value, Secondary
Lower Caloric Value) and specific heat (e.g., Fuel Specific Heat, Secondary Specific
Heat) for each empirically-defined stream.

i The empirical definition option is available only with the full equilibrium
chemistry model. It cannot be used with the rich flammability limit (RFL)
option or the steady and unsteady laminar flamelet models, since equilib-
rium calculations are required for the determination of the fuel composi-
tion. If your empirically-defined fuel is entering the domain via an inlet
boundary, you will need to additionally define its molecular weight using
the text command:
define −→ models −→ species −→nonpremixed-combustion-expert
If you change the molecular weight of the empirically-defined fuel or sec-
ondary stream, you will need to rebuild the PDF table.

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 15.8 Setting Up the Steady and Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Models

15.7.5 Enabling the Rich Flammability Limit (RFL) Option

You can define a rich limit on the mixture fraction when the equilibrium chemistry
option is used. Input of the rich limit is accomplished by specifying a value of the Rich
Flammability Limit for the appropriate Fuel Stream, Secondary Stream, or both. You will
not be allowed to specify the Rich Flammability Limit if you have used the empirical
definition option for fuel composition.
FLUENT will compute the composition at the rich limit using equilibrium. For mixture
fraction values above this limit, FLUENT will suspend the equilibrium chemistry calcu-
lation and will compute the composition based on mixing, but not burning, of the fuel
with the composition at the rich limit. A value of 1.0 for the rich limit implies that
equilibrium calculations will be performed over the full range of mixture fraction. When
you use a rich limit that is less than 1.0, equilibrium calculations are suspended whenever
f , ffuel , or fsec exceeds the limit. This RFL model is a useful approach in hydrocarbon
combustion calculations, allowing you to bypass complex equilibrium calculations in the
fuel-rich region. The efficiency of RFL will be especially important when your model is
non-adiabatic, speeding up the preparation of the look-up tables.
For the Secondary Stream, the rich flammability limit controls the equilibrium calculation
for the secondary mixture fraction. For fuel streams, an RFL value of approximately
twice the stoichiometric mixture fraction is appropriate. If your secondary stream is not
a fuel, you should use an RFL value of 1. For a secondary fuel stream, you can consider
modifying the value to use the RFL model. A value of 1.0 for the rich limit implies
that equilibrium calculations will be performed over the full range of mixture fraction.
When you input a rich limit that is less than 1.0, equilibrium calculations are suspended
whenever fsec exceeds the limit. (Note that it is the secondary mixture fraction fsec and
not the partial fraction psec that is used here.)

i Experimental studies and reviews [38, 336] have shown that although
the fuel-lean flame region approximates thermodynamic equilibrium, non-
equilibrium kinetics will prevail under fuel-rich conditions. Therefore, for
non-empirically defined fuels, the RFL model is strongly recommended.

15.8 Setting Up the Steady and Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Models

To enable the laminar flamelet models

1. Select Non-Premixed Combustion in the Species Model panel.

2. Enable Create Table under PDF Options.

3. Select Steady Flamelet or Unsteady Flamelet in the Chemistry tab of the Species
Model panel. See Section 15.8.5: Using the Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Model.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

Figure 15.8.1: The Chemistry Tab for the Unsteady Flamelet Model

15.8.1 Choosing Adiabatic or Non-Adiabatic Options

Select Adiabatic or Non-Adiabatic in the Chemistry tab of the Species Model panel. See
the discussion in Section 15.7.1: Choosing Adiabatic or Non-Adiabatic Options about the
two options.

15.8.2 Specifying the Operating Pressure for the System

The system Operating Pressure is used to calculate density using the ideal gas law. When
the Compressibility Effects option is enabled, the name Operating Pressure is changed to
Equilibrium Operating Pressure since the Non-Premixed combustion model operating pres-
sure can differ from the flow operating pressure. Section 15.7.2: Specifying the Operating
Pressure for the System provides more information about this value.
You can use the steady or unsteady laminar flamelet model for reactions in liquid systems.
To do so, enable Liquid Micro-Mixing under PDF Options. The Liquid Micro-Mixing option
is discussed in detail in Section 15.5.1: Liquid Reactions.

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 15.8 Setting Up the Steady and Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Models

15.8.3 Specifying a Chemical Mechanism File for Flamelet Generation

If you are generating a flamelet file yourself, you will need to read in the chemical kinetic
mechanism and thermodynamic data. The mechanism and thermodynamic data must
be in CHEMKIN format [178].
To read in a CHEMKIN mechanism, select the Create Flamelet option in the Chemistry
tab of the Species Model panel and click the Import CHEMKIN Mechanism... button.
When you click this button, the CHEMKIN Mechanism Import panel (Figure 15.8.2) will
open. In the CHEMKIN Mechanism Import panel, enter the path to the CHEMKIN file
to be read under Gas-Phase CHEMKIN Mechanism File and specify the location of the
thermodynamic database under Gas-Phase Thermodynamic Database File. Alternatively,
you can click the appropriate Browse... button to open a Select File dialog box, or simply
use the default thermo.db which is already provided.

Figure 15.8.2: The Laminar Flamelet CHEMKIN Mechanism Import Panel

Click Import in the CHEMKIN Mechanism Import panel to read the specified files into
FLUENT. Note that the import is limited to mechanisms with 300 or fewer species and
1500 or fewer reactions.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

15.8.4 Importing a Flamelet

To import an existing flamelet file

1. Select the Import Flamelet option in the Chemistry tab of the Species Model panel.
2. (steady flamelet only) Select either Standard or Oppdif format under File Type.
3. (steady flamelet only) Select the Mixture Fraction Method. Select Drake if you
want to calculate the mixture fraction using carbon and hydrogen elements. Select
Bilger to calculate the mixture fraction using hydrocarbon formula. Select Nitrogen
to calculate the mixture fraction in terms of nitrogen species.
4. Click the Import Flamelet File... button. In the resulting Select File dialog box,
select the file (for a single flamelet) or files (for multiple flamelets) to be read in to
FLUENT.

After you have completed this step, you can skip ahead to the Table tab of the Species
Model panel (see Section 15.12: Calculating the Look-Up Tables).

15.8.5 Using the Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Model

The unsteady laminar flamelet model can only be enabled when the following conditions
are met:

• Steady is selected in the Solver panel.

• A valid steady flamelet file has been generated in FLUENT.

i Since the unsteady laminar flamelet model postprocesses a marker proba-

bility equation a fixed flow field, the model should only be used on a fully
converged, steady-state FLUENTsolution.
When the Unsteady Flamelet is enabled in the Chemistry tab, the Import Flamelet File
for Restart... button appears in the panel, allowing you to run the simulation from a
previously saved case and data file.
The Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Model requires four user inputs in the Flamelet tab:

• The Number of Grid Points in Flamelet.

• The Mixture Fraction Lower Limit for Initial Probability. The initial condition of the
marker probability field is unity for all mean mixture fractions above the Mixture
Fraction Lower Limit for Initial Probability, and zero for mean mixture fractions below
it. Note that this should be specified to be greater than the stoichiometric mixture
fraction.

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 15.8 Setting Up the Steady and Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Models

• Maximum Scalar Dissipation. Laminar flamelets may extinguish at high scalar dissi-
pations because diffusion in the flamelet overwhelms the reaction. In order to avoid
excessive diffusion in the unsteady flamelet, the instantaneous scalar dissipation in
each cell is limited to the specified Maximum Scalar Dissipation.
• Courant Number. The time step for the unsteady probability marker equation is
calculated automatically by FLUENT based on the Courant Number. Larger values
imply fewer time steps to convect/diffuse the marker probability out of the domain,
but also results in a larger numerical error. The Courant Number should be small
enough so that the unsteady flamelet mean mass fractions are unchanged with
any smaller Courant Number. The default value of 1 should be sufficient for most
applications.

When these inputs have been set, clicking the Initialize Unsteady Flamelet Probability
button initializes the marker probability equation, automatically enabling the Unsteady
solver, while disabling all equations except the Unsteady Flamelet Probability equation
in the Solution Controls panel. and sets the time step in the Iterate... panel. This
initialization in the Flamelet tab sets the Time Step Size in the Iterate panel, allowing you
to set the Number of Time Steps. (Clicking the Apply button in the Chemistry tab will
also automatically change the solver settings).

i Do not initialize your solution using the Solve/Initialize/Initialize... menu

path. Note that we are postprocessing the probability field on the frozen
steady-state flow field, and by clicking the Initialize Unsteady Flamelet Prob-
ability button, you have already initialized the probability marker field.

i If you disable the Unsteady Laminar Flamelet model and you want to revert
to solving a laminar flamelet, make sure you enable Steady in the Solver
panel and enable all the equations in the Solution Controls panel.

15.8.6 Using the Diesel Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Model

The diesel unsteady laminar flamelet model can only be enabled when conditions for
compression-ignition are met:

• The Unsteady Solver is selected.

• The In-Cylinder Dynamic-Mesh is enabled.
• The Discrete Phase model option Interaction with Continuous Phase is on.

A detailed chemical mechanism is required which should contain kinetic reactions appro-
priate for compression ignition. The mechanism can include pollutant formation reactions
as well if you are interested in modeling emissions.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

To access the model inputs, enable the Create Table or Set Table Parameters under PDF
Options. In the Chemistry tab, select Diesel Unsteady Flamelet.

Figure 15.8.3: The Enabled Diesel Unsteady Flamelet Model

With the Diesel Unsteady Flamelet model enabled, you can define the stream composi-
tions (Section 15.9: Defining the Stream Compositions) and the flamelet controls (Sec-
tion 15.10.2: Defining the Flamelet Controls). Note that while you can enter the Number
of Grid Points in Flamelets in the Flamelet tab (Section 15.11.2: Unsteady Flamelet), you
will not be able to calculate the flamelets. This is also true when calculating a PDF
table (Section 15.12: Calculating the Look-Up Tables). In the Table tab, you can set
the table parameters, but you will not be able to run the calculation. The reason for
this behavior is because the table creation and the flamelet calculation are performed at
every time step of the FLUENT simulation, and not just in a pre-processing step as in
other non-premixed combustion models.

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 15.9 Defining the Stream Compositions

15.9 Defining the Stream Compositions

In FLUENT, you will input only the boundary species (i.e., the fuel, oxidizer, and if
necessary, secondary stream species). The intermediate and product species will be
determined automatically.
FLUENT provides you with an initial list of common boundary species (ch4, h2, jet-a<g>,
n2 and o2). If your fuel and/or oxidizer is composed of different species, you can add them
to the boundary Species list. All boundary species must exist in the chemical database
and you must enter their names in the same format used in the database, otherwise an
error message will be issued.
After defining the boundary species that will be considered in the reaction system, you
must define their mole or mass fractions at the fuel and oxidizer inlets and at the sec-
ondary inlet, if one exists. (If you choose to define the fuel or secondary stream com-
position empirically, you will instead enter the parameters described at the end of this
section.) For the example shown in Figure 15.2.12c, for example, the fuel inlet consists
of 60% CH4 , 20% CO, 10% CO2 , and 10% C3 H8 .
Finally, the inlet stream temperatures of your reacting system are required for construc-
tion of the look-up table and computation of the equilibrium chemistry model.
For the equilibrium chemistry model, the species names are entered using the Boundary
tab in the Species Model panel (Figure 15.9.1). If you are generating a steady or unsteady
laminar flamelet, the list of boundary species will be automatically filled as all the species
in the CHEMKIN mechanism, and you will be unable to change these.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

Figure 15.9.1: The Species Model Panel (Boundary Tab)

The steps for adding new species and defining their compositions is as follows:

1. (equilibrium chemistry model only) If your fuel, oxidizer, or secondary streams are
composed of species other than the default species list, type the chemical formula
(e.g., so2 or SO2 for SO2 ) under Boundary Species and click Add. The species will
be added to the Species list. Continue in this manner until all of the boundary
species you want to include are shown in the Species list.
To remove a species from the list, type the chemical formula under Boundary Species
and click Remove. To print a list of all species in the thermodynamic database file
(thermo.db) in the console window, click List Available Species.

2. Under Species Unit, specify whether you want to enter the Mass Fraction or Mole
Fraction. Mass Fraction is the default.

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 15.9 Defining the Stream Compositions

3. For each relevant species in the Species list, specify its mass or mole fraction for
each stream (Fuel, Oxid, or Second as appropriate) by entering values in the table.
Note that if you change from Mass Fraction to Mole Fraction (or vice versa), all
values will be automatically converted if they sum to 0 or 1, so be sure that you are
entering either all mass fractions or all mole fractions as appropriate. If the values
do not sum to 0 or 1, an error will be issued.

4. Under Temperature, specify the following inputs:

Fuel is the temperature of the fuel inlet in your model. In adiabatic simula-
tions, this input (together with the oxidizer inlet temperature) determines the
inlet stream temperatures that will be used by FLUENT. In non-adiabatic sys-
tems, this input should match the inlet thermal boundary condition that you
will use in FLUENT (although you will enter this boundary condition again
in the FLUENT session). If your FLUENT model will use liquid fuel or coal
combustion, define the inlet fuel temperature as the temperature at which va-
porization/devolatilization begins (i.e., the Vaporization Temperature specified
for the discrete-phase material—see Section 22.14: Setting Material Properties
for the Discrete Phase). For such non-adiabatic systems, the inlet temperature
will be used only to adjust the look-up table grid (e.g., the discrete enthalpy
values for which the look-up table is computed). Note that if you have more
than one fuel inlet, and these inlets are not at the same temperature, you must
define your system as non-adiabatic. In this case, you should enter the fuel
inlet temperature as the value at the dominant fuel inlet.
Oxid is the temperature of the oxidizer inlet in your model. The issues raised
in the discussion of the input of the fuel inlet temperature (directly above)
pertain to this input as well.
Second is the temperature of the secondary stream inlet in your model. (This
item will appear only when you have defined a secondary inlet.) The issues
raised in the discussion of the input of the fuel inlet temperature (directly
above) pertain to this input as well.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

15.9.1 Setting Boundary Stream Species

In combustion, a large number of intermediate and product species may be produced from
a small number of initial boundary species. In FLUENT you need to input only the species
composition of your boundary species in the fuel, oxidizer, and (if appropriate) secondary
streams. FLUENT will calculate all intermediate and product species automatically. The
following suggestions may be helpful in the definition of the system chemistry:

• For coal combustion, char in the coal should be represented by C(s).

i Care should be taken to distinguish atomic carbon, C, from solid car-

bon, C(s). Atomic carbon should be selected only if you are using the
empirically-defined input method.

• If your fuel composition is known empirically (e.g., C0.9 H3 O0.2 ), use the option for
an empirically-defined stream (see below).

• If you wish to include the sulfur that may be present in a hydrocarbon fuel, note
that this may hinder the convergence of the equilibrium solver, especially if the
concentration of sulfur is small. It is therefore recommended that you include
sulfur in the calculation only if it is present in considerable quantities.

Including Condensed Species

In addition to gaseous species, liquid and solid species can be included in the chemistry
calculations. They are often indicated by an “l” or an “s” in parentheses after the species
name. If you add a condensed species to the equilibrium chemical system, its density will
be retrieved from FLUENT’s chemical property database file propdb.scm if you are using
the thermodynamic database file thermo.db that is also supplied with FLUENT. If you
are using a custom thermodynamic database file and want to include a condensed species
in the equilibrium system that does not exist in propdb.scm, a density of 1000 kg/m3
will be assumed. The condensed species density can be changed in the Materials panel
after the PDF table has been calculated. If you modify the condensed species density in
this manner, you will then need to recalculate the PDF table.

15.9.2 Modifying the Database

If you want to include a new species in your reacting system that is not available in
the chemical database, you can add it to the database file, thermo.db. The format for
thermo.db is detailed in [178]. If you choose to modify the standard database file, you
should create copies of the original file.

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 15.9 Defining the Stream Compositions

15.9.3 Composition Inputs for Empirically-Defined Fuel Streams

As mentioned in Section 15.6.2: Defining the Problem Type, you can define the compo-
sition of a fuel stream (i.e., the standard fuel or a secondary fuel) empirically. For an
empirically-defined stream, you will need to enter the atomic mass fractions in addition
to the inputs for lower caloric (heating) value of the fuel and the mean specific heat of
the fuel that were described previously.
The heat of formation and molecular weight of an empirical fuel stream is calculated
from the heating value and the atomic composition. The fuel inlet temperature and fuel
specific heat are used to calculate the sensible enthalpy.
When an empirically-defined fuel or secondary stream is specified in the Chemistry tab
(equilibrium chemistry model only) of the Species Model panel, you must specify the atom
fractions of C, H, O, N, and S in that stream instead of the species mass or mole fractions.
To avoid confusion, the species fraction inputs for an empirically-defined stream will be
grayed out in the table within the Boundary tab, leaving only the fields for atom fractions
(i.e., c, h, o, n, and s).

15.9.4 Modeling Liquid Fuel Combustion Using the Non-Premixed Model

Liquid fuel combustion can be modeled with the discrete phase and non-premixed models.
In FLUENT, the fuel vapor, which is produced by evaporation of the liquid fuel, is defined
as the fuel stream. (See Section 15.9: Defining the Stream Compositions.) The liquid
fuel that evaporates within the domain appears as a source of the mean fuel mixture
fraction.
Within FLUENT, you define the liquid fuel discrete-phase model in the usual way. The
gas phase (oxidizer) flow inlet is modeled using an inlet mixture fraction of zero and the
fuel droplets are introduced as discrete phase injections (see Section 22.12: Setting Initial
Conditions for the Discrete Phase). The property inputs for the liquid fuel droplets are
unaltered by the non-premixed model (see Section 22.14: Setting Material Properties for
the Discrete Phase). Note that when you are requested to input the gas phase species
destination for the evaporating liquid, you should input the species that comprises the
evaporating stream.
If the fuel stream was defined as a mixture of components, you should select the largest
of these components as the “evaporating species”. FLUENT will ensure that the mass
evaporated from the liquid droplet enters the gas phase as a source of the fuel mixture
that you defined. The evaporating species you select here is used only to compute the
diffusion controlled driving force in the evaporation rate.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

15.9.5 Modeling Coal Combustion Using the Non-Premixed Model

If your model involves coal combustion, the fuel and secondary stream compositions can
be input in one of several ways. You can use a single mixture fraction (fuel stream)
to represent the coal, defining the fuel composition as a mixture of volatiles and char
(solid carbon). Alternatively, you can use two mixture fractions (fuel and secondary
streams), defining the volatiles and char separately. In two-mixture-fraction models for
coal combustion, the fuel stream represents the char and the secondary stream represents
volatiles. This section describes the modeling options and special input procedures for
coal combustion models using the non-premixed approach.
There are three options for coal combustion:

• When coal is the only fuel in the system, you can model the coal using two mixture
fractions. When this approach is used, one stream is used to represent the char and
the other stream is used to represent volatiles. Generally, the char stream com-
position is represented as 100% C(s). The volatile stream composition is defined
by selecting appropriate species and setting their mole or mass fractions. Alter-
natively, you can use the empirical method (input of atom fractions) for defining
these compositions.

i Using two mixture fractions to model coal combustion is more accurate

than using one mixture fraction as the volatile and char streams are mod-
eled separately. However, the two-mixture-fraction model incurs significant
additional computational expense since the multi-dimensional PDF inte-
grations are performed at run-time.
• When coal is the only fuel in the system, you can choose to model the coal using a
single mixture fraction (the fuel stream). When this approach is adopted, the fuel
composition you define includes both volatile species and char. Char is typically
represented by including C(s) in the species list. You can define the fuel stream
composition by selecting appropriate species and setting their mole fractions, or by
using the empirical method (input of atom fractions). Definition of the composition
is described in detail below.

i Using a single mixture fraction for coal combustion is less accurate than
using two mixture fractions. However, convergence in FLUENT should be
substantially faster than the two-mixture-fraction model.

• When coal is used with another (gaseous or liquid) fuel of different composition, you
must model the coal with one mixture fraction and use a second mixture fraction
to represent the second (gaseous or liquid) fuel. The stream associated with the
coal composition is defined as detailed below for single-mixture-fraction models.

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 15.9 Defining the Stream Compositions

Defining the Coal Composition: Single-Mixture-Fraction Models

When coal is modeled using a single mixture fraction (the fuel stream), the fuel stream
composition can be input using the conventional approach or the empirical fuel approach.

• Conventional approach:
To use the conventional approach, you will need to define the mixture of species in
the coal and their mole or mass fractions in the fuel stream. Use the Boundary tab
in the Species Model panel to input the list of species (e.g., C3 H8 , CH4 , CO, CO2 ,
C(s)) that approximate the coal composition, and their mole or mass fractions.
Note that C(s) is used to represent the char content of the coal. For example,
consider a coal that has a molar composition of 40% volatiles and 60% char on a dry
ash free (DAF) basis. Assuming the volatiles can be represented by an equimolar
mixture of C3 H8 and CO, the fuel stream composition defined in the Boundary tab
would be C3 H8 =0.2, CO = 0.2, and C(s)=0.60. Note that the coal composition
should always be defined on an ash-free basis, even if ash will be considered in the
FLUENT calculation.
To define ash properties, go to the Materials panel and select combusting-particle as
the Material Type.
The following table illustrates the conversion from a typical mass-based proximate
analysis to the species fraction inputs required by FLUENT. Note that the conver-
sion requires that you make an assumption regarding the species representing the
volatiles. Here, the volatiles are assumed to exist as an equimolar mix of propane
and carbon monoxide.

Proximate Analysis Weight % Mass Moles Mole

Fraction (DAF) Fraction
(DAF) (DAF)
Volatiles 30
– C 3 H8 0.2035 0.004625 0.07134
– CO 0.1295 0.004625 0.07134
Fixed Carbon (C(s)) 60 0.667 0.05558 0.85732
Ash 10 - - -
(Total) 0.06483 1.0

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Moisture in the coal can be considered by adding it in the fuel composition as liquid
water, H2 O(l). The moisture can also be defined as water vapor, H2 O, provided
that the corresponding latent heat is included in the discrete phase material inputs
in FLUENT. If the liquid water is used as a boundary species, it should be removed
from the list of excluded species (see Section 15.10.1: Forcing the Exclusion and
Inclusion of Equilibrium Species).

i Note that if water is included in the coal, the water release is not modeled
as evaporation, which is typically the case in the wet combustion model,
described in Section 22.12.2: Particle Types.
• Empirical fuel approach:
To use the empirical approach, enable the Empirical Fuel Stream option in the
Chemistry tab. This method is ideal if you have an elemental analysis of the coal.
In the Chemistry tab, input the lower heating value and mean specific heat of the
coal. FLUENT will use these inputs to determine the mole fractions of the chemical
species you have included in the system. Then, in the Boundary tab, define the
atom fractions of C, H, N, S, and O in the fuel stream.

Note that for both of these composition input methods, you should take care to distin-
guish atomic carbon, C, from solid carbon, C(s). Atomic carbon should only be selected
if you are using the empirical fuel input method.
See Section 15.15: Coal Modeling Inputs in FLUENT for details about further inputs for
modeling coal combustion.

Defining the Coal Composition: Two-Mixture-Fraction Models

If your FLUENT model will represent the coal components using both the fuel stream
and the secondary stream, one stream is used to represent char and the other stream is
used to represent volatiles. (In the procedures below, it is assumed that the fuel stream
represents the char and the secondary stream represents the volatiles.)

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 15.9 Defining the Stream Compositions

As in single-mixture-fraction cases, the fuel stream and secondary stream compositions

in a two-mixture-fraction case can be input using either the conventional approach or
the empirical fuel approach.

• Conventional approach:
To use the conventional approach, you will need to define the mixture of species in
the coal and their mole or mass fractions in the fuel and secondary streams.
Use the Boundary tab of Species Model panel to define the mole or mass fractions of
volatile species in the secondary stream (e.g., C3 H8 , CH4 , CO, CO2 , C(s)). Next,
define the mole or mass fractions of species used to represent the char. Generally,
you will input 100% C(s) for the fuel stream.

• Empirical fuel approach:

To use the empirical fuel approach, enable the Empirical Secondary Stream option
in the Chemistry tab for the volatile (in this case, secondary) stream. This method
is ideal if you have an elemental analysis of the coal.
In the Chemistry tab, input the lower heating value and mean specific heat of the
coal. Then, in the Boundary tab, define the mole or mass fractions of species used
to represent the char. Generally, you will input 100% C(s) for the fuel stream.
Finally, define the atom fractions of C, H, N, S, and O in the volatiles. FLUENT
will use these inputs to determine the mole fractions of the chemical species you
have included in the system. For example, consider coal with the following DAF
(dry ash free) data and elemental analysis:

Proximate Analysis Wt % (dry) Wt % (DAF)

Volatiles 28 30.4
Char (C(s)) 64 69.6
Ash 8 -

Element Wt % (DAF) Wt % (DAF)

C 89.3 89.3
H 5.0 5.0
O 3.4 3.4
N 1.5 2.3
S 0.8 -

(Note that in the final column, for modeling simplicity, the sulfur content of the
coal has been combined into the nitrogen mass fraction.)

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You can combine the proximate and ultimate analysis data to yield the following
elemental composition of the volatile stream:

Element Mass Mass Fraction Moles Mole Fraction

C (89.3 - 69.6) 0.65 5.4 0.24
H 5.0 0.16 16 0.70
O 3.4 0.11 0.7 0.03
N 2.3 0.08 0.6 0.03
Total 30.4 22.7

This adjusted composition is used to define the secondary stream (volatile) com-
position.
The lower heating value of the volatiles can be computed from the known heating
value of the coal and the char (DAF):
– LCVcoal,DAF = 35.3 MJ/kg
– LCVchar,DAF = 32.9 MJ/kg
You can compute the heating value of the volatiles as

35.3 MJ/kg − 0.696 × 32.9 MJ/kg

LCVvol =
0.304
or

LCVvol = 40.795 MJ/kg

Note that for both of these composition input methods, you should take care to distin-
guish atomic carbon, C, from solid carbon, C(s). Atomic carbon should only be selected
if you are using the empirical fuel input method.
See Section 15.15: Coal Modeling Inputs in FLUENT for details about further inputs for
modeling coal combustion.

15.10 Setting Up Control Parameters

15.10.1 Forcing the Exclusion and Inclusion of Equilibrium Species
Because FLUENT calculates all intermediate and product species automatically during
the equilibrium calculation, certain species will be included that are generally not in
chemical equilibrium. Principal among these are the NOx species. Specifically, the NOx
reaction rates are slow and should not be treated using an equilibrium assumption. In-
stead, the NOx concentration is predicted most accurately using the FLUENT NOx post-
processor, where finite-rate kinetics are included (see Section 20.1: NOx Formation).

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 15.10 Setting Up Control Parameters

The NOx species can be safely excluded from the equilibrium calculation since they are
present at low concentrations and have little impact on the density, temperature, and
other species.
To force the exclusion of a species from the equilibrium calculation, click the Control tab
in the Species Model panel (Figure 15.10.1).

Figure 15.10.1: The Species Model Panel (Control Tab)

Under Species Excluded From Equilibrium Calculation, enter the chemical formula for the
desired species in the Add/Remove Species field. Next, click Add to add the species to
the Species list or Remove to remove an existing species from the Species list.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

15.10.2 Defining the Flamelet Controls

When the steady laminar flamelet model is selected, and you have created or imported
a flamelet, you can adjust the controls for the flamelet solution in the Control tab of the
Species Model panel (Figure 15.10.2).

Figure 15.10.2: The Species Model Panel (Control Tab) for the Steady Lam-
inar Flamelet Model

The Initial Fourier Number sets the first time step for the solution of the flamelet equations
(Equations 15.3-6 and 15.3-7). This first time step is calculated as the explicit stability-
limited diffusion time step multiplied by the this value. If the solution diverges before
the first time step is complete, the value should be lowered.
The Fourier Number Multiplier increases the time step at subsequent times. Every time
step after the first is multiplied by this value. If the solution diverges after the first time
step, this value should be reduced.
During the numerical integration of the flamelet equations, the local error is controlled
to be less than

errorloc,i = rel φi + abs (15.10-1)

where φi represents the species mass fractions and temperature at point i in the 1D
flamelet. rel is the value of the Relative Error Tolerance and abs is the value of the

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 15.10 Setting Up Control Parameters

Absolute Error Tolerance, both of which you can specify.

Because steady laminar flamelets are obtained by time-stepping, they are considered con-
verged only when the maximum absolute change in species fraction or temperature at
any discrete mixture-fraction point is less than the specified Flamelet Convergence Toler-
ance. Between time steps, the flamelet species fractions and temperature will sometimes
oscillate, which causes absolute changes that are always greater than the flamelet con-
vergence tolerance. In such cases, FLUENT will stop the flamelet calculation after the
total elapsed time has exceeded the Maximum Integration Time.

15.10.3 Zeroing Species in the Initial Unsteady Flamelet

When modeling gas-phase combustion using the Eulerian unsteady laminar flamelet
model, the flamelet fields are initialized to a burning, steady-flamelet solution in order
to model ignition. However, assuming steady-flamelet profiles for slow-forming species
is inaccurate. A better approximation is to identify the slow species and to set them
to zero, which is done in the Control tab. By default, FLUENTselects some NOx species
(N O, N O2 , N2 O, N , N H, N H2 , N H3 , N N H, HCN , HN O, CN , H2CN , HCN N ,
HCN O HOCN HN CO HCO), as well as liquid water H2 O < L > and solid carbon
C < S > to be zeroed. See Figure 15.10.3.

Figure 15.10.3: Method to Zero Out the Slow Chemistry Species

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15.11 Calculating the Flamelets

15.11.1 Steady Flamelet
In the Flamelet tab of the Species Model panel (Figure 15.11.1), you will enter values for
parameters of the flamelet(s).

Figure 15.11.1: The Species Model Panel (Flamelet Tab)

The Flamelet Parameters are as follows:

Number of Grid Points in Flamelet specifies the number of mixture fraction grid points
distributed between the oxidizer (f = 0) and the fuel (f = 1). Increased resolution
will provide greater accuracy, but since the flamelet species and temperature are
solved coupled and implicit in f space, the solution time and memory requirements
increase greatly with the number of f grid points.
Maximum Number of Flamelets specifies the maximum number of laminar flamelet pro-
files to be calculated. If the flamelet extinguishes before this number is reached,
flamelet generation is halted and the actual number of flamelets in the flamelet
library will be less than this value.
Initial Scalar Dissipation is the scalar dissipation of the first flamelet in the library.
This corresponds to χ0 in Equation 15.4-1.

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 15.11 Calculating the Flamelets

Scalar Dissipation Step specifies the interval between scalar dissipation values (in s−1 )
for which multiple flamelets will be calculated. This corresponds to ∆χ in Equa-
tion 15.4-1.

Click Calculate Flamelets to begin the laminar flamelet calculation. Sample output for a
flamelet calculation is shown below.

Generating flamelet 1 at scalar dissipation 0.01 /s

Time (s) Temp (K) Residual

1.679e-05 2233.7 3.779e+00
5.038e-05 2233.0 7.734e-02
1.175e-04 2231.5 1.648e-01
2.519e-04 2228.6 3.652e-01
5.206e-04 2223.6 8.295e-01
1.058e-03 2215.7 2.100e+00
2.133e-03 2205.5 3.540e+00
4.282e-03 2197.0 4.607e+00
8.581e-03 2193.6 6.639e+00
1.718e-02 2193.1 4.905e+00
3.437e-02 2193.4 5.792e+00
6.877e-02 2194.3 4.659e+00
1.375e-01 2195.3 3.922e+00
2.751e-01 2192.2 3.181e+00
5.502e-01 2188.6 2.549e+00
1.100e+00 2184.8 1.639e+00
2.201e+00 2182.9 4.604e+00
4.402e+00 2186.8 1.307e+00
8.804e+00 2189.6 4.420e-01
1.761e+01 2190.0 8.581e-02
3.522e+01 2190.0 1.199e-02
7.043e+01 2190.0 1.735e-03
1.409e+02 2190.0 4.217e-04
2.817e+02 2190.0 6.892e-05
5.635e+02 2190.0 6.777e-06

Flamelet successfully generated

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15.11.2 Unsteady Flamelet

In the Flamelet tab of the Species Model panel (Figure 15.11.2), you will enter values for
parameters of the flamelet.

Figure 15.11.2: The Flamelet Tab for the Unsteady Laminar Flamelet Model

The Unsteady Flamelet Parameters are as follows:

Number of Grid Points in Flamelet specifies the number of mixture fraction grid points
distributed between the oxidizer (f = 0) and the fuel (f = 1). Increased resolution
will provide greater accuracy, but since the flamelet species and temperature are
solved coupled and implicit in f space, the solution time and memory requirements
increase with the number of f grid points.

Mixture Fraction Lower Limit for Initial Probability is the limit at which the unsteady
flamelet model temporally convects and diffuses a marker probability equation
through a steady-state FLUENT flow-field. This marker is initialized to 1 above
the Mixture Fraction Lower Limit for initial probability, and 0 below this value. In
general, it should be set greater than the stoichiometric mixture fraction.

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 15.11 Calculating the Flamelets

Maximum Scalar Dissipation is where flamelets extinguish at large scalar dissipation

(mixing) rates. To prevent excessive mixing in the flamelet, FLUENT allows you
to specify the Maximum Scalar Dissipation rate. A reasonable value for this is the
steady flamelet extinction scalar dissipation. The default value of 30/s is near the
steady extinction scalar dissipation of a methane-air flame at standard temperature
and pressure.

Courant Number is the number at which FLUENT automatically selects the time step
for the probability equation based on this convective Courant number.

Click Initialize Unsteady Flamelet Probability to initialize the unsteady flamelet and its
probability marker equation. FLUENT is now ready for postprocessing the unsteady
flamelet.

15.11.3 Saving the Flamelet Data

The flamelet tables may be stored in a file that you can import into later sessions of
FLUENT. FLUENT will use the tables to extract the species fraction and temperature
fields from the mixture fraction field that it predicts as part of the PDF calculation. The
flamelet tables should be saved before you exit from the current FLUENT session.
File −→ Write −→ Flamelet...

15.11.4 Postprocessing the Flamelet Data

For the unsteady flamelet model, you can display or write 2D curves of the unsteady
flamelet. Click the Display Unsteady Flamelet... button to access the Flamelet 2D Curves
panel (Figure 15.11.3).

Figure 15.11.3: The Flamelet 2D curves Panel

For the steady flamelet model, you can display 2D plots and 3D surfaces showing the
variation of species fraction or temperature with the mean mixture fraction or scalar
dissipation using the Flamelet 3D Surfaces panel (e.g., Figure 15.11.4).

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To access this panel, click the Display Flamelets... button in the Flamelet tab of the Species
Model panel, as shown in Figure 15.11.1.

Figure 15.11.4: The Flamelet 3D Surfaces Panel

To display the flamelet tables graphically, use the following procedure:

1. In the Flamelet 3D Surfaces panel, in the Plot Variable drop-down list, you can select
temperature or species fraction as the variable to be plotted.

2. Specify the Plot Type as either 3D Surface or 2D Curve on 3D Surface.

• For a 3D surface, enable or disable Draw Numbers Box under Options. When
this option is turned on, the display will include a wireframe box with the
numerical limits in each coordinate direction.
• For a 2D curve on a 3D surface:
(a) Specify whether you want to write the plot data to a file by toggling Write
To File under Options.
(b) Specify the X-Axis Function against which the plot variable will be dis-
played by selecting Scalar Dissipation (χ), or Mixture Fraction (f ). The
variable that is not selected will be held constant.

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 15.11 Calculating the Flamelets

(c) Specify the type of discretization (i.e., how the flamelet data will be sliced)
for the variable that is being held constant (under Constant Value of Mix-
ture Fraction or Constant Value of Scalar Dissipation).
– If you selected Index under Slice by, specify the discretization Index of
the variable that is being held constant. The range of integer values
that you are allowed to choose from is displayed under Min and Max,
and is equivalent to the number of points specified for that variable
in the Flamelet tab of the Species Model panel (see Section 15.11: Cal-
culating the Flamelets).
– If you selected Value under Slice by, specify the numerical Value of the
variable that is being held constant. The range of values that you can
specify is displayed under Min and Max.

3. Write or display the flamelet table results. If you have turned on the Write To File
option for a 2D plot, click Write and specify a name for the file in the Select File
dialog box. Otherwise, click Plot or Display as appropriate to display a 2D plot or
3D surface in the graphics window.

Figures 15.11.5 and 15.11.6 show examples of a 2D curve plot and 3D surface plot of a
flamelet table.

8.00e-03

7.00e-03

6.00e-03

5.00e-03

Mass 4.00e-03
Fraction
of 3.00e-03
co
2.00e-03

1.00e-03

0.00e+00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Y
X Scalar Dissipation
Z

Mass Fraction of co

Figure 15.11.5: Example 2D Plot of Flamelet Data

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Y
X
Z

Mass Fraction of ch3

Figure 15.11.6: Example 3D Plot of Flamelet Data

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 15.12 Calculating the Look-Up Tables

15.12 Calculating the Look-Up Tables

FLUENT requires additional inputs that are used in the creation of the look-up tables.
Several of these inputs control the number of discrete values for which the look-up tables
will be computed. These parameters are input in the Table tab of the Species Model panel
(e.g., Figure 15.12.1).

Figure 15.12.1: The Species Model Panel (Table) Tab

The look-up table parameters are as follows:

Number of Mean Mixture Fraction Points is the number of discrete values of f at which
the look-up tables will be computed. For a two-mixture-fraction model, this value
will also be the number of points used by FLUENT to compute the PDF if you choose
the β model (see Section 15.16.4: Tuning the PDF Parameters for Two-Mixture-
Fraction Calculations). Increasing the number of points will yield a more accurate
PDF shape, but the calculation will take longer. The mean mixture fraction points
will be clustered around the stoichiometric mixture fraction value.

Number of Mixture Fraction Variance Points is the number of discrete values of f 0 2 at

which the look-up tables will be computed. Lower resolution is acceptable because
the variation along the f 0 2 axis is, in general, slower than the variation along the f
axis of the look-up tables. This option is available only when no secondary stream
has been defined.

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Number of Secondary Mixture Fraction Points is the number of discrete values of psec
at which the look-up tables will be computed. Like the Number of Mean Mixture
Fraction Points, FLUENT will use the Number of Secondary Mixture Fraction Points
to compute the PDF if you choose the β PDF option (see Section 15.16.4: Tuning
the PDF Parameters for Two-Mixture-Fraction Calculations) for a two-mixture-
fraction model. A larger number of points will give a more accurate shape for the
PDF, but with a longer calculation time. This option is available only when a
secondary stream has been defined.

Maximum Number of Species is the maximum number of species that will be included
in the look-up tables. The maximum number of species that can be included is 100.
Note that the maximum number of species for the equilibrium computations is 500,
and the maximum number of species for the flamelet generation and importing is
300. FLUENT will automatically select the species with the largest mole fractions
to include in the PDF table.

Number of Mean Enthalpy Points is the number of discrete values of enthalpy at which
the three-dimensional look-up tables will be computed. This input is required only
if you are modeling a non-adiabatic system. The number of points required will
depend on the chemical system that you are considering, with more points required
in high heat release systems (e.g., hydrogen/oxygen flames). This option is not
available with the unsteady flamelets model.

Minimum Temperature is used to determine the lowest temperature for which the look-
up tables are generated (see Figure 15.2.10). Your input should correspond to the
minimum temperature expected in the domain (e.g., an inlet or wall temperature).
The minimum temperature should be set 10–20 K below the minimum system
temperature. This option is available only if you are modeling a non-adiabatic
system. This option is not available with the unsteady flamelets model.

Include Equilibrium Flamelet specifies that an equilibrium flamelet (i.e., χ = 0) will

be generated in FLUENT and appended to the flamelet library before the PDF
table is calculated. This option is available when generating or importing multiple
flamelets, as well as when a single flamelet is considered. In the latter case, the
PDF table will consist of two scalar dissipation slices, namely the equilibrium slice
at x=0, and the flamelet slice. This option is not available with the equilibrium
chemistry model or the unsteady flamelets model.

When you are satisfied with your inputs, click Calculate PDF Table to generate the look-up
tables.
The computations performed for a single-mixture-fraction calculation culminate in the
discrete integration of Equation 15.2-16 (or 15.2-24) as represented in Figure 15.2.5 (or
Figure 15.2.6). For a two-mixture-fraction calculation, FLUENT will calculate the physi-
cal properties using Equation 15.2-14 or its adiabatic equivalent. The computation time

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 15.12 Calculating the Look-Up Tables

will be shortest for adiabatic single-mixture-fraction equilibrium calculations and longest

for non-adiabatic calculations involving multiple flamelet generation. Below, sample
output is shown for an adiabatic single-mixture-fraction equilibrium calculation and a
non-adiabatic calculation with laminar flamelets:

Generating PDF lookup table

Type of the PDF Table: Adiabatic Table (Two Streams)
Calculating table .....

1271 points calculated

22 species added
PDF Table successfully generated!

Generating PDF lookup table

Type of the PDF Table: Nonadiabatic Table with Strained Flamelet Model (Two St
Calculating table .....
calculating temperature limits .....
calculating temperature limits .....
calculating scalar dissipation slices .....
- scalar dissipation slice 9
calculating equilibrium slice .....
Performing PDF integrations.....

16810 points calculated

17 species added
PDF Table successfully generated!
Initializing PDF table arrays and structures.

i Note that there is a significant difference in run-time between the one-

mixture fraction model and the two-mixture fraction model. In the one-
mixture fraction model, the PDF table contains the mean data of density,
temperature, and specific heats, and is three-dimensional for an equilib-
rium nonadiabatic case (mean mixture fraction, mixture fraction variance,
and mean heat loss). For this case, FLUENT updates properties every flow
iteration. In the case of the two-mixture fraction model, only the instan-
taneous state relationships are stored and mean properties are calculated
from these by performing PDF integrations in every cell of the FLUENT
simulation. Since this is computationally expensive, FLUENT provides the
option of only updating properties after a specified number of iterations.

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After completing the calculation at the specified number of mixture fraction points,
FLUENT reports that the calculation succeeded. In a single-mixture-fraction case, the
resulting look-up tables take the form illustrated in Figure 15.2.8 (or Figure 15.2.10, for
non-adiabatic systems). These look-up tables can be plotted using the available graphics
tools, as described in Section 15.12.3: Postprocessing the Look-Up Table Data.
Note that in non-adiabatic calculations, the console window will report that the temper-
ature limits and enthalpy slices have been calculated.
For a two-mixture-fraction case, the resulting look-up tables take the form illustrated in
Figure 15.2.9 (or Figure 15.2.11, for non-adiabatic systems).

15.12.1 Stability Issues in Calculating Look-Up Tables

Complex chemistry and non-adiabatic effects may make the equilibrium calculation more
time-consuming and difficult. In some instances the equilibrium calculation may even fail.
You may be able to eliminate any difficulties that you encounter by trying the calculation
as an adiabatic system. Adiabatic system calculations are generally quite straightforward
and can provide valuable insight into the optimal inputs to the non-adiabatic calculation.
Additional stability issues may arise for solid or heavy liquid fuels that have been defined
using the empirical fuel approach. You may find that, for rich fuel mixtures, the equi-
librium calculation produces very low temperatures and eventually fails. This indicates
that strong endothermic reactions are taking place and the mixture is not able to sustain
them. In this situation, you may need to raise the heating value of the fuel until FLUENT
produces acceptable results. Provided that your fuel will be treated as a liquid or solid
(coal) fuel, you can maintain the desired heating value in your FLUENT simulation. This
is accomplished by defining the difference between the desired and the adjusted heating
values as latent heat (in the case of combusting solid fuel) or heat of pyrolysis (in the
case of liquid fuel).

15.12.2 Saving the Look-Up Tables

The look-up tables may be stored in a file that you can read back into later sessions of
FLUENT. FLUENT will use the tables to extract the species, density, and temperature
fields from the mixture fraction field that it predicts as part of the flow-field calculation.
The look-up tables should be saved before you exit from the current FLUENT session.
File −→ Write −→ PDF...
By default, the file will be saved as formatted (ASCII, or text). To save a binary (unfor-
matted) file, turn on the Write Binary Files option in the Select File dialog box.

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 15.12 Calculating the Look-Up Tables

15.12.3 Postprocessing the Look-Up Table Data

It is important for you to view your temperature and species tables to ensure that they are
adequately but not excessively resolved. Inadequate resolution will lead to inaccuracies,
and excessive resolution will lead to unnecessarily slow calculation times.
After a PDF table has been generated or read in to FLUENT, you can display 2D plots
and 3D surfaces showing the variation of species mole fraction, density, or temperature
with the mean mixture fraction, mixture fraction variance, or enthalpy using the PDF
Table panel (e.g., Figure 15.12.2). The PDF Table panel can be accessed in one of two
ways: you can click on the Display PDF Table... button in the Table tab of the Species
Model panel (as shown in Figure 15.12.1) or you can use the path
Display −→PDF Tables/Curves...

Figure 15.12.2: The PDF Table Panel (Non-Adiabatic Case With Flamelets)

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To display the look-up tables graphically, use the following procedure:

1. In the PDF Table panel, in the Plot Variable drop-down list you can select temper-
ature, density, or species fraction as the variable to be plotted.

2. (multiple flamelets only) Specify the value of the Scalar Dissipation. In the case
of non-adiabatic flamelets, there is the additional parameter of mean enthalpy. In
addition to varying the mean enthalpy and mean mixture fraction, you can vary
the display of the PDF table by changing the value of the scalar dissipation, which
gives the table a fourth “dimension”.

3. Specify the Plot Type as either 3D Surface or 2D Curve on 3D Surface. In the

equilibrium model, a 2D curve is a slice of a 3D surface, and thus some options
selected for a 3D surface may impact the display of a 2D curve.
• For a 3D surface:
(a) Enable or disable Draw Numbers Box under Options. When this option is
turned on, the display will include a wireframe box with the numerical
limits in each coordinate direction.
(b) (non-adiabatic cases only) Under Surface Parameters, specify the discrete
independent variable to be held constant in the look-up table (Constant
Value of).
– For a single-mixture-fraction case, select Scaled Heat Loss/Gain (H),
Mean Mixture Fraction (f ), or Scaled Variance (f 02 ). For any mean
mixture fraction f , the variance varies between a minimum of 0 and a
maximum of f (1 − f ). In order to view the mixture fraction variance,
it is normalized by Equation 15.12-1 so that for any mean mixture
fraction the scaled variance ranges from 0 to 0.25.

f 02
fs0 2 = 0.25 (15.12-1)
f (1 − f )

– For a two-mixture-fraction case, the Scaled Heat Loss/Gain is the only

available option.
(c) (non-adiabatic cases only) Specify whether the 3D array of data points
available in the look-up table will be sliced Index or Value under Slice by.
– If you selected Index, specify the discretization Index of the variable
that is being held constant. The range of integer values that you
are allowed to choose from is displayed under Min and Max, and is
equivalent to the number of points specified for that variable in the
Table tab of the Species Model panel (see Section 15.12: Calculating
the Look-Up Tables). If you specified to hold the enthalpy (Scaled

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 15.12 Calculating the Look-Up Tables

Heat Loss/Gain) constant, the enthalpy slice index corresponding to

the adiabatic case will be displayed in the Adiabatic field.
– If you selected Value, specify the numerical Value of the variable that
is being held constant. The range of values that you can specify is
displayed under Min and Max.
• For a 2D curve on a 3D surface:
(a) Specify whether you want to write the plot data to a file by toggling Write
To File under Options.
(b) Under Curve Parameters, specify the X-Axis Function against which the
plot variable will be displayed.
– For an adiabatic single-mixture-fraction case, select Mean Mixture
Fraction (f ), or Scaled Variance (f 02 ).
– For a non-adiabatic single-mixture-fraction case, the options will de-
pend on what was selected under Constant Value of under Surface Pa-
rameters, but will include two of the following: Scaled Heat Loss/Gain
(H), Mean Mixture Fraction, and Scaled Variance.
– For a two-mixture-fraction case, select Fuel Mixture Fraction (ffuel ) or
Secondary Partial Fraction (psec ).
(c) Specify the type of discretization (i.e., how the look-up table data will be
sliced) for the variable that is being held constant (under Constant Value
of Mean Mixture Fraction, Constant Value of Scaled Variance, etc.). Note
that for non-adiabatic cases, each 3D surface slice contains a full set of
2D slices.
– If you selected Index under Slice by, specify the discretization Index of
the variable that is being held constant. The range of integer values
that you are allowed to choose from is displayed under Min and Max,
and is equivalent to the number of points specified for that variable in
the Table tab of the Species Model panel (see Section 15.12: Calculating
the Look-Up Tables).
– If you selected Value under Slice by, specify the numerical Value of the
variable that is being held constant. The range of values that you can
specify is displayed under Min and Max.
4. Write or display the look-up table results. If you have turned on the Write To File
option for a 2D plot, click Write and specify a name for the file in the Select File
dialog box. Otherwise, click Plot or Display as appropriate to display a 2D plot or
3D surface in the graphics window.

Figures 15.12.3 and 15.12.4 shows examples of 2D plots derived for a very simple hydro-
carbon system.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

1.20e-01

1.00e-01

8.00e-02

Mole 6.00e-02
Fraction
of
co 4.00e-02

2.00e-02

0.00e+00
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Y
Z X F-Mean

Mole Fraction of co

Figure 15.12.3: Mean Species Fraction Derived From an Equilibrium Chem-

istry Calculation

2.00e+03

1.80e+03

1.60e+03

1.40e+03

1.20e+03
Mean
Temperature(K) 1.00e+03

8.00e+02

6.00e+02

4.00e+02

2.00e+02
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Y
Z X F-Mean

Mean Mixture Temperature

Figure 15.12.4: Mean Temperature Derived From an Equilibrium Chemistry

Calculation

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 15.12 Calculating the Look-Up Tables

Figure 15.12.5 shows an example of a 3D surface derived for the same system.

Z
Y
X

Mean Temperature(K)

Figure 15.12.5: 3D Plot of Look-Up Table for Temperature Generated for a

Simple Hydrocarbon System

Files for Flamelet Modeling

In this section, information is provided about the standard flamelet files used for flamelet
generation and import.

Standard Flamelet Files

The data structure for the standard flamelet file format is based on keywords that precede
each data section. If any of the keywords in your flamelet data file do not match the
supported keywords, you will have to manually edit the file and change the keywords to
one of the supported types. (The FLUENT flamelet filter is case-insensitive, so you need
not worry about capitalization within the keywords.)
The following keywords are supported by the FLUENT filter:

• Header section: HEADER

• Main body section: BODY

• Number of species: NUMOFSPECIES

• Number of grid points: GRIDPOINTS

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• Pressure: PRESSURE

• Strain rate: STRAINRATE

• Scalar dissipation: CHI

• Temperature: TEMPERATURE and TEMP

• Mass fraction: MASSFRACTION-

• Mixture fraction: Z

Sample File

A sample flamelet file in the standard format is provided below. Note that not all species
are listed in this file.

HEADER
STRAINRATE 100.
NUMOFSPECIES 12
GRIDPOINTS 39
PRESSURE 1.
BODY
Z
0.0000E+00 4.3000E-07 2.1780E-06 1.2651E-05 7.8456E-05
2.1876E-04 5.9030E-04 9.4701E-04 1.4700E-03 1.8061E-03
2.1967E-03 2.6424E-03 3.1435E-03 4.3038E-03 5.6637E-03
8.9401E-03 1.2800E-02 1.7114E-02 2.1698E-02 2.6304E-02
2.8522E-02 3.0647E-02 3.2680E-02 3.4655E-02 4.2784E-02
5.2655E-02 6.5420E-02 8.2531E-02 1.0637E-01 1.4122E-01
1.9518E-01 2.8473E-01 4.4175E-01 6.6643E-01 8.6222E-01
9.5897E-01 9.9025E-01 9.9819E-01 1.0000E+00
TEMPERATURE
3.0000E+02 3.0013E+02 3.0085E+02 3.0475E+02 3.2382E+02
3.5644E+02 4.3055E+02 4.9469E+02 5.8260E+02 6.3634E+02
6.9655E+02 7.6268E+02 8.3393E+02 9.8775E+02 1.1493E+03
1.4702E+03 1.7516E+03 1.9767E+03 2.1403E+03 2.2444E+03
2.2766E+03 2.2962E+03 2.3044E+03 2.3027E+03 2.2164E+03
2.0671E+03 1.8792E+03 1.6655E+03 1.4355E+03 1.1986E+03
9.6530E+02 7.5025E+02 5.7496E+02 4.4805E+02 3.6847E+02
3.2730E+02 3.0939E+02 3.0248E+02 3.0000E+02
MASSFRACTION-H2
3.2354E-07 7.4290E-07 1.6979E-06 3.8179E-06 8.3038E-06
1.2219E-05 1.7873E-05 2.1556E-05 2.5872E-05 2.8290E-05
3.0888E-05 3.3684E-05 3.6720E-05 4.3768E-05 5.4359E-05
1.0484E-04 2.6807E-04 6.1906E-04 1.2615E-03 2.3555E-03
3.1422E-03 4.1281E-03 5.3302E-03 6.7434E-03 1.4244E-02

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 15.12 Calculating the Look-Up Tables

2.4296E-02 3.7472E-02 5.5159E-02 7.9788E-02 1.1573E-01

1.7135E-01 2.6359E-01 4.2527E-01 6.5658E-01 8.5814E-01
9.5775E-01 9.8996E-01 9.9814E-01 1.0000E+00
MASSFRACTION-CH4
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
MASSFRACTION-O
6.8919E-10 2.8720E-09 1.1905E-08 4.8669E-08 2.0370E-07
5.5281E-07 1.7418E-06 3.6996E-06 8.3107E-06 1.3525E-05
2.2484E-05 3.8312E-05 6.6385E-05 1.8269E-04 4.4320E-04
1.4284E-03 2.7564E-03 3.9063E-03 4.3237E-03 3.7141E-03
3.0916E-03 2.3917E-03 1.7345E-03 1.2016E-03 2.4323E-04
5.2235E-05 1.1469E-05 2.3011E-06 3.7414E-07 4.2445E-08
2.7470E-09 8.7551E-11 2.9341E-12 7.0471E-13 0.0000E+00
7.2143E-14 0.0000E+00 0.0000E+00 0.0000E+00

Missing Species

FLUENT will check whether all species in the flamelet data file exist in the thermodynamic
properties databases thermo.db. If any of the species in the flamelet file do not exist,
FLUENT will issue an error message and halt the flamelet import. If this occurs, you can
either add the missing species to the database, or remove the species from the flamelet
file.
You should not remove a species from the flamelet data file unless its species concentra-
tion is very small (10−3 or less) throughout the flamelet profile. If you remove a low-
concentration species, you will not have the species concentrations available for viewing
in the FLUENT calculation, but the accuracy of the FLUENT calculation will otherwise
be unaffected.

i If you choose to remove any species, be sure to also update the number
of species (keyword NUMOFSPECIES) in the flamelet data file, to reflect the
loss of any species you have removed from the file.
If a species with relatively large concentration is missing from the FLUENT thermody-
namic databases, you will have to add it. Removing a high-concentration species from
the flamelet file is not recommended.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

15.13 Defining Non-Premixed Boundary Conditions

15.13.1 Input of Mixture Fraction Boundary Conditions
When the non-premixed combustion model is used, flow boundary conditions at inlets and
exits (i.e., velocity or pressure, turbulence intensity) are defined in the usual way. Species
mass fractions at inlets are not required. Instead, you define values for the mean mixture
fraction, f , and the mixture fraction variance, f 0 2 , at inlet boundaries. (For problems that
include a secondary stream, you will define boundary conditions for the mean secondary
partial fraction and its variance as well as the mean fuel mixture fraction and its variance.)
These inputs provide boundary conditions for the conservation equations you will solve
for these quantities. The inlet values are supplied in the boundary conditions panel,
under the available tabs, for the selected inlet boundary (e.g., Figure 15.13.1).
Define −→ Boundary Conditions...

Figure 15.13.1: The Velocity Inlet Panel Showing Mixture Fraction Boundary
Conditions

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 15.13 Defining Non-Premixed Boundary Conditions

Click the Species tab and input the Mean Mixture Fraction and Mixture Fraction Variance
(and the Secondary Mean Mixture Fraction and Secondary Mixture Fraction Variance, if you
are using two mixture fractions). In general, the inlet value of the mean fractions will be
1.0 or 0.0 at flow inlets: the mean fuel mixture fraction will be 1.0 at fuel stream inlets
and 0.0 at oxidizer or secondary stream inlets; the mean secondary mixture fraction will
be 1.0 at secondary stream inlets and 0.0 at fuel or oxidizer inlets. The fuel or secondary
mixture fraction will lie between 0.0 and 1.0 only if you are modeling flue gas recycle,
as illustrated in Figure 15.2.15 and discussed in Section 15.2.1: Definition of the Mixture
Fraction. The fuel or secondary mixture fraction variance can usually be taken as zero
at inlet boundaries.

15.13.2 Diffusion at Inlets

In some cases, you may wish to include only the convective transport of mixture fraction
through the inlets of your domain. You can do this by disabling inlet mixture-fraction
diffusion. By default, FLUENT includes the diffusion flux of mixture fraction at inlets.
To turn off inlet diffusion, use either the define/models/species/inlet-diffusion?
text command, or the Species Model panel
Define −→ Models −→Species...
and disable the Inlet Diffusion option.

15.13.3 Input of Thermal Boundary Conditions and Fuel Inlet Velocities

If your model is non-adiabatic, you should input the Temperature at the flow inlets. Recall
that the inlet temperatures were requested during the table construction in the Chemistry
tab of the Species Model panel, and were used in the construction of the look-up tables.
The inlet temperatures for each fuel, oxidizer, and secondary inlet in your non-adiabatic
model should be defined, in addition, as boundary conditions in FLUENT. It is acceptable
for the inlet temperature boundary conditions to differ slightly from those you input for
the look-up table calculations. If the inlet temperatures differ significantly from those in
the Chemistry tab, however, your look-up tables may provide less accurate interpolation.
This is because the discrete points in the look-up tables were selected based on the inlet
temperatures as defined in the Chemistry tab.
Wall thermal boundary conditions should also be defined for non-adiabatic non-premixed
combustion calculations. You can use any of the standard conditions available in FLU-
ENT, including specified wall temperature, heat flux, external heat transfer coefficient, or
external radiation. If radiation is to be included within the domain, the wall emissivity
should be defined as well. See Section 7.13.1: Thermal Boundary Conditions at Walls for
details about thermal boundary conditions at walls.

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15.14 Defining Non-Premixed Physical Properties

When you use the non-premixed combustion model, the material used for all fluid zones
is automatically set to pdf-mixture. This material is a special case of the mixture material
concept discussed in Section 14.1.2: Mixture Materials. The constituent species of this
mixture are the species that you defined for the look-up table calculation; you cannot
change them. When the non-premixed model is used, heat capacities, molecular weights,
and enthalpies of formation for each species considered are extracted from the chemical
database, so you will not modify any properties for the constituent species in the PDF
mixture. For the PDF mixture itself, the mean density and mean specific heat are
determined from the look-up tables.
The physical property inputs for a non-premixed combustion problem are therefore only
the transport properties (viscosity, thermal conductivity, etc.) for the PDF mixture. To
set these in the Materials panel, choose mixture as the Material Type, pdf-mixture (the
default, and only choice) in the Mixture Materials list, and set the desired values for the
transport properties.
Define −→Materials...
See Chapter 8: Physical Properties for details about setting physical properties. The
transport properties in a non-premixed combustion problem can be defined as functions
of temperature, if desired, but not as functions of composition. In practice, since tur-
bulence effects will dominate, it will be of little benefit to include even the temperature
dependence of these transport properties.
If you are modeling radiation heat transfer, you will also input radiation properties,
as described in Section 8.8: Radiation Properties. Composition-dependent absorption
coefficients (using the WSGGM) are allowed.

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 15.15 Coal Modeling Inputs in FLUENT

15.15 Coal Modeling Inputs in FLUENT

Within FLUENT, the DPM coal combustion simulation is defined as usual when the non-
premixed combustion model is selected. The air (oxidizer) inlets are defined as having
a mixture fraction value of zero. No gas phase fuel inlets will be included and the sole
source of fuel will come from the coal devolatilization and char burnout. The coal particles
are defined as injections using the Set Injection Properties panel in the usual way, and
physical properties for the coal material are specified as described in Section 22.14: Setting
Material Properties for the Discrete Phase. You should keep in mind the following issues
when defining injections and discrete-phase material properties for coal materials:

• In the Set Injection Properties panel, you will specify for the Oxidizing Species one
of the components of the oxidizer stream. This species concentration field will be
used to calculate the diffusion-controlled driving force in the char burnout law (if
applicable).
The specification of the char and volatile streams differs depending on the type of
model you are defining:
– If the coal is modeled using a single mixture fraction, the gas phase species
representing the volatiles and the char combustion are represented by the
mixture fraction used by the non-premixed combustion model.
– If the coal is modeled using two mixture fractions, rather than specifying
a destination species for the volatiles and char, you will instead specify the
Devolatilizing Stream and Char Stream.
– If the coal is modeled using one mixture fraction, and another fuel is modeled
using a second mixture fraction, you should specify the stream representing
the coal as both the Devolatilizing Stream and the Char Stream.

• In the Materials panel, Vaporization Temperature should be set equal to the fuel inlet
temperature. This temperature controls the onset of the devolatilization process.
The fuel inlet temperature that you define in the Boundary tab of the Species Model
panel should be set to the temperature at which you want to initiate devolatiliza-
tion. This way, the look-up tables will include the appropriate temperature range
for your process.

• In the Materials panel, Volatile Component Fraction and Combustible Fraction should
be set to values that are consistent with the coal composition used to define the
fuel (and secondary) stream composition.

• Also in the Materials panel, you will be prompted for the Burnout Stoichiometric
Ratio and for the Latent Heat. The Burnout Stoichiometric Ratio is used in the
calculation of the diffusion controlled burnout rate but has no other impact on the
system chemistry when the non-premixed combustion model is used. The Burnout
Stoichiometric Ratio is the mass of oxidant required per mass of char. The default

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

value of 1.33 assumes that C(s) is oxidized by O2 to yield CO. The Latent Heat
input determines the heat required to generate the vapor phase volatiles defined in
the non-premixed system chemistry. You can usually set this value to zero when the
non-premixed model is used, since your definition of volatile species will have been
based on the overall heating value of the coal. However, if the coal composition
includes the water content, the latent heat should be set as follows:
– Set latent heat to zero if the water content of the coal has been defined as
H2O(L). In this case, the system chemistry will include the latent heat required
to vaporize the liquid water.
– Set latent heat to the value for water (2.25 × 106 J/kg), adjusted by the
mass loading of water in the volatiles, if the water content of the coal has
been defined using water vapor, H2O. In this case, the water content you
defined will be evolved along with the other species in the coal but the system
chemistry does not include the latent heat effect.
• The Density you define for the coal in the Materials panel should be the apparent
density, including ash content.
• You will not be asked to define the Heat of Reaction for Burnout for the char com-
bustion.

Postprocessing Non-Premixed Models of Coal Combustion

FLUENT reports the rate of volatile release from the coal using the DPM Evapora-
tion/Devolatilization postprocessing variable. The rate of char burnout is reported in
the DPM Burnout variable.

15.16 Solution Strategies for Non-Premixed Modeling

The non-premixed model setup and solution procedure in FLUENT differs slightly for
single- and two-mixture-fraction problems. Below, an overview of each approach is pro-
vided. Note that your FLUENT case file must always meet the restrictions listed for the
non-premixed modeling approach in Section 15.2.5: Restrictions on the Mixture Fraction
Approach. In this section, details are provided regarding the problem definition and
calculation procedures you follow in FLUENT.

15.16.1 Single-Mixture-Fraction Approach

For a single-mixture-fraction system, when you have completed the calculation of the
PDF look-up tables, you are ready to begin your reacting flow simulation. In FLUENT,
you will solve the flow field and predict the spatial distribution of f and f 0 2 (and H if the
system is non-adiabatic or χst,d if the system is based on laminar flamelets). FLUENT will
obtain the implied values of temperature and individual chemical species mass fractions
from the look-up tables.

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 15.16 Solution Strategies for Non-Premixed Modeling

15.16.2 Two-Mixture-Fraction Approach

When a secondary stream is included, FLUENT will solve transport equations for the
mean secondary partial fraction (psec ) and its variance in addition to the mean fuel
mixture fraction and its variance. FLUENT will then look up the instantaneous values for
temperature, density, and individual chemical species in the look-up tables, compute the
PDFs for the fuel and secondary streams, and calculate the mean values for temperature,
density, and species.
Note that in order to avoid both inaccuracies and unnecessarily slow calculation times,
it is important for you to view your temperature and species tables in FLUENT to ensure
that they are adequately but not excessively resolved.

15.16.3 Starting a Non-Premixed Calculation From a Previous Case File

You can read a previously defined FLUENT case file as a starting point for your non-
premixed combustion modeling. If this case file contains inputs that are incompatible
with the current non-premixed combustion model, FLUENT will alert you when the non-
premixed model is turned on and it will turn off those incompatible models. For example,
if the case file includes species that differ from those included in the PDF file created by
FLUENT, these species will be disabled. If the case file contains property descriptions
that conflict with the property data in the chemical database, these property inputs will
be ignored.

i PDF files created by prePDF 2 or older are not supported by this version
of FLUENT. The files generated by PrePDF version 3 or newer, are fully
compatible.
In the Species Model panel, select Non-Premixed Combustion under the Model heading.
When you click OK in the Species Model panel, a Select File dialog box will immedi-
ately appear, prompting you for the name of the PDF file containing the look-up tables
created in a previous FLUENT session. (The PDF file is the file you saved using the
File/Write/PDF... menu item after computing the look-up tables.) FLUENT will indicate
that it has successfully read the specified PDF file:

Reading "/home/mydirectory/adiabatic.pdf"...
read 5 species (binary c, adiabatic fluent)
pdf file successfully read.
Done.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

After you read in the PDF file, FLUENT will inform you that some material properties
have changed. You can accept this information; you will be updating properties later on.
You can read in an altered PDF file at any time by using the File/Read/PDF... menu
item.

i Recall that the non-premixed combustion model is available only when you
used the pressure-based solver; it cannot be used with the density-based
solvers. Also, the non-premixed combustion model is available only when
turbulence modeling is active.
If you are modeling a non-adiabatic system and you wish to include the effects of com-
pressibility, re-open the Species Model panel (Figure 15.16.1) and turn on Compressibility
Effects under PDF Options. This option tells FLUENT to update the density according
to Equation 15.7-1. When the non-premixed combustion model is active, you can enable
compressibility effects only in the Species Model panel. For other models, you will specify
compressible flow (ideal-gas, boussinesq, etc.) in the Materials panel. See Sections 15.7.2
and 15.16.4 for more information about compressibility effects.

Figure 15.16.1: The Species Model Panel With Available PDF Options

Retrieving the PDF File During Case File Reads

The PDF filename is specified to FLUENT only once. Thereafter, the filename is stored
in your FLUENT case file and the PDF file will be automatically read into FLUENT
whenever the case file is read. FLUENT will remind you that it is reading the PDF
file after it finishes reading the rest of the case file by reporting its progress in the text
(console) window.

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 15.16 Solution Strategies for Non-Premixed Modeling

Note that the PDF filename stored in your case file may not contain the full name of
the directory in which the PDF file exists. The full directory name will be stored in the
case file only if you initially read the PDF file through the GUI (or if you typed in the
directory name along with the filename when using the text interface). In the event that
the full directory name is absent, the automatic reading of the PDF file may fail (since
FLUENT does not know which directory to look in for the file), and you will need to
manually specify the PDF file. The safest approaches are to use the GUI when you first
read the PDF file or to supply the full directory name when using the text interface.

15.16.4 Solving the Flow Problem

The next step in the non-premixed combustion modeling process in FLUENT is the so-
lution of the mixture fraction and flow equations. First, initialize the flow. By default,
the mixture fraction and its variance have initial values of zero, which is the recom-
mended value; you should generally not set non-zero initial values for these variables.
See Section 25.14: Initializing the Solution for details about solution initialization.
Solve −→ Initialize −→Initialize...
Next, begin calculations in the usual manner.
Solve −→ Iterate...
During the calculation process, FLUENT reports residuals for the mixture fraction and
its variance in the fmean and fvar columns of the residual report:

iter cont x-vel y-vel k epsilon fmean fvar

28 1.57e-3 4.92e-4 4.80e-4 2.68e-2 2.59e-3 9.09e-1 1.17e+0
29 1.42e-3 4.43e-4 4.23e-4 2.48e-2 2.30e-3 8.89e-1 1.15e+0
30 1.28e-3 3.98e-4 3.75e-4 2.29e-2 2.04e-3 8.88e-1 1.14e+0

(For two-mixture-fraction calculations, columns for psec and pvar will also appear.)

Under-Relaxation Factors for PDF Equations

The transport equations for the mean mixture fraction and mixture fraction variance are
quite stable and high, under-relaxation can be used when solving them. By default, an
under-relaxation factor of 1 is used for the mean mixture fraction (and secondary partial
fraction) and 0.9 for the mixture fraction variance (and secondary partial fraction vari-
ance). If the residuals for these equations are increasing, you should consider decreasing
these under-relaxation factors, as discussed in Section 25.9.2: Setting Under-Relaxation
Factors.

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

Density Under-Relaxation
One of the main reasons a combustion calculation can have difficulty converging is that
large changes in temperature cause large changes in density, which can, in turn, cause
instabilities in the flow solution. FLUENT allows you to under-relax the change in density
to alleviate this difficulty. The default value for density under-relaxation is 1, but if you
encounter convergence trouble you may wish to reduce this to a value between 0.5 and 1
(in the Solution Controls panel).

Tuning the PDF Parameters for Two-Mixture-Fraction Calculations

For cases that include a secondary stream, the PDF integrations are performed inside
FLUENT.
The parameters for these integrations are defined in the Species Model panel (Fig-
ure 15.16.2).
Define −→ Models −→Species...

Figure 15.16.2: The Species Model Panel for a Two-Mixture-Fraction Calcu-

lation

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 15.17 Postprocessing the Non-Premixed Model Results

The parameters are as follows:

Compressibility Effects (non-adiabatic systems only) tells FLUENT to update the den-
sity, temperature, species mass fraction, and enthalpy from the PDF tables to
account for the varying pressure of the system.

Probability Density Function specifies which type of PDF should be used. You can pick
either double delta (the default) or beta in the drop-down list. The double delta PDF
has the advantage of being faster than the beta PDF, and it is the default. The
beta function, however, may be a more accurate representation of the PDF.

Number of Flow Iterations Per Property Update specifies how often the density, temper-
ature, and specific heats are updated from the look-up table. Remember that when
you are calculating two mixture fractions, the updating of properties includes com-
putation of the PDFs and can be quite CPU-intensive. You should generally not
reduce the Number of Flow Iterations Per Property Update below the default value
of 10, unless you are experiencing convergence difficulties.
For simulations involving non-adiabatic multiple strained flamelets, looking up the
four-dimensional PDF tables can be CPU-intensive if a large number of species
exist in the flamelet files. In such cases, the Number of Flow Iterations Per Property
Update controls the updating of the mean molecular weight, which involves looking
up the PDF tables for the species mass fractions.
For the Eulerian unsteady laminar flamelet model, a marker probability equation
is solved in an unsteady mode. Residuals for ufla-prob will be displayed.

15.17 Postprocessing the Non-Premixed Model Results

The final step in the non-premixed combustion modeling process is the postprocessing
of species concentrations and temperature data from the mixture fraction and flow-field
solution data. The following variables are of particular interest:

• Mean Mixture Fraction (in the Pdf... category)

• Secondary Mean Mixture Fraction (in the Pdf... category)

• Mixture Fraction Variance (in the Pdf... category)

• Secondary Mixture Fraction Variance (in the Pdf... category)

• Fvar Prod (in the Pdf... category)

• Fvar2 Prod (in the Pdf... category)

• Scalar Dissipation (in the Pdf... category)

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

• Mass fraction of (species-n) (in the Species... category)

• Mole fraction of (species-n) (in the Species... category)

• Molar Concentration of (species-n) (in the Species... category)

• Static Temperature (in the Temperature... category)

• Enthalpy (in the Temperature... category)

• Mean Probability(in the Unsteady Flamelet... category)

• Mean Temperature(in the Unsteady Flamelet... category)

• Mean Mass Fraction of (species-n) (in the Unsteady Flamelet... category)

i For the unsteady laminar flamelet model, mean species mass fractions are
displayed for the first fifty species in the flamelet kinetic mechanism.
These quantities can be selected for display in the indicated category of the variable-
selection drop-down list that appears in postprocessing panels. See Chapter 30: Field
Function Definitions for their definitions.
If there are species that you want to have available for postprocessing that would be
ignored by FLUENT due to their low concentration (e.g., CH, CH2 , CH3 for the NOx
calculation), you can force FLUENT to include them using the text interface.
define −→ models −→ species −→non-premixed-combustion
When the console window prompts you with Force Equilibrium Species to
Include..., specify the appropriate species by entering the chemical formula(s) in dou-
ble quotes (e.g., "ch", "ch2").
Note that you will have to first set up the inputs for the fuel and oxidizer before you are
given the option to include the species.
In all cases, the species concentrations are derived from the mixture fraction/variance
field using the look-up tables. Note that temperature and enthalpy can be postprocessed
even when your FLUENT model is an adiabatic non-premixed combustion simulation in
which you have not solved the energy equation. In both the adiabatic and non-adiabatic
cases, the temperature is derived from the look-up table.
Figures 15.17.1 and 15.17.2 illustrate typical results for a methane diffusion flame modeled
using the non-premixed approach.

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 15.17 Postprocessing the Non-Premixed Model Results

1.00e+00

9.00e-01

8.00e-01

7.00e-01

6.00e-01

5.00e-01

4.00e-01

3.00e-01

2.00e-01

1.00e-01

0.00e+00

Contours of Mean Mixture Fraction

Figure 15.17.1: Predicted Contours of Mixture Fraction in a Methane Diffu-

sion Flame

1.35e-01

1.22e-01

1.08e-01

9.48e-02

8.12e-02

6.77e-02

5.42e-02

4.06e-02

2.71e-02

1.35e-02

0.00e+00

Contours of Mass fraction of co2

Figure 15.17.2: Predicted Contours of CO2 Mass Fraction Using the Non-
Premixed Combustion Model

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Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion

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Chapter 16. Modeling Premixed Combustion

FLUENT has a premixed turbulent combustion model based on the reaction-progress

variable approach. Information about this model is provided in the following sections:

• Section 16.1: Overview and Limitations

• Section 16.2: Premixed Combustion Theory

• Section 16.3: Using the Premixed Combustion Model

16.1 Overview and Limitations

16.1.1 Overview
In premixed combustion, fuel and oxidizer are mixed at the molecular level prior to
ignition. Combustion occurs as a flame front propagating into the unburnt reactants.
Examples of premixed combustion include aspirated internal combustion engines, lean-
premixed gas turbine combustors, and gas-leak explosions.
Premixed combustion is much more difficult to model than non-premixed combustion.
The reason for this is that premixed combustion usually occurs as a thin, propagating
flame that is stretched and contorted by turbulence. For subsonic flows, the overall
rate of propagation of the flame is determined by both the laminar flame speed and the
turbulent eddies. The laminar flame speed is determined by the rate that species and
heat diffuse upstream into the reactants and burn. To capture the laminar flame speed,
the internal flame structure would need to be resolved, as well as the detailed chemical
kinetics and molecular diffusion processes. Since practical laminar flame thicknesses are
of the order of millimeters or smaller, resolution requirements are usually unaffordable.
The effect of turbulence is to wrinkle and stretch the propagating laminar flame sheet,
increasing the sheet area and, in turn, the effective flame speed. The large turbulent
eddies tend to wrinkle and corrugate the flame sheet, while the small turbulent eddies,
if they are smaller than the laminar flame thickness, may penetrate the flame sheet and
modify the laminar flame structure.
Non-premixed combustion, in comparison, can be greatly simplified to a mixing prob-
lem (see the mixture fraction approach in Section 15.1: Introduction). The essence of
premixed combustion modeling lies in capturing the turbulent flame speed, which is
influenced by both the laminar flame speed and the turbulence.

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Modeling Premixed Combustion

In premixed flames, the fuel and oxidizer are intimately mixed before they enter the com-
bustion device. Reaction then takes place in a combustion zone that separates unburnt
reactants and burnt combustion products. Partially premixed flames exhibit the proper-
ties of both premixed and diffusion flames. They occur when an additional oxidizer or
fuel stream enters a premixed system, or when a diffusion flame becomes lifted off the
burner so that some premixing takes place prior to combustion.
Premixed and partially premixed flames can be modeled using FLUENT’s finite-rate/eddy-
dissipation formulation (see Chapter 14: Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate
Chemistry). If finite-rate chemical kinetic effects are important, the EDC model (see
Section 14.1.1: The Eddy-Dissipation-Concept (EDC) Model) or the composition PDF
transport model (see Chapter 18: Modeling a Composition PDF Transport Problem)
can be used. For information about FLUENT’s partially premixed combustion model,
see Chapter 17: Modeling Partially Premixed Combustion. If the flame is perfectly pre-
mixed, so only one stream at one equivalence ratio enters the combustor, it is possible to
use the premixed combustion model, as described in this chapter.

16.1.2 Limitations
The following limitations apply to the premixed combustion model:

• You must use the pressure-based solver. The premixed combustion model is not
available with either of the density-based solvers.

• The premixed combustion model is valid only for turbulent, subsonic flows. These
types of flames are called deflagrations. Explosions, also called detonations, where
the combustible mixture is ignited by the heat behind a shock wave, can be modeled
with the finite-rate model using the density-based solver. See Chapter 14: Modeling
Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry for information about the finite-rate
model.

• The premixed combustion model cannot be used in conjunction with the pollutant
(i.e., soot and NOx ) models. However, a perfectly premixed system can be modeled
with the partially premixed model (see Chapter 17: Modeling Partially Premixed
Combustion), which can be used with the pollutant models.

• You cannot use the premixed combustion model to simulate reacting discrete-phase
particles, since these would result in a partially premixed system. Only inert par-
ticles can be used with the premixed combustion model.

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 16.2 Premixed Combustion Theory

16.2 Premixed Combustion Theory

The turbulent premixed combustion model, based on work by Zimont et al. [414, 415,
417], involves the solution of a transport equation for the reaction progress variable. The
closure of this equation is based on the definition of the turbulent flame speed.

16.2.1 Propagation of the Flame Front

In many industrial premixed systems, combustion takes place in a thin flame sheet.
As the flame front moves, combustion of unburnt reactants occurs, converting unburnt
premixed reactants to burnt products. The premixed combustion model thus considers
the reacting flow field to be divided into regions of burnt and unburnt species, separated
by the flame sheet.
The flame front propagation is modeled by solving a transport equation for the density-
weighted mean reaction progress variable:, denoted by c:

∂ µt
 
(ρc) + ∇ · (ρ~v c) = ∇ · ∇c + ρSc (16.2-1)
∂t Sct

where
c = mean reaction progress variable
Sct = turbulent Schmidt number
Sc = reaction progress source term (s−1 )
The progress variable is defined as a normalized sum of the product species,

n
X
Yi
i=1
c= n
X
(16.2-2)
Yi,eq
i=1

where
n = number of products
Yi = mass fraction of product species i
Yi,eq = equilibrium mass fraction of product species i
Based on this definition, c = 0 where the mixture is unburnt and c = 1 where the mixture
is burnt:

• c = 0: unburnt mixture

• c = 1: burnt mixture

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Modeling Premixed Combustion

The value of c is defined as a boundary condition at all flow inlets. It is usually specified
as either 0 (unburnt) or 1 (burnt).
The mean reaction rate in Equation 16.2-1 is modeled as [415]

ρSc = ρu Ut |∇c| (16.2-3)

where
ρu = density of unburnt mixture
Ut = turbulent flame speed
Other mean reaction rate models exist [42], and can be specified using user-defined func-
tions. See the separate UDF Manual for details about user-defined functions.

16.2.2 Turbulent Flame Speed

The key to the premixed combustion model is the prediction of Ut , the turbulent flame
speed normal to the mean surface of the flame. The turbulent flame speed is influenced
by the following:

• laminar flame speed, which is, in turn, determined by the fuel concentration, tem-
perature, and molecular diffusion properties, as well as the detailed chemical kinet-
ics
• flame front wrinkling and stretching by large eddies, and flame thickening by small
eddies

In FLUENT, the turbulent flame speed is computed using a model for wrinkled and
thickened flame fronts [415]:

1/2 1/4
Ut = A(u0 )3/4 Ul α−1/4 `t (16.2-4)
 1/4
0 τt
= Au (16.2-5)
τc

where
A = model constant
u0 = RMS (root-mean-square) velocity (m/s)
Ul = laminar flame speed (m/s)
α = k/ρcp = molecular heat transfer coefficient of unburnt
mixture (thermal diffusivity) (m2 /s)
`t = turbulence length scale (m)
τt = `t /u0 = turbulence time scale (s)
τc = α/Ul2 = chemical time scale (s)

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 16.2 Premixed Combustion Theory

The turbulence length scale, `t , is computed from

(u0 )3
`t = CD (16.2-6)

where  is the turbulence dissipation rate.
The model is based on the assumption of equilibrium small-scale turbulence inside the
laminar flame, resulting in a turbulent flame speed expression that is purely in terms of
the large-scale turbulent parameters. The default value of 0.52 for A is recommended
by [415], and is suitable for most premixed flames. The default value of 0.37 for CD
should also be suitable for most premixed flames.
The model is strictly applicable when the smallest turbulent eddies in the flow (the
Kolmogorov scales) are smaller than the flame thickness, and penetrate into the flame
zone. This is called the thin reaction zone combustion region, and can be quantified by
Karlovitz numbers, Ka, greater than unity. Ka is defined as

tl vη2
Ka = = 2 (16.2-7)
tη Ul

where
tl = characteristic flame time scale
tη = smallest (Kolmogorov) turbulence time scale
vη = (ν)1/4 = Kolmogorov velocity
ν = kinematic viscosity
Lastly, the model is valid for premixed systems where the flame brush width increases in
time, as occurs in most industrial combustors. Flames that propagate for a long period
of time equilibrate to a constant flame width, which cannot be captured in this model.

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Modeling Premixed Combustion

Turbulent Flame Speed for LES

For simulations that use the LES turbulence model, the Reynolds-averaged quantities in
the turbulent flame speed expression (Equation 16.2-4) are replaced by their equivalent
sub-grid quantities. In particular, the large eddy length scale `t is modeled as

`t = Cs ∆ (16.2-8)

where Cs is the Smagorinsky constant and ∆ is the cell characteristic length.

The RMS velocity in Equation 16.2-4 is replaced by the sub-grid velocity fluctuation,
calculated as

u0 = `t τsgs
−1
(16.2-9)
−1
where τsgs is the sub-grid scale mixing rate (inverse of the sub-grid scale time scale),
given in Equation 14.1-28.

Laminar Flame Speed

The laminar flame speed (Ul in Equation 16.2.1) can be specified as constant, or as a
user-defined function. A third option appears for non-adiabatic premixed and partially-
premixed flames and is based on the correlation proposed by Meghalchi and Keck [241],

!γ !β
Tu pu
Ul = Ul,ref (16.2-10)
Tu,ref pu,ref

In Equation 16.2-10, Tu and pu are the unburnt reactant temperature and pressure ahead
of the flame, Tu,ref = 298K and pu,ref = 1atm.
The reference laminar flame speed, Ul,ref , is calculated from

Ul,ref = C1 + C2 (φ − C3 )2 (16.2-11)

where φ is the equivalence ratio ahead of the flame front, and C1 , C2 and C3 are fuel-
specific constants. The exponents γ and β are calculated from,

γ = 2.18 − 0.8(φ − 1)
(16.2-12)
β = −0.16 + 0.22(φ − 1)

The Meghalchi-Keck laminar flame speeds are available for fuel-air mixtures of methane,
methanol, propane, iso-octane and indolene fuels.

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 16.2 Premixed Combustion Theory

Unburnt Density and Thermal Diffusivity

The unburnt density (ρu in Equation 16.2.1) and unburnt thermal diffusivity (α in Equa-
tion 16.2-5) are specified constants that are set in the Materials panel. However, for
compressible cases, such as in-cylinder combustion, these can change significantly in
time and/or space. When the ideal gas model is selected for density, the unburnt density
and thermal diffusivity are calculated as volume averages ahead of the flame front.

Flame Stretch Effect

Since industrial low-emission combustors often operate near lean blow-off, flame stretch-
ing will have a significant effect on the mean turbulent heat release intensity. To take
this flame stretching into account, the source term for the progress variable (ρSc in Equa-
tion 16.2-1) is multiplied by a stretch factor, G [417]. This stretch factor represents the
probability that the stretching will not quench the flame; if there is no stretching (G = 1),
the probability that the flame will be unquenched is 100%.
The stretch factor, G, is obtained by integrating the log-normal distribution of the tur-
bulence dissipation rate, :
 s 
1 1 cr σ 
    
G = erfc − ln +  (16.2-13)
2  2σ  2

where erfc is the complementary error function, and σ and cr are defined below.
σ is the standard deviation of the distribution of :
!
L
σ = µstr ln (16.2-14)
η

where µstr is the stretch factor coefficient for dissipation pulsation, L is the turbulent
integral length scale, and η is the Kolmogorov micro-scale. The default value of 0.26 for
µstr (measured in turbulent non-reacting flows) is recommended by [415], and is suitable
for most premixed flames.
cr is the turbulence dissipation rate at the critical rate of strain [415]:

2
cr = 15νgcr (16.2-15)

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Modeling Premixed Combustion

By default, gcr is set to a very high value (1 × 108 ) so no flame stretching occurs. To
include flame stretching effects, the critical rate of strain gcr should be adjusted based on
experimental data for the burner. Numerical models can suggest a range of physically
plausible values [415], or an appropriate value can be determined from experimental data.
A reasonable model for the critical rate of strain gcr is

BUl2
gcr = (16.2-16)
α
where B is a constant (typically 0.5) and α is the thermal diffusivity. Equation 16.2-16
can be implemented in FLUENTusing a property user-defined function. See the separate
UDF Manual for details about user-defined functions.

Preferential Diffusion
Preferential diffusion accounts for the effect of variations in fuel molecular diffusion co-
efficients on heat release intensity in premixed turbulent combustion. Inclusion of this
effect is important for simulation of combustion with light fuels (e.g., hydrogen) or heavy
fuels (e.g., evaporated oil). The model for preferential diffusion is based on the concept of
leading points, formulated in [189]. The authors of [189] derived formulas for the changes
in mixture composition within the combustion zone due to the difference in the molecular
diffusivities of fuel, Dfuel , and oxidizer, Dox . These formulas are rewritten in [417] as

λ0 (1+Cst )d+d−1


 d+Cst
λlp ≥ 1
λlp = (16.2-17)
 λ0 (Cst +d)
λlp < 1


1+λ0 Cst +Cst (1−λ0 d)

where
Cst = mass stoichiometric coefficient
λ0 = stoichiometric ratio of unburnt mixture composition
λlp = stoichiometric ratio of leading-point composition
and
s
Dox
d= (16.2-18)
Dfuel

The concept of leading points is applied to the FLUENT model by using λlp instead of λ0
for the formulation of the laminar flame speed, Ul , or the molecular heat transfer coeffi-
cient, α. This simple approach results in reasonable agreement with the measurements of
mass combustion rates in stirred bombs [417], without the need for additional empirical
parameters.

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 16.2 Premixed Combustion Theory

Gradient Diffusion
Volume expansion at the flame front can cause counter-gradient diffusion. This effect
becomes more pronounced when the ratio of the reactant density to the product den-
sity is large, and the turbulence intensity is small. It can be quantified by the ratio
(ρu /ρb )(Ul /I), where ρu , ρb , Ul , and I are the unburnt and burnt densities, laminar flame
speed, and turbulence intensity, respectively. Values of this ratio greater than one indi-
cate a tendency for counter-gradient diffusion, and the premixed combustion model may
be inappropriate. Recent arguments for the validity of the turbulent-flame-speed model
in such regimes can be found in Zimont et al. [416].

16.2.3 Premixed Combustion Model Formulation in FLUENT

FLUENT will solve the transport equation for the reaction progress variable c (Equa-
tion 16.2-1), computing the source term, ρSc , based on the theory outlined above:

1/4
ρSc = AGρu I 3/4 [Ul (λlp )]1/2 [α(λlp )]−1/4 `t |∇c| (16.2-19)
" #1/4
τt
= AGρu I |∇c| (16.2-20)
τc (λlp )

16.2.4 Calculation of Temperature

The calculation method for temperature will depend on whether the model is adiabatic
or non-adiabatic.

Adiabatic Temperature Calculation

For the adiabatic premixed combustion model, the temperature is assumed to vary lin-
early between the temperature of the unburnt mixture, Tu , and the temperature of the
burnt products under adiabatic conditions, Tad :

T = (1 − c)Tu + cTad (16.2-21)

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Modeling Premixed Combustion

Non-Adiabatic Temperature Calculation

For the non-adiabatic premixed combustion model, FLUENT solves an energy transport
equation in order to account for any heat losses or gains within the system. These
losses/gains may include heat sources due to chemical reaction or, for example, heat
losses due to radiation. The energy equation in terms of sensible enthalpy, h, for the
fully premixed fuel (see Equation 13.2-3) is as follows:
!
∂ k + kt
(ρh) + ∇ · (ρ~v h) = ∇ · ∇h + Sh,chem + Sh,rad (16.2-22)
∂t cp

Sh,rad represents the heat losses due to radiation and Sh,chem represents the heat gains
due to chemical reaction:

Sh,chem = ρSc Hcomb Yfuel (16.2-23)

where
Sc = normalized average rate of product formation (s−1 )
Hcomb = heat of combustion for burning 1 kg of fuel (J/kg)
Yfuel = fuel mass fraction of unburnt mixture

16.2.5 Calculation of Density

When the premixed combustion model is used, FLUENT calculates density using the
ideal gas law. For the adiabatic model, pressure variations are neglected and the mean
molecular weight is assumed to be constant. The burnt gas density is then calculated
from the following relation:

ρb Tb = ρu Tu (16.2-24)

where the subscript u refers to the unburnt cold mixture, and the subscript b refers to
the burnt hot mixture. The required inputs are the unburnt density (ρu ), the unburnt
temperature (Tu ), and the burnt adiabatic flame temperature (Tb ).
For the non-adiabatic model, you can choose to either include or exclude pressure vari-
ations in the ideal gas equation of state. If you choose to ignore pressure fluctuations,
FLUENT calculates the density from

ρT = ρu Tu (16.2-25)

where T is computed from the energy transport equation, Equation 16.2-22. The required
inputs are the unburnt density (ρu ) and the unburnt temperature (Tu ). Note that, from
the incompressible ideal gas equation, the expression ρu RTu /pop may be considered to

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 16.3 Using the Premixed Combustion Model

be the effective molecular weight of the gas, where R is the gas constant and pop is the
operating pressure.
If you want to include pressure fluctuations for a compressible gas, you will need to input
the effective molecular weight of the gas. The density will be calculated from the ideal
gas equation of state.

16.3 Using the Premixed Combustion Model

The procedure for setting up and solving a premixed combustion model is outlined be-
low, and then described in detail. Remember that only the steps that are pertinent to
premixed combustion modeling are shown here. For information about inputs related to
other models that you are using in conjunction with the premixed combustion model, see
the appropriate sections for those models.

1. Enable the premixed turbulent combustion model and set the related parameters.
Define −→ Models −→Species...

2. Define the physical properties for the unburnt and burnt material in the domain.
Define −→Materials...

3. Set the value of the progress variable c at flow inlets and exits.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

4. Initialize the value of the progress variable.

Solve −→ Initialize −→Patch...

5. Solve the problem and perform postprocessing.

i If you are interested in computing the concentrations of individual species

in the domain, you can use the partially premixed model described in Chap-
ter 17: Modeling Partially Premixed Combustion. Alternatively, compo-
sitions of the unburnt and burnt mixtures can be obtained from external
analyses using equilibrium or kinetic calculations.

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Modeling Premixed Combustion

16.3.1 Enabling the Premixed Combustion Model

To enable the premixed combustion model, select Premixed Combustion under Model in
the Species Model panel (Figure 16.3.1).
Define −→ Models −→Species...
When you turn on Premixed Combustion, the panel will expand to show the relevant
inputs.

Figure 16.3.1: The Species Model Panel for Premixed Combustion

16.3.2 Choosing an Adiabatic or Non-Adiabatic Model

Under Premixed Combustion Model in the Species Model panel, choose either Adiabatic
(the default) or Non-Adiabatic. This choice will affect only the calculation method used
to determine the temperature (either Equation 16.2-21 or Equation 16.2-22).

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 16.3 Using the Premixed Combustion Model

16.3.3 Modifying the Constants for the Premixed Combustion Model

In general, you will not need to modify the constants used in the equations presented in
Section 16.2: Premixed Combustion Theory. The default values are suitable for a wide
range of premixed flames. If, however, you want to make some changes to the model
constants, you will find them under Model Constants in the Species Model panel.
You can set the Turbulence Length Scale Constant (CD in Equation 16.2-6), the Turbu-
lent Flame Speed Constant (A in Equation 16.2-4), the Stretch Factor Coefficient (µstr in
Equation 16.2-14) and the Turbulent Schmidt Number (Sct in Equation 16.2-1).
For a non-adiabatic premixed combustion model, note that the value you specify for the
Turbulent Schmidt Number will also be used as the Prandtl number for energy. (The
Energy Prandtl Number will therefore not appear in the Viscous Model panel for non-
adiabatic premixed combustion models.) These parameters control the level of diffusion
for the progress variable and for energy. Since the progress variable is closely related
to energy (because the flame progress results in heat release), it is important that the
transport equations use the same level of diffusion.

16.3.4 Defining Physical Properties for the Unburnt Mixture

The fluid material in your domain should be assigned the properties of the unburnt
mixture, including the molecular heat transfer coefficient (α in Equation 16.2-4), which
is also referred to as the thermal diffusivity. α is defined as k/ρcp , and values at standard
conditions can be found in combustion handbooks (e.g., [188]).
For both adiabatic and non-adiabatic combustion models, you will need to specify the
Laminar Flame Speed (Ul in Equation 16.2-4) as a material property. If you want to
include the flame stretch effect in your model, you will also need to specify the Critical
Rate of Strain (gcr in Equation 16.2-15). As discussed in Section 16.2.2: Flame Stretch
Effect, gcr is set to a very high value (1 × 108 s−1 ) by default, so no flame stretching
occurs. To include flame stretching effects, you will need to adjust the Critical Rate of
Strain based on experimental data for the burner. Since the flame stretching and flame
extinction can influence the turbulent flame speed (as discussed in Section 16.2.2: Flame
Stretch Effect), a realistic value for the Critical Rate of Strain is required for accurate
predictions. Typical values for CH4 lean premixed combustion range from 3000 to 8000
s−1 [415]. Note that you can specify constant values or user-defined functions to define
the Laminar Flame Speed and Critical Rate of Strain. See the separate UDF Manual for
details about user-defined functions.
For adiabatic models, you will also specify the Adiabatic Temperature of Burnt Products
(Tad in Equation 16.2-21), which is the temperature of the burnt products under adiabatic
conditions. This temperature will be used to determine the linear variation of tempera-
ture in an adiabatic premixed combustion calculation. You can specify a constant value
or use a user-defined function.

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Modeling Premixed Combustion

For non-adiabatic models, you will instead specify the Heat of Combustion per unit mass
of fuel and the Unburnt Fuel Mass Fraction (Hcomb and Yfuel in Equation 16.2-23). FLUENT
will use these values to compute the heat losses or gains due to combustion, and include
these losses/gains in the energy equation that it uses to calculate temperature. The Heat
of Combustion can be specified only as a constant value, but you can specify a constant
value or use a user-defined function for the Unburnt Fuel Mass Fraction.
To specify the density for a premixed combustion model, choose premixed-combustion in
the Density drop-down list and set the Density of Unburnt Reactants and Temperature of
Unburnt Reactants (Tu and ρu in Equation 16.2-24). For adiabatic premixed models, your
input for Temperature of Unburnt Reactants (Tu ) will also be used in Equation 16.2-21 to
calculate the temperature.
The other properties specified for the unburnt mixture are viscosity, specific heat, thermal
conductivity, and any other properties related to other models that are being used in
conjunction with the premixed combustion model.

16.3.5 Setting Boundary Conditions for the Progress Variable

For premixed combustion models, you will need to set an additional boundary condition
at flow inlets and exits: the progress variable, c. Valid inputs for the Progress Variable
are as follows:

• c = 0: unburnt mixture

• c = 1: burnt mixture

16.3.6 Initializing the Progress Variable

Often, it is sufficient to initialize the progress variable c to 1 (burnt) everywhere and
allow the unburnt (c = 0) mixture entering the domain from the inlets to blow the flame
back to the stabilizer. A better initialization is to patch an initial value of 0 (unburnt)
upstream of the flame holder and a value of 1 (burnt) in the downstream region (after
initializing the flow field in the Solution Initialization panel).
Solve −→ Initialize −→Patch...
See Section 25.14.2: Patching Values in Selected Cells for details about patching values
of solution variables.

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 16.3 Using the Premixed Combustion Model

16.3.7 Postprocessing for Premixed Combustion Calculations

FLUENT provides several additional reporting options for premixed combustion calcula-
tions. You can generate graphical plots or alphanumeric reports of the following items:

• Progress Variable

• Damkohler Number

• Stretch Factor

• Turbulent Flame Speed

• Static Temperature

• Product Formation Rate

• Laminar Flame Speed

• Critical Strain Rate

• Unburnt Fuel Mass Fraction

• Adiabatic Flame Temperature

These variables are contained in the Premixed Combustion... category of the variable
selection drop-down list that appears in postprocessing panels. See Chapter 30: Field
Function Definitions for a complete list of flow variables, field functions, and their def-
initions. Chapters 28 and 29 explain how to generate graphics displays and reports of
data.
Note that Static Temperature and Adiabatic Flame Temperature will appear in the Premixed
Combustion... category only for adiabatic premixed combustion calculations; for non-
adiabatic calculations, Static Temperature will appear in the Temperature... category.
Unburnt Fuel Mass Fraction will appear only for non-adiabatic models.

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Modeling Premixed Combustion

Computing Species Concentrations

If you know the composition of the unburnt and burnt mixtures in your model (i.e., if you
have performed external analyses using single-step kinetic calculations or a third-party
1D combustion program), you can compute the species concentrations in the domain
using custom field functions:

• To determine the concentration of a species in the unburnt mixture, define the

custom function Yu (1 − c), where Yu is the mass fraction for the species in the
unburnt mixture (specified by you) and c is the value of the progress variable
(computed by FLUENT).

• To determine the concentration of a species in the burnt mixture, define the custom
function Yb c, where Yb is the mass fraction for the species in the burnt mixture
(specified by you) and c is the value of the progress variable (computed by FLUENT).

See Section 30.5: Custom Field Functions for details about defining and using custom
field functions.

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Chapter 17. Modeling Partially Premixed Combustion

FLUENT provides a partially premixed combustion model that is based on the non-
premixed combustion model described in Chapter 15: Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion
and the premixed combustion model described in Chapter 16: Modeling Premixed Combustion.
Information about the partially premixed combustion model is presented in the following
sections:

• Section 17.1: Overview and Limitations

• Section 17.2: Theory

• Section 17.3: Using the Partially Premixed Combustion Model

17.1 Overview and Limitations

17.1.1 Overview
Partially premixed combustion systems are premixed flames with non-uniform fuel-oxidizer
mixtures (equivalence ratios). Such flames include premixed jets discharging into a qui-
escent atmosphere, lean premixed combustors with diffusion pilot flames and/or cooling
air jets, and imperfectly mixed inlets.
The partially premixed model in FLUENT is a simple combination of the non-premixed
model (Chapter 15: Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion) and the premixed model (Chap-
ter 16: Modeling Premixed Combustion). The premixed reaction-progress variable, c,
determines the position of the flame front. Behind the flame front (c = 1), the mixture is
burnt and the equilibrium or laminar flamelet mixture fraction solution is used. Ahead
of the flame front (c = 0), the species mass fractions, temperature, and density are cal-
culated from the mixed but unburnt mixture fraction. Within the flame (0 < c < 1), a
linear combination of the unburnt and burnt mixtures is used.

17.1.2 Limitations
The underlying theory, assumptions, and limitations of the non-premixed and premixed
models apply directly to the partially premixed model. In particular, the single-mixture-
fraction approach is limited to two inlet streams, which may be pure fuel, pure oxidizer,
or a mixture of fuel and oxidizer. The two-mixture-fraction model extends the number of
inlet streams to three, but incurs a major computational overhead. See Sections 15.1.1
and 16.1.2 for additional limitations.

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Modeling Partially Premixed Combustion

17.2 Theory
The partially premixed model solves a transport equation for the mean reaction progress
variable, c (to determine the position of the flame front), as well as the mean mixture
fraction, f and the mixture fraction variance, f 0 2 . Ahead of the flame (c = 0), the fuel
and oxidizer are mixed but unburnt, and behind the flame (c = 1), the mixture is burnt.

17.2.1 Calculation of Scalar Quantities

Density weighted mean scalars (such as species fraction and temperature), denoted by
φ, are calculated from the probability density function (PDF) of f and c as

Z 1 Z 1
φ= φ(f, c)p(f, c) df dc (17.2-1)
0 0

Under the assumption of thin flames, so that only unburnt reactants and burnt products
exist, the mean scalars are determined from

Z 1 Z 1
φ=c φb (f )p(f ) df + (1 − c) φu (f )p(f ) df (17.2-2)
0 0

where the subscripts b and u denote burnt and unburnt, respectively.

The burnt scalars, φb , are functions of the mixture fraction and are calculated by mixing
a mass f of fuel with a mass (1 − f ) of oxidizer and allowing the mixture to equilibrate.
When non-adiabatic mixtures and/or laminar flamelets are considered, φb is also a func-
tion of enthalpy and/or strain, but this does not alter the basic formulation. The unburnt
scalars, φu , are calculated similarly by mixing a mass f of fuel with a mass (1 − f ) of
oxidizer, but the mixture is not reacted.
Just as in the non-premixed model, the chemistry calculations and PDF integrations for
the burnt mixture are performed in FLUENT, and look-up tables are constructed.
Turbulent fluctuations are neglected for the unburnt mixture, so the mean unburnt
scalars, φu , are functions of f only. The unburnt density, temperature, specific heat,
and thermal diffusivity are fitted in FLUENT to third-order polynomials of f using linear
least squares:

3
X n
φu = cn f (17.2-3)
n=0

Since the unburnt scalars are smooth and slowly-varying functions of f , these polynomial
fits are generally accurate. Access to polynomials is provided in case you want to modify
them.

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 17.3 Using the Partially Premixed Combustion Model

17.2.2 Laminar Flame Speed

The premix model requires the laminar flame speed (see Equation 16.2-4), which de-
pends strongly on the composition, temperature, and pressure of the unburnt mixture.
For perfectly premixed systems as in Chapter 16: Modeling Premixed Combustion, the
reactant stream has one composition, and the laminar flame speed is approximately con-
stant throughout the domain. However, in partially premixed systems, the laminar flame
speed will change as the reactant composition (equivalence ratio) changes, and this must
be taken into account.
Accurate laminar flame speeds are difficult to determine analytically, and are usually
measured from experiments or computed from 1D simulations. FLUENT uses fitted curves
obtained from numerical simulations of the laminar flame speed [126]. These curves were
determined for hydrogen (H2 ), methane (CH4 ), acetylene (C2 H2 ), ethylene (C2 H4 ), ethane
(C2 H6 ), and propane (C3 H8 ) fuels. They are valid for inlet compositions ranging from
the lean limit through unity equivalence ratio (stoichiometric), for unburnt temperatures
from 298 K to 800 K, and for pressures from 1 bar to 40 bars.
FLUENT fits these curves to a piecewise-linear polynomial. Mixtures leaner than the
lean limit or richer than the rich limit will not burn, and have zero flame speed. The
required inputs are values for the mean mixture fraction f at 10 laminar flame speeds.
The minimum and maximum f limits for the laminar flame speed are the first and last
values of f that are input.

i These flame speed fits are accurate for air mixtures with pure fuels of H2 ,
CH4 , C2 H2 , C2 H4 , C2 H6 , and C3 H8 . If an oxidizer other than air or a
different fuel is used, if the mixture is rich, or if the unburnt temperature
or pressure is outside the range of validity, then the curve fits will be in-
correct. Although FLUENT defaults to a methane-air mixture, the laminar
flame speed polynomial and the rich and lean limits are most likely incor-
rect. The laminar flame speed polynomial should be determined from other
sources, such as measurements from the relevant literature or detailed 1D
simulations, and then input into FLUENT.

17.3 Using the Partially Premixed Combustion Model

The procedure for setting up and solving a partially premixed combustion problem com-
bines parts of the non-premixed combustion setup and the premixed combustion setup.
An outline of the procedure is provided in Section 17.3.1: Setup and Solution Procedure,
along with information about where to look in the non-premixed and premixed combus-
tion chapters for details. Inputs that are specific to the partially premixed combustion
model are provided in Sections 17.3.1 and 17.3.2.

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Modeling Partially Premixed Combustion

17.3.1 Setup and Solution Procedure

1. Read your mesh file into FLUENT and set up any other models you plan to use in
conjunction with the partially premixed combustion model (turbulence, radiation,
etc.).

2. Enable the partially premixed combustion model.

(a) Turn on the Partially Premixed Combustion model in the Species Model panel.
Define −→ Models −→Species...
(b) If necessary, modify the Model Constants in the Species Model panel. These
are the same at the constants for the premixed combustion model and, in
most cases, you will not need to change them from their default values. See
Section 16.3.3: Modifying the Constants for the Premixed Combustion Model
for details.

3. Generate a PDF look-up table. You can follow the procedure for non-premixed
combustion described in Section 15.6: Steps in Using the Non-Premixed Model.

i If FLUENT warns you, during the partially premixed properties calculation,

that any parameters are out of the range for the laminar flame speed func-
tion, you will need to modify the piecewise-linear points manually before
saving the PDF file. See Section 17.3.2: Modifying the Unburnt Mixture
Property Polynomials for details. Also, the calculation of the thermal diffu-
sivity uses the thermal conductivity in the Materials panel. More accurate
thermal diffusivity polynomials can be obtained by editing the thermal
conductivity in the Materials panel and then clicking Recalculate Properties
in the Premix tab.
4. Define the physical properties for the unburnt material in the domain.
Define −→Materials...
FLUENT will automatically select the prepdf-polynomial function for Laminar Flame
Speed, indicating that the piecewise-linear polynomial function from the PDF look-
up table will be used to compute the laminar flame speed. You may also choose to
use a user-defined function instead of a piecewise-linear polynomial function. See
Section 16.3.4: Defining Physical Properties for the Unburnt Mixture for informa-
tion about setting the other properties for the unburnt material.

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 17.3 Using the Partially Premixed Combustion Model

5. Set the values for the mean progress variable ( c) and the mean mixture fraction
(f ) and its variance (f 0 2 ) at flow inlets and exits. (For problems that include
a secondary stream, you will define boundary conditions for the mean secondary
partial fraction and its variance as well.)
Define −→Boundary Conditions...
See Section 15.13: Defining Non-Premixed Boundary Conditions for guidelines on
setting mixture fraction and variance conditions, as well as thermal and velocity
conditions at inlets.

i There are two ways to specify a premixed inlet boundary condition:

(a) If you defined the fuel composition in the Boundary tab to be the
premixed inlet species, then you should set f = 1 and c = 0 in the
boundary conditions panel.
(b) If you set the fuel composition to pure fuel in the Boundary tab, you
will need to set the correct equivalence ratio (0 < f < 1) and c = 0
at your premixed inlet boundary condition.

For example, if the premixed inlet of methane and air is at an equivalence ratio of
0.3, you can
(a) specify the mass fraction of the fuel composition of YCH4 = 0.017, YO2 = 0.236,
and YN2 = 0.747 in the Boundary tab and f = 1 and c = 0 in the boundary
conditions panel.
(b) specify the mass fraction of the fuel composition of YCH4 = 1.0 in the Boundary
tab and f = 0.017 and c = 0 in the boundary conditions panel.
Method (a) is preferred since it will have more points in the flame zone than
method (b).

6. Initialize the value of the progress variable.

Solve −→ Initialize −→Patch...
See Section 16.3.6: Initializing the Progress Variable for details.

7. Solve the problem and perform postprocessing.

See Section 15.16.4: Solving the Flow Problem for guidelines about setting solution
parameters. (These guidelines are for non-premixed combustion calculations, but
they are relevant for partially premixed as well.)

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Modeling Partially Premixed Combustion

17.3.2 Modifying the Unburnt Mixture Property Polynomials

After building the PDF table FLUENT automatically calculates the temperature, density,
heat capacity, and thermal diffusivity of the unburnt mixture as polynomial functions
of the mean mixture fraction, f (see Equation 17.2-3). The laminar flame speed is
automatically calculated as a piecewise-linear polynomial function of f .
However, as outlined in Section 17.2: Theory, the laminar flame speed depends on details
of the chemical kinetics and molecular transport properties, and is not calculated directly.
Instead, curve fits are made to flame speeds determined from detailed simulations [126].
These fits are limited to a range of fuels (H2 , CH4 , C2 H2 , C2 H4 , C2 H6 , and C3 H8 ), air
as the oxidizer, equivalence ratios of the lean limit through unity, unburnt temperatures
from 298 K to 800 K, and pressures from 1 bar to 40 bars. If your parameters fall outside
this range, FLUENT will warn you when it computes the look-up table. In this case, you
will need to modify the piecewise-linear points in the Premix tab of the Species Model
panel (Figure 17.3.1) before you save the PDF file.

Figure 17.3.1: The Species Model Panel (Premix Tab)

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 17.3 Using the Partially Premixed Combustion Model

For each polynomial function of f under Partially Premixed Mixture Properties (Unburnt
Density, Unburnt Temperature, Unburnt Specific Heat, and Unburnt Thermal Diffusivity),
you can specify values for Coefficient 1, Coefficient 2, Coefficient 3, and Coefficient 4
(the polynomial coefficients in Equation 17.2-3) in the appropriate Quadratic of Mixture
Fraction panel (Figure 17.3.2). To open this panel, click the appropriate Edit... button
in the Premix tab.

Figure 17.3.2: The Quadratic of Mixture Fraction Panel

You can also specify the piecewise-linear Mixture Fraction and its corresponding laminar
Flame Speed for 10 different points in the Piecewise Linear panel (Figure 17.3.3). The first
set of values is the lower limit and the last set of values is the upper limit. Outside of
either limit, the laminar flame speed is constant and equal to that limit. To open this
panel, click the Edit... button next to Laminar Flame Speed in the Premix tab.

i Note also that if you choose to use a user-defined function for the lam-
inar flame speed in the Materials panel, the piecewise-linear fit becomes
irrelevant.

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Modeling Partially Premixed Combustion

Figure 17.3.3: The Piecewise Linear Panel

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Chapter 18. Modeling a Composition PDF Transport
Problem

FLUENT provides a composition PDF transport model for modeling finite-rate chemistry
in turbulent flames. Information about this model is presented in the following sections:

• Section 18.1: Overview and Limitations

• Section 18.2: Composition PDF Transport Theory

• Section 18.3: Steps for Using the Composition PDF Transport Model

18.1 Overview and Limitations

The composition PDF transport model, like the EDC model (see Section 14.1.1: The
Eddy-Dissipation-Concept (EDC) Model), should be used when you are interested in
simulating finite-rate chemical kinetic effects in turbulent reacting flows. With an ap-
propriate chemical mechanism, kinetically-controlled species such as CO and NOx , as
well as flame extinction and ignition, can be predicted. PDF transport simulations are
computationally expensive, and it is recommended that you start your modeling with
small grids, and preferably in 2D.
A limitation that applies to the composition PDF transport model is that you must use
the pressure-based solver. The composition PDF transport model is not available with
either of the density-based solvers.

18.2 Composition PDF Transport Theory

Turbulent combustion is governed by the reacting Navier-Stokes equations. While this
equation set is accurate, its direct solution (where all turbulent scales are resolved) is far
too expensive for practical turbulent flows. In Chapter 14: Modeling Species Transport
and Finite-Rate Chemistry, the species equations are Reynolds-averaged, which leads to
unknown terms for the turbulent scalar flux and the mean reaction rate. The turbulent
scalar flux is modeled by gradient diffusion, treating turbulent convection as enhanced
diffusion. The mean reaction rate is modeled by the finite-rate, eddy-dissipation, or
EDC models. Since the reaction rate is invariably highly non-linear, modeling the mean
reaction rate in a turbulent flow is difficult and prone to error.

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Modeling a Composition PDF Transport Problem

An alternative to Reynolds-averaging the species and energy equations is to derive a

transport equation for their single-point, joint probability density function (PDF). This
PDF, denoted by P , can be considered to be proportional to the fraction of the time that
the fluid spends at each species and temperature state. P has N + 1 dimensions for the
N species and temperature spaces. From the PDF, any thermochemical moment (e.g.,
mean or RMS temperature, mean reaction rate) can be calculated. The composition
PDF transport equation is derived from the Navier-Stokes equations as [289]:

" *  + #
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ h 00 i ∂ 1 ∂Ji,k 
(ρP ) + (ρui P ) + (ρSk P ) = − ρhui |ψiP + ρ ψ P
∂t ∂xi ∂ψk ∂xi ∂ψk ρ ∂xi 
(18.2-1)
where
P = Favre joint PDF of composition
ρ = mean fluid density
ui = Favre mean fluid velocity vector
Sk = reaction rate for species k
ψ = composition space vector
00
ui = fluid velocity fluctuation vector
Ji,k = molecular diffusion flux vector
The notation of h. . .i denotes expectations, and hA|Bi is the conditional probability of
event A, given the event B occurs.
In Equation 18.2-1, the terms on the left-hand side are closed, while those on the right-
hand side are not and require modeling. The first term on the left-hand side is the
unsteady rate of change of the PDF, the second term is the change of the PDF due to
convection by the mean velocity field, and the third term is the change due to chemical
reactions. The principal strength of the PDF transport approach is that the highly-non-
linear reaction term is completely closed and requires no modeling. The two terms on
the right-hand side represent the PDF change due to scalar convection by turbulence
(turbulent scalar flux), and molecular mixing/diffusion, respectively.
The turbulent scalar flux term is unclosed, and is modeled in FLUENT by the gradient-
diffusion assumption
!
∂ h 00 i ∂ µt ∂P
− ρhui |ψiP = (18.2-2)
∂xi ∂xi ρSct ∂xi

where µt is the turbulent viscosity and Sct is the turbulent Schmidt number. A turbulence
model, as described in Chapter 12: Modeling Turbulence, is required for composition PDF
transport simulations, and this determines µt .

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 18.2 Composition PDF Transport Theory

Since single-point PDFs are described, information about neighboring points is missing
and all gradient terms, such as molecular mixing, are unclosed and must be modeled. The
mixing model is critical because combustion occurs at the smallest molecular scales when
reactants and heat diffuse together. Modeling mixing in PDF methods is not straightfor-
ward, and is the weakest link in the PDF transport approach. See Section 18.2.3: Particle
Mixing for a description of the mixing models.

18.2.1 Solution of the PDF Transport Equation

The PDF has N + 1 dimensions and the solution of its transport equation by conven-
tional finite-difference or finite-volume schemes is not tractable. Instead, a Monte Carlo
method is used, which is ideal for high-dimensional equations since the computational
cost increases just linearly with the number of dimensions. The disadvantage is that
statistical errors are introduced, and these must be carefully controlled.
To solve the modeled PDF transport equation, an analogy is made with a stochastic
differential equation (SDE) which has identical solutions. The Monte Carlo algorithm
involves notional particles which move randomly through physical space due to particle
convection, and also through composition space due to molecular mixing and reaction.
The particles have mass and, on average, the sum of the particle masses in a cell equals
the cell mass (cell density times cell volume). Since practical grids have large changes in
cell volumes, the particle masses are adjusted so that the number of particles in a cell is
controlled to be approximately constant and uniform.
The processes of convection, diffusion, and reaction are treated in fractional steps as
described below. For information on the fractional step method, refer to [47].

18.2.2 Particle Convection

A spatially second-order-accurate Lagrangian method is used in FLUENT, consisting of
two steps. At the first convection step, particles are advanced to a new position

1/2 1
xi = x0i + u0i ∆t (18.2-3)
2
where
xi = particle position vector
ui = Favre mean fluid-velocity vector at the particle position
∆t = particle time step
For unsteady flows, the particle time step is the physical time step. For steady-state
flows, local time steps are calculated for each cell as

∆t = min(∆tconv , ∆tdiff , ∆tmix ) (18.2-4)

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Modeling a Composition PDF Transport Problem

where
∆tconv = convection number × ∆x / (cell fluid velocity)
∆tdiff = diffusion number × (∆x)2 / (cell turbulent diffusivity)
∆tmix = mixing number × turbulent time scale
∆x = characteristic cell length = volume1/D where D is the problem dimension
After the first convection step, all other sub-processes, including diffusion and reaction
are treated. Finally, the second convection step is calculated as
s !
1/2 1/2 1 1 ∂µt 2µt
x1i = xi + ∆t ui − u0i + + ξi (18.2-5)
2 ρSct ∂xi ρ∆tSct

where
ρ = mean cell fluid density
ui = mean fluid-velocity vector at the particle position
µt = turbulent viscosity
Sct = turbulent Schmidt number
ξi = standardized normal random vector

18.2.3 Particle Mixing

Molecular mixing of species and heat must be modeled and is usually the source of the
largest modeling error in the PDF transport approach. FLUENT provides three models
for molecular diffusion: the Modified Curl model [162, 264], the IEM model (which is
sometimes called the LSME model) [85] and the EMST model [359].

The Modified Curl Model

For the Modified Curl model, a few particle pairs are selected at random from all the
particles in a cell, and their individual compositions are moved toward their mean com-
position. For the special case of equal particle mass, the number of particle pairs selected
is calculated as

1.5Cφ N ∆t
Npair = (18.2-6)
τt

where
N = total number of particles in the cell
Cφ = mixing constant (default = 2)
τt = turbulent time scale (for the k- model this is k/)
The algorithm in [264] is used for the general case of variable particle mass.

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 18.2 Composition PDF Transport Theory

For each particle pair, a uniform random number ξ is selected and each particle’s com-
position φ is moved toward the pair’s mean composition by a factor proportional to ξ:

(φ0i mi + φ0j mj )
φ1i = (1 − ξ)φ0i + ξ
(mi + mj )
(φ0 mi + φ0j mj )
φ1j = (1 − ξ)φ0j + ξ i (18.2-7)
(mi + mj )

where φi and φj are the composition vectors of particles i and j, and mi and mj are the
masses of particles i and j.

The IEM Model

For the Interaction by Exchange with the Mean (IEM) model, the composition of all
particles in a cell are moved a small distance toward the mean composition:

  
φ1 = φ0 − 1 − e−0.5Cφ /τt φ0 − φ̃ (18.2-8)

where φ0 is the composition before mixing, φ1 is the composition after mixing and φ̃ is
the Favre mean-composition vector at the particle’s location.

The EMST Model

Physically, mixing occurs between fluid particles that are adjacent to each other. The
Modified Curl and IEM mixing models take no account of this localness, which can be a
source of error. The Euclidean Minimum Spanning Tree (EMST) model mixes particle
pairs that are close to each other in composition space. Since scalar fields are locally
smooth, particles that are close in composition space are likely to be close in physical
space. The particle pairing is determined by a Euclidean Minimum Spanning Tree, which
is the minimum length of the set of edges connecting one particle to at least one other
particle. The EMST mixing model is more accurate than the Modified Curl and IEM
mixing models, but incurs a slightly greater computationally expensive. Details on the
EMST model can be found in [359].

Liquid Reactions
Reactions in liquids often occur at low turbulence levels (small Re), among reactants
with low diffusivities (large Sc). For such flows, the mixing constant default of Cφ = 2
overestimates the mixing rate. The Liquid Micro-Mixing option interpolates Cφ from
model turbulence [292] and scalar [113] spectra.

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Modeling a Composition PDF Transport Problem

18.2.4 Particle Reaction

The particle composition vector is represented as

φ = (Y1 , Y2 , . . . , YN , T, p) (18.2-9)

where Yk is the kth species mass fraction, T is the temperature and p the pressure.
For the reaction fractional step, the reaction source term is integrated as

Z ∆t
φ1 = φ0 + Sdt (18.2-10)
0

where S is the chemical source term. Most realistic chemical mechanisms consist of tens
of species and hundreds of reactions. Typically, reaction does not occur until an ignition
temperature is reached, but then proceeds very quickly until reactants are consumed.
Hence, some reactions have very fast time scales, on the order of 10−10 s, while others
have much slower time scales, on the order of 1 s. This time-scale disparity results
in numerical stiffness, which means that extensive computational work is required to
integrate the chemical source term in Equation 18.2-10. In FLUENT, the reaction step
(i.e., the calculation of φ1 ) can be performed either by Direct Integration or by In-Situ
Adaptive Tabulation (ISAT), as described in the following paragraphs.
A typical steady-state PDF transport simulation in FLUENT may have 50000 cells, with
20 particles per cell, and require 1000 iterations to converge. Hence, at least 109 stiff
ODE integrations are required. Since each integration typically takes tens or hundreds
of milliseconds, on average, the direct integration of the chemistry is extremely CPU-
demanding.
For a given reaction mechanism, Equation 18.2-10 may be considered as a mapping.
With an initial composition vector φ0 , the final state φ1 depends only on φ0 and the
mapping time ∆t. In theory, if a table could be built before the simulation, covering all
realizable φ0 states and time steps, the integrations could be avoided by table look-ups.
In practice, this a priori tabulation is not feasible since a full table in N + 3 dimensions
(N species, temperature, pressure and time-step) is required. To illustrate this, consider
a structured table with M points in each dimension. The required table size is M N +3 ,
and for a conservative estimate of M = 10 discretization points and N = 7 species, the
table would contain 1010 entries.
On closer examination, the full storage of the entire realizable space is very wasteful
because most regions are never accessed. For example, it would be unrealistic to find a
composition of YOH = 1 and T = 300K in a real combustor. In fact, for steady-state, 3D
laminar simulations, the chemistry can be parameterized by the spatial position vector.
Thus, mappings must lie on a three dimensional manifold within the N + 3 dimensional
composition space. It is, hence, sufficient to tabulate only this accessed region of the
composition space.

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 18.2 Composition PDF Transport Theory

The accessed region, however, depends on the particular chemical mechanism, molecular
transport properties, flow geometry, and boundary conditions. For this reason, the ac-
cessed region is not known before the simulation and the table cannot be preprocessed.
Instead, the table must be built during the simulation, and this is referred to as in-situ
tabulation.
FLUENT employs ISAT [290] to dynamically tabulate the chemistry mappings and accel-
erate the time to solution. ISAT (In-Situ Adaptive Tabulation) is a method to tabulate
the accessed composition space region “on the fly” (in-situ) with error control (adaptive
tabulation). When ISAT is used correctly, accelerations of two to three orders of mag-
nitude are typical. However, it is important to understand how ISAT works to use it
optimally.

18.2.5 The ISAT Algorithm

ISAT is a powerful tool that enables realistic chemistry to be incorporated in multi-
dimensional flow simulations by accelerating the chemistry calculations. Typical speed-
ups of 100-fold are common. This power is apparent if one considers that with a 100-fold
speed-up, a simulation that would take three months without ISAT can be run in one
day.
At the start of a FLUENT simulation using ISAT, the ISAT table is empty. For the first
reaction step, Equation 18.2-10 is integrated with a stiff ODE solver. This is called Direct
Integration (DI). The first table entry is created and consists of:

• the initial composition φ0

• the mapping φ1

• the mapping gradient matrix A = ∂φ1 /∂φ0

• a hyper-ellipsoid of accuracy

The next reaction mapping is calculated as follows: The initial composition vector for
this particle is denoted φ0q , where the subscript q denotes a query. The existing table
(consisting of one entry at this stage) is queried by interpolating the new mapping as

φ1q = φ1 + A(φ0q − φ0 ) (18.2-11)

The mapping gradient is hence used to linearly interpolate the table when queried. The
ellipsoid of accuracy (EOA) is the elliptical space around the table point φ0 where the
linear approximation to the mapping is accurate to the specified tolerance, tol .

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Modeling a Composition PDF Transport Problem

If the query point φ1q is within the EOA, then the linear interpolation by Equation 18.2-11
is sufficiently accurate, and the mapping is retrieved. Otherwise, a direct integration (DI)
is performed and the mapping error  = |B(φ1DI − φ1q )| is calculated (here, B is a scaling
matrix). If this error is smaller than the specified error tolerance ( < tol ), then the
original interpolation φ1q is accurate and the EOA is grown so as to include φ0q . If not, a
new table entry is added.
Table entries are stored as leaves in a binary tree. When a new table entry is added,
the original leaf becomes a node with two leaves—the original leaf and the new entry.
A cutting hyper-plane is created at the new node, so that the two leaves are on either
side of this cutting plane. A composition vector φ0q will hence lie on either side of this
hyper-plane.
The ISAT algorithm is summarized as follows:

1. The ISAT table is queried for every composition vector during the reaction step.

2. For each query φ0q the table is traversed to identify a leaf whose composition φ0 is
close to φ0q .

3. If the query composition φ0q lies within the EOA of the leaf, then the mapping φ1q
is retrieved using interpolation by Equation 18.2-11. Otherwise, Direct Integration
(DI) is performed and the error  between the DI and the linear interpolation is
measured.

4. If the error  is less than the tolerance, then the ellipsoid of accuracy is grown and
the DI result is returned. Otherwise, a new table entry is added.

At the start of the simulation, most operations are adds and grows. Later, as more of
the composition space is tabulated, retrieves become frequent. Since adds and grows are
very slow whereas retrieves are relatively quick, initial FLUENT iterations are slow but
accelerate as the table is built.

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 18.3 Steps for Using the Composition PDF Transport Model

18.3 Steps for Using the Composition PDF Transport Model

The procedure for setting up and solving a composition PDF transport problem is out-
lined below, and then described in detail. Remember that only steps that are pertinent
to composition PDF transport modeling are shown here. For information about inputs
related to other models that you are using in conjunction with the composition PDF
transport model, see the appropriate sections for those models.

1. Read a CHEMKIN-formatted gas-phase mechanism file and the associated thermo-

dynamic data file in the CHEMKIN Mechanism panel (see Section 14.1.9: Importing
a Volumetric Kinetic Mechanism in CHEMKIN Format).
File −→ Import −→CHEMKIN Mechanism...

i If your chemical mechanism is not in CHEMKIN format, you will have to

enter the mechanism into FLUENT as described in Section 14.1.2: Overview
of User Inputs for Modeling Species Transport and Reactions.
2. Enable a turbulence model.
Define −→ Models −→Viscous...

3. Enable the Composition PDF Transport model and set the related parameters.
Define −→ Models −→ Species −→Transport & Reaction...

4. Check the material properties in the Materials panel and the reaction parameters
in the Reactions panel. The default settings should be sufficient.
Define −→Materials...

5. Set the operating conditions and boundary conditions.

Define −→Operating Conditions...
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

6. Check the solver settings.

Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
The default settings should be sufficient, although it is recommended to change the
discretization to second-order once the solution has converged.

7. Initialize the solution. You may need to patch a high-temperature region to ignite
the flame.
Solve −→ Initialize −→Initialize...
Solve −→ Initialize −→Patch...

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Modeling a Composition PDF Transport Problem

8. Run the solution.

Solve −→Iterate...

9. Solve the problem and perform postprocessing.

i A good initial condition can reduce the solution time substantially. It is

recommended to start from an existing solution calculated using the EDC
model, non-premixed combustion model, or partially premixed combus-
tion model. See Chapters 14, 15, and 17 for further information on such
simulations.
This procedure is demonstrated in the PDF transport tutorial, which is available at the
Fluent User Services Center (www.fluentusers.com).

18.3.1 Enabling the Composition PDF Transport Model

To enable the composition PDF transport model, select Composition PDF Transport in
the Species Model panel (Figure 18.3.1).
Define −→ Models −→Species...

Figure 18.3.1: The Species Model Panel for Composition PDF Transport

When you turn on Composition PDF Transport, the panel will expand to show the relevant
inputs.

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 18.3 Steps for Using the Composition PDF Transport Model

18.3.2 Setting Integration Parameters

Under Reactions in the Species Model panel, enable Volumetric. Click on the Integration
Parameters button to open the Integration Parameters panel (Figure 18.3.2).

Figure 18.3.2: The Integration Parameters Panel

The stiff ODE integrator has two error tolerances—the Absolute Error Tolerance and the
Relative Error Tolerance under ODE Parameters—that are set to default values of 10−8
and 10−9 respectively. These should be sufficient for most applications, although these
tolerances may need to be decreased for some cases such as ignition. For problems in
which the accuracy of the chemistry integrations is crucial, it may be useful to test
the accuracy of the error tolerances in simple zero-dimensional and one-dimensional test
simulations with parameters comparable to those in the full simulation.

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Modeling a Composition PDF Transport Problem

ISAT Parameters
If you have selected ISAT under Integration Method, you will then be able to set additional
ISAT parameters.
The numerical error in the ISAT table is controlled by the ISAT Error Tolerance under
Integration Parameters. It may help to increase this during the initial transient solution. A
larger error tolerance implies larger EOAs, greater error, but smaller tables and quicker
run times. The default ISAT Error Tolerance of 0.001 may be sufficiently accurate for
temperature and certain major species, but will most likely need to be decreased to get
accurate minor species and pollutant predictions.

i After your simulation is converged, you should always decrease the ISAT
Error Tolerance and perform further iterations until the species that you
are interested in are unchanged.
The Max. Storage is the maximum RAM used by the ISAT table, and has a default value
is 100 MB. It is recommended that you set this parameter to a large fraction of the
available memory on your computer.
You can also specify the Number of Trees and the Verbosity. The Number of Trees is
the number of sub-tables within the ISAT table. For simulations with a large number
of species, ISAT efficiency may be improved by increasing the number of trees from
the default value of 1. The value of Verbosity allows you to monitor ISAT performance
in different levels of detail. See Section 18.3.8: Monitoring ISAT for details about this
parameter.
To purge the ISAT table, click on Clear ISAT Table. See Section 18.3.9: Using ISAT
Efficiently for more details about using ISAT efficiently.

18.3.3 Enabling KINetics from Reaction Design

For the Composition PDF Transport model, enabling the KINetics from Reaction Design
option will allow you to use reaction rates from Reaction Design’s KINetics module,
instead of the default FLUENT reaction rates. FLUENT’s ISAT algorithm is employed
to integrate these rates. Please refer to the KINetics for Fluent manual [3] from Reac-
tion Design for details on the chemistry formulation options. For more information, or
to obtain a license to the Fluent/KINetics module, please contact Reaction Design at
[email protected] or +1 858-550-1920, or go to http://www.reactiondesign.com

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 18.3 Steps for Using the Composition PDF Transport Model

18.3.4 Enabling Liquid Micro-Mixing

For cases where reactions in liquids occur at low turbulence levels, among reactants with
low diffusivities, a default value of Cφ = 2 may not be desirable, as it over-estimates the
mixing rate. Therefore, enabling the Liquid Micro-Mixing option results in interpolation
of Cφ from turbulence models and scalar spectra, as noted in Section 18.2.3: Liquid
Reactions.

18.3.5 Selecting the Particle Mixing Model

In the Species Model panel, select Modified Curl, IEM, or EMST under Mixing Model and
specify the value of the Mixing Constant (Cφ in Equation 18.2-6). For more information
about particle diffusion, see Section 18.2.3: Particle Mixing.

18.3.6 Defining the Solution Parameters

After you have defined the rest of the problem, you will need to specify solution param-
eters that are specific to the composition PDF transport model in the Solution Controls
panel (Figure 18.3.3).
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
Under PDF Transport Parameters, you can specify the following:

Particles Per Cell sets the number of PDF particles per cell. Higher values of this
parameter will reduce statistical error, but increase computational time.

Local Time Stepping toggles the calculation of local time steps. If this option is dis-
abled, then you will need to specify the Time Step directly (see Equation 18.2-4).

If Local Time Stepping is enabled, then you can specify the following parameters:

Convection # specifies the particle convection number (see ∆tconv in Equation 18.2-4).

Diffusion # specifies the particle diffusion number (see ∆tdiff in Equation 18.2-4).

Mixing # specifies the particle mixing number (see ∆tmix in Equation 18.2-4).

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Modeling a Composition PDF Transport Problem

Figure 18.3.3: The Solution Controls Panel for Composition PDF Transport

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 18.3 Steps for Using the Composition PDF Transport Model

18.3.7 Monitoring the Solution

At low speeds, combustion couples to the fluid flow through density. The Monte Carlo
PDF transport algorithm has random fluctuations in the density field, which in turn
causes fluctuations in the flow field. For steady-state flows, statistical fluctuations
are decreased by averaging over a number of previous iterations in the Iterate panel
(Figure 18.3.4).

Figure 18.3.4: The Iterate Panel for Composition PDF Transport

Averaging reduces statistical fluctuations and stabilizes the solution. However, FLUENT
often indicates convergence of the flow field before the composition fields (temperatures
and species) are converged. You should lower the default convergence criteria in the
Residual Monitors panel, and always check that the Total Heat Transfer Rate in the Flux
Reports panel is balanced. It is also recommended that you monitor temperature/species
on outlet boundaries and ensure that these are steady.
By default FLUENT performs one finite-volume iteration and then one PDF transport
particle step. This should be optimal for most cases; however, control is provided to
perform multiple finite-volume iterations (Number of FV Sub-Iterations) and multiple
PDF transport particle steps (Number of PDF Sub-Iterations).

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Modeling a Composition PDF Transport Problem

By increasing the Iterations in Time Average, fluctuations are smoothed out and residuals
level off at smaller values. However, the composition PDF method requires a larger
number of iterations to reach steady-state. It is recommended that you use the default
of 50 Iterations in Time Average until the steady-state solution is obtained. Then, to
gradually decrease the residuals, increase the Iterations in Time Average by setting a Time
Average Increment to a value from 0 to 1 (the value 0.2 is recommended). Subsequent
iterations will increase the Iterations in Time Average by the Time Average Increment.

18.3.8 Monitoring ISAT

You can monitor ISAT performance by setting the Verbosity in the Integration Parameters
panel. For a Verbosity of 1 or 2, FLUENT writes the following information periodically to
a file named isat stats.dat:

• total number of queries

• total number of queries resulting in retrieves

• total number of queries resulting in grows

• total number of queries resulting in adds

• total number of queries resulting in direct integrations

• cumulative CPU seconds in ISAT

• cumulative CPU seconds outside ISAT

• cumulative wall-clock time in seconds (i.e., total CPU time in ISAT plus total CPU
time out of ISAT plus CPU idle time)

The ISAT Verbosity option of 2 is for expert users who are familiar with ISATAB v3.0 [291].
FLUENT writes out the following files for Verbosity = 2:

• tablename stats.out, as described above

• tablename ODE accuracy.out reports the accuracy of the ODE integrations. For
every new ISAT table entry, if the maximum absolute error in temperature or
species is greater than any previous error, a line is written to this file. This line
consists of the total number of ODE integrations performed up to this time, the
maximum absolute species error, the absolute temperature error, the initial tem-
perature and the time step.

• tablename ODE diagnostic.out prints diagnostics from the ODE solver

• tablename ODE warning.out prints warnings from the ODE solver

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 18.3 Steps for Using the Composition PDF Transport Model

Initially, the table name is equal by default to the current case name, and is changed as
the table is written or read.
In parallel, each processor builds its own ISAT table. If Verbosity is enabled in parallel,
each compute node writes out the Verbosity file(s) with the node ID number appended
to the file name.

18.3.9 Using ISAT Efficiently

Efficient use of ISAT requires thoughtful control. What follows are some detailed recom-
mendations concerning the achievement of this goal.

i The numerical error in the ISAT table is controlled by the ISAT Error Tol-
erance, which has a default value of 0.001. This value is relatively large,
which allows faster convergence times. However, once the solution has con-
verged, it is important to reduce this ISAT Error Tolerance and re-converge.
This process should be repeated until the species that you are interested
in modeling are unchanged. Note that as the error tolerance is decreased,
the memory and time requirements to build the ISAT table will increase
substantially. There is a large performance penalty in specifying an error
tolerance smaller than is needed to achieve acceptable accuracy, and the
error tolerance should be decreased gradually and judiciously.

i Once the ISAT table is full, all queries that cannot be retrieved are directly
integrated. Since retrieves are much quicker than direct integrations, larger
ISAT tables are faster. Hence, you should set the ISAT Max. Storage to a
large fraction of the available memory on your computer.
During the initial iterations, before a steady-state solution is attained, transient com-
position states occur that are not present in the steady-state solution. For example,
you might patch a high temperature region in a cold fuel-air mixing zone to ignite the
flame, whereas the converged solution never has hot reactants without products. Since
all states that are realized in the simulation are tabulated in ISAT, these initial mappings
are wasteful of memory, and can degrade ISAT performance. If the table fills the allo-
cated memory and contains entries from an initial transient that are no longer accessed,
it may be beneficial to purge the ISAT table. This is achieved by either clearing it in the
Integration Parameters panel, or saving your case and data files, exiting FLUENT, then
restarting FLUENT and reading in the case and data.
The optimum ISAT table is achieved when a new table is started from the converged
FLUENT solution. If you are simulating a range of parametric cases where the flame
changes gradually, it is likely beneficial to create such an optimum table for the first
case, and then save it.
File −→ Write −→ISAT Table...

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Modeling a Composition PDF Transport Problem

Subsequent runs can start from this table by reading it into memory.
File −→ Read −→ISAT Table...
See Section 18.3.10: Reading and Writing ISAT Tables in Parallel for information about
reading and writing ISAT tables in parallel.
ISAT efficiency may be increased by employing multiple tables (also called trees). In-
creasing the number of trees has the effect of decreasing the table size and hence the
time needed to build the table, but increasing the retrieve time. Hence, for long simu-
lations with simple chemistry, a small number of tables may be optimal. On the other
hand, for short simulations with complex chemistry, computers with limited memory, or
simulations with a small ISAT error tolerance, a large number of trees is likely optimal
since most of the CPU time is spent building the table.
From experience, ISAT performs very well on premixed turbulent flames, where the
range of composition states are smaller than in non-premixed flames. ISAT performance
degrades in flames with large time-scales, where more work is required in the ODE
integrator.

18.3.10 Reading and Writing ISAT Tables in Parallel

When FLUENT is run in parallel, each partition builds its own ISAT table and does not
exchange information with ISAT tables on other compute nodes. You can save the ISAT
tables on all compute nodes:
File −→ Write −→ISAT Table...
Each compute node writes out its ISAT table to the specified file name, with the node ID
number appended to the file name. For example, a specified file name of my name on a
two compute node run will write two files called my name-0.isat and my name-1.isat.
Subsequent runs can start from existing ISAT tables by reading them into memory.
File −→ Read −→ISAT Table...
Files can be read in two ways:

• Parallel nodes can read in corresponding ISAT tables saved from a previous parallel
simulation. The appended node ID should be removed from the input file name.
For the above example, the file name my name should be specified in the Select File
dialog box. You should never read ISAT tables generated from a parallel simulation
with a different number of parallel nodes.

• All nodes can read one unique ISAT table. You might use this approach if you
have a large table from a serial simulation. FLUENT first checks to see if the exact
filename that you specified exists, and if it does, all nodes will read this one file.

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 18.3 Steps for Using the Composition PDF Transport Model

18.3.11 Running Unsteady Composition PDF Transport Simulations

For unsteady composition PDF transport simulations, a fractional step scheme is em-
ployed where the PDF particles are advanced over the time step, and then the flow
is advanced over the time step. Unlike steady-state simulations, composition statistics
are not averaged over iterations, and to reduce statistical error you should increase the
number of particles per cell in the Solution Monitors panel.
For low speed flows, the thermochemistry couples to the flow through density. Statistical
errors in the calculation of density may cause convergence difficulties between time step
iterations. If you experience this, increase the number of PDF particles per cell, or
decrease the density under-relaxation.

18.3.12 Running Compressible Composition PDF Transport Simulations

Compressibility is included when ideal-gas is selected as the density method in the
Materials panel. For such flows, particle internal energy is increased by p∆v over the
time step ∆t, where p is the cell pressure and ∆v is the change in the particle specific
volume over the time step.

18.3.13 Running Composition PDF Transport Simulations with Conjugate Heat

Transfer
When solid zones are present in the simulation, FLUENT solves the energy equation in
the turbulent flow zones by the Monte Carlo particle method, and the energy equation
in the solid zones by the finite-volume method.

18.3.14 Postprocessing for Composition PDF Transport Calculations

Reporting Options
FLUENT provides several reporting options for composition PDF transport calculations.
You can generate graphical plots or alphanumeric reports of the following items:

• Static Temperature

• Mean Static Temperature

• RMS Static Temperature

• Mass fraction of species-n

• Mean species-n Mass Fraction

• RMS species-n Mass Fraction

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Modeling a Composition PDF Transport Problem

The instantaneous temperature in a cell is calculated as

PNc
Tp mp
Tinstant = Pi=1
Nc (18.3-1)
i=1 mp

where
Tinstant = instantaneous cell temperature at the present iteration
Nc = number of particles in the cell
Tp = particle temperature
mp = particle mass
Mean and root-mean-square (RMS) temperatures are calculated in FLUENT by averag-
ing instantaneous temperatures over a user-specified number of previous iterations (see
Section 18.3.7: Monitoring the Solution).
Note that for steady-state simulations, instantaneous temperatures and species represent
a Monte Carlo realization and are as such unphysical. Mean and RMS quantities are
much more useful.

Particle Tracking Options

When you have enabled the composition PDF transport model, you can display the
trajectories of the PDF particles using the Particle Tracks panel (Figure 18.3.5).
Display −→Particle Tracks...
Select the Track PDF Transport Particles option to enable PDF particle tracking. To speed
up the plotting process, you can specify a value n for Skip, which will plot only every
nth particle. For details about setting other parameters in the Particle Tracks panel, see
Section 22.16.1: Displaying of Trajectories.
When you have finished setting parameters, click Display to display the particle trajecto-
ries in the graphics window.

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 18.3 Steps for Using the Composition PDF Transport Model

Figure 18.3.5: The Particle Tracks Panel for Tracking PDF Particles

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Modeling a Composition PDF Transport Problem

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Chapter 19. Modeling Engine Ignition

This chapter discusses the engine ignition models available in FLUENT in the following
sections:

• Section 19.1: Spark Model

• Section 19.2: Autoignition Models

• Section 19.3: Crevice Model

19.1 Spark Model

The spark model in FLUENT will be described in the context of the premixed turbulent
combustion model. Information regarding the theory and use of this model is detailed in
the following sections:

• Section 19.1.1: Overview and Limitations

• Section 19.1.2: Spark Model Theory

• Section 19.1.3: Using the Spark Model

19.1.1 Overview and Limitations

Initiation of combustion at a desired time and location in a combustion chamber can be
accomplished by sending a high voltage across two narrowly separated wires, creating
a spark. The spark event in typical engines happens very quickly relative to the main
combustion in the engine. The physical description of this simple event is very involved
and complex, making it difficult to accurately model the spark in the context of a multi-
dimensional engine simulation. Additionally, the energy from the spark event is several
orders of magnitude less than the chemical energy release from the fuel. Despite the
amount of research devoted to spark ignition physics and ignition devices, the ignition of
a mixture at a point in the domain is more dependent on the local composition than on
the spark energy (see Heywood [141]). Thus, for situations in which FLUENT is utilized
for combustion engine modeling, including internal combustion engines, the spark event
does not need to be modeled in great detail, but simply as the initiation of combustion
over a duration set by the user.

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Modeling Engine Ignition

Since spark ignition is inherently transient, the spark model is only available in the
transient solver. Additionally, the spark model requires chemical reactions to be solved.
The spark model is available for all of the combustion models, however, it may be most
applicable to the premixed and partially premixed combustion models.
The Spark Model used in FLUENT is based on a one-dimensional analysis by Lipatnikov
[216]. The model is sensitive to perturbations and can be subject to instabilities when
used in multi-dimensional simulations. The instabilities are inherent to the model and
can be dependent on the mesh, especially near the beginning of the spark event when
the model reduces diffusion to simulate the initial laminar spark kernel growth. The
instability is susceptible to numerical errors which are increased when the grid is not
aligned with the flame propagation. As the spark kernel grows and the model allows
turbulent mixing to occur, the effect of the instability decreases.

19.1.2 Spark Model Theory

The spark model in FLUENT is based on the work done by Lipatnikov [216] and extended
to other combustion models. The derivation of the model can be done in the context of
the Zimont premixed combustion model.

Zimont Premixed Flame Model

The transport equation for the mean reaction progress variable, c, is given by Equa-
tion 19.1-1

∂ρc
+ ∇ · (ρ~v c) = ∇ · (Dt ∇c) + ρu Ut |∇c| (19.1-1)
∂t
where Dt is the turbulent diffusivity, ρu is the density of the unburned mixture and Ut is
the turbulent flame speed. Since the spark is often very small compared to the grid size
of the model and is often laminar in nature, the Zimont model is modified such that

∂ρc
+ ∇ · (ρ~v c) = ∇ · ((κ + Dtt )∇c) + ρu Ut |∇c| (19.1-2)
∂t
where κ is the laminar thermal diffusivity and the effective diffusivity Dtt is given by
  
−ttd
(
Dt 1 − exp τ0
if ttd ≥ 0
Dtt = (19.1-3)
Dt if ttd < 0

where is ttd = t−tig and tig denotes the time at which the spark is initiated. Additionally,
τ 0 is an effective diffusion time, set by the user.

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 19.1 Spark Model

Only turbulent scales that are smaller than the spark radius can contribute to turbulent
spark diffusion, so the expression for the effective turbulent diffusivity, Dtt , is ramped up
as the spark grows. This creates higher temperatures at the location of the spark and
can cause convergence difficulties. In addition to convergence difficulties, small changes
in the diffusion time can change the result significantly. Because of these issues, the
diffusion time can be controlled by the user, and has a default value of 1e-5 seconds.

Other Combustion Models

The spark model is compatible with all combustion models in FLUENT. However, the
premixed and partially premixed models differ in that the progress variable inside the
spark region is set equal to 1, a burned state, for the duration of the spark event. Other
combustion models have the energy input into the cell. If the temperature exceeds 2500
K or the spark duration is exceeded, no energy from the spark model will be added to
the spark cells.
The spark model can be used in models other than the premixed and partially pre-
mixed combustion models, however, the user must balance energy input and diffusivity
to produce a high enough temperature to initiate combustion, which can be a nontriv-
ial undertaking. The model’s use has been extended to be compatible with the other
models, however, in some cases it simply creates a high temperature region and does not
guarantee the initiation of combustion.

19.1.3 Using the Spark Model

To activate the spark model, perform the following steps:

1. Select Unsteady from the Time list in the Solver panel.

2. Select an appropriate reaction model in the Define/Models/Species submenu.
Define −→ Models −→ Species −→Transport & Reaction...
3. Select Species Transport under Model in the Species Model panel and turn on Volu-
metric under Reactions.
4. The Define/Models/Species submenu option contains the Spark Ignition... model,
which is now selectable. Select the Spark Ignition... model. This will open the
Spark Ignition Model Panel.
5. Define the spark model as either Fixed Spark Size or Time-Varying Spark Radius.

When the Fixed Spark Size is enabled, the panel expands to include the main spark model
inputs (Figure 19.1.2). The shape of the spark can be spherical, cylindrical or hexahedral
in three dimensional simulations, or circular or quadrilateral in two dimensional simu-
lations. Depending on the shape selected, appropriate inputs are highlighted or grayed
out.

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Modeling Engine Ignition

Figure 19.1.1: The Spark Ignition Model Panel

Figure 19.1.2: The Expanded Spark Ignition Model Panel

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 19.2 Autoignition Models

• To define a spherical spark, the shape parameters can be selected by clicking the
Select Points with Mouse button at the bottom of the panel, and highlighting the
center and radius of the spark kernel.

• The Energy input, Start Time, Duration, and Diffusion Time are entered using the
GUI.

i When the in-cylinder model is turned on, the Start Time is entered in
crank angle degrees instead of seconds (as shown in Figure 19.1.2), while
the spark Duration is still in seconds.
• While the Energy input is in Joules by default, you can redefine the units as needed.
The rate of energy input into the domain is constant so that the total energy will
be evenly distributed over the duration that you set. The Energy input in the spark
model should result in an appropriate temperature rise in the cell that is high
enough to initiate combustion. The Energy input is only a model parameter and
does not reflect energy input in actual automotive ignition systems, which typically
range between 50 and 150 millijoules.

If the user selects the Time-Varying Spark Radius option, the spark is assumed spherical
and will grow from an Initial Radius, r0 , to a Final Radius, rf , over the spark
guiDuration, with a cube root dependence on time so that the radius will grow faster at
the beginning and more slowly near the end. This time-dependent behavior is consistent
with experimental findings (see Heywood [141]). The Time-Varying Spark Radius option
is recommended as it has been found to be less sensitive to model parameters.

19.2 Autoignition Models

Autoignition phenomena in engines are due to the effects of chemical kinetics of the
reacting flow inside the cylinder. There are two types of autoignition models considered
in FLUENT:

• knock model in spark-ignited (SI) engines

• ignition delay model in diesel engines

Autoignition models in FLUENT are described in the following sections.

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Modeling Engine Ignition

19.2.1 Overview and Limitations

Overview
The concept of knock has been studied extensively in the context of premixed engines,
as it defines a limit in terms of efficiency and power production of that type of engine.
As the compression ratio increases, the efficiency of the engine as a function of the work
extracted from the fuel increases.
However, as the compression ratio increases, the temperature and pressure of the air/fuel
mixture in the cylinder also increase during the cycle compressions. The temperature
and pressure increase can be large enough for the mixture to spontaneously ignite and
release its heat before the spark plug fires. The premature release of all of the energy
in the air/fuel charge is almost never desirable, as this results in the spark event no
longer controlling the combustion. As a result of the premature release of the energy,
catastrophic damage to the engine components can occur. The sudden, sharp rise in
pressure inside the engine can be heard clearly through the engine block as a knocking
sound, hence the term “knock”. For commonly available gasoline pumps, knock usually
limits the highest practical compression ratio to less than 11:1 for premium fuels and
around 9:1 for less expensive fuels.
By comparison, ignition delay in diesel engines has not been as extensively studied as
SI engines, mainly because it does not have such a sharply defining impact on engine
efficiency. Ignition delay in diesel engines refers to the time between when the fuel is
injected into the combustion chamber and when the pressure starts to increase as the
fuel releases its energy. The fuel is injected into a gas which is usually air, however, it can
have a considerable amount of exhaust gas mixed in (or EGR) to reduce nitrogen oxide
emissions (NOx). Ignition delay depends on the composition of the gas in the cylinder,
the temperature of the gas, the turbulence level, and other factors. Since ignition delay
changes the combustion phasing, which in turn impacts efficiency and emissions, it is
important to account for it in a diesel engine simulation.

Model Limitations
The main difference between the knock model and the ignition delay model is the manner
in which the model is coupled with the chemistry. The knock model always releases
energy from the fuel while the ignition delay model prevents energy from being released
prematurely.
The knock model in FLUENT is compatible with the premixed and partially premixed
combustion models. The autoignition model is compatible with any volumetric combus-
tion model, with the exception of the purely premixed models. The autoignition models
are inherently transient and so are not available with steady simulations.
The autoignition models in general require adjustment of parameters to reproduce engine
data and are likely to require tuning to improve accuracy. Once the model is calibrated to

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 19.2 Autoignition Models

a particular engine configuration, then different engine speeds and loads can be reasonably
well represented. Detailed chemical kinetics may be more applicable over a wider range of
conditions, though are more expensive to solve. The single equation autoignition models
are appropriate for the situation where geometric fidelity or resolution of particular flow
details is more important than chemical effects on the simulation.

19.2.2 Ignition Model Theory

Both the knock and the ignition delay models are treated similarly in FLUENT, in that
they share the same infrastructure. These models belong to the family of single equation
autoignition models and use correlations to account for complex chemical kinetics. They
differ from the eight step reaction models, such as Halstead’s “Shell” model [133], in that
only a single transport equation is solved. The source term in the transport equation is
typically not stiff, thus making the equation relatively inexpensive to solve.
This approach is appropriate for large simulations where geometric accuracy is more im-
portant than fully resolved chemical kinetics. The model can be used on less resolved
meshes to explore a range of designs quickly, and to obtain trends before utilizing more
expensive and presumably more accurate chemical mechanisms in multidimensional sim-
ulations.

Transport of Ignition Species

Autoignition is modeled using the transport equation for an Ignition Species, Yig , which
is given by

∂ρYig µt
 
+ ∇ · (ρ~v Yig ) = ∇ · ∇Yig + ρSig (19.2-1)
∂t Sct
where Yig is a “mass fraction” of a passive species representing radicals which form when
the fuel in the domain breaks down. Sct is the turbulent Schmidt number. The term Sig
is the source term for the ignition species which has a form
Z t dt
Sig =
t=t0 τig

where t0 corresponds to the time at which fuel is introduced into the domain. The τig
term is a correlation of ignition delay with the units of time. Ignition has occurred when
the ignition species reaches a value of 1 in the domain. It is assumed that all the radical
species represented by Yig diffuse at the same rate as the mean flow.
Note that the source term for these radical species is treated differently for knock and
ignition delay. Furthermore, the form of the correlation of ignition delay differs between
the two models. Details of how the source term is treated are covered in the following
sections.

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Modeling Engine Ignition

Knock Modeling
When modeling knock or ignition delay, chemical energy in the fuel is released when the
ignition species reaches a value of 1 in the domain. For the knock model, two correlations
are built into FLUENT. One is given by Douaud [86], while the other is a generalized model
which reproduces several correlations, given by Heywood [141].

Modeling of the Source Term

In order to model knock in a physically realistic manner, the source term is accumu-
lated under appropriate conditions in a cell. Consider the one dimensional flame in
Figure 19.2.1. Here, the flame is propagating from left to right, and the temperature is
relatively low in front of the flame and high behind the flame. In this figure, Tb and Tu
represent the temperatures at the burnt and unburned states, respectively. The ignition
species accumulates only when there is fuel. In the premixed model, the fuel is defined
as f uel = 1 − c, where c is the progress variable. If the progress variable has a value of
zero, the mixture is considered unburned. If the progress variable is 1, then the mixture
is considered burned.

T 6

Tb 

fuel = 0 fuel > 0

Sig = 0 Sig > 0

Tu  -
-
X
Figure 19.2.1: Flame Front Showing Accumulation of Source Terms for the
Knock Model

When the ignition species reaches a value of 1 in the domain, knock has occurred at that
point. The value of the ignition species can exceed unity. In fact, values well above that
can be obtained in a short time. The ignition species will continue to accumulate until
there is no more fuel present.

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 19.2 Autoignition Models

Correlations

An extensively tested correlation for knock in SI engines is given by Douaud and Eyzat [86]:

3.402
ON 3800
  
−1.7
τ = 0.01768 p exp (19.2-2)
100 T
where ON is the octane number of the fuel, p is the absolute pressure in atmospheres
and T is the temperature in Kelvin.
A generalized expression for τ is also available which can reproduce many existing Ar-
rhenius correlations. The form of the correlation is

a
ON −Ea
  
τ =A pb T c RPMd Φd exp (19.2-3)
100 RT

where A is the pre-exponential (with units in seconds), RPM is the engine speed in cycles
per minute and Φ is the fuel/air equivalence ratio.

Energy Release

Once ignition has occurred in the domain, the knock event is modeled by releasing the
remaining fuel energy with a single-step Arrhenius reaction. An additional source term,
which burns the remaining fuel in that cell, is added to the rate term in the premixed
model. The reaction rate is given by

−Ea
ω̇ = A0 exp (19.2-4)
RT

where A0 = 8.6 × 109 , and Ea = −15078. These values are chosen to reflect single-step
reaction rates appropriate for propane as described in Amsden [8]. The rate at which the
fuel is consumed is limited such that a completely unburned cell will burn during three of
the current time steps. Limiting the reaction rate is done purely for numerical stability.

Ignition Delay Modeling

When modeling ignition delay in diesel engines, chemical reactions are allowed to occur
when the ignition species reaches a value of 1 in the domain. For the ignition delay
model, two correlations are built into FLUENT, one given by Hardenburg and Hase [137]
and the other, a generalized model which reproduces several Arrhenius correlations from
the literature.

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Modeling Engine Ignition

If the ignition species is less than 1 when using the ignition delay model, the chemical
source term is suppressed by not activating the combustion model at that particular time
step; thus, the energy release is delayed. This approach is reasonable if the user has a
good high-temperature chemical model, but does not wish to solve for typically expensive
low temperature chemistry.

Modeling of the Source Term

In order to model ignition in a physically realistic manner, the source term is accumulated
under appropriate conditions in a cell. Consider the one dimensional spray in Figure
19.2.2. Here, the spray is propagating from left to right and the fuel mass fraction is

Yf uel 6

fuel > 0 fuel = 0

Sig > 0 Sig = 0
 -
-
X
Figure 19.2.2: Propagating Fuel Cloud Showing Accumulation of Source
Terms for the Ignition Delay Model

relatively low in front of the spray and high behind the spray. If there is no fuel in the
cell, the model will set the local source term to zero, nevertheless, the value of Yig can
be nonzero due to convection and diffusion.

Correlations

If fuel is present in the cell, there are two built-in options in FLUENT to calculate the
local source term. The first correlation was done by Hardenburg and Hase and was
developed at Daimler Chrysler for heavy duty diesel engines. The correlation works over
a reasonably wide range of conditions and is given by
! " ! !ep #
C1 + 0.22S p 1 1 21.2
τid = exp Ea − + (19.2-5)
6N RT 17, 190 p − 12.4

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 19.2 Autoignition Models

where τid is in seconds, C1 is 0.36, N is engine speed in revolutions per minute, Ea is

the effective activation energy and ep is the pressure exponent. The expression for the
effective activation energy is given by

Ehh
Ea = (19.2-6)
CN + 25
where CN is the cetane number. The activation energy, Ehh , pre-exponential, C1 , pres-
sure exponent, ep , and cetane number, CN , are accessible from the GUI. The default
values of these variables are listed in the table below.

Table 19.2.1: Default Values of the Variables in the Hardenburg Correlation

Variable Ehh CN C1 ep
Default 618,840 25 0.36 0.63

The second correlation, which is the generalized correlation, is given by Equation 19.2-3
and is available for ignition delay calculations.

Energy Release

If the ignition species is greater than or equal to 1 anywhere in the domain, ignition has
occurred and combustion is no longer delayed. The ignition species acts as a switch to
turn on the volumetric reactions in the domain. Note that the ignition species “mass
fraction” can exceed 1 in the domain, therefore, it is not truly a mass fraction, but rather
a passive scalar which represents the integrated correlation as a function of time.

19.2.3 Using the Autoignition Models

To activate the autoignition model, perform the following steps:

1. Select Unsteady from the Time list in the Solver panel.

2. Select an appropriate reaction model in the Define/Models/Species submenu.

Define −→ Models −→ Species −→Transport & Reaction...

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Modeling Engine Ignition

3. The models in the Species Model panel that are compatible with the autoignition
model are Species Transport, Premixed Combustion, and Partially Premixed Combus-
tion.

i If you select Species Transport, you must also enable the Volumetric option
in the Reactions group box.

i The Premixed Combustion and Partially Premixed Combustion models are

only available for turbulent flows using the pressure-based solver.

4. The Define/Models/Species submenu contains the Autoignition... model, which is

now selectable. Select the Autoignition... model.
• If Species Transport is selected in the Species Model panel, you can only select
the Ignition Delay Model.

Figure 19.2.3: The Ignition Delay Model in the Autoignition Model Panel

• If Premixed Combustion is selected in the Species Model panel, you can only
select the Knock Model.

Figure 19.2.4: The Knock Model in the Autoignition Model Panel

• If Partially Premixed Combustion is selected in the Species Model panel, you can
select either the Knock Model or the Ignition Delay Model.

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 19.2 Autoignition Models

5. When the Ignition Delay Model is enabled, the panel expands to include the modeling
parameters for this model (Figure 19.2.5). The two correlation options that exist
with this model are the Hardenburg and the Generalized. Depending on which
correlation option is selected, the appropriate modeling parameters will appear in
the panel.

Figure 19.2.5: The Ignition Delay Model for the Partially Premixed Combustion
Model

• The Hardenburg option is typically used for heavy duty diesel engines. A Fuel
Species is selected from the drop-down list and the Pre-Exponential, Pressure
Exponent, Activation Energy, and Cetane Number are entered using the GUI.
Default values of these parameters can be found in Table 19.2.1.
• The Generalized option is described by Equation 19.2-3. Similarly to the Hard-
enburg option, a Fuel Species is selected from the drop-down list and the Pre-
Exponential, Temperature Exponent, Activation Energy, RPM Exponent, Pressure
Exponent, Equivalence Ratio Exponent, Octane Number, and Octane Number Ex-
ponent are entered using the GUI.

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Modeling Engine Ignition

6. When the Knock Model is enabled, the panel expands to include modeling parame-
ters for this model (Figure 19.2.6). The two correlation options that exist with this
model are the Douaud and the Generalized. Depending on which correlation option
is selected, the appropriate modeling parameters will appear in the panel.

Figure 19.2.6: The Knock Model with the Partially Premixed Combustion
Model Enabled

• The Douaud option is used for knock in SI engines. The modeling parameters
that are specified in the GUI for this option are the Pre-Exponential, Pres-
sure Exponent, Activation Temperature, Octane Number, and Octane Exponent
(Equation 19.2-2).
• The Generalized option (Equation 19.2-3) in the knock model requires the same
parameters as in the ignition delay model.

19.3 Crevice Model

19.3.1 Overview
The crevice model implemented in FLUENT is a zero-dimensional ring-flow model based
on the model outlined in Namazian and Heywood [259] and Roberts and Matthews [307].
The model is geared toward in-cylinder specific flows, and more specifically, direct-
injection (DI) diesel engines, and thus is available only for time-dependent simulations.
The model takes mass, momentum, and energy from cells adjoining two boundaries and
accounts for the storage of mass in the volumes of the crevices in the piston. Detailed
geometric information regarding the ring and piston—typically a ring pack around the
bore of an engine—is necessary to use the crevice model. An example representation is
shown in Figures 19.3.1–19.3.3.

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 19.3 Crevice Model

Cylinder
Land length wall
1
p
0

Ring spacing
2

1: Top gap
2: Middle gap
Piston to bore 3: Bottom gap
clearance p
6

Figure 19.3.1: Crevice Model Geometry (Piston)

Wr

Tr

Figure 19.3.2: Crevice Model Geometry (Ring)

p = cylinder pressure
p • 0
Ring 1 1•
• p2
Ring 2 p•
3
• p4
Ring 3 p•
5
• p = crankcase pressure
6

Figure 19.3.3: Crevice Model “Network” Representation

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Modeling Engine Ignition

Model Parameters
• The piston to bore clearance is the distance between the piston and the bore. Typ-
ical values are 2 to 5 mil (80 to 120 µm) in a spark engine (SI) and 4 to 7 mil
(100 to 240 µm) in some diesel engines (DI).

• The ring thickness is the variable Tr in Figure 19.3.2. Typical values range from
1 to 3 mm for SI engines and 2 to 4 mm for DI engines.

• The ring width is the variable Wr in Figure 19.3.2. Typical values range from 3 to
3.5 mm for SI engines and 4 to 6 mm for DI diesel engines.

• The ring spacing is the distance between the bottom of one ring land and the top of
the next ring land. Typical values of the ring spacing are 3 to 5 mm for SI engines
and 4 to 8 mm for DI diesel engines.

• The land length is the depth of the ring land (i.e., the cutout into the piston);
always deeper than the width of the ring by about 1 mm. Typical values are 4 to
4.5 mm for SI engines and 5 to 7 mm for DI diesel engines.

• The top gap is the clearance between the ring land and the top of the ring (40 to
80 µm).

• The middle gap is the distance between the ring and the bore (10 to 40 µm).

• The bottom gap is the clearance between the ring land and the bottom of the ring
(40 to 80 µm).

• The shared boundary and leaking wall is the piston (e.g., wall-8) and the cylinder
wall (e.g., wall.1) in most in-cylinder simulations. Cells that share a boundary
with the top of the piston and the cylinder wall are defined as the crevice cells.

The ring pack is the set of rings that seal the piston in the cylinder bore. As the piston
moves upward in the cylinder when the valves are closed (e.g., during the compression
stroke in a four-stroke cycle engine), the pressure in the cylinder rises and flow begins to
move past the rings. The pressure distribution in the ring pack is modeled by assuming
either fully-developed compressible flow through the spaces between the rings and the
piston, or choked compressible flow between the rings and the cylinder wall.
Since the temperature in the ring pack is fixed and the geometry is known, once a
pressure distribution is calculated, the mass in each volume can be found using the ideal
gas equation of state. The overall mass flow out of the ring pack (i.e., the flow past the
last ring specified) is also calculated at each discrete step in the FLUENT solution.

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 19.3 Crevice Model

19.3.2 Limitations
The limitations of the crevice model are that it is zero dimensional, transient, and cur-
rently limited to two threads that share a boundary.
A zero-dimensional approach is used because it is difficult to accurately predict lateral
diffusion of species in the crevice. If the lateral diffusion of species is important in the
simulation, as in when a spray plume in a DI engine is in close proximity to the boundary
and the net mass flow is into the crevice, it is recommended that the full multidimensional
crevice geometry be simulated in FLUENT using a nonconformal mesh. Additionally, this
approach does not specifically track individual species, as any individual species would be
instantly distributed over the entire ring pack. The mass flux into the domain from the
crevice is assumed to have the same composition as the cell into which mass is flowing.
The formulation of the crevice flow equations is inherently transient and is solved using
FLUENT’s stiff-equation solver. A steady problem with leakage flow can be solved by
running the transient problem to steady state. Additional limitations of the crevice
model in its current form are that only a single crevice is allowed and only one thread
can have leakage. Ring dynamics are not explicitly accounted for, although ring positions
can be set during the simulation.
In this context, the crevice model solution is a stiff initial boundary-value problem. The
stiffness increases as the pressure difference between the ring crevices increases and also as
the overall pressure difference across the ring pack increases. Thus, if the initial conditions
are very far from the solution during a time step, the ODE solver may not be able to
integrate the equations successfully. One solution to this problem is to decrease the flow
time step for several iterations. Another solution is to start with initial conditions that
are closer to the solution at the end of the time step.

19.3.3 Crevice Model Theory

FLUENT solves the equations for mass conservation in the crevice geometry by assuming
laminar compressible flow in the region between the piston and the top and bottom faces
of the ring, and by assuming an orifice flow between the ring and the cylinder wall. The
equation for the mass flow through the ring end gaps is of the form

ṁij = Cd Aij ρcηij (19.3-1)

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Modeling Engine Ignition

where Cd is the discharge coefficient, Aij is the gap area, ρ is the gas density, c is the
local speed of sound, and ηij is a compressibility factor given by

 " #0.5
 2   γ−1
2 pi γ pi γ pi

− > 0.52


γ−1 pj pj pj



ηij = (19.3-2)

γ+1

  
pi

2 2(γ−1)
≤ 0.52


γ−1 pj

where γ is the ratio of specific heats, pi the upstream pressure and pj the downstream
pressure. The equation for the mass flow through the top and bottom faces of the ring
(i.e., into and out of the volume behind the piston ring) is given by
 
h2ij p2i − p2j Aij
ṁij = (19.3-3)
24Wr µgas RT

where hij is the cross-sectional area of the gap, Wr is the width of the ring along which
the gas is flowing, µgas is the local gas viscosity, T is the temperature of the gas and R
is the universal gas constant. The system of equations for a set of three rings is of the
following form:

dp1 p1
= (ṁ01 − ṁ12 ) (19.3-4)
dt m1
dp2 p2
= (ṁ02 + ṁ12 − ṁ23 − ṁ24 ) (19.3-5)
dt m2
dp3 p3
= (ṁ23 − ṁ34 ) (19.3-6)
dt m3
dp4 p4
= (ṁ24 + ṁ34 − ṁ45 − ṁ46 ) (19.3-7)
dt m4
dp5 p5
= (ṁ45 − ṁ56 ) (19.3-8)
dt m5

where p0 is the average pressure in the crevice cells and p6 is the crankcase pressure input
from the text interface. The expressions for the mass flows for numerically adjacent zones
(e.g., 0-1, 1-2, 2-3, etc.) are given by Equation 19.3-3 and expressions for the mass flows
for zones separated by two integers (e.g., 0-2, 2-4, 4-6) are given by Equations 19.3-1
and 19.3-2. Thus, there are 2nr − 1 equations needed for the solution to the ring-pack
equations, where nr is the number of rings in the simulation.

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 19.3 Crevice Model

19.3.4 Using the Crevice Model

An optical experimental engine from Dec [78] is used below to show a working example
of how to use the crevice model as it is implemented in FLUENT. The grid at ten crank
angle degrees before top center is shown in Figure 19.3.4.

Z
Y
X

Grid (Time=2.2222e-02)
Crank Angle=-5.00(deg)

Figure 19.3.4: Experimental Engine Grid

The following example shows the necessary steps to enable the crevice model for a typical
in-cylinder flow.

1. From the > prompt, enter the define/models menu by using the following text
command:
define −→models
2. Enable the crevice model, as follows:

/define/models> crevice-model?
Enable crevice model? [no] yes

/define/models>
acoustics/ frozen-flux? sox?
addon-module multiphase/ species/
axisymmetric? noniterative-time-advance? steady?
crevice-model-controls/ nox? unsteady-1st-order?
crevice-model? radiation/ unsteady-2nd-order?
dpm/ solidification-melting? viscous/
dynamic-mesh? solver/
energy? soot?

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Modeling Engine Ignition

3. Enter the ring pack geometry:

/define/models> crevice-model-controls
Cylinder bore (m) [0.1] 0.1397
Piston to bore clearance (m) [3.0e-5] 5.08e-05
Piston crevice temperature (K) [400] 433
Piston sector angle (deg) [360] 45
Ring discharge coefficient [0.8] 0.7
Pressure in crankcase (exit pressure) (Pa) [101325]
Write out crevice data to a file? [no] yes
output file name ["crev.out"]

Available wall threads are: (wall.1 wall wall-8)

Leaking wall [] wall.1
Shared boundary [] wall-8
Selected boundary threads : (wall.1 wall-8)
Use these zones? [yes] yes
Solve crevice model ? [no] yes
Number of rings [3]
Width of ring number 0 is: [0.00375]
Thickness of ring number 0 is: [0.0015]
Spacing of ring number 0 is: [0.008]
Land Length for ring number 0 is: [0.00391]
Top Gap of ring number 0 is: [6e-05]
Middle Gap of ring number 0 is: [4e-05]
Bottom Gap of ring number 0 is: [6e-05]

Width of ring number 1 is: [0.00375]

Thickness of ring number 1 is: [0.0015]
Spacing of ring number 1 is: [0.008]
Land Length for ring number 1 is: [0.00391]
Top Gap of ring number 1 is: [6e-05]
Middle Gap of ring number 1 is: [4e-05]
Bottom Gap of ring number 1 is: [6e-05]

Width of ring number 2 is: [0.00375]

Thickness of ring number 2 is: [0.0015]
Spacing of ring number 2 is: [0.00391]
Land Length for ring number 2 is: [0.00391]
Top Gap of ring number 2 is: [6e-05]
Middle Gap of ring number 2 is: [4e-05]
Bottom Gap of ring number 2 is: [6e-05]

Initial conditions in ring pack

Pressure 1 is: [4600623.5]
Pressure 2 is: [4173522.5]
Pressure 3 is: [3689110.5]
Pressure 4 is: [3130620]
Pressure 5 is: [2214841.8]

A fast way to set up multiple rings in the ring pack is to specify only one ring and
enter the geometry. Once the ring geometry is entered, invoke the crevice-model-
controls menu a second time and specify the number of rings desired. When
the number of rings changes, the geometry from the first ring is copied to all
subsequent rings. Default values can be taken for the rest of the way through the
menu structure.

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 19.3 Crevice Model

A summary of the crevice model is printed out by entering the (crevice-summary)

command at the command prompt:

>(crevice-summary)

crevice/n-rings : 3
crevice/ring-width : (0.00375 0.00375 0.00375)
crevice/ring-thickness : (0.0015 0.0015 0.0015)
crevice/ring-mass : (0.00375 0.00375 0.00375)
crevice/ring-spacing : (0.008 0.008 0.00391)
crevice/land-length : (0.00391 0.00391 0.00391)
crevice/top-ring-gap : (6e-05 6e-05 6e-05)
crevice/mid-ring-gap : (4e-05 4e-05 4e-05)
crevice/bot-ring-gap : (6e-05 6e-05 6e-05)
crevice/piston-temperature : 433
crevice/sector-angle : 45
crevice/mid-gap-cd : 0.7
crevice/exit-pressure : 101325
crevice/threads : (5 6)
names of crevice/threads : (wall.1 wall-8)
crevice/unit-roundoff : 5.9604645e-08
crevice/piston-bore-clearance : 5.08e-05
crevice/write? : #t
crevice/output-file : crev.out
crevice/solve? : #t
crevice/enabled? : #t
crevice/pressures : (4600623.5 4173522.5 3689110.5 3130620 2214841)

19.3.5 Crevice Model Solution Details

The under-relaxation factor for the crevice model source terms can be found in the
Solution Controls panel. The default value for Crevice Model Sources is 0.8, which has
been found to work well for motored engine simulations. Once the crevice model is
enabled, the solution proceeds normally.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
Solve −→ Initialize −→Initialize...
Solve −→Iterate...

19.3.6 Postprocessing for the Crevice Model

A plot of cylinder mass with and without the crevice model during the motored engine
simulation is shown in Figure 19.3.5. The rate of mass loss from the crevice is proportional
to the pressure difference between the cylinder and the crankcase pressure defined in the
text interface.
A plot of cylinder pressure with and without the crevice model for the same engine
simulation is shown in Figure 19.3.6. The effect of the mass loss from the crevice is to
lower the peak pressure in proportion to the total mass loss from the cylinder.

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Modeling Engine Ignition

Cylinder Mass (kg)

With Crevice
Without Crevice
4.60e-03

4.40e-03

4.20e-03

4.00e-03

3.80e-03

3.60e-03

3.40e-03

3.20e-03
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05 0.055

Cylinder Mass vs. Time (Time=0.0000e+00)

Figure 19.3.5: Cylinder Mass vs. Crank Angle

Cylinder Pressure
With Crevice
Without Crevice
5.50e+06

5.00e+06

4.50e+06

4.00e+06

3.50e+06

3.00e+06

2.50e+06

2.00e+06

1.50e+06

1.00e+06

5.00e+05

0.00e+00
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05 0.055

Cylinder Pressure vs Time (Time=0.0000e+00)

Figure 19.3.6: Cylinder Pressure vs. Crank Angle

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 19.3 Crevice Model

Using the Crevice Output File

The pressure in the top ring land is defined as the cylinder pressure (i.e., the pressure
in the cells defining the ring landing). Intermediate pressures are available at any point
during the FLUENT session through the (crevice-summary) command as previously
shown. If the optional data file output is chosen in the crevice-model-controls, the
intermediate pressures in the defined crevices are printed to the file crev.out at the start
of each new time step. The format of the file is as follows:

# crank (deg) data->press[0...1...2...3...4...5...6] total_mdot

1.95500e+02 2.16650e+05 1.01325e+05 1.01325e+05 1.01325e+05 1.01325e+05 1.01325e+05 1.01325e+05 0.0
1.96000e+02 2.09945e+05 1.06794e+05 1.81553e+05 1.04111e+05 1.48582e+05 1.02202e+05 1.01325e+05 -1.6
1.96500e+02 2.17787e+05 1.13070e+05 1.88242e+05 1.07960e+05 1.53544e+05 1.03526e+05 1.01325e+05 -1.6
1.97000e+02 2.17434e+05 1.19065e+05 1.88060e+05 1.11705e+05 1.53475e+05 1.04830e+05 1.01325e+05 -1.6
1.97500e+02 2.17652e+05 1.24777e+05 1.88299e+05 1.15286e+05 1.53668e+05 1.06081e+05 1.01325e+05 -1.6
1.98000e+02 2.17937e+05 1.30215e+05 1.88594e+05 1.18711e+05 1.53900e+05 1.07283e+05 1.01325e+05 -1.6

where the first column is the current flow time (or crank angle), and the next ncv + 2
columns are the ring pressures (where ncv is the number of crevice volumes, or 2nr − 1),
including the face pressure on the crevice cell, and the defined pressure at the crevice
exit. The final column is the mass flow past the top ring. This file is currently format-
ted so that it can be read into the free Gnuplot plotting package, which is available at
www.gnuplot.info .
To read the crevice output file into FLUENT as a data file, you will need to put each
column of the crevice output file in its own individual file. The first three lines of each
column of the data file should be of the following form:

"Title"
"X-Label" "Y-Label"
0 0 0 0

where the title, x-label, and y-label strings are enclosed by double quotes and the third
line of the file contains four zeros. The lines following the first three lines of the file
are the columns you wish to plot. For example, to plot column 1 versus column 3 of
the crevice model output file in FLUENT, you would enter the following commands in a
UNIX terminal:

cat > crev_col_1_3.dat

"Column 1 vs Column 3"
"Crank Angle (deg)" "Pressure behind ring 1 (Pa)"
0 0 0 0
ctrl-d

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Modeling Engine Ignition

where ctrl-d is the end-of-file character made holding down the <Ctrl> key and pressing
d. To append columns 1 and 3 to this file, enter the following:

tail +2 crev.out | awk ’{print $1, $3}’ >> crev_col_1_3.dat

The file crev col 1 3.dat can now be read into FLUENT using the File XY Plot panel. See
Section 28.8.3: XY Plots of File Data for details about creating x-y plots. For Windows
users, the file crev.out can be imported into Excel for plotting purposes without any
modification.
A Gnuplot plot of the pressure in the ring pack crevices for the above engine simulation is
shown in Figure 19.3.7. After an initial transient period where the flows in the network
settle down, Figure 19.3.7 shows that the pressure in the ring crevices follows the cylinder
pressure in form, though with pressure magnitudes that are controlled by the ring pack
geometry.
Pressures in Ring Pack vs Crank Angle
5.5e+06
Cylinder
Ring 1
5e+06 1-2 Gap
Ring 2
2-3 Gap
4.5e+06 Ring 3
Exit Pressure
4e+06

3.5e+06
Pressure (Pa)

3e+06

2.5e+06

2e+06

1.5e+06

1e+06

500000

0
150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Crank Angle (deg ATDC)

Figure 19.3.7: Crevice Pressures

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Chapter 20. Modeling Pollutant Formation

This chapter discusses the models available in FLUENT for modeling pollutant formation.
Information is presented in the following sections:

• Section 20.1: NOx Formation

• Section 20.2: SOx Formation

• Section 20.3: Soot Formation

20.1 NOx Formation

The following sections present the theoretical background of NOx prediction and infor-
mation about the usage of the NOx models employed by the solver.

• Section 20.1.1: Overview

• Section 20.1.2: Governing Equations for NOx Transport

• Section 20.1.3: Thermal NOx Formation

• Section 20.1.4: Prompt NOx Formation

• Section 20.1.5: Fuel NOx Formation

• Section 20.1.6: NOx Formation from Intermediate N2 O

• Section 20.1.7: NOx Reduction by Reburning

• Section 20.1.8: NOx Reduction by SNCR

• Section 20.1.9: NOx Formation in Turbulent Flows

• Section 20.1.10: Using the NOx Model

• Section 20.1.11: Solution Strategies

• Section 20.1.12: Postprocessing

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Modeling Pollutant Formation

20.1.1 Overview
NOx emission consists of mostly nitric oxide (NO), and to a lesser degree nitrogen dioxide
(NO2 ) and nitrous oxide (N2 O). NOx is a precursor for photochemical smog, contributes
to acid rain, and causes ozone depletion. Thus, NOx is a pollutant. The FLUENT NOx
model provides a tool to understand the sources of NOx production and to aid in the
design of NOx control measures.

NOx Modeling in FLUENT

The FLUENT NOx model provides the capability to model thermal, prompt, and fuel
NOx formation as well as NOx consumption due to reburning in combustion systems.
It uses rate models developed at the Department of Fuel and Energy at The University
of Leeds in England as well as from the open literature. NOx reduction using reagent
injection, such as selective noncatalytic reduction (SNCR), can be modeled in FLUENT
along with an N2 O intermediate model which has also been incorporated.
To predict NOx emissions, FLUENT solves a transport equation for nitric oxide (NO)
concentration. When fuel NOx sources are present, FLUENT solves additional transport
equations for intermediate species (HCN and/or NH3 ). When the N2 O intermediate
model is activated, an additional transport equation for N2 O will be solved. The NOx
transport equations are solved based on a given flow field and combustion solution. In
other words, NOx is postprocessed from a combustion simulation. It is thus evident that
an accurate combustion solution becomes a prerequisite of NOx prediction. For example,
thermal NOx production doubles for every 90 K temperature increase when the flame
temperature is about 2200 K. Great care must be exercised to provide accurate ther-
mophysical data and boundary condition inputs for the combustion model. Appropriate
turbulence, chemistry, radiation and other submodels must be employed.
To be realistic, one can only expect results to be as accurate as the input data and the
selected physical models. Under most circumstances, NOx variation trends can be accu-
rately predicted but the NOx quantity itself cannot be pinpointed. Accurate prediction
of NOx parametric trends can cut down on the number of laboratory tests, allow more
design variations to be studied, shorten the design cycle, and reduce product develop-
ment cost. That is truly the power of the FLUENT NOx model and, in fact, the power
of CFD in general.

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 20.1 NOx Formation

NOx Formation and Reduction in Flames

In laminar flames, and at the molecular level within turbulent flames, the formation of
NOx can be attributed to four distinct chemical kinetic processes: thermal NOx forma-
tion, prompt NOx formation, fuel NOx formation, and intermediate N2 O. Thermal NOx
is formed by the oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen present in the combustion air. Prompt
NOx is produced by high-speed reactions at the flame front, and fuel NOx is produced by
oxidation of nitrogen contained in the fuel. At elevated pressures and oxygen-rich con-
ditions, NOx may also be formed from molecular nitrogen (N2 ) via N2 O. The reburning
and SNCR mechanisms reduce the total NOx formation by accounting for the reaction
of NO with hydrocarbons and ammonia, respectively.

i The NOx models cannot be used in conjunction with the premixed com-
bustion model.

20.1.2 Governing Equations for NOx Transport

FLUENT solves the mass transport equation for the NO species, taking into account con-
vection, diffusion, production and consumption of NO and related species. This approach
is completely general, being derived from the fundamental principle of mass conservation.
The effect of residence time in NOx mechanisms, a Lagrangian reference frame concept,
is included through the convection terms in the governing equations written in the Eu-
lerian reference frame. For thermal and prompt NOx mechanisms, only the NO species
transport equation is needed:

∂
(ρYNO ) + ∇ · (ρ~v YNO ) = ∇ · (ρD∇YNO ) + SNO (20.1-1)
∂t
As discussed in Section 20.1.5: Fuel NOx Formation, the fuel NOx mechanisms are more
involved. The tracking of nitrogen-containing intermediate species is important. FLUENT
solves a transport equation for the HCN, NH3 or N2 O species in addition to the NO
species:

∂
(ρYHCN ) + ∇ · (ρ~v YHCN ) = ∇ · (ρDYHCN ) + SHCN (20.1-2)
∂t

∂
(ρYNH3 ) + ∇ · (ρ~v YNH3 ) = ∇ · (ρDYNH3 ) + SNH3 (20.1-3)
∂t

∂
(ρYN2 O ) + ∇ · (ρ~v YN2 O ) = ∇ · (ρDYN2 O ) + SN2 O (20.1-4)
∂t

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Modeling Pollutant Formation

where YHCN , YNH3 , YN2 O , and YNO are mass fractions of HCN, NH3 , N2 O, and NO in
the gas phase, and D is the effective diffusion coefficient. The source terms SHCN , SNH3 ,
SN2 O , and SNO are to be determined next for different NOx mechanisms.

20.1.3 Thermal NOx Formation

The formation of thermal NOx is determined by a set of highly temperature-dependent
chemical reactions known as the extended Zeldovich mechanism. The principal reactions
governing the formation of thermal NOx from molecular nitrogen are as follows:

O + N2 *
) N + NO (20.1-5)
N + O2 *
) O + NO (20.1-6)

A third reaction has been shown to contribute to the formation of thermal NOx , partic-
ularly at near-stoichiometric conditions and in fuel-rich mixtures:

N + OH *
) H + NO (20.1-7)

Thermal NOx Reaction Rates

The rate constants for these reactions have been measured in numerous experimental
studies [36, 112, 250], and the data obtained from these studies have been critically
evaluated by Baulch et al. [25] and Hanson and Salimian [136]. The expressions for the
rate coefficients for Equations 20.1-5–20.1-7 used in the NOx model are given below.
These were selected based on the evaluation of Hanson and Salimian [136].

kf,1 = 1.8 × 108 e−38370/T kr,1 = 3.8 × 107 e−425/T

kf,2 = 1.8 × 104 T e−4680/T kr,2 = 3.81 × 103 T e−20820/T
kf,3 = 7.1 × 107 e−450/T kr,3 = 1.7 × 108 e−24560/T

In the above expressions, kf,1 , kf,2 , and kf,3 are the rate constants for the forward reactions
20.1-5–20.1-7, respectively, and kr,1 , kr,2 , and kr,3 are the corresponding reverse rate
constants. All of these rate constants have units of m3 /gmol-s.
The net rate of formation of NO via Reactions 20.1-5–20.1-7 is given by

d[NO]
= kf,1 [O][N2 ] + kf,2 [N][O2 ] + kf,3 [N][OH] − kr,1 [NO][N] − kr,2 [NO][O] − kr,3 [NO][H]
dt
(20.1-8)
where all concentrations have units of gmol/m3 .
To calculate the formation rates of NO and N, the concentrations of O, H, and OH are
required.

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 20.1 NOx Formation

The Quasi-Steady Assumption for [N]

The rate of formation of NOx is significant only at high temperatures (greater than
1800 K) because fixation of nitrogen requires the breaking of the strong N2 triple bond
(dissociation energy of 941 kJ/gmol). This effect is represented by the high activation
energy of reaction 20.1-5, which makes it the rate-limiting step of the extended Zeldovich
mechanism. However, the activation energy for oxidation of N atoms is small. When
there is sufficient oxygen, as in a fuel-lean flame, the rate of consumption of free nitrogen
atoms becomes equal to the rate of its formation and therefore a quasi-steady state can
be established. This assumption is valid for most combustion cases except in extremely
fuel-rich combustion conditions. Hence the NO formation rate becomes

kr,1 kr,2 [NO]2

 
d[NO] 1− kf,1 [N2 ]kf,2 [O2 ]
= 2kf,1 [O][N2 ]  kr,1 [NO]
 (gmol/m3 -s) (20.1-9)
dt 1+ kf,2 [O2 ]+kf,3 [OH]

Thermal NOx Temperature Sensitivity

From Equation 20.1-9 it is clear that the rate of formation of NO will increase with
increasing oxygen concentration. It also appears that thermal NO formation should be
highly dependent on temperature but independent of fuel type. In fact, based on the
limiting rate described by kf,1 , the thermal NOx production rate doubles for every 90 K
temperature increase beyond 2200 K.

Decoupled Thermal NOx Calculations

To solve Equation 20.1-9, the concentration of O atoms and the free radical OH will
be required, in addition to the concentration of stable species (i.e., O2 , N2 ). Following
the suggestion by Zeldovich, the thermal NOx formation mechanism can be decoupled
from the main combustion process, by assuming equilibrium values of temperature, sta-
ble species, O atoms, and OH radicals. However, radical concentrations, O atoms in
particular, are observed to be more abundant than their equilibrium levels. The effect of
partial equilibrium O atoms on NOx formation rate has been investigated [246] during
laminar methane-air combustion. The results of these investigations indicate that the
level of NOx emission can be underpredicted by as much as 28% in the flame zone, when
assuming equilibrium O-atom concentrations.

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Modeling Pollutant Formation

Approaches for Determining O Radical Concentration

There has been little detailed study of radical concentration in industrial turbulent flames,
but work [89] has demonstrated the existence of this phenomenon in turbulent diffusion
flames. Presently, there is no definitive conclusion as to the effect of partial equilibrium
on NOx formation rates in turbulent flames. Peters and Donnerhack [282] suggest that
partial equilibrium radicals can account for no more than a 25% increase in thermal NOx
and that fluid dynamics has the dominant effect on NOx formation rate. Bilger et al. [33]
suggest that in turbulent diffusion flames, the effect of O atom overshoot on the NOx
formation rate is very important.
To overcome this possible inaccuracy, one approach would be to couple the extended Zel-
dovich mechanism with a detailed hydrocarbon combustion mechanism involving many
reactions, species, and steps. This approach has been used previously for research pur-
poses [243]. However, long computer processing time has made the method economically
unattractive and its extension to turbulent flows difficult.
To determine the O radical concentration, FLUENT uses one of three approaches—the
equilibrium approach, the partial equilibrium approach, and the predicted concentration
approach—in recognition of the ongoing controversy discussed above.

Method 1: Equilibrium Approach

The kinetics of the thermal NOx formation rate is much slower than the main hydro-
carbon oxidation rate, and so most of the thermal NOx is formed after completion of
combustion. Therefore, the thermal NOx formation process can often be decoupled from
the main combustion reaction mechanism and the NOx formation rate can be calculated
by assuming equilibration of the combustion reactions. Using this approach, the calcu-
lation of the thermal NOx formation rate is considerably simplified. The assumption of
equilibrium can be justified by a reduction in the importance of radical overshoots at
higher flame temperature [88]. According to Westenberg [401], the equilibrium O-atom
concentration can be obtained from the expression

[O] = kp [O2 ]1/2 (20.1-10)

With kp included, this expression becomes

[O] = 3.97 × 105 T −1/2 [O2 ]1/2 e−31090/T gmol/m3 (20.1-11)

where T is in Kelvin.

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 20.1 NOx Formation

Method 2: Partial Equilibrium Approach

An improvement to method 1 can be made by accounting for third-body reactions in the

O2 dissociation-recombination process:

O2 + M *
)O+O+M (20.1-12)

Equation 20.1-11 is then replaced by the following expression [390]:

[O] = 36.64T 1/2 [O2 ]1/2 e−27123/T gmol/m3 (20.1-13)

which generally leads to a higher partial O-atom concentration.

Method 3: Predicted O Approach

When the O-atom concentration is well predicted using an advanced chemistry model
(such as the flamelet submodel of the nonpremixed model), [O] can be taken simply from
the local O-species mass fraction.

Approaches for Determining OH Radical Concentration

FLUENT uses one of three approaches to determine the OH radical concentration: the
exclusion of OH from the thermal NOx calculation approach, the partial equilibrium
approach, and the use of the predicted OH concentration approach.

Method 1: Exclusion of OH Approach

In this approach, the third reaction in the extended Zeldovich mechanism (Equation 20.1-7)
is assumed to be negligible through the following observation:

k2 [O2 ]eq  k3 [OH]eq

This assumption is justified for lean fuel conditions and is a reasonable assumption for
most cases.

Method 2: Partial Equilibrium Approach

In this approach, the concentration of OH in the third reaction in the extended Zeldovich
mechanism (Equation 20.1-7) is given by [26, 400]

[OH] = 2.129 × 102 T −0.57 e−4595/T [O]1/2 [H2 O]1/2 gmol/m3 (20.1-14)

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Modeling Pollutant Formation

Method 3: Predicted OH Approach

As in the predicted O approach, when the OH radical concentration is well predicted using
an advanced chemistry model such as the flamelet model, [OH] can be taken directly from
the local OH species mass fraction.

Summary
To summarize, thermal NOx formation rate is predicted by Equation 20.1-9. The
O-atom concentration needed in Equation 20.1-9 is computed using Equation 20.1-11
for the equilibrium assumption, using Equation 20.1-13 for a partial equilibrium assump-
tion, or using the local O-species mass fraction. You will make the choice during problem
setup. In terms of the transport equation for NO (Equation 20.1-1), the NO source term
due to thermal NOx mechanisms is

d[NO]
Sthermal,NO = Mw,NO (20.1-15)
dt
where Mw,NO is the molecular weight of NO (kg/gmol), and d[NO]/dt is computed from
Equation 20.1-9.

20.1.4 Prompt NOx Formation

It is known that during combustion of hydrocarbon fuels, the NOx formation rate can
exceed that produced from direct oxidation of nitrogen molecules (i.e., thermal NOx ).

Prompt NOx Combustion Environments

The presence of a second mechanism leading to NOx formation was first identified by
Fenimore [102] and was termed “prompt NOx ”. There is good evidence that prompt
NOx can be formed in a significant quantity in some combustion environments, such as
in low-temperature, fuel-rich conditions and where residence times are short. Surface
burners, staged combustion systems, and gas turbines can create such conditions [19].
At present the prompt NOx contribution to total NOx from stationary combustors is
small. However, as NOx emissions are reduced to very low levels by employing new
strategies (burner design or furnace geometry modification), the relative importance of
the prompt NOx can be expected to increase.

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 20.1 NOx Formation

Prompt NOx Mechanism

Prompt NOx is most prevalent in rich flames. The actual formation involves a complex
series of reactions and many possible intermediate species. The route now accepted is as
follows:

CH + N2 *
) HCN + N (20.1-16)
N + O2 *
) NO + O (20.1-17)
HCN + OH *
) CN + H2 O (20.1-18)
CN + O2 *
) NO + CO (20.1-19)

A number of species resulting from fuel fragmentation have been suggested as the source
of prompt NOx in hydrocarbon flames (e.g., CH, CH2 , C, C2 H), but the major contribu-
tion is from CH (Equation 20.1-16) and CH2 , via

CH2 + N2 *
) HCN + NH (20.1-20)

The products of these reactions could lead to formation of amines and cyano compounds
that subsequently react to form NO by reactions similar to those occurring in oxidation
of fuel nitrogen, for example:

HCN + N *
) N2 + ... (20.1-21)

Prompt NOx Formation Factors

Prompt NOx formation is proportional to the number of carbon atoms present per unit
volume and is independent of the parent hydrocarbon identity. The quantity of HCN
formed increases with the concentration of hydrocarbon radicals, which in turn increases
with equivalence ratio. As the equivalence ratio increases, prompt NOx production in-
creases at first, then passes a peak, and finally decreases due to a deficiency in oxygen.

Primary Reaction
Reaction 20.1-16 is of primary importance. In recent studies [320], comparison of proba-
bility density distributions for the location of the peak NOx with those obtained for the
peak CH have shown close correspondence, indicating that the majority of the NOx at the
flame base is prompt NOx formed by the CH reaction. Assuming that Reaction 20.1-16
controls the prompt NOx formation rate,

d[NO]
= k0 [CH][N2 ] (20.1-22)
dt

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Modeling Pollutant Formation

Modeling Strategy
There are, however, uncertainties about the rate data for the above reaction. From Reac-
tions 20.1-16–20.1-20, it can be concluded that the prediction of prompt NOx formation
within the flame requires coupling of the NOx kinetics to an actual hydrocarbon com-
bustion mechanism. Hydrocarbon combustion mechanisms involve many steps and, as
mentioned previously, are extremely complex and costly to compute. In the present NOx
model, a global kinetic parameter derived by De Soete [77] is used. De Soete compared
the experimental values of total NOx formation rate with the rate of formation calculated
by numerical integration of the empirical overall reaction rates of NOx and N2 formation.
He showed that overall prompt formation rate can be predicted from the expression

d[NO]
= (overall prompt NOx formation rate) − (overall prompt N2 formation rate)
dt
(20.1-23)
In the early stages of the flame, where prompt NOx is formed under fuel-rich conditions,
the O concentration is high and the N radical almost exclusively forms NOx rather than
nitrogen. Therefore, the prompt NOx formation rate will be approximately equal to the
overall prompt NOx formation rate:

d[NO]
= kpr [O2 ]a [N2 ][FUEL]e−Ea /RT (20.1-24)
dt
For C2 H4 (ethylene)-air flames,

kpr = 1.2 × 107 (RT /p)a+1 ; Ea = 251151 J/gmol

where a is the oxygen reaction order, R is the universal gas constant, and p is pressure
(all in SI units). The rate of prompt NOx formation is found to be of the first order with
respect to nitrogen and fuel concentration, but the oxygen reaction order, a, depends on
experimental conditions.

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 20.1 NOx Formation

Rate for Most Hydrocarbon Fuels

Equation 20.1-24 was tested against the experimental data obtained by Backmier et
al. [15] for different mixture strengths and fuel types. The predicted results indicated that
the model performance declined significantly under fuel-rich conditions and for higher
hydrocarbon fuels. To reduce this error and predict the prompt NOx adequately in
all conditions, the De Soete model was modified using the available experimental data.
A correction factor, f , was developed, which incorporates the effect of fuel type, i.e.,
number of carbon atoms, and air-to-fuel ratio for gaseous aliphatic hydrocarbons. Equa-
tion 20.1-24 now becomes

d[NO] 0 0
= f kpr [O2 ]a [N2 ][FUEL]e−Ea /RT (20.1-25)
dt
so that the source term due to prompt NOx mechanism is

d[NO]
Sprompt,NO = Mw,NO (20.1-26)
dt
In the above equations,

f = 4.75 + 0.0819 n − 23.2φ + 32φ2 − 12.2φ3 (20.1-27)

0
kpr = 6.4 × 106 (RT /p)a+1 ; Ea0 = 303474.125 J/gmol

n is the number of carbon atoms per molecule for the hydrocarbon fuel, and φ is the
equivalence ratio. The correction factor is a curve fit for experimental data, valid for
aliphatic alkane hydrocarbon fuels (Cn H2n+2 ) and for equivalence ratios between 0.6 and
0
1.6. For values outside the range, the appropriate limit should be used. Values of kpr and
0
Ea were developed at the Department of Fuel and Energy at The University of Leeds in
England.
Here the concept of equivalence ratio refers to an overall equivalence ratio for the flame,
rather than any spatially varying quantity in the flow domain. In complex geometries with
multiple burners this may lead to some uncertainty in the specification of φ. However,
since the contribution of prompt NOx to the total NOx emission is often very small,
results are not likely to be significantly biased.

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Modeling Pollutant Formation

Oxygen Reaction Order

Oxygen reaction order depends on flame conditions. According to De Soete [77], oxygen
reaction order is uniquely related to oxygen mole fraction in the flame:

XO2 ≤ 4.1 × 10−3



 1.0,
−3.95 − 0.9 ln XO2 , 4.1 × 10−3 ≤ XO2 ≤ 1.11 × 10−2


a= (20.1-28)


 −0.35 − 0.1 ln XO2 , 1.11 × 10−2 < XO2 < 0.03
0, XO2 ≥ 0.03


20.1.5 Fuel NOx Formation

Fuel-Bound Nitrogen
It is well known that nitrogen-containing organic compounds present in liquid or solid
fossil fuel can contribute to the total NOx formed during the combustion process. This
fuel nitrogen is a particularly important source of nitrogen oxide emissions for residual fuel
oil and coal, which typically contain 0.3–2% nitrogen by weight. Studies have shown that
most of the nitrogen in heavy fuel oils is in the form of heterocycles and it is thought that
the nitrogen components of coal are similar [169]. It is believed that pyridine, quinoline,
and amine type heterocyclic ring structures are of importance.

Reaction Pathways
The extent of conversion of fuel nitrogen to NOx is dependent on the local combustion
characteristics and the initial concentration of nitrogen-bound compounds. Fuel-bound
compounds that contain nitrogen are released into the gas phase when the fuel droplets or
particles are heated during the devolatilization stage. From the thermal decomposition
of these compounds, (aniline, pyridine, pyrroles, etc.) in the reaction zone, radicals
such as HCN, NH3 , N, CN, and NH can be formed and converted to NOx . The above
free radicals (i.e., secondary intermediate nitrogen compounds) are subject to a double
competitive reaction path. This chemical mechanism has been subject to several detailed
investigations [244]. Although the route leading to fuel NOx formation and destruction
is still not completely understood, different investigators seem to agree on a simplified
model:

NO
O 2
ion
dat
oxi
Fuel Nitrogen Nitrogen Intermediates
red
uct
ion
NO
N2

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 20.1 NOx Formation

Recent investigations [147] have shown that hydrogen cyanide appears to be the principal
product if fuel nitrogen is present in aromatic or cyclic form. However, when fuel nitrogen
is present in the form of aliphatic amines, ammonia becomes the principal product of
fuel nitrogen conversion.
In the FLUENT NOx model, sources of NOx emission for gaseous, liquid and coal fuels
are considered separately. The nitrogen-containing intermediates are grouped as HCN,
NH3 , or a combination of both. Transport equations (20.1-1 and 20.1-2 or 20.1-3) are
solved, after which the source terms SHCN , SNH3 , and SNO are determined for different
fuel types. Discussions to follow refer to fuel NOx sources for SNO and intermediate HCN,
NH3 sources for SHCN and SNH3 . Contributions from thermal and prompt mechanisms
have been discussed in previous sections.

Fuel NOx from Gaseous and Liquid Fuels

The fuel NOx mechanisms for gaseous and liquid fuels are based on different physics but
the same chemical reaction pathways.

Fuel NOx from Intermediate Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN)

When HCN is used as the intermediate species:

2
NO
1: O
ion
dat
oxi

Fuel Nitrogen HCN

red
uct
ion
2: N
O
N2

The source terms in the transport equations can be written as follows:

SHCN = Spl,HCN + SHCN−1 + SHCN−2 (20.1-29)

SNO = SNO−1 + SNO−2 (20.1-30)

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Modeling Pollutant Formation

HCN Production in a Gaseous Fuel

The rate of HCN production is equivalent to the rate of combustion of the fuel:

Rcf YN,fuel Mw,HCN

Spl,HCN = (20.1-31)
Mw,N

where Spl,HCN = source of HCN (kg/m3 -s)

Rcf = mean limiting reaction rate of fuel (kg/m3 -s)
YN,fuel = mass fraction of nitrogen in the fuel
The mean limiting reaction rate of fuel, Rcf , is calculated from the Magnussen combustion
model, so the gaseous fuel NOx option is available only when the generalized finite-rate
model is used.

HCN Production in a Liquid Fuel

The rate of HCN production is equivalent to the rate of fuel release into the gas phase
through droplet evaporation:

Sfuel YN,fuel Mw,HCN

Spl,HCN = (20.1-32)
Mw,N V

where Spl,HCN = source of HCN (kg/m3 -s)

Sfuel = rate of fuel release from the liquid droplets to the gas (kg/s)
YN,fuel = mass fraction of nitrogen in the fuel
V = cell volume (m3 )

HCN Consumption

The HCN depletion rates from reactions (1) and (2) in the above mechanism are the
same for both gaseous and liquid fuels, and are given by De Soete [77] as

R1 = A1 XHCN XOa 2 e−E1 /RT (20.1-33)

−E2 /RT
R2 = A2 XHCN XNO e (20.1-34)

where R1 , R2 = conversion rates of HCN (s−1 )

T = instantaneous temperature (K)
X = mole fractions
A1 = 1.0 ×1010 s−1
A2 = 3.0 ×1012 s−1
E1 = 280451.95 J/gmol
E2 = 251151 J/gmol

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 20.1 NOx Formation

The oxygen reaction order, a, is calculated from Equation 20.1-28.

Since mole fraction is related to mass fraction through molecular weights of the species
(Mw,i ) and the mixture (Mw,m ),
!
Mw,m Yi ρRT
Xi = Yi = (20.1-35)
Mw,i Mw,i p

HCN Sources in the Transport Equation

The mass consumption rates of HCN which appear in Equation 20.1-29 are calculated as

Mw,HCN p
SHCN−1 = −R1 (20.1-36)
RT

Mw,HCN p
SHCN−2 = −R2 (20.1-37)
RT

where SHCN−1 = consumption rates of HCN in

SHCN−2 reactions 1 and 2 respectively (kg/m3 -s)
p = pressure (Pa)
T = mean temperature (K)
R = universal gas constant

NOx Sources in the Transport Equation

NOx is produced in reaction 1 but destroyed in reaction 2. The sources for Equa-
tion 20.1-30 are the same for a gaseous as for a liquid fuel, and are evaluated as follows:

Mw,NO Mw,NO p
SNO−1 = −SHCN−1 = R1 (20.1-38)
Mw,HCN RT

Mw,NO Mw,NO p
SNO−2 = SHCN−2 = −R2 (20.1-39)
Mw,HCN RT

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Modeling Pollutant Formation

Fuel NOx from Intermediate Ammonia (NH3 )

When NH3 is used as the intermediate species:

2
NO
1: O
ion
dat
oxi

Fuel Nitrogen NH 3
red
uct
ion
2: N
O
N2

The source terms in the transport equations can be written as follows:

SNH3 = Spl,NH3 + SNH3 −1 + SNH3 −2 (20.1-40)

SNO = SNO−1 + SNO−2 (20.1-41)

NH3 Production in a Gaseous Fuel

The rate of NH3 production is equivalent to the rate of combustion of the fuel:

Rcf YN,fuel Mw,NH3

Spl,NH3 = (20.1-42)
Mw,N

where Spl,NH3 = source of NH3 (kg/m3 -s)

Rcf = mean limiting reaction rate of fuel (kg/m3 -s)
YN,fuel = mass fraction of nitrogen in the fuel
The mean limiting reaction rate of fuel, Rcf , is calculated from the Magnussen combustion
model, so the gaseous fuel NOx option is available only when the generalized finite-rate
model is used.

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 20.1 NOx Formation

NH3 Production in a Liquid Fuel

The rate of NH3 production is equivalent to the rate of fuel release into the gas phase
through droplet evaporation:

Sfuel YN,fuel Mw,NH3

Spl,NH3 = (20.1-43)
Mw,N V

where Spl,NH3 = source of NH3 (kg/m3 -s)

Sfuel = rate of fuel release from the liquid droplets to the gas (kg/s)
YN,fuel = mass fraction of nitrogen in the fuel
V = cell volume (m3 )

NH3 Consumption

The NH3 depletion rates from reactions (1) and (2) in the above mechanism are the same
for both gaseous and liquid fuels, and are given by De Soete [77] as

R1 = A1 XNH3 XOa 2 e−E1 /RT (20.1-44)

−E2 /RT
R2 = A2 XNH3 XNO e (20.1-45)

where R1 , R2 = conversion rates of NH3 (s−1 )

T = instantaneous temperature (K)
X = mole fractions
A1 = 4.0 ×106 s−1
A2 = 1.8 ×108 s−1
E1 = 133947.2 J/gmol
E2 = 113017.95 J/gmol
The oxygen reaction order, a, is calculated from Equation 20.1-28.
Since mole fraction is related to mass fraction through molecular weights of the species
(Mw,i ) and the mixture (Mw,m ), Xi can be calculated using Equation 20.1-35.

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NH3 Sources in the Transport Equation

The mass consumption rates of NH3 which appear in Equation 20.1-40 are calculated as

Mw,NH3 p
SNH3 −1 = −R1 (20.1-46)
RT

Mw,NH3 p
SNH3 −2 = −R2 (20.1-47)
RT

where SNH3 −1 = consumption rates of NH3 in

SNH3 −2 reactions 1 and 2 respectively (kg/m3 -s)
p = pressure (Pa)
T = mean temperature (K)
R = universal gas constant

NOx Sources in the Transport Equation

NOx is produced in reaction 1 but destroyed in reaction 2. The sources for Equa-
tion 20.1-41 are the same for a gaseous as for a liquid fuel, and are evaluated as follows:

Mw,NO Mw,NO p
SNO−1 = −SNH3 −1 = R1 (20.1-48)
Mw,NH3 RT

Mw,NO Mw,NO p
SNO−2 = SNH3 −2 = −R2 (20.1-49)
Mw,NH3 RT

Fuel NOx from Coal

Nitrogen in Char and in Volatiles

For the coal it is assumed that fuel nitrogen is distributed between the volatiles and
the char. Since there is no reason to assume that N is equally distributed between the
volatiles and the char the fraction of N in the volatiles and the char should be specified
separately.
When HCN is used as the intermediate species, two variations of fuel NOx mechanisms
for coal are included. When NH3 is used as the intermediate species, two variations of fuel
NOx mechanisms for coal are included, much like in the calculation of NOx production
from the coal via HCN. It is assumed that fuel nitrogen is distributed between the volatiles
and the char.

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 20.1 NOx Formation

Coal Fuel NOx Scheme A

The first HCN mechanism assumes that all char N converts to HCN which is then con-
verted partially to NO [345]. The reaction pathway is described as follows:

Char N

1: O 2 3: Char
Volatile N N2
HCN NO

2: NO

N2

With the first scheme, all char-bound nitrogen converts to HCN. Thus,

Sc YN,char Mw,HCN
Schar,HCN = (20.1-50)
Mw,N V
Schar,NO = 0 (20.1-51)

where Sc = char burnout rate (kg/s)

YN,char = mass fraction of nitrogen in char
V = cell volume (m3 )

Coal Fuel NOx Scheme B

The second HCN mechanism assumes that all char N converts to NO directly [221]. The
reaction pathway is described as follows:

Char N

1: O 2 3: Char
Volatile N N2
HCN NO

2: NO

N2

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Modeling Pollutant Formation

According to Lockwood [221], the char nitrogen is released to the gas phase as NO directly,
mainly as a desorption product from oxidized char nitrogen atoms. If this approach is
followed, then

Schar,HCN = 0 (20.1-52)
Sc YN,char Mw,NO
Schar,NO = (20.1-53)
Mw,N V

HCN Scheme Selection

The second HCN mechanism tends to produce more NOx emission than the first. In
general, however, it is difficult to say which one outperforms the other.
The source terms for the transport equations are

SHCN = Spvc,HCN + SHCN−1 + SHCN−2 (20.1-54)

SNO = Schar,NO + SNO−1 + SNO−2 + SNO−3 (20.1-55)

Source contributions SHCN−1 , SHCN−2 , SNO−1 , and SNO−2 are described previously. There-
fore, only the heterogeneous reaction source, SNO−3 , the char NOx source, Schar,NO , and
the HCN production source, Spvc,HCN , need to be considered.

NOx Reduction on Char Surface

The heterogeneous reaction of NO reduction on the char surface has been modeled ac-
cording to the following [204]:

R3 = A3 e−E3 /RT pNO (20.1-56)

where R3 = rate of NO reduction (gmol/m2BET -s)

pNO = mean NO partial pressure (atm)
E3 = 142737.485 J/gmol
A3 = 230 gmol/m2BET -s-atm
T = mean temperature (K)
The partial pressure pNO is calculated using Dalton’s law:

pNO = pXNO

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 20.1 NOx Formation

The rate of NO consumption due to reaction 3 will then be

SNO−3 = cs ABET Mw,NO R3

where ABET = BET surface area (m2 /kg)

cs = concentration of particles (kg/m3 )
SNO−3 = NO consumption (kg/m3 -s)

BET Surface Area

The heterogeneous reaction involving char is mainly an adsorption process whose rate is
directly proportional to the pore surface area. The pore surface area is also known as the
BET surface area due to the researchers who pioneered the adsorption theory (Brunauer,
Emmett and Teller [45]). For commercial adsorbents, the pore (BET) surface areas range
from 100,000 to 2 million square meters per kilogram, depending on the microscopic
structure. For coal, the BET area is typically 25,000 m2 /kg which is used as the default
in FLUENT. The overall source of HCN (Spvc,HCN ) is a combination of volatile contribution
(Svol,HCN ) and char contribution (Schar,HCN ):

Spvc,HCN = Svol,HCN + Schar,HCN

HCN from Volatiles

The source of HCN from the volatiles is related to the rate of volatile release:

Svol YN,vol Mw,HCN

Svol,HCN =
Mw,N V

where Svol = source of volatiles originating from

the coal particles into the gas phase (kg/s)
YN,vol = mass fraction of nitrogen in the volatiles
V = cell volume (m3 )
Calculation of sources related to char-bound nitrogen depends on the fuel NOx scheme
selection.

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Coal Fuel NOx Scheme C

The first NH3 mechanism assumes that all char N converts to NH3 which is then converted
partially to NO [345]. The reaction pathway is described as follows:

Char N

1: O 2 3: Char
Volatile N N2
NH 3 NO

2: NO

N2

In this scheme, all char-bound nitrogen converts to NH3 . Thus,

Sc YN,char Mw,NH3
Schar,NH3 = (20.1-57)
Mw,N V
Schar,NO = 0 (20.1-58)

where Sc = char burnout rate (kg/s)

YN,char = mass fraction of nitrogen in char
V = cell volume (m3 )

Coal Fuel NOx Scheme D

The second NH3 mechanism assumes that all char N converts to NO directly [221]. The
reaction pathway is described as follows:

Char N

1: O 2 3: Char
Volatile N N2
NH 3 NO

2: NO

N2

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 20.1 NOx Formation

According to Lockwood [221], the char nitrogen is released to the gas phase as NO directly,
mainly as a desorption product from oxidized char nitrogen atoms. If this approach is
followed, then

Schar,NH3 = 0 (20.1-59)
Sc YN,char Mw,NO
Schar,NO = (20.1-60)
Mw,N V

NH3 Scheme Selection

The second NH3 mechanism tends to produce more NOx emission than the first. In
general, however, it is difficult to say which one outperforms the other.
The source terms for the transport equations are

SNH3 = Spvc,NH3 + SNH3 −1 + SNH3 −2 (20.1-61)

SNO = Schar,NO + SNO−1 + SNO−2 + SNO−3 (20.1-62)

Source contributions SNH3 −1 , SNH3 −2 , SNO−1 , SNO−2 , SNO−3 , Schar,NO are described previ-
ously. Therefore, only the NH3 production source, Spvc,NH3 , needs to be considered.
The overall production source of NH3 is a combination of volatile contribution (Svol,NH3 ),
and char contribution (Schar,NH3 ):

Spvc,NH3 = Svol,NH3 + Schar,NH3 (20.1-63)

NH3 from Volatiles

The source of NH3 from the volatiles is related to the rate of volatile release:

Svol YN,vol Mw,NH3

Svol,NH3 =
Mw,N V

where Svol = source of volatiles originating from

the coal particles into the gas phase (kg/s)
YN,vol = mass fraction of nitrogen in the volatiles
V = cell volume (m3 )
Calculation of sources related to char-bound nitrogen depends on the fuel NOx scheme
selection.

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Fuel Nitrogen Partitioning for HCN and NH3 Intermediates

In certain cases, especially when the fuel is a solid, both HCN and NH3 can be generated
as intermediates at high enough temperatures [261]. In particular, low-ranking (lignite)
coal has been shown to produce 10 times more NH3 compared to the level of HCN,
whereas higher-ranking (bituminous) coal has been shown to produce only HCN [260].
Studies by Winter et al. [405] have shown that for bituminous coal, using an HCN/NH3
partition ratio of 9:1 gave better NOx predictions when compared to measurements than
specifying only a single intermediate species. Liu and Gibbs [219] work with woody-
biomass (pine wood chips), on the other hand, has suggested an HCN/NH3 ratio of 1:9
due to the younger age of the fuel.
In total, the above work suggests the importance of being able to specify that portions
of the fuel nitrogen will be converted to both HCN and NH3 intermediates at the same
time. In FLUENT, fuel nitrogen partitioning can be used whenever HCN or NH3 are
intermediates for NOx production, though it is mainly applicable to solid fuels such as
coal and biomass. The reaction pathways and source terms for HCN and NH3 were
discussed in previous sections.

20.1.6 NOx Formation from Intermediate N2 O

Melte and Pratt [236] proposed the first intermediate mechanism for NOx formation from
molecular nitrogen (N2 ) via nitrous oxide (N2 O). Nitrogen enters combustion systems
mainly as a component of the combustion and dilution air. Under favorable conditions,
which are elevated pressures and oxygen-rich conditions, this intermediate mechanism
can contribute as much as 90% of the NOx formed during combustion. This makes
it particularly important in equipment such as gas turbines and compression-ignition
engines. Because these devices are operated at increasingly low temperatures to prevent
NOx formation via the thermal NOx mechanism, the relative importance of the N2 O-
intermediate mechanism is increasing. It has been observed that about 30% of the NOx
formed in these systems can be attributed to the N2 O-intermediate mechanism.
The N2 O-intermediate mechanism may also be of importance in systems operated in
flameless mode (e.g., diluted combustion, flameless combustion, flameless oxidation, and
FLOX systems). In a flameless mode, fuel and oxygen are highly diluted in inert gases so
that the combustion reactions and resulting heat release are carried out in the diffuse zone.
As a consequence, elevated peaks of temperature are avoided, which prevents thermal
NOx . Research suggests that the N2 O-intermediate mechanism may contribute about
90% of the NOx formed in flameless mode, and that the remainder can be attributed
to the prompt NOx mechanism. The relevance of NOx formation from N2 O has been
observed indirectly, and theoretically speculated for a number of combustion systems
and by a number of researchers [18, 68, 124, 356, 365].

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 20.1 NOx Formation

N2 O-Intermediate NOx Mechanism

The simplest form of the mechanism [236] takes into account two reversible elementary
reactions:

N2 + O + M )* N2 O + M (20.1-64)
N2 O + O *
) 2NO (20.1-65)

Here, M is a general third body. Because the first reaction involves third bodies, the
mechanism is favored at elevated pressures. Both reactions involve the oxygen radical
O, which makes the mechanism favored at oxygen-rich conditions. While not always
justified, it is often assumed that the radical O atoms originate solely from the dissociation
of molecular oxygen,

1
O2 *
)O (20.1-66)
2
According to the kinetic rate laws, the rate of NOx formation via the N2 O-intermediate
mechanism is

d[NO]  
= 2 kf,2 [N2 O][O] − kr,2 [NO]2 gmol/m3 -s (20.1-67)
dt
To solve Equation 20.1-67, you will need to have first calculated [O] and [N2 O].
It is often assumed that N2 O is at quasi-steady-state (i.e., d[N2 O]/dt = 0), which implies

kf,1 [N2 ][O][M] + kr,2 [NO]2

[N2 O] = (20.1-68)
kr,1 [M] + kf,2 [O]

The system of Equations 20.1-67–20.1-68 can be solved for the rate of NOx formation
when the concentration of N2 , O2 , and M, the kinetic rate constants for Equations 20.1-64
and 20.1-65, and the equilibrium constant of Equation 20.1-66 are known. The appear-
ance of NO in Equation 20.1-65 entails that coupling of the N2 O mechanism with the
thermal NOx mechanism (and other NOx mechanisms).

kf,1 = 4.44 × 1032 T −8.358 e−28234/T kr,1 = 4.00 × 108 e−28234/T

kf,2 = 2.90 × 107 e−11651/T kr,2 = 1.45 × 10−29 T 9.259 e−11651/T

In the above expressions, kf,1 and kf,2 are the forward rate constants of Equations 20.1-64
and 20.1-65, and kr,1 and kr,2 are the corresponding reverse rate constants. The units for
kf,2 , kr,1 , and kr,2 are m3 /gmol-s, while kf,1 has units of m6 /gmol2 -s.

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20.1.7 NOx Reduction by Reburning

The design of complex combustion systems for utility boilers, based on air- and fuel-
staging technologies, involves many parameters and their mutual interdependence. These
parameters include local stoichiometry, temperature and chemical concentration field,
residence time distribution, velocity field, and mixing pattern. A successful application
of the in-furnace reduction techniques requires control of these parameters in an optimum
manner so as to avoid impairing the boiler performance. In the mid 1990s, global models
describing the kinetics of NOx destruction in the reburn zone of a staged combustion
system became available. Two of these models are described below.

Instantaneous Approach
The instantaneous NOx reburning mechanism is a pathway whereby NO reacts with
hydrocarbons and is subsequently reduced. In general:

CHi + NO → HCN + products (20.1-69)

Three reburn reactions are modeled by FLUENT for 1600 ≤ T ≤ 2100:

k
CH + NO →1 HCN + O (20.1-70)
k2
CH2 + NO → HCN + OH (20.1-71)
k3
CH3 + NO → HCN + H2 O (20.1-72)

i If the temperature is outside of this range, NO reburn will not be computed.

The rate constants for these reactions are taken from Bowman [38] and have units of
m3 /gmol-s:

k1 = 1 × 108 ; k2 = 1.4 × 106 e−550/T ; k3 = 2 × 105

The NO depletion rate due to reburn is expressed as

d[NO]
= −k1 [CH][NO] − k2 [CH2 ][NO] − k3 [CH3 ][NO] (20.1-73)
dt

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 20.1 NOx Formation

and the source term for the reburning mechanism in the NO transport equation can be
calculated as

d[NO]
Sreburn,NO = −Mw,NO (20.1-74)
dt

i To calculate the NO depletion rate due to reburning, FLUENT will obtain

the concentrations of CH, CH2 , and CH3 from the species mass fraction
results of the combustion calculation. When you use this method, you
must be sure to include the species CH, CH2 , and CH3 in your problem
definition.

Partial Equilibrium Approach

The partial equilibrium approach is based on the model proposed by Kandamby et
al. [171] and [12]. The model adds a reduction path to De Soete’s global model [77]
that describes the NOx formation/destruction mechanism in a pulverized coal flame.
The additional reduction path accounts for the NOx destruction in the fuel-rich reburn
zone by CH radicals (see Figure 20.1.1).
CH i
(4) CH i
NO Products
O2 (5)
(3)
Fuel N HCN
(1) NO
(2)
N2

Figure 20.1.1: De Soete’s Global NOx Mechanism with Additional Reduction

Path

This model can be used in conjunction with the eddy-dissipation combustion model and
does not require the specification of CH radical concentrations, since they are computed
based on the CH-radical partial equilibrium. The reburn fuel itself can be an equivalent of
CH4 , CH3 , CH2 , or CH. How this equivalent fuel is determined is open for debate and an
approximate guide would be to consider the C/H ratio of the fuel itself. A multiplicative
constant of 4.0 × 10−4 has been developed for the partial equilibrium of CH radicals
to reduce the rates of HCN and NO in the reburn model. This value was obtained by
researchers, who developed the model, by way of predicting NOx values for a number of
test cases for which experimental data exists.

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NOx Reduction Mechanism

In the fuel-rich reburn zone, the HCN oxidation is suppressed and the amount of NO
formed in the primary combustion zone is decreased by the reduction reaction from HCN
to N2 . However, the NO concentration may also decrease due to reactions with CH
radicals, which are available in significant amounts in the reburn zone. The following are
considered to be the most important reactions of NO reduction by CH radicals:

NO + CH2 −→ HCN + OH (20.1-75)

NO + CH −→ HCN + O (20.1-76)
NO + C −→ CN + O (20.1-77)

These reactions may be globally described by the addition of pathways (4) and (5) in
Figure 20.1.1, leading respectively to the formation of HCN and of minor intermediate
nitrogen radicals. Assuming that methane is the reburning gas, the global NO reduction
rates are then expressed as

R4 = (ka χ1 + kb χ21 )[CH4 ][NO] (20.1-78)

R5 = kc χ31 χ2 [CH4 ][NO] (20.1-79)

where

[H] [OH]
χ1 = ; χ2 =
[H2 ] [H2 O]

Therefore, the additional source terms of the HCN and NO transport equations due to
reburn reactions are given by

d[HCN]
= 4 × 10−4 R4 (20.1-80)
dt
d[NO]
= −4 × 10−4 (R4 + R5 ) (20.1-81)
dt

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 20.1 NOx Formation

Certain assumptions are required to evaluate the rate constants ka , kb , and kc and the
factors χ1 and χ2 . For hydrocarbon diffusion flames, the following reaction set can be
reasonably considered to be in partial equilibrium:

CH4 + H *
) CH3 + H2 (20.1-82)
CH3 + OH *
) CH2 + H2 O (20.1-83)
CH2 + H *
) CH + H2 (20.1-84)
CH + H *
) C + H2 (20.1-85)

Thus, the rate constants may be computed as

kf,4 kf,5 kf,4 kf,5 kf,6 kf,4 kf,5 kf,6 kf,7

ka = k1 ; kb = k2 ; kc = k3
kr,4 kr,5 kr,4 kr,5 kr,6 kr,4 kr,5 kr,6 kr,7

where k1 , k2 , and k3 are the rate constants for Equations 20.1-75–20.1-77. The forward
and reverse rate constants for Equations 20.1-82–20.1-85 are kf,4 –kf,7 and kr,4 –kr,7 , re-
spectively. In addition, it is assumed that χ1 = 1, because the H-radical concentration
in the post-flame region of a hydrocarbon diffusion flame has been observed to be of the
same order as [H2 ]. Finally, the OH-radical concentration is estimated by considering the
reaction

OH + H2 *
) H2 O + H (20.1-86)

to be partially equilibrated, leading to the relationship

kr,8
χ2 =
kf,8

Values for the rate constants ka , kb , and kc for different equivalent fuel types are given
in Arrhenius form (AT b e−E/RT ) in Table 20.1.1 [203]. All rate constants have units of
m3 /gmol-s, and all values of E have units of J/gmol.

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Table 20.1.1: Rate Constants for Different Reburn Fuels

Equivalent ka kb kc
Fuel Type A b E A b E A b E
CH4 5.30 × 109 -1.54 27977 3.31 × 1013 -3.33 15090 3.06 × 1011 -2.64 77077
CH3 0.37 × 109 -1.54 27977 0.23 × 1013 -3.33 15090 0.21 × 1011 -2.64 77077
CH2 0.23 × 107 -1.54 27977 0.14 × 1011 -3.33 15090 0.13 × 109 -2.64 77077
CH 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.63 × 108 -3.33 15090 0.58 × 106 -2.64 77077

For Equation 20.1-86,

kf,8 = 1.02 × 105 T 1.60 e−13802/RT ; kr,8 = 4.52 × 105 T 1.60 e−80815/RT

20.1.8 NOx Reduction by SNCR

The selective noncatalytic reduction of NOx (SNCR), first described by Lyon [226], is a
method to reduce the emission of NOx from combustion by injecting a selective reductant
such as ammonia (NH3 ) or urea (CO(NH2 )2 ) into the furnace, where it can react with NO
in the flue gas to form N2 . However, the reductant can be oxidized as well to form NOx .
The selectivity for the reductive reactions decreases with increasing temperature [242]
while the rate of the initiation reaction simultaneously increases. This limits the SNCR
process to a narrow temperature interval, or window, where the lower temperature limit
for the interval is determined by the residence time.

Ammonia Injection
Several investigators have modeled the process using a large number of elementary reac-
tions. A simple empirical model has been proposed by Fenimore [103], which is based on
experimental measurements. However, the model was found to be unsuitable for practical
applications. Ostberg and Dam-Johansen [273] proposed a two-step scheme describing
the SNCR process as shown in Figure 20.1.2, which is a single initiation step followed
by two parallel reaction pathways: one leading to NO reduction, and the other to NO
formation.

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 20.1 NOx Formation

OH NO
OH
NH NH
3 2
NO N2

Figure 20.1.2: Simplified Reaction Mechanism for the SNCR Process

1 3
NO + NH3 + O2 −→ N2 + H2 O (20.1-87)
4 2
5 3
NH3 + O2 −→ NO + H2 O (20.1-88)
4 2

The reaction orders of NO and NH3 at 4% volume O2 and the empirical rate constants
kr and kox for Equations 20.1-87 and 20.1-88, respectively, have been estimated from
work done by Brouwer et al. [44]. The reaction order of NO was found to be 1 for
Equation 20.1-87 and the order of NH3 was found to be 1 for both reactions. As such,
the following reaction rates for NO and NH3 , at 4% volume O2 , were proposed:

RNO = −kr [NO][NH3 ] + kox [NH3 ][O2 ] (20.1-89)

RNH3 = −kr [NO][NH3 ] − kox [NH3 ][O2 ] (20.1-90)

The rate constants kr and kox have units of m3 /gmol-s, and are defined as

kr = 4.24 × 102 T 5.30 e−Er /RT ; kox = 3.50 × 10−1 T 7.65 e−Eox /RT

where Er = 349937.06 J/gmol and Eox = 524487.005 J/gmol.

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Modeling Pollutant Formation

This model has been shown to give reasonable predictions of the SNCR process in pul-
verized coal and fluidized bed combustion applications. The model also captures the
influence of the most significant parameters for SNCR, which are the temperature of the
flue gas at the injection position, the residence time in the relevant temperature interval,
the NH3 to NO molar ratio, and the effect of combustible additives. This model overesti-
mates the NO reduction for temperatures above the optimum temperature by an amount
similar to that of the detailed kinetic model of Miller and Bowman [242].

i The SNCR process naturally occurs when NH3 is present in the flame as
a fuel N intermediate. For this reason, even if the SNCR model is not
activated and there is no reagent injection, the natural SNCR process may
still occur in the flame. The temperature range or “window” at which
SNCR may occur is 1073 K < T < 1373 K. To model your case without
using the natural SNCR process, please contact your support engineer for
information on how to deactivate it.

Urea Injection
Urea as a reagent for the SNCR process is similar to that of injecting ammonia and has
been used in the power station combustors to reduce NO emissions successfully. However,
both reagents, ammonia and urea, have major limitations as a NOx reducing agent. The
narrow temperature “window” of effectiveness and mixing limitations are difficult factors
to handle in a large combustor. The use of urea instead of ammonia as the reducing
agent is attractive because of the ease of storage and handling of the reagent.
The SNCR process using urea is a combination of Thermal DeNOx (SNCR with am-
monia) and RAPRENOx (SNCR using cyanuric acid that, under heating, sublimes and
decomposes into isocyanic acid) since urea most probably decomposes into ammonia and
isocyanic acid [242].
One problem of SNCR processes using urea is that slow decay of HNCO as well as
the reaction channels leading to N2O and CO can significantly increase the emission
of pollutants other than NO. Urea seems to involve a significant emission of carbon-
containing pollutants, such as CO and HNCO.
Also, some experimental observations [311] show that SNCR using urea is effective in a
narrow temperature window that is shifted toward higher temperatures when compared
to Thermal DeNOx processes at the same value of the ratio of nitrogen in the reducing
agent and in NO in the feed, β. The effect of increasing the β value is to increase the
efficiency of abatement, while the effect of increasing O2 concentration depends on the
temperature considered.
The model described here is proposed by Brouwer et al. [44] and is a seven-step reduced
kinetic mechanism. Brouwer et al. [44] assumes that the breakdown of urea is instan-
taneous and 1 mole of urea is assumed to produce 1.1 moles of N H3 and 0.9 moles of

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 20.1 NOx Formation

HNCO. The work of Rota et al. [311] proposed a finite rate two-step mechanism for the
breakdown of urea into ammonia and HNCO.
The seven-step reduced mechanism is given in Table 20.1.2 and the two-step urea break-
down mechanism is given in Table 20.1.3.

Table 20.1.2: Seven-Step Reduced Mechanism for SNCR with Urea

Reaction A b E
N H3 + N O → N2 + H 2 O + H 4.24E+02 5.30 349937.06
N H3 + O2 → N O + H 2 O + H 3.500E-01 7.65 524487.005
HN CO + M → H + N CO + M 2.400E+08 0.85 284637.8
N CO + N O → N 2 O + CO 1.000E+07 0.00 -1632.4815
N CO + OH → N O + CO + H 1.000E+07 0.00 0
N 2 O + OH → N2 + O2 + H 2.000E+06 0.00 41858.5
N 2 O + M → N2 + O + M 6.900E+17 -2.5 271075.646

Table 20.1.3: Two-Step Urea Breakdown Process

Reaction A b E
CO(N H 2 )2 → N H3 + HN CO 1.27E-02 0 65048.109
CO(N H 2 )2 + H 2 O → 2N H3 + CO2 6.13E+04 0 87819.133

where the units of A, in Tables 20.1.2 and 20.1.3, are m-gmol-sec and E units are J/gmol.

Transport Equations for Urea, HNCO, and NCO

When the SNCR model with urea injection is employed, in addition to the usual transport
equations, FLUENT solves the following three additional mass transport equations for
urea, HNCO and NCO species.

∂
(ρYCO(NH2 )2 ) + ∇ · (ρ~v YCO(NH2 )2 ) = ∇ · (ρDYCO(NH2 )2 ) + SCO(NH2 )2 (20.1-91)
∂t

∂
(ρYHNCO ) + ∇ · (ρ~v YHNCO ) = ∇ · (ρDYHNCO ) + SHNCO (20.1-92)
∂t

∂
(ρYNCO ) + ∇ · (ρ~v YNCO ) = ∇ · (ρDYNCO ) + SNCO (20.1-93)
∂t

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where YCO(NH2 )2 , YHNCO and YNCO are mass fractions of urea, HNCO and NCO in the
gas phase. Source terms SCO(NH2 )2 , SHNCO and SNCO are determined according to the
rate equations given in Tables 20.1.2 and 20.1.3 and the additional source terms due to
reagent injection. These additional source terms are determined next. The source terms
in the transport equations can be written as follows:

SCO(NH2 )2 = Spl,CO(NH2 )2 + SCO(NH2 )2 −reac (20.1-94)

SHNCO = Spl,HNCO + SHNCO−reac (20.1-95)

SNCO = SNCO−reac (20.1-96)

Apart from the source terms for the above three species, additional source terms for N O,
N H3 and N 2 O are also determined as follows, which should be added to the previously
calculated sources due to fuel NOx:

SNO = SNO−reac (20.1-97)

SNH3 = Spl,NH3 + SNH3 −reac (20.1-98)

SN2 O = SN2 O−reac (20.1-99)

Source terms Si−reac for ith species are determined from the rate equations given in Ta-
bles 20.1.2 and 20.1.3.

Urea Production due to Reagent Injection

The rate of urea production is equivalent to the rate of reagent release into the gas phase
through droplet evaporation:
Sreagent
Spl,CO(NH2 )2 = (20.1-100)
V

where Sreagent is the rate of reagent release from the liquid droplets to the gas phase
(kg/s) and V is the cell volume (m3 ).

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 20.1 NOx Formation

N H3 Production due to Reagent Injection

If the urea decomposition model is set to the user-specified option, then the rate of N H3
production is proportional to the rate of reagent release into the gas phase through
droplet evaporation:

Sreagent
Spl,NH3 = M CFN H3 (20.1-101)
V
where Sreagent is the rate of reagent release from the liquid droplets to the gas phase
(kg/s), M CFN H3 is the mole fraction of N H3 in the N H3 /HN CO mixture created from
urea decomposition and V is the cell volume (m3 ).

HNCO Production due to Reagent Injection

If the urea decomposition model is set to the user-specified option, then the rate of HNCO
production is proportional to the rate of reagent release into the gas phase through droplet
evaporation:

Sreagent
Spl,HNCO = M CFHN CO (20.1-102)
V
where Sreagent , the injection source term, is the rate of reagent release from the liq-
uid droplets to the gas phase (kg/s), M CFN H3 is the mole fraction of HNCO in the
N H3 /HN CO mixture created from urea decomposition and V is the cell volume (m3 ).

i The mole conversion fractions (MCF) for species N H3 and HNCO are
determined through the user species values such that if one mole of urea
decomposes into 1.1 moles of N H3 and 0.9 moles of HNCO, then M CFN H3
= 0.55 and M CFHN CO = 0.45. When the user-specified option is used for
urea decomposition, then Spl,CO(NH2 )2 = 0.
However, the default option for urea decomposition is through rate limiting reactions
given in Table 20.1.3 and the source terms are calculated accordingly. In this case, both
values of Spl,N H3 and Spl,HN CO are zero.

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20.1.9 NOx Formation in Turbulent Flows

The kinetic mechanisms of NOx formation and destruction described in the preceding
sections have all been obtained from laboratory experiments using either a laminar pre-
mixed flame or shock-tube studies where molecular diffusion conditions are well defined.
In any practical combustion system, however, the flow is highly turbulent. The turbulent
mixing process results in temporal fluctuations in temperature and species concentration
that will influence the characteristics of the flame.
The relationships among NOx formation rate, temperature, and species concentration are
highly nonlinear. Hence, if time-averaged composition and temperature are employed
in any model to predict the mean NOx formation rate, significant errors will result.
Temperature and composition fluctuations must be taken into account by considering
the probability density functions which describe the time variation.

The Turbulence-Chemistry Interaction Model

In turbulent combustion calculations, FLUENT solves the density-weighted time-averaged
Navier-Stokes equations for temperature, velocity, and species concentrations or mean
mixture fraction and variance. To calculate NO concentration, a time-averaged NO
formation rate must be computed at each point in the domain using the averaged flow-
field information.
Methods of modeling the mean turbulent reaction rate can be based on either moment
methods [404] or probability density function (PDF) techniques [163]. FLUENT uses the
PDF approach.

i The PDF method described here applies to the NOx transport equations
only. The preceding combustion simulation can use either the general-
ized finite-rate chemistry model by Magnussen and Hjertager or the non-
premixed combustion model. For details on these models, refer to Chap-
ters 14 and 15.

The PDF Approach

The PDF method has proven very useful in the theoretical description of turbulent
flow [164]. In the FLUENT NOx model, a single- or joint-variable PDF in terms of a
normalized temperature, species mass fraction, or the combination of both is used to
predict the NOx emission. If the nonpremixed combustion model is used to model com-
bustion, then a one- or two-variable PDF in terms of mixture fraction(s) is also available.
The mean values of the independent variables needed for the PDF construction are ob-
tained from the solution of the transport equations.

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 20.1 NOx Formation

The General Expression for the Mean Reaction Rate

The mean turbulent reaction rate w can be described in terms of the instantaneous rate
w and a single or joint PDF of various variables. In general,
Z Z
w= ··· w(V1 , V2 , . . .)P (V1 , V2 , . . .)dV1 dV2 . . . (20.1-103)

where V1 , V2 ,... are temperature and/or the various species concentrations present. P is
the probability density function (PDF).

The Mean Reaction Rate Used in FLUENT

The PDF is used for weighting against the instantaneous rates of production of NO (e.g.,
Equation 20.1-15) and subsequent integration over suitable ranges to obtain the mean
turbulent reaction rate. Hence we have
Z
S NO = SNO (V1 )P1 (V1 )dV1 (20.1-104)

or, for two variables

Z Z
S NO = SNO (V1 , V2 )P (V1 , V2 )dV1 dV2 (20.1-105)

where S NO is the mean turbulent rate of production of NO, SNO is the instantaneous rate
of production given by, for example, Equation 20.1-15, and P1 (V1 ) and P (V1 , V2 ) are the
PDFs of the variables V1 and, if relevant, V2 . The same treatment applies for the HCN
or NH3 source terms.
Equation 20.1-104 or 20.1-105 must be integrated at every node and at every iteration.
For a PDF in temperature, the limits of integration are determined from the minimum
and maximum values of temperature in the combustion solution. For a PDF in mixture
fraction, the limits of the integrations in Equation 20.1-104 or 20.1-105 are determined
from the values stored in the look-up tables.

Statistical Independence
In the case of the two-variable PDF, it is further assumed that the variables V1 and V2
are statistically independent so that P (V1 , V2 ) can be expressed as

P (V1 , V2 ) = P1 (V1 )P2 (V2 ) (20.1-106)

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The Beta PDF Assumption

P is assumed to be a two-moment beta function as appropriate for combustion calcula-
tions [135, 245]. The equation for the beta function is

Γ(α + β) α−1 V α−1 (1 − V )β−1

P (V ) = V (1 − V )β−1 = Z 1 (20.1-107)
Γ(α)Γ(β)
V α−1 (1 − V )β−1 dV
0

where Γ( ) is the Gamma function, α and β depend on m, the mean value of the quantity
in question, and its variance, σ 2 :
!
m(1 − m)
α=m −1 (20.1-108)
σ2
!
m(1 − m)
β = (1 − m) −1 (20.1-109)
σ2

The beta function requires that the independent variable V assume values between 0 and
1. Thus, field variables such as temperature must be normalized. See Section 20.1.10: Set-
ting Turbulence Parameters for information on using the beta PDF when using single-
mixture fraction models and two-mixture fraction models.

The Calculation Method for σ 2

The variance, σ 2 , can be computed by solving a transport equation during the combustion
calculation stage. This approach is computationally intensive and is not applicable for
a postprocessing treatment of NOx prediction. Instead, calculation of σ 2 is based on an
approximate form of the variance transport equation.
A transport equation for the variance σ 2 can be derived:

∂  2 µt 
 
ρσ + ∇ · (ρ~v σ 2 ) = ∇ ∇σ 2 + Cg µt (∇m)2 − Cd ρ σ 2 (20.1-110)
∂t σt k
where the constants σt , Cg and Cd take the values 0.85, 2.86, and 2.0, respectively.
Assuming equal production and dissipation of variance, one gets
 !2 !2 !2 
µt k Cg µt k Cg  ∂m ∂m ∂m
σ2 = (∇m)2 = + +  (20.1-111)
ρ  Cd ρ  Cd ∂x ∂y ∂z

The term in the brackets is the dissipation rate of the independent variable.
For a PDF in mixture fraction, the mixture fraction variance has already been solved as
part of the basic combustion calculation, so no additional calculation for σ 2 is required.

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 20.1 NOx Formation

20.1.10 Using the NOx Model

Decoupled Analysis: Overview
NOx concentrations generated in combustion systems are generally low. As a result, NOx
chemistry has negligible influence on the predicted flow field, temperature, and major
combustion product concentrations. It follows that the most efficient way to use the NOx
model is as a postprocessor to the main combustion calculation.
The recommended procedure is as follows:

1. Calculate your combustion problem using FLUENT as usual.

i If you plan to use the FLUENT SNCR model for NOx reduction, you will
first need to include ammonia or urea (depending upon which reagent is
employed) as a fluid species in the main combustion calculation and define
appropriate ammonia injections, as described later in this section. See
Section 14.1.4: Defining the Species in the Mixture for details about adding
species to your model and Section 22.12: Setting Initial Conditions for the
Discrete Phase for details about creating injections.
2. Activate the desired NOx models (thermal, fuel, and/or prompt NOx , with or with-
out reburn) and set the appropriate parameters, as described in this section.
Define −→ Models −→ Species −→NOx...

3. Define the boundary conditions for NO (and HCN, NH3 , or N2 O if necessary) at

flow inlets.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...
4. In the Solution Controls panel, turn off the solution of all variables except species
NO (and HCN, NH3 , or N2 O, based on the model selected).
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
5. Perform calculations until convergence (i.e., until the NO (and HCN, NH3 , or N2 O,
if solved) species residuals are below 10−6 ) to ensure that the NO and HCN or NH3
concentration fields are no longer evolving.
Solve −→Iterate...
6. Review the mass fractions of NO (and HCN, NH3 , or N2 O) with alphanumerics
and/or graphics tools in the usual way.
7. Save a new set of case and data files, if desired.

Inputs specific to the calculation of NOx formation are explained in the remainder of this
section.

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Activating the NOx Models

To activate the NOx models and set related parameters, you will use the NOx Model
panel (e.g., Figure 20.1.3).
Define −→ Models −→ Species −→NOx...

Figure 20.1.3: The NOx Model Panel

In the Formation tab, select the NOx models under Pathways to be used in the calculation
of the NO and HCN, NH3 , or N2 O concentrations:

• To enable thermal NOx , turn on the Thermal NO option.

• To enable prompt NOx , turn on the Prompt NO option.
• To enable fuel NOx , turn on the Fuel NO option.
• To enable the formation of NOx through an N2 O intermediate, turn on the N2O
Intermediate option. (Note that the N2O Intermediate option will not appear until
you have activated one of the other NO models listed above.)

Your selection(s) under Pathways will activate the calculation of thermal, prompt, fuel,
and/or N2 O-intermediate NOx in accordance with the chemical kinetic models described
in Sections 20.1.3–20.1.6. Mean NO formation rates will be computed directly from mean
concentrations and temperature in the flow field.

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 20.1 NOx Formation

Setting Thermal NOx Parameters

The NOx routines employ three methods for calculation of thermal NOx (as described
in Section 20.1.3: Method 1: Equilibrium Approach). You will specify the method to be
used in the Thermal tab, under Formation Model Parameters in the NOx Model panel:

• To choose the equilibrium method, select equilibrium in the [O] Model drop-down
list.

• To choose the partial equilibrium method, select partial-equilibrium in the [O] Model
or [OH] Model drop-down list.

• To use the predicted O and/or OH concentration, select instantaneous in the [O]

Model or [OH] Model drop-down list.

i Note that the urea model uses the [OH] model.

Setting Prompt NOx Parameters

Prompt NO formation is predicted using Equations 20.1-25 and 20.1-27. The parameters
are entered in the Prompt tab under Formation Model Parameters in the NOx Model panel
in the following manner:

• Specify which of the defined specie(s) is (are) the fuel by choosing it in the Fuel
Species list. A maximum of 10 prompt fuel species can be selected.

• Set the Fuel Carbon Number (number of carbon atoms per fuel molecule).

• Set the Equivalence Ratio as follows:

actual fuel-to-air ratio

Equivalence Ratio =
stoichiometric fuel-to-air ratio
For any carbon number, Cn , the limits of the Equivalence Ratio are such that, if
it is greater than 1.57, then limit the Equivalence Ratio to 1.57. If Cn is less than
or equal to 4, then an additional limit is applied. When the Equivalence Ratio is
between 0.365 and 0.685, the midpoint value is computed, which is 0.525. Thus for
Equivalence Ratio values below the midpoint value, set the value to the lower limit
and for an Equivalence Ratio above the midpoint value, set the value to the upper
limit). These limits are purely mathematical and only guarantee positive prompt
NO rates.

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Setting Fuel NOx Parameters

For fuel NOx models, you will first need to specify the fuel type in the Fuel tab under
Model Parameters in the following manner:

• For solid fuel NOx , select Solid under Fuel Type.

• For liquid fuel NOx , select Liquid under Fuel Type.

• For gaseous fuel NOx , select Gas under Fuel Type.

Note that you can use only one of the fuel models at a time. The Gas option is available
only with the finite-rate and eddy break-up (EBU) chemistry models are active (see
Section 14.1.3: Enabling Species Transport and Reactions and Choosing the Mixture
Material).

Setting Gaseous and Liquid Fuel NOx Parameters

If you have selected Gas or Liquid as the Fuel Type, you will also need to specify the
following:

• For a gaseous fuel, select the Fuel Species from the drop-down list.

• Select the intermediate species (hcn, nh3, or hcn/nh3/no) in the N Intermediate

drop-down list.

• Set the correct mass fraction of nitrogen in the fuel (kg nitrogen per kg fuel) in the
Fuel N Mass Fraction field.

• If you selected hcn/nh3/no as the intermediate, you will need to set the following
values:
– Specify the overall fraction of the fuel N, by mass, that will be converted to
the intermediate species and/or product NO in the Conversion Fraction field.
The Conversion Fraction for the N Intermediate has a default value of 1. Thus,
any remaining N will not contribute to NOx formation. This is based on the
assumption that the remaining volatile N will convert to gas phase nitrogen.
However, this has very little effect on the overall mass fraction of gas phase
nitrogen. Therefore, you do not have to solve for nitrogen species when solving
pollutant transport equations.
– Specify the fraction of the converted fuel N, by mass, that will become hcn
and nh3 under Partition Fractions. The fraction of fuel N that will become NO
will be calculated by the remainder.

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 20.1 NOx Formation

Note that setting a partition fraction of 0 for both HCN and NH3 is equivalent to
assuming that all fuel N is converted to the final product NO, whereas a partition
fraction of 0 for HCN and 1 for NH3 is the same as selecting nh3 as the intermediate.

FLUENT will use Equations 20.1-29 and 20.1-30 (for HCN) or Equations 20.1-40 and
20.1-41 (for NH3 ) to predict NO formation for a gaseous or liquid fuel.

Setting Solid (Coal) Fuel NOx Parameters

For solid fuel, FLUENT will use Equations 20.1-54 and 20.1-55 (for HCN) or Equa-
tions 20.1-61 and 20.1-62 (for NH3 ) to predict NO formation. Several inputs are required
for the coal fuel NOx model as follows:

• Select the intermediate species (hcn, nh3, or hcn/nh3/no) in the N Intermediate

drop-down list.

• Specify the mass fraction of nitrogen in the volatiles in the Volatile N Mass Fraction
field.

• If you selected hcn/nh3/no as the volatile N intermediate, you will need to set the
following values:
– Specify the overall fraction of the volatile N, by mass, that will be converted to
the intermediate species and/or product NO in the Conversion Fraction field.
– Specify the fraction of the converted volatile N, by mass, that will become hcn
and nh3 under Partition Fractions. The fraction of volatile N that will become
NO will be calculated by the remainder.

• Select the char N conversion path from the Char N Conversion drop-down list as
no, hcn, nh3, or hcn/nh3/no. Note that hcn or nh3 can be selected only if the
same species has been selected as the intermediate species in the N Intermediate
drop-down list.

• Specify the mass fraction of nitrogen in the char in the Char N Mass Fraction field.

• If you selected hcn/nh3/no as the char N conversion, you will need to set the
following values:
– Specify the overall fraction of the char N, by mass, that will be converted to
the intermediate species and/or product NO in the Conversion Fraction field.
– Specify the fraction of the converted char N, by mass, that will become hcn
and nh3 under Partition Fractions. The fraction of char N that will become NO
will be calculated by the remainder.

• Define the BET internal pore surface area (see Section 20.1.5: BET Surface Area
for details) of the particles in the BET Surface Area field.

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The following equations are used to determine the mass fraction of nitrogen in the
volatiles and char:

ṁNv/c = ṁv/c · mfNv/c (20.1-112)

where
ṁNv/c = rate of release of fuel nitrogen in kg/s
ṁv/c = rate of release of volatiles (v) or char (c) in kg/s
mfNv/c = mass fraction of nitrogen in volatiles or char
Let
PN v = percentage by mass rate of nitrogen in volatiles
PN c = percentage by mass rate of nitrogen in char
T Nf uel = percentage by mass of nitrogen in fuel (daf)
Nsplit = split of nitrogen between volatiles and char
Fvol = mass fraction of volatiles in coal (daf)
Fchar = mass fraction of char in coal (daf)
Then the following should hold:

Fvol + Fchar = 1.0 (20.1-113)

PN v
= Nsplit (20.1-114)
PN c

(Fvol · PNv ) + (Fchar · PNc ) = T Nf uel (20.1-115)

T Nf uel
PN c = (20.1-116)
(Fvol · Nsplit ) + Fchar

i Note that if water is assumed to release at the same rate as volatiles, the
above calculation has to be slightly modified.

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 20.1 NOx Formation

Setting N2 O Pathway Parameters

The formation of NO through an N2 O intermediate can be predicted by two methods.
You will specify the method to be used in the N2O Path tab.

• To choose the quasi-steady state method, select quasi-steady in the N2O Model
drop-down list.

i The transport equation for the species N2 O will not be solved for N2 O,
however, N2 O will be updated at every iteration. Therefore, the residual
values that appear for N2 O are always zero. Do not be alarmed if the solver
keeps printing zero at each iteration.
• To choose the simplified form of the N2 O-intermediate mechanism, select transported-
simple in the N2O Model drop-down list. Here, the species N2 O is added to the list
of pollutant species, and its mass fraction is solved via a transport equation.

The atomic O concentration will be calculated according to the thermal NOx [O] Model
that you have specified previously. If you have not selected the Thermal NO pathway,
then you will be given the option to specify an [O] Model for the N2 O pathway calculation.
The same three options for the thermal NOx [O] Model will be the available options.

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Setting Parameters for NOx Reburn

To enable NOx reduction by reburning, click the Reduction tab in the NOx Model panel
and enable the Reburn option under Methods. In the expanded portion of the panel, as
shown in Figure 20.1.4, click the Reburn tab under Reduction Method Parameters, where
you can choose from the following options:

Figure 20.1.4: The NOx Panel Displaying the Reburn Reduction Method

• To choose the instantaneous method, select instantaneous [CH] in the Reburn Model
drop-down list.

i When you use this method, you must be sure to include the species CH,
CH2 , and CH3 in your problem definition. See Section 20.1.7: NOx Reduc-
tion by Reburning for details.
• To choose the partial equilibrium method, select partial-equilibrium in the Reburn
Model drop-down list. You will then need to select the Reburn Fuel Species from the
list of available species. FLUENT will allow you select up to 5 reburn fuel species.
Specify the Equivalent Fuel Type (ch4, ch3, ch2, or ch). For example, if you choose
methane as the reburn fuel, then the Equivalent Fuel Type would be ch4. If you
choose a reburn fuel such as hv vol (a volatile component of coal), then you must
specify the most appropriate equivalent hydrocarbon fuel type so that the partial
equilibrium model will be activated correctly.

• Due to coal volatiles behaving very differently, it is important to select the correct
equivalent fuel type. You must first consider the volatile fuel composition, then
check the C/H ratio to find the fuel which most closely matches CH, CH2 , CH3 ,
or CH4 [213]. How the equivalent fuel is determined is still debatable, however,
considering the C/H ratio of the fuel itself is a reasonable indicator.

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 20.1 NOx Formation

Setting SNCR Parameters

Prior to enabling reduction by SNCR, make sure that you have included in the species list
nh3 (for reduction by ammonia injection) and co<nh2>2 (for reduction by urea injection).
Refer to Section 20.1.8: NOx Reduction by SNCR for detailed information about SNCR
theory.
To enable NOx reduction by SNCR, click the Reduction tab in the NOx Model panel and
enable the SNCR option under Methods, as shown in Figure 20.1.5. Click the SNCR tab
under Reduction Method Parameters, where you can choose from the following options:

Figure 20.1.5: The NOx Panel Displaying the Reburn Reduction Method

• To have ammonia or urea included as a gas-phase pollutant species from the injec-
tion locations, select gaseous in the Injection Method drop-down list.
If you plan to select this option for NOx postprocessing, then you must also include
ammonia or urea as a gas-phase species. Additionally, you will need to specify
the mass fraction of ammonia or urea at the respective inlet for the SNCR injec-
tion. You must include this set of inputs prior to the main FLUENT combustion
calculation.

• To have ammonia included as a liquid-phase pollutant species from the injection

locations, select liquid in the Injection Method drop-down list. If urea is injected as a
liquid solution, then select liquid in the Injection Method drop-down list. Note that
you must activate the DPM model with urea or ammonia included as a material.

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If you plan to select this option for NOx postprocessing, then you must include NH3
as both a gas-phase and liquid-phase species. Additionally, you will need to specify
injection locations for liquid droplet ammonia particles and set gaseous ammonia
as the evaporation species. You need to include this set of inputs in conjunction
with the main FLUENT combustion calculation.
Since urea is a subliming solid, and usually is injected as a solution, mixed in
water, you have to define solid properties for urea under the materials panel. We
assume that the water evaporates before urea begins its subliming process. The
sublimation process is modeled similar to the single rate devolatilization model of
coal. You will supply the value for the sublimation rate (s−1 ). You must specify
the water content while defining the injection properties.

• Specify the SNCR Reagent Species as nh3 (ammonia) or co<nh2>2 (urea) in the
drop-down list.

• If the Reagent Species selected is co<nh2>2, then you will either accept the rate-
limiting option for Urea Decomposition, or specify the NH3 Conversion value when
selecting a user-specified Urea Decomposition.
You will use the urea decomposition under the SNCR tab to define which of the
two decomposition models is to be used. The first model (which is the default) is
the rate-limiting decomposition model, as given in Table 20.1.3. FLUENT will then
calculates the source terms according to the rates given in Table 20.1.3. The second
model is for the user who assumes urea decomposes instantly into ammonia and
HNCO at a given proportion. In this case, you will specify the molar conversion
fraction for ammonia, assuming that the rest of the urea is converted to HNCO.
An example value is given above.
The value for user-specified nh3 conversion is the mole fraction of nh3 in the mixture
of nh3/hnco instantly created from the reagent injection. In this case, there is no
urea source because all of reagent is assumed to convert to both nh3 and hnco,
instantly.

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Setting Turbulence Parameters

If you want to take into account turbulent fluctuations (as described in Section 20.1.9: NOx
Formation in Turbulent Flows) when you compute the specified NO formation (thermal,
prompt, and/or fuel, with or without reburn), click the Turbulence Interaction tab and
select one of the options in the PDF Mode drop-down list under Turbulence Interaction
Mode.

Figure 20.1.6: The NOx Model Panel and the Turbulence Interaction Tab

• Select temperature to take into account fluctuations of temperature.

• Select temperature/species to take into account fluctuations of temperature and

mass fraction of the species selected in the Species drop-down list (which appears
when you select this option).

• (nonpremixed combustion calculations only) Select mixture fraction to take into

account fluctuation in the mixture fraction(s).

The mixture fraction option is available only if you are using the nonpremixed combustion
model to model the reacting system. If you use the mixture fraction option, the instanta-
neous temperatures and species concentrations are taken from the PDF look-up table as a
function of mixture fraction and enthalpy and the instantaneous NOx rates are calculated
at each cell. The PDF used for convoluting the instantaneous NOx rates is the same as

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Modeling Pollutant Formation

the one used to compute the mean flowfield properties. For example, for single-mixture
fraction models the beta PDF is used, and for two-mixture fraction models, the beta or
the double delta PDF can be used. The PDF in mixture fraction is calculated from the
values of mean mixture fraction and variance at each cell, and the instantaneous NOx
rates are convoluted with the mixture fraction PDF to yield the mean rates in turbulent
flow.

Number of Beta Points

You can, optionally, adjust the number of Beta PDF Points. The default value of 10,
indicating that the beta function in Equation 20.1-104 or Equation 20.1-105 will be inte-
grated at 10 points on a histogram basis, will yield an accurate solution with reasonable
computation time. Increasing this value may improve accuracy, but will also increase the
computation time. This option is not available when you select mixture fraction in the
PDF Mode drop-down list under Turbulence Interaction Mode. In this case, the mixture
fraction points defined in the PDF table will be used.

Specifying a User-Defined Function for the NOx Rate

You can, optionally, choose to specify a user-defined function for the rate of NOx produc-
tion. The rate returned from the UDF is added to the rate returned from the standard
NOx production options, if any are selected. However, if you would like to replace any
or all of FLUENT’s NOx rate calculations with your own user-defined NOx rate, you can
enable the Replace with UDF Rate option for the appropriate NOx formation pathway(s)
after loading the UDF file.
In the Formation tab, select the desired function in the NOx Rate drop-down list under
User-Defined Functions. See the separate UDF Manual for details about user-defined
functions.

Defining Boundary Conditions for the NOx Model

At flow inlet boundaries, you will need to specify the Pollutant NO Mass Fraction, and if
necessary, the Pollutant HCN Mass Fraction, Pollutant NH3 Mass Fraction, and Pollutant
N2O Mass Fraction.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...
You can retain the default inlet values of zero for these quantities or you can input
nonzero numbers as appropriate for your combustion system.

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 20.1 NOx Formation

20.1.11 Solution Strategies

To solve for NOx products, perform the following steps:

• (optional) If the discrete phase model (DPM) is activated (by turning on the In-
teraction with Continuous Phase) to run with the NOx model, then set the Number
of Continuous Phase Iterations per DPM Iteration to 0 such that no DPM iterations
are performed as the NOx case is being solved.

• In the Solution Controls panel, turn off the solution of all variables except species
NO (and HCN, NH3 , or N2 O, based on the model selected).
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

• Also in the Solution Controls panel, set a suitable value for the NO (and HCN, NH3 ,
or N2 O, if appropriate) under-relaxation. A value of 0.95 is suggested, although
lower values may be required for certain problems (i.e., if convergence cannot be
obtained, try a lower under-relaxation value).

• In the Residual Monitors panel, decrease the convergence criterion for NO (and
HCN, NH3 , or N2 O, if appropriate) to 10−6 .
Solve −→ Monitors −→Residual...

• Perform calculations until convergence (i.e., until the NO (and HCN, NH3 , or N2 O,
if solved) species residuals are below 10−6 ) to ensure that the NO and HCN or NH3
concentration fields are no longer evolving.
Solve −→Iterate...

i When you begin iterating with the NOx model enabled, FLUENT may
report that the solution has converged after the first iteration. This is
due to the lack of significant levels of pollutants in the solution. You can
force FLUENT to continue iterating by repeated iteration requests. Once
pollutants appear in the solution, FLUENT will continue iterating on its
own until a steady solution is achieved.

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20.1.12 Postprocessing
When you compute NOx formation, the following additional variables will be available
for postprocessing:

• Mass fraction of Pollutant no

• Mass fraction of Pollutant hcn (appropriate fuel NOx model only)

• Mass fraction of Pollutant nh3 (appropriate fuel NOx model only)

• Mass fraction of Pollutant n2o (N2 O-intermediate model only)

• Mass fraction of Pollutant urea (SNCR urea injection)

• Mass fraction of Pollutant hnco (SNCR urea injection)

• Mass fraction of Pollutant nco (SNCR urea injection)

• Mole fraction of Pollutant no

• Mole fraction of Pollutant hcn (appropriate fuel NOx model only)

• Mole fraction of Pollutant nh3 (appropriate fuel NOx model only)

• Mole fraction of Pollutant n2o (N2 O-intermediate model only)

• Mole fraction of Pollutant urea (SNCR urea injection)

• Mole fraction of Pollutant hnco (SNCR urea injection)

• Mole fraction of Pollutant nco (SNCR urea injection)

• no Density

• hcn Density (appropriate fuel NOx model only)

• nh3 Density (appropriate fuel NOx model only)

• n2o Density (N2 O-intermediate model only)

• urea Density (SNCR urea injection)

• hnco Density (SNCR urea injection)

• nco Density (SNCR urea injection)

• Rate of no (from the individual pathways)

• Rate of hcn (appropriate fuel NOx model only)

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 20.2 SOx Formation

• Rate of nh3 (appropriate fuel NOx model only)

• Rate of n2o (N2 O-intermediate model only)

• Rate of urea (SNCR urea injection)

• Rate of hnco (SNCR urea injection)

• Rate of nco (SNCR urea injection)

These variables are contained in the NOx... category of the variable selection drop-down
list that appears in postprocessing panels. Additional NO rates from individual pathways,
Thermal, Prompt, Fuel, N20 Path, and SNCR can be plotted.

20.2 SOx Formation

The following sections include information on the theory used in the SOx model, reaction
mechanisms employed, and how to set up the SOx model.

• Section 20.2.1: Overview

• Section 20.2.2: Governing Equations for SOx Transport

• Section 20.2.3: Reaction Mechanisms for Sulfur Oxidation

• Section 20.2.4: SO2 and H 2 S Production in a Gaseous Fuel

• Section 20.2.5: SO2 and H 2 S Production in a Liquid Fuel

• Section 20.2.6: SO2 and H 2 S Production from Coal

• Section 20.2.7: SOx Formation in Turbulent Flows

• Section 20.2.8: Using the SOx Model

• Section 20.2.9: Solution Strategies

• Section 20.2.10: Postprocessing

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20.2.1 Overview
Sulfur exists in coal as organic sulfur, pyretic and sulfates [1], and exists in liquid fu-
els mostly in organic form [249], in compositions ranging from 0.5% to 3%. All SOx
emissions are produced because of the oxidation of fuel-bound sulfur. During the com-
bustion process, fuel sulfur is oxidized to SO2 and SO3 . A portion of the gaseous SOx
will condense on the particles, attaching an amount of water and thus forming sulfuric
acid, or may react further to form sulfates. While SOx emissions are the main cause of
acid rain, SO3 also contributes to particulate emissions, and is responsible for corrosion
of combustion equipment. Furthermore, there is a growing interest in the interaction
of sulfur species with the nitrogen oxide chemistry [249], as NO levels are affected by
the presence of sulfur species. The evidence to date indicates that thermal NO levels
(Section 20.1.3: Thermal NOx Formation) are reduced in the presence of SO2 . However,
the effect of sulfur compounds on the fuel NOx formation is yet to be clarified.
Sulfur emissions are regulated from stationary sources and from automotive fuels. Sul-
fur pollutants can be captured during the combustion process, or with after treatment
methods, such as wet or dry scrubbing. Coal fired boilers are by far the biggest single
SOx emissions source, accounting for over 50% of total SO2 emissions [60].
For higher sulfur concentrations in the fuel, the SOx concentration field should be resolved
together with the main combustion calculation using any of the FLUENT reaction models.
For cases where the sulfur fraction in fuel is low, a generalized post-processing option
could be developed based on the solution of transport equations for H 2 S, SO2 , SO, SH,
and SO3 .

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 20.2 SOx Formation

The Formation of SOx

The SOx model will incorporate the following stages:

1. sulfur release from the fuel

For liquid fuels, one can conveniently assume that sulfur is released as H2 S [249].
However, the process is more complicated in the case of coal; here some of the
sulfur is decomposed into the gas phase during devolatilization as H 2 S, COS, SO2
and CS2 , while part of the sulfur is retained in the char to be oxidized at a later
stage. The percentage of sulfur retained in char is rank dependent [1].

2. sulfur reaction in the gas phase

In oxygen rich flames the predominant sulfur species are SO, SO2 and SO3 . At lower
oxygen concentrations H 2 S, S2 and SH are also present in significant proportions,
while SO3 becomes negligible [249]. In PCGC-3 as well as in the works of Norman
et al. [265] the gas phase sulfur species are assumed to be in equilibrium.

3. sulfur retention in sorbents

Sulfur pollutants can be absorbed by sorbent particles, injected either in situ, or in
the post flame region.

For low sulfur fuels, we can assume that sulfur is mainly released as H 2 S. The rate
of release can be determined similarly to that of fuel-bound N. For the char S it can
be assumed that SO2 is produced directly at the same rate as that of char burnout.
Transport equations for H 2 S, SO2 , SO, SH, and SO3 species are incorporated and an
appropriate reaction set has been developed as described in the ensuing sections.

20.2.2 Governing Equations for SOx Transport

FLUENT solves the mass transport equations for the SO2 species, taking into account
convection, diffusion, production and consumption of SO2 and related species. This
approach is completely general, being derived from the fundamental principle of mass
conservation. The effect of residence time in SOx mechanisms, a Lagrangian reference
frame concept, is included through the convection terms in the governing equations writ-
ten in the Eulerian reference frame. If all fuel sulfur is assumed to convert directly to
SO2 and the other product and intermediate species and assumed negligible, then only
the SO2 species transport equation is needed:

∂
(ρYSO2 ) + ∇ · (ρ~v YSO2 ) = ∇ · (ρD∇YSO2 ) + SSO2 (20.2-1)
∂t

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As discussed in Section 20.2.3: Reaction Mechanisms for Sulfur Oxidation, SOx formation
mechanisms are more involved. The tracking of sulfur-containing intermediate species is
important. FLUENT solves a transport equation for the H 2 S, SO3 , SO, and SH species
in addition to the SO2 species:

∂
(ρYH2 S ) + ∇ · (ρ~v YH2 S ) = ∇ · (ρDYH2 S ) + SH2 S (20.2-2)
∂t

∂
(ρYSO3 ) + ∇ · (ρ~v YSO3 ) = ∇ · (ρDYSO3 ) + SSO3 (20.2-3)
∂t

∂
(ρYSO ) + ∇ · (ρ~v YSO ) = ∇ · (ρDYSO ) + SSO (20.2-4)
∂t

∂
(ρYSH ) + ∇ · (ρ~v YSH ) = ∇ · (ρDYSH ) + SSH (20.2-5)
∂t
where YSO2 , YH2 S , YSO3 , YSO , and YSH are mass fractions of SO2 , H 2 S, SO3 , SO, and SH
in the gas phase. The source terms SSO2 , SH2 S , SSO3 , SSO , and SSH are to be determined
depending on the form of fuel sulfur release (SO2 and/or H 2 S) and inclusion of SO3 , SO
and SH in the SOx mechanism.

20.2.3 Reaction Mechanisms for Sulfur Oxidation

A detailed reaction mechanism for sulfur oxidation has been proposed by Kramlich [187].
The mechanism consists of 20 reversible reactions and includes 12 species (S, S2 , SH, SO,
SO2 , H 2 S, H, H2 , OH, H 2 O, O and O2 ). However, such a detailed mechanism is not
practical for CFD applications unless used in a flamelet based model. An attempt was
made therefore to reduce the number of reactions and species to a manageable level while
predicting the major species concentration levels within acceptable tolerance. The need
to retain the minor intermediate species SH and SO has been the major constraint and
as such, an eight-step mechanism has been identified using PSR (a Fortran program for
modeling well stirred reactors with gas reactions) and SENKIN (a Fortran program for
predicting homogeneous gas phase chemical kinetics). The rationale behind the selection
of an eight-step mechanism was to remove species S and S2 from the detailed mechanism.
Table 20.2.1 lists the reduced mechanism, which has been developed in-house, with the
modified rate constants. For reduction calculations O and OH concentrations have been
calculated through partial equilibrium assumptions based on O2 and H 2 O concentrations
respectively. N2 was used as the dilutant. Since each reaction of the eight-step reduced
mechanism is reversible, for each adjacent pair of reactions given in Table 20.2.1, the
second reaction is in fact the reverse reaction of the first.
The reduced mechanism given in Table 20.2.1 closely follows the SO2 concentration
levels but slightly overpredicts the H 2 S concentrations at temperatures below 1500 K.

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 20.2 SOx Formation

Above 1500 K, both mechanisms are in close agreement for SO2 and H 2 S concentration
predictions. However, SO and SH are not well correlated by the reduced mechanism
when compared against the predictions using the original detailed mechanism.
A major concern in these mechanisms is the presence of H radical and the method in which
to calculate its concentration in the flow field. At present, the concentration of H radical
is assumed to be proportional to the O radical concentration, which can be evaluated from
one of the existing methods in FLUENT; viz. Partial Equilibrium (Section 20.1.3: Method
2: Partial Equilibrium Approach) or Equilibrium (Section 20.1.3: Method 1: Equilibrium
Approach). The user is then given the option to vary the proportionality constant.
Although this assumption is open to debate, the lack of simple relation to calculate the
H radical concentration in a flame has prompted the present choice.
Present implementation allows the user to either include or remove SO3 from the calcu-
lations. Also, depending on the form of fuel sulfur release (e.g., H 2 S or SO2 ) the species
H 2 S may or may not be present for the calculation. The user is also given the extended
option of partitioning the intermediate fuel sulfur species to H 2 S and SO2 . However,
there is no literature to guide the user on how to select a correct partition fraction.

Table 20.2.1: Eight-Step Reduced Mechanism (Rate Constant k =

AT b exp(−E/RT ))

Reaction A b E
H 2 S + H → SH + H2 1.819702E+07 0.0E+00 7.484300E+03
SH + H2 → H 2 S + H 9.375623E+06 0.0E+00 6.253660E+04
OH + H 2 S → H 2 O + SH 1.380385E+02 0.0E+00 3.742150E+03
H 2 O + SH → OH + H 2 S 3.104557E+07 0.0E+00 1.218543E+05
SO + OH → H + SO2 1.621810E+08 0.0E+00 2.565926E+03
H + SO2 → SO + OH 7.691299E+09 0.0E+00 1.187023E+05
SH + O → SO + H 3.548135E+08 0.0E+00 2.687316E+03
SO + H → SH + O 2.985385E+09 0.0E+00 1.694600E+05
O + H 2 S → SH + OH 4.365162E+03 0.0E+00 1.380493E+04
SH + OH → O + H 2 S 9.885528E+08 0.0E+00 6.035996E+04
SO + O2 → SO2 + O 4.466832E+05 0.0E+00 2.703222E+04
SO2 + O → SO + O2 1.663412E+06 0.0E+00 7.613643E+04
H + SH + M → H 2 S + M 1.096478E+03 0.0E+00 0.000000E+00
H 2 S + M → H + SH + M 8.669613E+14 0.0E+00 3.819463E+05
SO + O + M → SO2 + M 8.709647E+09 k -1.8E+00 0.000000E+00
SO2 + M → SO + O + M 1.905464E+14 0.0E+00 5.207365E+05

A is in m3 /gmol-s, E is J/gmol (assumed 1 cal = 4.18585 J), A units for the thirteenth
reaction is m6 /gmol2 -s, and A units for the fifteenth reaction is m6 /gmol2 -s.

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In addition, the following two reactions were included in FLUENT to complete the SOx
mechanism, with the rate constants taken from Hunter’s work [150].

SO2 + O + M ⇐⇒ SO3 + M (20.2-6)

M = argon, nitrogen, oxygen

kf 1 = 3.63 x 102 exp(+4185.85/RT) m6 /gmol2 /sec

where R = 8.313 J/gmol-K

kr1 = 7.41 x 1014 exp(-346123.75/RT) m3 /gmol/sec

SO3 + O ⇐⇒ SO2 + O2 (20.2-7)

kf 2 = 1.2 x 106 exp(-39765.575/RT) m3 /gmol/sec

The reverse rate of Equation 20.2-7 was determined through the equilibrium constant for
that equation.

20.2.4 SO2 and H 2 S Production in a Gaseous Fuel

The rate of SO2 or H 2 S production is equivalent to the rate of combustion of the fuel:

Rcf YS,fuel Mw,i

Spl,i = (20.2-8)
Mw,S

where Spl,i = source of i (kg/m3 -s), where i = SO2 or H 2 S

Rcf = mean limiting reaction rate of fuel (kg/m3 -s)
YS,fuel = mass fraction of sulfur in the fuel
The mean limiting reaction rate of fuel, Rcf , is calculated from the Magnussen combustion
model, so the gaseous fuel SOx option is available only when the generalized finite-rate
model is used.

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 20.2 SOx Formation

20.2.5 SO2 and H 2 S Production in a Liquid Fuel

The rate of SO2 or H 2 S production is equivalent to the rate of fuel release into the gas
phase through droplet evaporation:

Sfuel YS,fuel Mw,i

Spl,i = (20.2-9)
Mw,S V

where Spl,i = source of i (kg/m3 -s), where i = SO2 or H 2 S

Sfuel = rate of fuel release from the liquid droplets to the gas (kg/s)
YS,fuel = mass fraction of sulfur in the fuel
V = cell volume (m3 )

20.2.6 SO2 and H 2 S Production from Coal

For coal, it is assumed that sulfur is distributed between the volatiles and the char. Since
there is no reason to assume that S is equally distributed between the volatiles and the
char, the fraction of S in the volatiles and the char should be specified separately.

SO2 and H 2 S from Char

The source of SO2 and H 2 S from the char is related to the rate of char combustion:

Sc YS,char Mw,i
Schar,i = (20.2-10)
Mw,S V

where Sc = char burnout rate (kg/s)

Schar,i = source of i (kg/m3 -s) in char, where i = SO2 or H 2 S
YS,char = mass fraction of sulfur in char
V = cell volume (m3 )

SO2 and H 2 S from Volatiles

The source of SO2 and H 2 S from the volatiles is related to the rate of volatile release:

Svol YS,vol Mw,i

Svol,i = (20.2-11)
Mw,S V

where Svol,i = source of volatiles originating from

the coal particles into the gas phase (kg/s), where i = SO2 or H 2 S
YS,vol = mass fraction of sulfur in the volatiles
V = cell volume (m3 )

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20.2.7 SOx Formation in Turbulent Flows

The kinetic mechanisms of SOx formation and destruction are obtained from labora-
tory experiments in a similar fashion to the NOx model. In any practical combustion
system, however, the flow is highly turbulent. The turbulent mixing process results in
temporal fluctuations in temperature and species concentration that will influence the
characteristics of the flame.
The relationships among SOx formation rate, temperature, and species concentration are
highly nonlinear. Hence, if time-averaged composition and temperature are employed
in any model to predict the mean SOx formation rate, significant errors will result.
Temperature and composition fluctuations must be taken into account by considering
the probability density functions which describe the time variation.

The Turbulence-Chemistry Interaction Model

In turbulent combustion calculations, FLUENT solves the density-weighted time-averaged
Navier-Stokes equations for temperature, velocity, and species concentrations or mean
mixture fraction and variance. To calculate SO2 concentration, a time-averaged SO2
formation rate must be computed at each point in the domain using the averaged flow-
field information.

The PDF Approach

The PDF method has proven very useful in the theoretical description of turbulent
flow [164]. In the FLUENT SOx model, a single- or joint-variable PDF in terms of a
normalized temperature, species mass fraction, or the combination of both is used to
predict the SOx emission. If the nonpremixed combustion model is used to model com-
bustion, then a one- or two-variable PDF in terms of mixture fraction(s) is also available.
The mean values of the independent variables needed for the PDF construction are ob-
tained from the solution of the transport equations.

The Mean Reaction Rate

The mean turbulent reaction rate described in Section 20.1.9: The General Expression for
the Mean Reaction Rate for the NOx model also applies to the SOx model. The PDF is
used for weighting against the instantaneous rates of production of SO2 and subsequent
integration over suitable ranges to obtain the mean turbulent reaction rate as described
in Equations 20.1-104 and 20.1-105 for NOx .

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 20.2 SOx Formation

The Beta PDF Assumption

As is the case with the NOx model, P is assumed to be a two-moment beta function as
appropriate for combustion calculations [135, 245]. Equations 20.1-107 – 20.1-109 apply
to the SOx model as well, with the variance σ 2 computed by solving a transport equation
during the combustion calculation stage, using the approach outlined in the derivation
of Equation 20.1-110.

20.2.8 Using the SOx Model

When the sulfur content in the fuel is low, SOx concentrations that are generated in
combustion generally have minimal influence on the predicted flow field, temperature,
and major combustion product concentrations. The most efficient way to use the SOx
model is as a postprocessor to the main combustion calculation. However, if the sulfur
content is high, then SOx formation should be coupled with the gas phase combustion
process rather than treating it as a postprocessing step.
The procedure for activating and setting up the model is as follows:

1. Calculate your combustion problem using FLUENT.

2. Enable the SOx model by clicking the SOx Formation button and set the appropriate
parameters, as described in this section.
Define −→ Models −→ Species −→SOx...

Figure 20.2.1: The SOx Model Panel

3. Define the boundary conditions for SO2 and H 2 S (and SO3 , SH, or SO if necessary)
at flow inlets.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

4. In the Solution Controls panel, turn off the solution of all variables except species
SO2 and H 2 S (and SO3 , SH, or SO, based on your selections).
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

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5. Perform calculations until convergence (i.e., until the SO2 and H 2 S (and SO3 , SH,
or SO, if solved) species residuals are below 10−6 ) to ensure that the SO2 and H 2 S
concentration fields are no longer evolving.
Solve −→Iterate...

6. Review the mass fractions of SO2 and H 2 S (and SO3 , SH, or SO) with alphanu-
merics and/or graphics tools in the usual way.

7. Save a new set of case and data files, if desired.

Activating the SOx Model

To activate the SOx models and set related parameters, you will use the SOx Model panel
(e.g., Figure 20.2.1).
Define −→ Models −→ Species −→SOx...

Setting Fuel SOx Parameters

For fuel SOx models, you will first need to specify the Fuel Type under Model Parameters:

• For solid fuel SOx , select Solid under Fuel Type.

• For liquid fuel SOx , select Liquid under Fuel Type.

• For gaseous fuel SOx , select Gas under Fuel Type.

Note that you can use only one of the fuel models at a time. The Gas option is available
only when the Species Transport model is enabled (see Section 14.1.3: Enabling Species
Transport and Reactions and Choosing the Mixture Material).

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 20.2 SOx Formation

Figure 20.2.2: The SOx Model Panel Displaying Liquid Fuel Parameters

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Modeling Pollutant Formation

Setting Gaseous and Liquid Fuel SOx Parameters

If you have selected Gas or Liquid as the Fuel Type, you will also need to specify the
following:

• For gaseous fuels only, select the Fuel Species from the drop-down list.

• Select the intermediate species (h2s, so2, or h2s/so2) in the S Intermediate drop-
down list.

• Set the correct mass fraction of sulfur in the fuel (kg sulfur per kg fuel) in the Fuel
S Mass Fraction field.

• Specify the overall fraction of the fuel S, by mass, that will be converted to the
intermediate species and/or product SO2 in the Conversion Fraction field. Thus, any
remaining S will not contribute to SOx formation. This is based on the assumption
that the remaining volatile S will convert to gas phase sulfur. The Conversion
Fraction for the S Intermediate has a default value of 1.

• If you selected h2s/so2 as the intermediate, you will need to set the fraction of
the converted fuel S, by mass, that will become h2s under Partition Fractions. The
fraction of fuel S that will become SO2 will be calculated by the remainder.
Note that setting a partition fraction of 0 for H2 S is equivalent to assuming that
all fuel S is converted to the final product SO2 .

• You have the option of including SO3 as a product, and including SH and SO
as intermediates as described in Section 20.2.3: Reaction Mechanisms for Sulfur
Oxidation.

• Specify the method by which O and OH will be calculated. The SOx routines
employs three methods for reduction calculations of SOx :
– You can select equilibrium, partial-equilibrium, or instantaneous in the [O] Model
drop-down list.
– You can select none, partial-equilibrium, or instantaneous in the [OH] Model
drop-down list.

i To use the predicted O and/or OH concentration, select instantaneous in

the [O] Model or [OH] Model drop-down list.

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 20.2 SOx Formation

Setting Solid Fuel SOx Parameters

For solid fuel, several inputs are required for SOx model.

Figure 20.2.3: The SOx Model Panel Displaying Solid Fuel Parameters

• Select the intermediate species (h2s, so2, or h2s/so2) in the S Intermediate drop-
down list.

• Specify the mass fraction of sulfur in the volatiles in the Volatile S Mass Fraction
field.

• Specify the overall fraction of the volatile S, by mass, that will be converted to the
intermediate species and/or product SO2 in the Conversion Fraction field.

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• If you selected h2s/so2 as the volatile S intermediate, you will need to specify the
fraction of the converted volatile S, by mass, that will become h2s under Partition
Fractions. The fraction of volatile S that will become SO2 will be calculated by the
remainder.

• Select the char S conversion path from the Char S Conversion drop-down list as so2,
h2s, or so2/h2s.

• Specify the mass fraction of sulfur in the char in the Char S Mass Fraction field.

• Specify the overall fraction of the char S, by mass, that will be converted to the
intermediate species and/or product SO2 in the Conversion Fraction field.

• If you selected so2/h2s from the Char S Conversion drop-down list, you will need to
specify the fraction of the converted char S, by mass, that will become SO2 under
Partition Fractions. The fraction of char S that will become H2 S will be calculated
by the remainder.

• You have the option of including SO3 as a product, and including SH and SO
as intermediates as described in Section 20.2.3: Reaction Mechanisms for Sulfur
Oxidation.

• Specify the method by which O and OH will be calculated.

– You can select equilibrium, partial-equilibrium, or instantaneous in the [O] Model
drop-down list.
– You can select none, partial-equilibrium, or instantaneous in the [OH] Model
drop-down list.

i To use the predicted O and/or OH concentration, select instantaneous in

the [O] Model or [OH] Model drop-down list.

The following equations are used to determine the mass fraction of sulfur in the volatiles
and char

ṁSv/c = ṁv/c · mfSv/c (20.2-12)

where
ṁSv/c = rate of release of fuel sulfur in kg/s
ṁv/c = rate of release of volatiles (v) or char (c) in kg/s
mfSv/c = mass fraction of sulfur in volatiles or char

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 20.2 SOx Formation

Let
PSv = percentage by mass of sulfur in volatiles
PSc = percentage by mass of sulfur in char
T Sf uel = percentage by mass of sulfur in fuel (daf)
Ssplit = split of sulfur between volatiles and char
Fvol = mass fraction of volatiles in coal (daf)
Fchar = mass fraction of char in coal (daf)
Then the following should hold:

Fvol + Fchar = 1.0 (20.2-13)

PSv
= Ssplit (20.2-14)
PS c

(Fvol · PSv ) + (Fchar · PSc ) = T Sf uel (20.2-15)

T Sf uel
PSc = (20.2-16)
(Fvol · Ssplit ) + Fchar

i Note that if water is assumed to release at the same rate as volatiles, the
above calculation has to be slightly modified.

Setting Turbulence Parameters

If you want to take into account turbulent fluctuations when you compute the specified
SO2 formation, select one of the options in the PDF Mode drop-down list under Turbulence
Interaction.

• Select temperature to take into account fluctuations of temperature.

• Select temperature/species to take into account fluctuations of temperature and

mass fraction of the species selected in the Species drop-down list (which appears
when you select this option).

• (nonpremixed combustion calculations only) Select mixture fraction to take into

account fluctuation in the mixture fraction(s).

As explained in Section 20.1.10: Setting Turbulence Parameters, the mixture fraction

option is available only if you are using the nonpremixed combustion model to model the
reacting system.

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Figure 20.2.4: The SOx Model Panel for a Gas Fuel Type with Turbulence

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 20.2 SOx Formation

Number of Beta Points

You can, optionally, adjust the number of Beta PDF Points. The default value is 10,
indicating that the beta function in Equation 20.1-104 or Equation 20.1-105 will be inte-
grated at 10 points on a histogram basis, will yield an accurate solution with reasonable
computation time. Increasing this value may improve accuracy, but will also increase the
computation time. This option is not available when you select mixture fraction in the
PDF Mode drop-down list under Turbulence Interaction. In this case, the mixture fraction
points defined in the PDF table will be used.

Specifying a User-Defined Function for the SOx Rate

You can, optionally, choose to specify a user-defined function for the rate of SOx produc-
tion. The rate returned from the UDF is added to the rate returned from the standard
SOx production options, if any are selected. However, if you would like to replace any
or all of FLUENT’s SOx rate calculations with your own user-defined SOx rate, you can
turn on the Replace with UDF Rate option for the SOx formation after loading the UDF
file.
Select the desired function in the SOx Rate drop-down list under User-Defined Functions.
See the separate UDF Manual for details about user-defined functions.

Defining Boundary Conditions for the SOx Model

At flow inlet boundaries, you will need to specify the Pollutant SO Mass Fraction, and
if necessary, the Pollutant SH Mass Fraction, Pollutant H2S Mass Fraction, Pollutant SO3
Mass Fraction,and Pollutant SO2 Mass Fraction in the Species tab, as demonstrated in
Figure 20.2.5.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...
You can retain the default inlet values of zero for these quantities or you can input
nonzero numbers as appropriate for your combustion system.

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Figure 20.2.5: The Mass-Flow Inlet Panel and the Species Tab

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 20.2 SOx Formation

20.2.9 Solution Strategies

To solve for SOx products:

• (optional) If the discrete phase model (DPM) is activated (by turning on the In-
teraction with Continuous Phase to run with the SOx model, then set the Number
of Continuous Phase Iterations per DPM Iteration to 0 such that no DPM iterations
are performed as the SOx case is being solved.

• In the Solution Controls panel, turn off the solution of all variables except Pollutant
so2 and Pollutant h2s (and Pollutant so3, Pollutant sh, and Pollutant so, if applicable).
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

Figure 20.2.6: The Solution Controls Panel for SOx Equations

• Also in the Solution Controls panel, set suitable values for the pollutant SO2 and
H2 S (and SO3 , SH, and SO, if applicable) under-relaxation factors. A value of 0.95
is suggested, although lower values may be required for certain problems. That is,
if convergence cannot be obtained, try a lower under-relaxation value.

• Under Discretization select the desired scheme for each of the pollutants,SO2 and
H2 S (and SO3 , SH, and SO, if applicable)

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• In the Residual Monitors panel, decrease the convergence criterion for the pollutants,
SO2 and H2 S (and SO3 , SH, and SO, if applicable) to 10−6 .
Solve −→ Monitors −→Residual...

• Perform calculations until convergence (i.e., until the SO2 and H2 S (and SO3 , SH,
and SO) pollutant residuals are below 10−6 ) to ensure that the SO2 and H2 S (and
SO3 , SH, and SO) concentration fields are no longer evolving.

• Review the mass fractions of pollutants, SO2 and H2 S (and SO3 , SH, and SO) al-
phanumerics and/or graphics tools in as described in Section 20.2.10: Postprocessing.

20.2.10 Postprocessing
When you compute SOx formation, the following additional variables will be available
for postprocessing. They are contained in the SOx... category of the variable selection
drop-down list that appears in postprocessing panels.

• Mass fraction of pollutant so2

• Mass fraction of pollutant h2s

• Mass fraction of pollutant so3

• Mass fraction of pollutant sh

• Mass fraction of pollutant so

• Mole fraction of pollutant so2

• Mole fraction of pollutant h2s

• Mole fraction of pollutant so3

• Mole fraction of pollutant sh

• Mole fraction of pollutant so

• so2 Density

• h2s Density

• so3 Density

• sh Density

• so Density

• Rate of so2

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 20.3 Soot Formation

• Rate of h2s
• Rate of so3
• Rate of sh
• Rate of so

20.3 Soot Formation

Information about soot formation is presented in the following sections:

• Section 20.3.1: Overview and Limitations

• Section 20.3.2: Theory
• Section 20.3.3: Using the Soot Models

20.3.1 Overview and Limitations

FLUENT provides two empirical models for the prediction of soot formation in combustion
systems. In addition, the predicted soot concentration can be included in the prediction
of radiation absorption coefficients within the combustion system. You can include the
effect of soot on radiation absorption when you use the P-1, discrete ordinates, or discrete
transfer radiation model with a variable absorption coefficient.

Predicting Soot Formation

FLUENT predicts soot concentrations in a combustion system using one of two available
models:

• the single-step Khan and Greeves model [179], in which FLUENT predicts the rate
of soot formation based on a simple empirical rate.
• the two-step Tesner model [229, 373], in which FLUENT predicts the formation of
nuclei particles, with soot formation on the nuclei.

The Khan and Greeves model is the default model used by FLUENT when you include
soot formation. In both models, combustion of the soot (and particle nuclei) is assumed
to be governed by the Magnussen combustion rate [229]. Note that this limits the use
of the soot formation models to turbulent flows. Soot formation cannot be predicted by
FLUENT for laminar or inviscid flows.
Both soot formation models are empirically-based, approximate models of the soot for-
mation process in combustion systems. The detailed chemistry and physics of soot for-
mation are quite complex and are only approximated in the models used by FLUENT.
You should view the results of these models as qualitative indicators of your system
performance unless you can undertake experimental validation of the results.

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Restrictions on Soot Modeling

The following restrictions apply to soot formation models:

• You must use the pressure-based solver. The soot models are not available with
either of the density-based solvers.

• Soot formation can be modeled only for turbulent flows.

• The soot model cannot be used in conjunction with the premixed combustion model.

20.3.2 Theory
The Single-Step Soot Formation Model
In the single-step Khan and Greeves model [179], FLUENT solves a single transport
equation for the soot mass fraction:

∂ µt
 
(ρYsoot ) + ∇ · (ρ~v Ysoot ) = ∇ · ∇Ysoot + Rsoot (20.3-1)
∂t σsoot

where
Ysoot = soot mass fraction
σsoot = turbulent Prandtl number for soot transport
Rsoot = net rate of soot generation (kg/m3 -s)
Rsoot , the net rate of soot generation, is the balance of soot formation, Rsoot,form , and
soot combustion, Rsoot,comb :

Rsoot = Rsoot,form − Rsoot,comb (20.3-2)

The rate of soot formation is given by a simple empirical rate expression:

Rsoot,form = Cs pfuel φr e−E/RT (20.3-3)

where
Cs = soot formation constant (kg/N-m-s)
pfuel = fuel partial pressure (Pa)
φ = equivalence ratio
r = equivalence ratio exponent
E/R = activation temperature (K)

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 20.3 Soot Formation

The rate of soot combustion is the minimum of two rate expressions [229]:

Rsoot,comb = min[R1 , R2 ] (20.3-4)

The two rates are computed as


R1 = AρYsoot (20.3-5)
k
and

Yox Ysoot νsoot 

  
R2 = Aρ (20.3-6)
νsoot Ysoot νsoot + Yfuel νfuel k

where
A = constant in the Magnussen model
Yox , Yfuel = mass fractions of oxidizer and fuel
νsoot , νfuel = mass stoichiometries for soot and fuel combustion
The default constants for the single-step model are valid for a wide range of hydrocarbon
fuels.

The Two-Step Soot Formation Model

The two-step Tesner model [373] predicts the generation of radical nuclei and then com-
putes the formation of soot on these nuclei. FLUENT thus solves transport equations
for two scalar quantities: the soot mass fraction (Equation 20.3-1) and the normalized
radical nuclei concentration:

∂ µt
 
(ρb∗nuc ) + ∇ · (ρ~v b∗nuc ) = ∇ · ∇b∗ + R∗nuc (20.3-7)
∂t σnuc nuc

where
b∗nuc = normalized radical nuclei concentration (particles ×10−15 /kg)
σnuc = turbulent Prandtl number for nuclei transport
R∗nuc = normalized net rate of nuclei generation (particles ×10−15 /m3 -s)
In these transport equations, the rates of nuclei and soot generation are the net rates,
involving a balance between formation and combustion.

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Soot Generation Rate

The two-step model computes the net rate of soot generation, Rsoot , in the same way as
the single-step model, as a balance of soot formation and soot combustion:

Rsoot = Rsoot,form − Rsoot,comb (20.3-8)

In the two-step model, however, the rate of soot formation, Rsoot,form , depends on the
concentration of radical nuclei, cnuc :

Rsoot,form = mp (α − βNsoot )cnuc (20.3-9)

where
mp = mean mass of soot particle (kg/particle)
Nsoot = concentration of soot particles (particles/m3 )
cnuc = radical nuclei concentration = ρbnuc (particles/m3 )
α = empirical constant (s−1 )
β = empirical constant (m3 /particle-s)
The rate of soot combustion, Rsoot,comb , is computed in the same way as for the single-step
model, using Equations 20.3-4–20.3-6.
The default constants for the two-step model are for combustion of acetylene (C2 H2 ).
According to Ahmad et al. [5], these values should be modified for other fuels, since the
sooting characteristics of acetylene are known to be different from those of saturated
hydrocarbon fuels.

Nuclei Generation Rate

The net rate of nuclei generation in the two-step model is given by the balance of the
nuclei formation rate and the nuclei combustion rate:

R∗nuc = R∗nuc,form − R∗nuc,comb (20.3-10)

where
R∗nuc,form = rate of nuclei formation (particles ×10−15 /m3 -s)
R∗nuc,comb = rate of nuclei combustion (particles ×10−15 /m3 -s)

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 20.3 Soot Formation

The rate of nuclei formation, R∗nuc,form , depends on a spontaneous formation and branch-
ing process, described by

R∗nuc,form = η0 + (f − g)c∗nuc − g0 c∗nuc Nsoot (20.3-11)

η0 = a∗0 cfuel e−E/RT (20.3-12)

where
c∗nuc = normalized nuclei concentration (= ρb∗nuc )
a∗0 = a0 /1015
a0 = pre-exponential rate constant (particles/kg-s)
cfuel = fuel concentration (kg/m3 )
f −g = linear branching − termination coefficient (s−1 )
g0 = linear termination on soot particles (m3 /particle-s)
Note that the branching term, (f − g)c∗nuc , in Equation 20.3-11 is included only when
the kinetic rate, η0 , is greater than the limiting formation rate (105 particles/m3 -s, by
default).
The rate of nuclei combustion is assumed to be proportional to the rate of soot combus-
tion:

b∗nuc
R∗nuc,comb = Rsoot,comb (20.3-13)
Ysoot

where the soot combustion rate, Rsoot,comb , is given by Equation 20.3-4.

The Effect of Soot on the Radiation Absorption Coefficient

A description of the modeling of soot-radiation interaction is provided in Section 13.3.8: The
Effect of Soot on the Absorption Coefficient.

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20.3.3 Using the Soot Models

To compute the soot formation, you will need to start from a converged fluid-flow solution.
The procedure for setting up and solving a soot formation model is outlined below, and
described in detail on the pages that follow. Remember that only the steps that are
pertinent to soot modeling are shown here. For information about inputs related to
other models that you are using in conjunction with the soot formation model, see the
appropriate sections for those models.

1. Calculate your turbulent combustion (finite-rate or nonpremixed) problem using

FLUENT as usual.

2. Enable the desired soot formation model and set the related parameters, as de-
scribed in this section.
Define −→ Models −→ Species −→Soot...

3. In the Solution Controls panel, turn off solution of all variables except soot (and
nuclei, if you are using the two-step model).
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

4. Also in the Solution Controls panel, set a suitable value for the soot (and nuclei,
for the two-step model) under-relaxation factor(s). A value of 0.9 is suggested,
although a lower value may be required for certain problems. That is, if convergence
cannot be obtained, try a lower under-relaxation value.

5. In the Residual Monitors panel, decrease the convergence criterion for soot (and
nuclei, for the two-step model) to 10−5 .
Solve −→ Monitors −→Residual...

6. Define the boundary conditions for soot (and nuclei, for the two-step model) at
flow inlets.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

7. Perform calculations until convergence (i.e., until the soot—and nuclei, for the two-
step model—residual is below 10−5 ) to ensure that the soot (and nuclei) field is no
longer evolving.

8. Review the mass fraction of soot (and nuclei) with alphanumerics and/or graphics
tools in the usual way.

9. Save a new set of case and data files, if desired.

10. If you want to calculate a coupled solution for the soot and the flow field, turn on
the other variables again and recompute until convergence. (See the end of this
section for some advice on coupled calculations.)

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 20.3 Soot Formation

Selecting the Soot Model

You can enable the calculation of soot formation by selecting a soot model in the Soot
Model panel (Figure 20.3.1).
Define −→ Models −→ Species −→Soot...

Figure 20.3.1: The Soot Model Panel

Under Model, select either the One-Step or the Two-Step model. The panel will expand
to show the appropriate inputs for the selected model.
(If you want to include the effects of soot formation on the radiation absorption coefficient,
turn on the Generalized Model option under Soot-Radiation Interaction.)

Setting the Combustion Process Parameters

For both soot models, you will next define the Process Parameters, which depend on the
combustion process that you are modeling. These inputs include the stoichiometry of the
fuel and soot combustion and (for the two-step model only) the average size and density
of the soot particles:

Mean Diameter of Soot Particle and Mean Density of Soot Particle are the assumed av-
erage diameter and average density of the soot particles in the combustion sys-
tem, used to compute the soot particle mass, mp , in Equation 20.3-9 for the two-
step model. Note that the default values for soot density and diameter are taken
from [229].
These parameters will not appear when the one-step model is used.

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Stoichiometry for Soot Combustion is the mass stoichiometry, νsoot , in Equation 20.3-6,
which computes the soot combustion rate in both soot models. The default value
supplied by FLUENT (2.6667) assumes that the soot is pure carbon and that the
oxidizer is O2 .

Stoichiometry for Fuel Combustion is the mass stoichiometry, νfuel , in Equation 20.3-6,
which computes the soot combustion rate in both soot models. The default value
supplied by FLUENT (3.6363) is for combustion of propane (C3 H8 ) by oxygen (O2 ).

Defining the Fuel and Oxidizing Species

In addition to defining the stoichiometry for the fuel and soot combustion, you need
to tell FLUENT which chemical species in your model should be used as the fuel and
oxidizer. In the Soot Model panel under Species Definition, select the fuel in the Fuel
drop-down list and the oxidizer in the Oxidant drop-down list.
If you are using the nonpremixed model for the combustion calculation and your fuel
stream consists of a mixture of components, you should choose the most appropriate
species as the Fuel species for the soot formation model. Similarly, the most significant
oxidizing component (e.g., O2 ) should be selected as the Oxidant.

Setting Model Parameters for the Single-Step Model

When you choose the One-Step model for soot formation, the modeling parameters to be
defined are those used in Equations 20.3-3, 20.3-5, and 20.3-6:

Soot Formation Constant is the parameter Cs in Equation 20.3-3.

Equivalence Ratio Exponent is the exponent r in Equation 20.3-3.

Equivalence Ratio Minimum and Equivalence Ratio Maximum are the minimum and
maximum values of the fuel equivalence ratio φ in Equation 20.3-3. Equation 20.3-3
will be solved only if Equivalence Ratio Minimum < φ < Equivalence Ratio Maximum;
if φ is outside of this range, there is no soot formation.

Activation Temperature of Soot Formation Rate is the term E/R in Equation 20.3-3.

Magnussen Constant for Soot Combustion is the constant A used in the rate expres-
sions governing the soot combustion rate (Equations 20.3-5 and 20.3-6).

Note that the default values for these parameters are for propane fuel [63, 388], and are
considered to be valid for a wide range of hydrocarbon fuels.

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 20.3 Soot Formation

Setting Model Parameters for the Two-Step Model

When you choose the Two-Step model for soot formation, the modeling parameters to
be defined are those used in Equations 20.3-5, 20.3-6, 20.3-9, 20.3-11, and 20.3-12:

Limiting Nuclei Formation Rate is the limiting value of the kinetic nuclei formation rate
η0 in Equation 20.3-12. Below this limiting value, the branching and termination
term, (f − g) in Equation 20.3-11, is not included.

Nuclei Branching-Termination Coefficient is the term (f − g) in Equation 20.3-11.

Nuclei Coefficient of Linear Termination on Soot is the term g0 in Equation 20.3-11.

Pre-Exponential Constant of Nuclei Formation is the pre-exponential term a0 in the ki-

netic nuclei formation term, Equation 20.3-12.

Activation Temperature of Nuclei Formation Rate is the term E/R in the kinetic nuclei
formation term, Equation 20.3-12.

Constant Alpha for Soot Formation Rate is α, the constant in the soot formation rate
equation, Equation 20.3-9.

Constant Beta for Soot Formation Rate is β, the constant in the soot formation rate
equation, Equation 20.3-9.

Magnussen Constant for Soot and Nuclei Combustion is the constant A used in the rate
expressions governing the soot combustion rate (Equations 20.3-5 and 20.3-6).

The default values for the two-step model are the same as in Magnussen and Hjertager [229]
(for an acetylene flame), except for a0 , which is assumed to have the original value from
Tesner et al. [373]. If your model involves propane fuel rather that acetylene, it is rec-
ommended that you change the value of α to 3.5 × 108 [5]. For best results, you should
modify both of these parameters, using empirically determined inputs for your specific
combustion system.

Defining Boundary Conditions for the Soot Model

At flow inlet boundaries, you will need to specify the Soot Mass Fraction, Ysoot , in Equa-
tion 20.3-1, and (for the two-step model only) the Nuclei mass concentration, b∗nuc , in
Equation 20.3-7.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...
You can retain the default inlet values of zero for both quantities or you can input nonzero
numbers as appropriate for your combustion system.

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Calculating Coupled Soot Solutions

If you are calculating a coupled solution for the soot and the flow field, you will generally
need to increase the convergence criteria for soot (and nuclei, for the two-step model) to
10−4 . You may choose to keep the recommended value of 10−5 used for the uncoupled
soot calculation, but be aware that the coupled solution may not be able to converge to
this stricter tolerance.
For coupled calculations you should also use a lower under-relaxation factor for soot (and
nuclei, for the two-step model). A value of 0.2 will be suitable in most cases.
If you are calculating a coupled solution and you are modeling radiative heat transfer
using a variable absorption coefficient, you should enable the Generalized Model for Soot-
Radiation Interaction in the Soot Model panel. When this option is enabled, FLUENT will
include the effect of soot on the variable radiation absorption coefficient, as described in
Section 13.3.8: The Effect of Soot on the Absorption Coefficient.

Reporting Soot Quantities

FLUENT provides several additional reporting options when your model includes soot
formation. You can generate graphical plots or alphanumeric reports of the following
items:

• Mass fraction of Soot

• Mole fraction of Soot

• Soot Density

• Rate of Soot

• Normalised Concentration of Nuclei (two-step model only)

• Rate of Nuclei (two-step model only)

Both of these parameters are contained in the Soot... category of the variable selection
drop-down list that appears in postprocessing panels.

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Chapter 21. Predicting Aerodynamically Generated Noise

The discipline of acoustics, which is a study of pressure waves in fluids, is intimately

related to fluid dynamics. Many sounds that are technologically important in industrial
applications are generated by and propagated in fluid flows. The phenomena associ-
ated with sounds can therefore be understood and analyzed in the general framework of
fluid dynamics. The governing equations for acoustics are indeed the same as the ones
governing fluid flows.
The main challenge in numerically predicting sound waves stems from the well-recognized
fact that sounds have much lower energy than fluid flows, typically by several orders of
magnitude. This poses a great challenge to the computation of sounds in terms of diffi-
culty of numerically resolving sound waves, especially when one is interested in predicting
sound propagation to the far field. Another challenge comes from the difficulty of pre-
dicting the very flow phenomena (e.g., turbulence) in the near field that are responsible
for generating sounds.
This chapter provides an overview of FLUENT’s approaches to computing aerodynami-
cally generated sound, the underlying theories, the model setup, and the procedure for
computing sound.

• Section 21.1: Overview

• Section 21.2: Acoustics Model Theory

• Section 21.3: Using the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings Acoustics Model

• Section 21.4: Using the Broadband Noise Source Models

21.1 Overview
Considering the breadth of the discipline and the challenges encountered in comput-
ing sounds, it is not surprising that a number of computational approaches have been
proposed over the years whose sophistication, applicability, and cost widely vary.
FLUENT offers three approaches to computing sounds, a direct method, an integral
method based on acoustic analogy, and a method that utilizes broadband noise source
models.

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Predicting Aerodynamically Generated Noise

21.1.1 Direct Method

In this method, both generation and propagation of sound waves are directly computed
by solving the appropriate fluid dynamics equations. Prediction of sound waves always
requires time-accurate solutions to the governing equations. Furthermore, in most prac-
tical applications of the direct method, one has to employ governing equations that are
capable of modeling viscous and turbulence effects, such as unsteady Navier-Stokes equa-
tions (i.e., DNS), RANS equations, and filtered equations used in DES and LES.
The direct method is thus computationally difficult and expensive inasmuch as it requires
highly accurate numerics, very fine computational meshes all the way to receivers, and
acoustically nonreflecting boundary conditions. The computational cost becomes pro-
hibitive when sound is to be predicted in the far field (e.g., hundreds of chord-lengths in
the case of an airfoil). The direct method becomes feasible when receivers are in the near
field (e.g., cabin noise). In many such situations involving near-field sound, sounds (or
pseudo-sounds for that matter) are predominantly due to local hydrodynamic pressure
which can be predicted with a reasonable cost and accuracy.
Since sound propagation is directly resolved in this method, one normally needs to solve
the compressible form of the governing equations (e.g., compressible RANS equations,
compressible form of filtered equations for LES). Only in situations where the flow is low
subsonic and the receivers in the near field sense primarily local hydrodynamic pressure
fluctuations (i.e., pseudo sound) can incompressible flow formulations be used. But
this incompressible treatment will also not allow to simulate resonance and feedback
phenomena.

21.1.2 Integral Method Based on Acoustic Analogy

For predictions of mid- to far-field noise, the methods based on Lighthill’s acoustic anal-
ogy [209] offer viable alternatives to the direct method. In this approach, the near-field
flow obtained from appropriate governing equations such as unsteady RANS equations,
DES, or LES are used to predict the sound with the aid of analytically derived integral
solutions to wave equations. The acoustic analogy essentially decouples the propagation
of sound from its generation, allowing one to separate the flow solution process from the
acoustics analysis.
FLUENT offers a method based on the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings (FW-H) equation
and its integral solutions [105]. The FW-H formulation adopts the most general form
of Lighthill’s acoustic analogy, and is capable of predicting sound generated by equiv-
alent acoustic sources such as monopoles, dipoles, and quadrupoles. FLUENT adopts a
time-domain integral formulation wherein time histories of sound pressure, or acoustic
signals, at prescribed receiver locations are directly computed by evaluating a few surface
integrals.
Time-accurate solutions of the flow-field variables, such as pressure, velocity components,
and density on source (emission) surfaces, are required to evaluate the surface integrals.

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 21.1 Overview

Time-accurate solutions can be obtained from unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes

(URANS) equations, large eddy simulation (LES), or detached eddy simulation (DES) as
appropriate for the flow at hand and the features that you want to capture (e.g., vortex
shedding). The source surfaces can be placed not only on impermeable walls, but also on
interior (permeable) surfaces, which enables you to account for the contributions from
the quadrupoles enclosed by the source surfaces. Both broadband and tonal noise can be
predicted depending on the nature of the flow (noise source) being considered, turbulence
model employed, and the time scale of the flow resolved in the flow calculation.
The FW-H acoustics model in FLUENT allows you to select multiple source surfaces and
receivers. It also permits you either to save the source data for a future use, or to carry
out an “on the fly” acoustic calculation simultaneously as the transient flow calculation
proceeds, or both. Sound pressure signals thus obtained can be processed using the fast
Fourier transform (FFT) and associated postprocessing capabilities to compute and plot
such acoustic quantities as the overall sound pressure level (SPL) and power spectra.
One important limitation of FLUENT’s FW-H model is that it is applicable only to
predicting the propagation of sound toward free space. Thus, while the model can be
legitimately used to predict far-field noise due to external aerodynamic flows, such as
the flows around ground vehicles and aircrafts, it cannot be used for predicting the noise
propagation inside ducts or wall-enclosed space.

21.1.3 Broadband Noise Source Models

In many practical applications involving turbulent flows, noise does not have any distinct
tones, and the sound energy is continuously distributed over a broad range of frequencies.
In those situations involving broadband noise, statistical turbulence quantities readily
computable from RANS equations can be utilized, in conjunction with semi-empirical
correlations and Lighthill’s acoustic analogy, to shed some light on the source of broad-
band noise.
FLUENT offers several such source models that enable you to quantify the local contribu-
tion (per unit surface area or volume) to the total acoustic power generated by the flow.
They include the following:

• Proudman’s formula

• jet noise source model

• boundary layer noise source model

• source terms in the linearized Euler equations

• source terms in Lilley’s equation

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Predicting Aerodynamically Generated Noise

Considering that one would ultimately want to come up with some measures to mitigate
the noise generated by the flow in question, the source models can be employed to extract
useful diagnostics on the noise source to determine which portion of the flow is primarily
responsible for the noise generation. Note, however, that these source models do not
predict the sound at receivers.
Unlike the direct method and the FW-H integral method, the broadband noise source
models do not require transient solutions to any governing fluid dynamics equations. All
the source models need is what typical RANS models would provide, such as the mean
velocity field, turbulent kinetic energy (k) and the dissipation rate (ε). Therefore, the
use of broadband noise source models requires the least computational resources.

21.2 Acoustics Model Theory

This section describes the theoretical background for the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings
model and the broadband noise source models.

21.2.1 The Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings Model

The Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings (FW-H) equation is essentially an inhomogeneous
wave equation that can be derived by manipulating the continuity equation and the
Navier-Stokes equations. The FW-H [43, 105] equation can be written as:

1 ∂ 2 p0 2 0 ∂2
− ∇ p = {Tij H(f )}
a20 ∂t2 ∂xi ∂xj
∂
− {[Pij nj + ρui (un − vn )] δ(f )}
∂xi
∂
+ {[ρ0 vn + ρ (un − vn )] δ(f )} (21.2-1)
∂t

where
ui = fluid velocity component in the xi direction
un = fluid velocity component normal to the surface f = 0
vi = surface velocity components in the xi direction
vn = surface velocity component normal to the surface
δ(f ) = Dirac delta function
H(f ) = Heaviside function
p0 is the sound pressure at the far field (p0 = p − p0 ). f = 0 denotes a mathematical
surface introduced to “embed” the exterior flow problem (f > 0) in an unbounded space,
which facilitates the use of generalized function theory and the free-space Green function
to obtain the solution. The surface (f = 0) corresponds to the source (emission) surface,
and can be made coincident with a body (impermeable) surface or a permeable surface

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 21.2 Acoustics Model Theory

off the body surface. ni is the unit normal vector pointing toward the exterior region
(f > 0), a0 is the far-field sound speed, and Tij is the Lighthill stress tensor, defined as

Tij = ρui uj + Pij − a20 (ρ − ρ0 ) δij (21.2-2)

Pij is the compressive stress tensor. For a Stokesian fluid, this is given by
" #
∂ui ∂uj 2 ∂uk
Pij = pδij − µ + − δij (21.2-3)
∂xj ∂xi 3 ∂xk

The free-stream quantities are denoted by the subscript 0.

The solution to Equation 21.2-1 is obtained using the free-space Green function (δ(g)/4πr).
The complete solution consists of surface integrals and volume integrals. The surface inte-
grals represent the contributions from monopole and dipole acoustic sources and partially
from quadrupole sources, whereas the volume integrals represent quadrupole (volume)
sources in the region outside the source surface. The contribution of the volume integrals
becomes small when the flow is low subsonic and the source surface encloses the source
region. In FLUENT, the volume integrals are dropped. Thus, we have

p0 (~x, t) = p0T (~x, t) + p0L (~x, t) (21.2-4)

where

 
ρ0 U˙n + Uṅ

Z
4πp0T (~x, t) =   dS
f =0 r (1 − Mr )2
 n o
Z ρ0 Un rṀr + a0 (Mr − M 2 )
+   dS (21.2-5)
f =0 r2 (1 − Mr )3
" #
1 Z L̇r
4πp0L (~x, t) = dS
a0 f =0 r (1 − Mr )2
" #
Z
Lr − L M
+ dS
f =0 r (1 − Mr )2
2
 n o
1 Z Lr rṀr + a0 (Mr − M 2 )
+   dS (21.2-6)
a0 f =0 r2 (1 − Mr )3

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Predicting Aerodynamically Generated Noise

where

ρ
Ui = v i + (ui − vi ) (21.2-7)
ρ0
Li = Pij n̂j + ρui (un − vn ) (21.2-8)

When the integration surface coincides with an impenetrable wall, the two terms on the
right in Equation 21.2-4, p0T (~x, t) and p0L (~x, t), are often referred to as thickness and
loading terms, respectively, in light of their physical meanings. The square brackets in
Equations 21.2-5 and 21.2-6 denote that the kernels of the integrals are computed at the
corresponding retarded times, τ , defined as follows, given the observer time, t, and the
distance to the observer, r,

r
τ =t− (21.2-9)
a0

The various subscripted quantities appearing in Equations 21.2-5 and 21.2-6 are the
inner products of a vector and a unit vector implied by the subscript. For instance,
Lr = L~ · ~ˆr = Li ri and Un = U~ · ~n = Ui ni , where ~r and ~n denote the unit vectors in
the radiation and wall-normal directions, respectively. The dot over a variable denotes
source-time differentiation of that variable.
Please note the following remarks regarding the applicability of this integral solution:

• The FW-H formulation in FLUENT can handle rotating surfaces as well as station-
ary surfaces.

• It is not required that the surface f = 0 coincide with body surfaces or walls. The
formulation permits source surfaces to be permeable, and therefore can be placed
in the interior of the flow.

• When a permeable source surface (either interior or nonconformal sliding interface)

is placed at a certain distance off the body surface, the integral solutions given by
Equations 21.2-5 and 21.2-6 include the contributions from the quadrupole sources
within the region enclosed by the source surface. When using a permeable source
surface, the mesh resolution needs to be fine enough to resolve the transient flow
structures inside the volume enclosed by the permeable surface.

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 21.2 Acoustics Model Theory

21.2.2 Broadband Noise Source Models

Proudman’s Formula
Proudman [293], using Lighthill’s acoustic analogy, derived a formula for acoustic power
generated by isotropic turbulence without mean flow. More recently, Lilley [210] red-
erived the formula by accounting for the retarded time difference which was neglected
in Proudman’s original derivation. Both derivations yield acoustic power due to unit
volume of isotropic turbulence (in W/m3 ) as

u3 u5
!
PA = αρ0 (21.2-10)
` a50

where u and ` are the turbulence velocity and length scales, respectively, and a0 is
the speed of sound. α in Equation 21.2-10 is a model constant. In terms of k and ε,
Equation 21.2-10 can be rewritten as

PA = αε ρ0 εMt5 (21.2-11)

where √
2k
Mt = (21.2-12)
a0
The rescaled constant, α , is set to 0.1 in FLUENT based on the calibration of Sarkar and
Hussaini [316] using direct numerical simulation of isotropic turbulence.
FLUENT can also report the acoustic power in dB, which is computed from

PA
 
LP = 10 log (21.2-13)
Pref

where Pref is the reference acoustic power (Pref = 10−12 W/m3 by default).
The Proudman’s formula gives an approximate measure of the local contribution to total
acoustic power per unit volume in a given turbulence field. Proper caution, however,
should be taken when interpreting the results in view of the assumptions made in the
derivation, such as high Reynolds number, small Mach number, isotropy of turbulence,
and zero mean motion.

The Jet Noise Source Model

This source model for axisymmetric jets is based on the works of Goldstein [125] who
modified the model originally proposed by Ribner [305] to better account for anisotropy
of turbulence in axisymmetric turbulent jets.

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Predicting Aerodynamically Generated Noise

In Goldstein’s model, the total acoustic power emitted by the unit volume of a turbulent
jet is computed from
Z 2π Z π
PA (~y ) = I(r, θ; ~y )r2 sin θdθ dψ
0
Z0 π
2
= 2πr I(r, θ; ~y ) sin θ dθ (21.2-14)
0

where r and θ are the radial and angular coordinates of the receiver location, and I(r, θ; ~y )
is the directional acoustic intensity per unit volume of a jet defined by
2 !2
12 ρ0 ωf4 L1 L22 u2t1 Dself 24 ρ0 ωf4 L1 L42 u2t1 ∂U Dshear
I(r, θ; ~y ) = + (21.2-15)
5 π a50 r2 C5 π a50 r2 ∂r C5

C in Equation 21.2-15 is the modified convection factor defined by

C = 1 − Mc cos θ (21.2-16)

and
M
Dself = 1 + 2( − N ) cos2 θ sin2 θ
9
1 M2 1.5 ∆2
" #
+ + M − 1.5N (3 − 3N + 2 − ) sin4 θ (21.2-17)
3 7 ∆ 2
1 1
   
Dshear = cos2 θ cos2 θ + 2
− 2N sin2 θ (21.2-18)
2 ∆

The remaining parameters are defined as

L2
∆ = (21.2-19)
L1
3 1 2
  
M = ∆− (21.2-20)
2  ∆
u2t2
N = 1−   (21.2-21)
u2t1

 3/2
u2t1
L1 = (21.2-22)

 3/2
u2t2
L2 = (21.2-23)


ωf = 2π (21.2-24)
k

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 21.2 Acoustics Model Theory

where u2t1 and u2t2 are computed differently depending on the turbulence model chosen for
the computation. When the RSM is selected, they are computed from the corresponding
normal stresses. For all other two-equation turbulence models, they are obtained from
8
u2t1 = k (21.2-25)
9
4
u2t2 = k (21.2-26)
9

FLUENT reports the acoustic power both in the dimensional units (W/m3 ) and in dB
computed from

PA
 
LP = 10 log (21.2-27)
Pref
where Pref is the reference acoustic power (Pref = 10−12 W/m3 by default).

The Boundary Layer Noise Source Model

Far-field sound generated by turbulent boundary layer flow over a solid body at low
Mach numbers is often of practical interest. The Curle’s integral [71] based on acoustic
analogy can be used to approximate the local contribution from the body surface to the
total acoustic power. To that end, one can start with the Curle’s integral

1 Z (xi − yi ) ni ∂p
p0 (~x, t) = (~y , τ ) dS(~y ) (21.2-28)
4πa0 S r2 ∂t
where τ denotes the emission time (τ = t − r/a0 ), and S the integration surface.
Using this, the sound intensity in the far field can then be approximated by

#2
1 Z cos2 θ ∂p
"
p02 ≈ (~y , τ ) Ac (~y ) dS(~y ) (21.2-29)
16π 2 a20 S r2 ∂t
where Ac is the correlation area, r ≡ |~x − ~y |, and cos θ is the angle between |~x − ~y | and
the wall-normal direction ~n.
The total acoustic power emitted from the entire body surface can be computed from

1 Z 2π Z π 02 2
PA = p r sin θ dθdψ
ρ 0 a0 0 0
Z
= I(~y ) dS(~y ) (21.2-30)
S

where " #2
Ac (~y ) ∂p
I(~y ) ≡ (21.2-31)
12ρ0 πa30 ∂t

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Predicting Aerodynamically Generated Noise

which can be interpreted as the local contribution per unit surface area of the body surface
to the total acoustic power. The mean-square time derivative of the surface pressure
and the correlation area are further approximated in terms of turbulent quantities like
turbulent kinetic energy, dissipation rate, and wall shear.
FLUENT reports the acoustic surface power defined by Equation 21.2-31 both in physical
(W/m2 ) and dB units.

Source Terms in the Linearized Euler Equations

The linearized Euler equations (LEE) can be derived from the Navier-Stokes equations
starting from decompositions of the flow variables into mean, turbulent, and acoustic
components, and by assuming that the acoustic components are much smaller than the
mean and turbulent components. The resulting linearized Euler equations for the acoustic
velocity components can be written as

∂uai ∂uai ∂Ui 1 ∂pa ρa ∂P

+ Uj + uaj + − 2 =
∂t ∂xj ∂xj ρ ∂xi ρ ∂xi
∂u0i ∂Ui ∂u0 1 ∂p0 ∂u0 ∂ 0 0
−Uj − u0j − u0j i − − i+ uu (21.2-32)
∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ρ ∂xi ∂t ∂xj j i
| {z } | {z }
Lsh Lse

where the subscript “a” refers to the corresponding acoustic components, and the prime
superscript refers to the turbulent components.
The right side of Equation 21.2-32 can be considered as effective source terms responsible
for sound generation. Among them, the first three terms involving turbulence are the
main contributors. The first two terms denoted by Lsh are often referred to as “shear-
noise” source terms, since they involve the mean shear. The third term denoted by Lse
is often called the “self-noise” source term, for it involves turbulent velocity components
only.
The turbulent velocity field needed to compute the LEE source terms is obtained using
the method of stochastic noise generation and radiation (SNGR) [30]. In this method,
the turbulent velocity field and its derivatives are computed from a sum of N Fourier
modes.

N  
ũn cos ~kn · ~x + ψn ~σn
X
~u (~x, t) = 2 (21.2-33)
n=1

where ũn , ψn , ~σn are the amplitude, phase, and directional (unit) vector of the nth Fourier
mode associated with the wave-number vector ~kn .
Note that the source terms in the LEE are vector quantities, having two or three com-
ponents depending on the dimension of the problem at hand.

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 21.2 Acoustics Model Theory

Source Terms in Lilley’s Equation

Lilley’s equation is a third-order wave equation that can be derived by combining the
conservation of mass and momentum of compressible fluids. When the viscous terms are
omitted, it can be written in the following form:

D D2 Π
" !# !
∂ 2∂Π ∂uk ∂ ∂Π ∂uk ∂uj ∂ui
2
− a +2 a2 = −2 (21.2-34)
Dt Dt ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ∂xk ∂xj ∂xi ∂xk ∂xj

where Π = (1/γ) ln ppo .

Lilley’s equation can be linearized about the underlying steady flow as

ui (~x, t) = Ui (~x) + u0i (~x, t) (21.2-35)

where u0 (~x, t) is the turbulent velocity component.
Substituting Equation 21.2-35 into the source term of Equation 21.2-34, we have
∂uk ∂uj ∂ui
S ≡ −2
∂xi ∂xk ∂xj
∂Uk ∂Uj ∂Ui ∂u0 ∂u0 ∂u0 ∂Uk ∂Uj ∂u0i ∂u0 ∂u0 ∂Ui
= −2 −2 k j i −6 −6 k j (21.2-36)
∂xi ∂xk ∂xj ∂xi ∂xk ∂xj ∂xi ∂xk ∂xj ∂xi ∂xk ∂xj
| {z } | {z }
Self-Noise Terms Shear-Noise Terms

The resulting source terms in Equation 21.2-36 are evaluated using the mean velocity field
and the turbulent (fluctuating) velocity components synthesized by the SNGR method.
As with the LEE source terms, the source terms in Equation 21.2-36 are grouped de-
pending on whether the mean velocity gradients are involved (shear noise or self noise),
and reported separately in FLUENT.

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21.3 Using the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings Acoustics Model

The procedure for computing sound using the FW-H acoustics model in FLUENT consists
largely of two steps. In the first step, a time-accurate flow solution is generated, from
which time histories of the relevant variables (e.g., pressure, velocity, and density) on the
selected source surfaces are obtained. In the second step, sound pressure signals at the
user-specified receiver locations are computed using the source data collected during the
first step.

i Note that you can also use the FW-H model for a steady-state simulation
in the case where your model has a single rotating reference frame. Here,
the loading noise due to the motion of the noise sources is computed using
the FW-H integrals (see Equations 21.2-5 and 21.2-6), except that the term
involving the time derivative of surface pressure (L̇r in Equation 21.2-6) is
set to zero.
In computing sound pressure using the FW-H integral solution, FLUENT uses a so-called
“forward-time projection” to account for the time delay between the emission time (the
time at which the sound is emitted from the source) and the reception time (the time at
which the sound arrives at the receiver location). The forward-time projection approach
enables you to compute sound at the same time “on the fly” as the transient flow solution
progresses, without having to save the source data.
In this section, the procedure for setting up and using the FW-H acoustics model is
outlined first, followed by detailed descriptions of each of the steps involved. Remember
that only the steps that are pertinent to acoustics modeling are discussed here. For
information about the inputs related to other models that you are using in conjunction
with the FW-H acoustics model, see the appropriate sections for those models.
The general procedure for carrying out an FW-H acoustics calculation in FLUENT is as
follows:

1. Calculate a converged flow solution. For a transient case, run the transient solution
until you obtain a “statistically steady-state” solution as described below.

2. Enable the FW-H acoustics model and set the associated model parameters.
Define −→ Models −→Acoustics...

3. Specify the source surface(s) and choose the options associated with acquisition
and saving of the source data. For a steady-state case, specify the rotating surface
zone(s) as the source surface(s).

4. Specify the receiver location(s).

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 21.3 Using the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings Acoustics Model

5. Continue the transient solution for a sufficiently long period of time and save the
source data (transient cases only).
Solve −→Iterate...

6. Compute and save the sound pressure signals.

Solve −→Acoustic Signals...

7. Postprocess the sound pressure signals.

Plot −→FFT...

i Before you start the acoustics calculation for a transient case, a FLUENT
transient solution should have been run to a point where the transient
flow field has become “statistically steady”. In practice, this means that
the unsteady flow field under consideration, including all the major flow
variables, has become fully developed in such a way that its statistics do
not change with time. Monitoring the major flow variables at selected
points in the domain is helpful for determining if this condition has been
met.
As discussed earlier, URANS, DES, and LES are all legitimate candidates for transient
flow calculations. For stationary source surfaces, the frequency of the aerodynamically
generated sound heard at the receivers is largely determined by the time scale or fre-
quency of the underlying flow. Therefore, one way to determine the time-step size for
the transient computation is to make it small enough to resolve the smallest character-
istic time scale of the flow at hand that can be reproduced by the mesh and turbulence
adopted in your model.
Once you have obtained a statistically stationary flow-field solution, you are ready to
acquire the source data.

21.3.1 Enabling the FW-H Acoustics Model

To enable the FW-H acoustics model, select Ffowcs-Williams & Hawkings in the Acoustics
Model panel (Figure 21.3.1).
Define −→ Models −→Acoustics...
When you turn on Ffowcs-Williams & Hawkings, the panel will expand to show the relevant
fields for user inputs.

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Predicting Aerodynamically Generated Noise

Figure 21.3.1: The Acoustics Model Panel

Setting Model Constants

Under Model Constants in the Acoustics Model panel, specify the relevant acoustic pa-
rameters and constants used by the model.

Far-Field Density (for example, ρ0 in Equation 21.2-1) is the far-field fluid density.

Far-Field Sound√Speed (for example, a0 in Equation 21.2-1) is the sound speed in the
far field (= γRT0 ).

Reference Acoustic Pressure (for example, pref in Equation 28.10-11) is used to calcu-
late the sound pressure level in dB (see Section 28.10.4: Using the FFT Utility).
The default reference acoustic pressure is 2 × 10−5 Pa.

Number of Time Steps Per Revolution is available only for steady-state cases that have
a single rotating reference frame. Here you will specify the number of equivalent
time steps that it will take for the rotating zone to complete one revolution.

Number of Revolutions is available only for steady-state cases that have a single rotat-
ing reference frame. Here you will specify the number of revolutions that will be
simulated in the model.

Source Correlation Length is required when sound is to be computed using a 2D flow

result. The FW-H integrals will be evaluated over this length in the depth-wise
direction using the identical source data.

The default values are appropriate for sound propagating in air at atmospheric pressure
and temperature.

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 21.3 Using the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings Acoustics Model

Computing Sound “on the Fly”

The FW-H acoustics model in FLUENT allows you to perform simultaneous calculation
of the sound pressure signals at the prescribed receivers without having to write the
source data to files, which can save a significant amount of disk space on your machine.
To enable this “on-the-fly” calculation of sound, turn on the Compute Acoustic Signals
Simultaneously option in the Acoustics Model panel.

i Because the noise computation takes a negligible percentage of memory and

computational time compared to a transient flow calculation, this option
can be used by itself or along with the process of source data file export
and sound calculation. For the latter, computing signals “on the fly” allows
you to see when the signals have become statistically steady so you can
know when to stop the simulation.
When the Compute Acoustic Signals Simultaneously option is enabled, the FLUENT console
window will print a message at the end of each time step indicating that the sound
pressure signals have been computed (e.g., Computing sound signals at x receiver
locations ..., where x is the number of receivers you specified). Enabling this option
instructs FLUENT to compute sound pressure signals at the end of each time step, which
will slightly increase the computation time.

i Note that this option is available only when the FW-H acoustics model has
been enabled. See below for details about exporting source data without
enabling the FW-H model.

Writing Source Data Files

Although the “on-the-fly” capability is a convenient feature, you will want to save the
source data as well, because the acquisition of source data during a transient flow-field
calculation is the most time-consuming part of acoustics computations, and you most
likely will not want to discard it. By saving the source data, you can always reuse it to
compute the sound pressure signals at new or additional receiver locations.
To enable saving the source data to files, turn on the Export Acoustic Source Data option
in the Acoustics Model panel. Once this option is selected, the relevant source data at
all face elements of the selected source surfaces will be written into the files you specify.
The source data vary depending on the solver option you have chosen and whether the
source surface is a wall or not. Table 21.3.1 shows the flow variables saved as the source
data.
See Section 21.3.2: Specifying Source Surfaces for details on how to specify parameters
for exporting source data.

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Predicting Aerodynamically Generated Noise

Table 21.3.1: Source Data Saved in Source Data Files

Solver Option Source Surface Source Data

incompressible walls p
incompressible permeable surfaces p, u, v, w
compressible walls p
compressible permeable surfaces ρ, p, u, v, w

Exporting Source Data Without Enabling the FW-H Model

You can also export sound source data for use with SYSNOISE without having to enable
the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings (FW-H) model. You will still need to specify source
surfaces (see Section 21.3.2: Specifying Source Surfaces), as .index and .asd files are
required by SYSNOISE. In addition, you can choose fluid zones as emission sources if
you want to export quadrupole sources. To enable the selection of fluid zones as sources,
use the
define −→ models −→ acoustics −→export-volumetric-sources?
text command and change the selection to yes.
SYSNOISE also requires centroid data for source zones that are being exported.
For fan noise calculations, once you have specified the source zones in the Acoustic Sources
panel and you have selected Export Acoustic Source Data from the Acoustic Model panel,
you can export geometry in cylindrical coordinates by using the
define −→ models −→ acoustics −→cylindrical-export?
text command and changing the selection to yes. By default, FLUENT exports source
zones for SYSNOISE in Cartesian coordinates.
You can then export the centroid data to a .data file using the following text command:
define −→ models −→ acoustics −→write-centroid-info
Since you will not be using the FW-H model to compute signals, you will not need to
specify any acoustic model parameters or receiver locations. Also, you will not be able to
turn on the Compute Acoustic Signals Simultaneously option in the Acoustics Model panel,
and Acoustic Signals... will not be available in the Solve menu.

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 21.3 Using the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings Acoustics Model

21.3.2 Specifying Source Surfaces

In the Acoustics Model panel, click the Define Sources... button to open the Acoustic
Sources panel (Figure 21.3.2). Here you will specify the source surface(s) to be used in
the acoustics calculation and the inputs associated with saving source data to files.

Figure 21.3.2: The Acoustic Sources Panel

Under Source Zones, you can select multiple emission (source) surfaces and the surface
Type that you can select is not limited to a wall. You can also choose interior surfaces
and sliding interfaces (both stationary and rotating) as source surfaces.

i The ability to choose multiple source surfaces is useful for investigating the
contributions from individual source surfaces. The results based on the use
of multiple source surfaces are valid as long as there are negligible acoustic
interactions among the surfaces. Thus, some caution needs to be taken
when selecting multiple source surfaces.
In cases where multiple source surfaces are selected, no source surface may enclose any
of the other source surfaces. Otherwise, the sound pressure calculated based on the
source surfaces will not be accurate, as the contribution from the enclosed (inner) source
surfaces is over predicted, since the FW-H model is unable to account for the shading of
the sound from the inner source surfaces by the enclosure surface.

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Predicting Aerodynamically Generated Noise

If you specify any interior surfaces as source surfaces, the interior surface must be gen-
erated in advance (e.g., in GAMBIT) in such a way that the two cell zones adjacent to
the surface have different cell zone IDs. Furthermore, you must correctly specify which
of the two zones is occupied by the quadrupole sources (interior cell zone). This will
allow FLUENT to determine the direction in which the sound will propagate. When you
first attempt to select a legitimate interior surface (i.e., an interior surface having two
different cell zones on both sides) as a source surface, the Interior Cell Zone Selection
panel (Figure 21.3.3) will appear. You will then need to select the interior cell zones
from the two zones listed under the Interior Cell Zone. Figure 21.3.4 shows an example of
an interior source surface.

Figure 21.3.3: The Interior Cell Zone Selection Panel

Like general interior surfaces, if the source surfaces selected are sliding interfaces, a panel
similar to Figure 21.3.3 will appear that will show the two adjacent cell zones and you
will be asked to specify the zone which has the sound sources.

i When a permeable surface (either interior or sliding interface) is chosen as

the source surface, other wall surfaces inside the volume enclosed by the
permeable surface that generate sound should not be chosen for the acous-
tics calculation. For example, when running an “on-the-fly” calculation, if
both these surfaces are selected, the sound pressure will be counted twice.

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 21.3 Using the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings Acoustics Model

3.36e+03
2.92e+03
2.48e+03
2.04e+03
1.59e+03 outer fluid
1.15e+03
7.12e+02 interior source surface
2.70e+02
-1.71e+02
-6.13e+02
-1.05e+03
-1.50e+03
-1.94e+03 inner fluid
-2.38e+03
-2.82e+03
-3.26e+03
-3.70e+03
-4.14e+03
-4.59e+03
-5.03e+03
-5.47e+03

Contours of Static Pressure (pascal) (Time=2.2210e-02)

Figure 21.3.4: An Interior Source Surface

Saving Source Data

To save the source data, you have to specify the Source Data Root Filename, Write Fre-
quency (in number of time steps), and No. of Time Steps per File in the Acoustic Sources
panel.
The Source Data Root File Name is used to give the names of the source data files (e.g.,
acoustic examplexxxx.asd, where xxxx is the global time-step index of the transient
solution) and an index file (e.g., acoustic example.index) that will store the informa-
tion associated with the source data . The Write Frequency allows you to control how
often the source data will be written. This will enable you to save disk space if the
time-step size used in the transient flow simulation is smaller than necessary to resolve
the sound frequency you are attempting to predict. In most situations, however, you will
want to save the source data at every time step and use the default value of 1.
Since acoustics calculations usually generate thousands of time steps of source data, you
may want to split the data into several files. Specifying the No. of Time Steps per File
allows you to write the source data into separate files for different simulation intervals,
the duration of which (in terms of the number of transient flow time steps) is specified
by you. For example, if you specify 100 for this parameter, each file will contain source
data for an interval length of 100 time steps regardless of the write frequency.
You will find this feature useful if you want to use a selected number of source data files to
compute the sound pressure rather than using all the data. For example, you may want

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Predicting Aerodynamically Generated Noise

to exclude an initial portion of the source data from your acoustics calculation because
you may realize later that the flow field has not fully attained a statistically steady state.
After you click Apply, FLUENT will create the index file (e.g., acoustics example.index),
which contains information about the source data.

i If you choose to save source data, keep in mind that the source data can use
up a considerable amount of disk space, especially if the mesh being used
has a large number of face elements on the source surfaces you selected.
FLUENT will print out the disk space requirement per time step at the
time of source surface selection if the Export Acoustic Source Data option
is enabled in the Acoustics Model panel.
At this point, if you have chosen to perform your acoustics calculation in two steps, (i.e.,
saving the source data first, and computing the sound at a later time), you can go ahead
and instruct FLUENT to perform a suitable number of time steps, and the source data will
be saved to the disk. If you have chosen to perform an “on-the-fly” acoustic calculation,
then you will need to specify receiver locations (see Section 21.3.3: Specifying Acoustic
Receivers) before you run the unsteady FLUENT solution any further.

21.3.3 Specifying Acoustic Receivers

In the Acoustics Model panel, click the Define Receivers... button to open the Acoustic
Receivers panel (Figure 21.3.5).

Figure 21.3.5: The Acoustic Receivers Panel

i Note that you can also open the Acoustic Receivers panel by clicking the
Receivers... button in the Acoustic Sources or the Acoustic Signals panels.

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 21.3 Using the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings Acoustics Model

Increase the No. of Receivers to the total number of receivers for which you want to
compute sound, and enter the coordinates for each receiver in the X-Coord., Y-Coord.,
and Z-Coord. fields. Note that because FLUENT’s acoustics model is ideally suited for far-
field noise prediction, the receiver locations you define should be at a reasonable distance
from the sources of sound (i.e., the selected source surfaces). The receiver locations can
also fall outside of the computational domain.
For each receiver, you can specify a file name in the Signal File Name field. These files will
be used to store the sound pressure signals at the corresponding receivers. By default,
the files will be named receiver-1.ard, receiver-2.ard, etc.
Once the receiver locations have been defined, the setup for your acoustic calculation is
complete. You can now proceed to instruct FLUENT to perform a transient calculation
for a suitable number of time steps. When the calculation is finished, you will have
either the source data saved on files (if you chose to save it to a file or files), or the sound
pressure signals (if you chose to perform an acoustic calculation “on the fly”), or both
(if you chose to save the source data to files and if you chose to perform the acoustic
calculation “on the fly”).
If you chose to save the source data to files, the FLUENT console window will print a
message at the end of each time step indicating that source data have been written (or
appended to) a file (e.g., acoustic example240.asd).

21.3.4 Postprocessing the FW-H Acoustics Model Data

At this point, you will have either the source data saved to files or the sound pressure
signals computed, or both. You can process these data to compute and plot various
acoustic quantities using FLUENT’s FFT capabilities. See Section 28.10: Fast Fourier
Transform (FFT) Postprocessing for more information.

Writing Acoustic Signals

If you chose to perform the acoustic calculation “on the fly”, you will need to write the
sound pressure data to files. To do so, select Write Acoustic Signals under Options in
the Acoustic Signals panel (Figure 21.3.6) and then click Write. The computed acoustic
pressure will be saved from internal buffer memory into a separate file for each receiver
you defined in the Acoustic Receivers panel (e.g., receiver-1.ard).
Solve −→Acoustic Signals...

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Predicting Aerodynamically Generated Noise

Reading Unsteady Acoustic Source Data

Computing the sound pressure signals using the source data saved to files is done in the
Acoustic Signals panel (Figure 21.3.6).
Solve −→Acoustic Signals...

Figure 21.3.6: The Acoustic Signals Panel

To compute the sound data, use the following procedure:

1. In the Acoustic Signals panel, select Read Unsteady Acoustic Source Data Files under
Options.
2. Click Load Index File... and select the index file for your computation in the Select
File dialog box. The file will have the name you entered in the Source Data Root
Filename field in the Acoustic Sources panel, followed by the .index suffix (e.g.,
acoustic example.index).
3. In the Source Data Files list, select the source data files that you want to use
to compute sound. Source data files will all contain the specified root file name
followed by the suffix .asd.

i You can use any number of source data files. However, note that you should
select only consecutive files.

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 21.3 Using the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings Acoustics Model

4. In the Active Source Zones list, select the source zones you want to include to
compute sound. See Section 21.3.2: Specifying Source Surfaces for details about
proper source surface selection.

5. In the Receivers list, select the receivers for which you want to compute and save
sound.
Optionally, you can click the Receivers... button to open the Acoustic Receivers
panel and define additional receivers.

6. Click the Compute/Write button to compute and save the sound pressure data. One
file will be saved for each receiver you previously specified in the Acoustic Receivers
panel (e.g., receiver-1.ard).

i If you enabled both the Export Acoustic Source Data and Compute Acoustic
Signals Simultaneously options in the Acoustics Model panel, you will need
to first select the Write Acoustic Signals option in the Acoustic Signals panel
after the flow simulation has been completed. If you select the Read Un-
steady Acoustic Source Data Files before writing out the “on-the-fly” data
in such a case, the data will be flushed out of the internal buffer memory.
To avoid such a loss of data, you should save the FLUENT case and data
files whenever you begin to do an acoustic computation in the Acoustic
Signals panel. The sound pressure data calculated “on the fly” will then be
saved into the .dat file. Finally, after the “on-the-fly” data is saved, make
sure to change the file names of the receivers before doing a sound pres-
sure calculation with the Read Unsteady Acoustic Source Data Files option
enabled, to avoid overwriting the “on-the-fly” signal files.

i Note that you can compute and write sound pressure signals only when
the FW-H acoustics model has been enabled. See Section 21.3.1: Export-
ing Source Data Without Enabling the FW-H Model for details about
exporting source data (e.g., for SYSNOISE) without enabling the FW-H
model.

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Predicting Aerodynamically Generated Noise

Pruning the Signal Data Automatically

Before the computed sound pressure data at each receiver is saved, it is by default
automatically pruned. Pruning of the receiver data means clipping the tails of the signal
where incomplete source information is available.
The acoustic source data is tabulated from time τ0 to τn . Without auto-pruning, the
receiver register begins receiving the earliest sound pressure signal at
rmin
t0 = τ0 +
a0
where rmin is the shortest distance between the source surfaces and the receiver. However,
the receiver will not receive the sound pressure signal from the farthest point on the source
surfaces (rmax ) until the receiver time becomes
rmax
t1 = τ0 +
a0

From time t0 to t1 , the sound accumulated on the receiver register does not include
the contribution from the entire source surface area, and thus the sound pressure data
received during that time is not complete. The same thing occurs during the period from
rmin
tm = τm +
a0
to
rmax
tn = τn +
a0
Thus, pruning means clipping the signal on the incomplete ends, from t0 to t1 and tm to tn .
Auto-pruning can be disabled using the define −→ models −→ acoustics −→auto-prune
text command. Although auto-pruning can be disabled, it is expected that you will use
only the complete sound pressure data.

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 21.4 Using the Broadband Noise Source Models

Reporting the Static Pressure Time Derivative

The RMS value of the static pressure time derivative (∂p/∂t) is available for postprocess-
ing only on wall surfaces, which are at the same time sources of sound, when the FW-H
acoustics model is used.
You can select Surface dpdt RMS in the Acoustics... category only when you specify
at least one wall surface, which is also marked as an acoustic source, in the relevant
postprocessing panels.

Using the FFT Capabilities

Once the sound pressure signals are computed and saved in files, the sound data is
ready to be analyzed using FLUENT’s FFT tools. In the Fourier Transform panel (Fig-
ure 28.10.1), click on Load Input File... and select the appropriate .ard file. If the receiver
data is still in FLUENT’s memory, then it can directly be processed using the Process
Receiver option. See Section 28.10: Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) Postprocessing for
more information on FLUENT’s FFT capabilities.
Plot −→FFT...

21.4 Using the Broadband Noise Source Models

In this section, the procedure for setting up and using the broadband noise source models
is outlined first, followed by descriptions of each of the steps involved.
The general procedure for carrying out a broadband noise source calculation in FLUENT
is as follows:

1. Calculate a steady or unsteady RANS solution.

2. Enable the broadband noise model and set the associated model parameters.
Define −→ Models −→Acoustics...

3. Postprocess the noise sources.

Display −→Contours...

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Predicting Aerodynamically Generated Noise

21.4.1 Enabling the Broadband Noise Source Models

To enable the broadband noise sources models, select Broadband Noise Sources in the
Acoustics Model panel (Figure 21.4.1).
Define −→ Models −→Acoustics...

Figure 21.4.1: The Acoustics Model Panel for Broadband Noise

Setting Model Constants

Under Model Constants in the Acoustics Model panel, specify the relevant acoustic param-
eters and constants used by the model. See Section 21.3.1: Enabling the FW-H Acoustics
Model for the definitions of Far-Field Density and Far-Field Sound Speed.

Reference Acoustic Power (for example, Pref in Equation 21.2-13) is used to compute
the acoustic power outputs in decibels (dB). The default value is 10−12 . Note that
the units for the reference acoustic power will be different in 2D (W/m2 ) and 3D
(W/m3 ) cases.
Number of Realizations is the number of samples used in the SNGR to compute the
averaged source terms of LEE and Lilley’s equations. The default value is 200.
Number of Fourier Modes (N in Equation 21.2-33) is the number of the Fourier modes
used to compute the turbulent velocity field and its derivatives. The turbulent
velocity field is then used to compute the LEE and Lilley’s source terms. The
default value is 50.

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 21.4 Using the Broadband Noise Source Models

21.4.2 Postprocessing the Broadband Noise Source Model Data

The final step in the broadband noise source modeling process is the postprocessing
of acoustic power and noise source data. The following variables are available in the
Acoustics... postprocessing category:

• Acoustic Power Level (dB)

• Acoustic Power

• Jet Acoustic Power Level (dB) (axisymmetric models only)

• Jet Acoustic Power (axisymmetric models only)

• Surface Acoustic Power Level (dB)

• Surface Acoustic Power

• Lilley’s Self-Noise Source

• Lilley’s Shear-Noise Source

• Lilley’s Total Noise Source

• LEE Self-Noise X-Source

• LEE Shear-Noise X-Source

• LEE Total Noise X-Source

• LEE Self-Noise Y-Source

• LEE Shear-Noise Y-Source

• LEE Total Noise Y-Source

• LEE Self-Noise Z-Source (3D models only)

• LEE Shear-Noise Z-Source (3D models only)

• LEE Total Noise Z-Source (3D models only)

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Chapter 22. Modeling Discrete Phase

This chapter describes the Lagrangian discrete phase capabilities available in FLUENT
and how to use them.
Information is organized into the following sections:

• Section 22.1: Introduction

• Section 22.2: Particle Motion Theory

• Section 22.3: Multicomponent Particle Theory

• Section 22.4: Wall-Film Model Theory

• Section 22.5: Particle Erosion and Accretion Theory

• Section 22.6: Dynamic Drag Model Theory

• Section 22.7: Spray Model Theory

• Section 22.8: Atomizer Model Theory

• Section 22.9: One-Way and Two-Way Coupling

• Section 22.10: Discrete Phase Model (DPM) Boundary Conditions

• Section 22.11: Steps for Using the Discrete Phase Models

• Section 22.12: Setting Initial Conditions for the Discrete Phase

• Section 22.13: Setting Boundary Conditions for the Discrete Phase

• Section 22.14: Setting Material Properties for the Discrete Phase

• Section 22.15: Solution Strategies for the Discrete Phase

• Section 22.16: Postprocessing for the Discrete Phase

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Modeling Discrete Phase

22.1 Introduction
In addition to solving transport equations for the continuous phase, FLUENT allows
you to simulate a discrete second phase in a Lagrangian frame of reference. This second
phase consists of spherical particles (which may be taken to represent droplets or bubbles)
dispersed in the continuous phase. FLUENT computes the trajectories of these discrete
phase entities, as well as heat and mass transfer to/from them. The coupling between the
phases and its impact on both the discrete phase trajectories and the continuous phase
flow can be included.
FLUENT provides the following discrete phase modeling options:

• calculation of the discrete phase trajectory using a Lagrangian formulation that

includes the discrete phase inertia, hydrodynamic drag, and the force of gravity,
for both steady and unsteady flows

• prediction of the effects of turbulence on the dispersion of particles due to turbulent

eddies present in the continuous phase

• heating/cooling of the discrete phase

• vaporization and boiling of liquid droplets

• combusting particles, including volatile evolution and char combustion to simulate

coal combustion

• optional coupling of the continuous phase flow field prediction to the discrete phase
calculations

• droplet breakup and coalescence

These modeling capabilities allow FLUENT to simulate a wide range of discrete phase
problems including particle separation and classification, spray drying, aerosol dispersion,
bubble stirring of liquids, liquid fuel combustion, and coal combustion. The physical
equations used for these discrete phase calculations are described in Sections 22.2–22.9.1,
and instructions for setup, solution, and postprocessing are provided in Sections 22.11–
22.16.

22.1.1 Overview
Advances in computational fluid mechanics have provided the basis for further insight into
the dynamics of multiphase flows. Currently there are two approaches for the numerical
calculation of multiphase flows: the Euler-Lagrange approach (discussed below) and the
Euler-Euler approach (discussed in Section 23.2.1: Approaches to Multiphase Modeling).

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 22.1 Introduction

The Euler-Lagrange Approach

The Lagrangian discrete phase model in FLUENT (described in Chapter 22: Modeling
Discrete Phase) follows the Euler-Lagrange approach. The fluid phase is treated as a
continuum by solving the time-averaged Navier-Stokes equations, while the dispersed
phase is solved by tracking a large number of particles, bubbles, or droplets through the
calculated flow field. The dispersed phase can exchange momentum, mass, and energy
with the fluid phase.
A fundamental assumption made in this model is that the dispersed second phase occupies
a low volume fraction, even though high mass loading (ṁparticles ≥ ṁfluid ) is acceptable.
The particle or droplet trajectories are computed individually at specified intervals during
the fluid phase calculation. This makes the model appropriate for the modeling of spray
dryers, coal and liquid fuel combustion, and some particle-laden flows, but inappropriate
for the modeling of liquid-liquid mixtures, fluidized beds, or any application where the
volume fraction of the second phase is not negligible.

22.1.2 Limitations
Limitation on the Particle Volume Fraction
The discrete phase formulation used by FLUENT contains the assumption that the second
phase is sufficiently dilute that particle-particle interactions and the effects of the particle
volume fraction on the gas phase are negligible. In practice, these issues imply that the
discrete phase must be present at a fairly low volume fraction, usually less than 10–12%.
Note that the mass loading of the discrete phase may greatly exceed 10–12%: you may
solve problems in which the mass flow of the discrete phase equals or exceeds that of the
continuous phase. See Chapter 23: Modeling Multiphase Flows for information about
when you might want to use one of the general multiphase models instead of the discrete
phase model.

Limitation on Modeling Continuous Suspensions of Particles

The steady-particle Lagrangian discrete phase model described in this chapter is suited
for flows in which particle streams are injected into a continuous phase flow with a well-
defined entrance and exit condition. The Lagrangian model does not effectively model
flows in which particles are suspended indefinitely in the continuum, as occurs in solid
suspensions within closed systems such as stirred tanks, mixing vessels, or fluidized beds.
The unsteady-particle discrete phase model, however, is capable of modeling continuous
suspensions of particles. See Chapter 23: Modeling Multiphase Flows for information
about when you might want to use one of the general multiphase models instead of the
discrete phase models.

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Modeling Discrete Phase

Limitations on Using the Discrete Phase Model with Other FLUENT Models
The following restrictions exist on the use of other models with the discrete phase model:

• When tracking particles in parallel, the DPM model cannot be used with any of
the multiphase flow models (VOF, mixture, or Eulerian – see Chapter 23: Modeling
Multiphase Flows) if the shared memory option is enabled (Section 22.11.9: Parallel
Processing for the Discrete Phase Model). (Note that using the message passing
option, when running in parallel, enables the compatibility of all multiphase flow
models with the DPM model.)

• Streamwise periodic flow (either specified mass flow rate or specified pressure drop)
cannot be modeled when the discrete phase model is used.

• Only nonreacting particles can be included when the premixed combustion model
is used.

• Surface injections will be moved with the grid when a sliding mesh or a moving
or deforming mesh is being used, however only those surfaces associated with a
boundary will be recalculated. Injections from cut plane surfaces will not be moved
with the mesh and will be deleted when remeshing occurs.

• The cloud model is not available for unsteady particle tracking, or in parallel, when
using the message passing option for the particles.

• The wall-film model is only valid for liquid materials. If a nonliquid particle inter-
acts with a wall-film boundary, the boundary condition will default to the reflect
boundary condition.

• When multiple reference frames are used in conjunction with the discrete phase
model, the display of particle tracks will not, by default, be meaningful. Similarly,
coupled discrete-phase calculations are not meaningful.
An alternative approach for particle tracking and coupled discrete-phase calcula-
tions with multiple reference frames is to track particles based on absolute velocity
instead of relative velocity. To make this change, use the define/models/dpm/
options/track-in-absolute-frame text command. Note that the results may
strongly depend on the location of walls inside the multiple reference frame.
The particle injection velocities (specified in the Set Injection Properties panel) are
defined relative to the frame of reference in which the particles are tracked. By
default, the injection velocities are specified relative to the local reference frame.
If you enable the track-in-absolute-frame option, the injection velocities are
specified relative to the absolute frame.

• Relative particle tracking cannot be used in combination with sliding and moving
deforming meshes. If sliding and/or deforming meshes are used with the DPM

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 22.2 Particle Motion Theory

model, the particles will always be tracked in the absolute frame. Switching to the
relative frame is not permitted.

22.2 Particle Motion Theory

22.2.1 Equations of Motion for Particles
Particle Force Balance
FLUENT predicts the trajectory of a discrete phase particle (or droplet or bubble) by
integrating the force balance on the particle, which is written in a Lagrangian reference
frame. This force balance equates the particle inertia with the forces acting on the
particle, and can be written (for the x direction in Cartesian coordinates) as

dup gx (ρp − ρ)
= FD (u − up ) + + Fx (22.2-1)
dt ρp

where Fx is an additional acceleration (force/unit particle mass) term, FD (u − up ) is the

drag force per unit particle mass and

18µ CD Re
FD = (22.2-2)
ρp d2p 24

Here, u is the fluid phase velocity, up is the particle velocity, µ is the molecular viscosity
of the fluid, ρ is the fluid density, ρp is the density of the particle, and dp is the particle
diameter. Re is the relative Reynolds number, which is defined as

ρdp |up − u|
Re ≡ (22.2-3)
µ

Inclusion of the Gravity Term

While Equation 22.2-1 includes a force of gravity on the particle, it is important to note
that in FLUENT the default gravitational acceleration is zero. If you want to include
the gravitational force, you must remember to define the magnitude and direction of the
gravity vector in the Operating Conditions panel.

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Modeling Discrete Phase

Other Forces
Equation 22.2-1 incorporates additional forces (Fx ) in the particle force balance that can
be important under special circumstances. The first of these is the “virtual mass” force,
the force required to accelerate the fluid surrounding the particle. This force can be
written as

1ρ d
Fx = (u − up ) (22.2-4)
2 ρp dt

and is important when ρ > ρp . An additional force arises due to the pressure gradient in
the fluid: !
ρ ∂u
Fx = up i (22.2-5)
ρp ∂xi

Laws for Drag Coefficients

The drag coefficient, CD , can be taken from either

a2 a3
CD = a1 + + 2 (22.2-6)
Re Re
where a1 , a2 , and a3 are constants that apply to smooth spherical particles over several
ranges of Re given by Morsi and Alexander [253], or

24   b3 Resph
CD = 1 + b1 Resph b2 + (22.2-7)
Resph b4 + Resph

where
b1 = exp(2.3288 − 6.4581φ + 2.4486φ2 )
b2 = 0.0964 + 0.5565φ
b3 = exp(4.905 − 13.8944φ + 18.4222φ2 − 10.2599φ3 )
b4 = exp(1.4681 + 12.2584φ − 20.7322φ2 + 15.8855φ3 ) (22.2-8)

which is taken from Haider and Levenspiel [132]. The shape factor, φ, is defined as
s
φ= (22.2-9)
S
where s is the surface area of a sphere having the same volume as the particle, and S
is the actual surface area of the particle. The Reynolds number Resph is computed with
the diameter of a sphere having the same volume.

i The shape factor cannot exceed a value of 1.

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 22.2 Particle Motion Theory

For sub-micron particles, a form of Stokes’ drag law is available [274]. In this case, FD
is defined as

18µ
FD = (22.2-10)
dp 2 ρp Cc

The factor Cc is the Cunningham correction to Stokes’ drag law, which you can compute
from

2λ
Cc = 1 + (1.257 + 0.4e−(1.1dp /2λ) ) (22.2-11)
dp

where λ is the molecular mean free path.

A high-Mach-number drag law is also available. This drag law is similar to the spherical
law (Equation 22.2-6) with corrections [62] to account for a particle Mach number greater
than 0.4 at a particle Reynolds number greater than 20.
For unsteady models involving discrete phase droplet breakup, a dynamic drag law option
is also available. See Section 22.6: Dynamic Drag Model Theory for a description of this
law.
Instructions for selecting the drag law are provided in Section 22.11.4: Alternate Drag
Laws.

Forces in Rotating Reference Frames

The additional force term, Fx , in Equation 22.2-1 also includes forces on particles that
arise due to rotation of the reference frame. These forces arise when you are modeling
flows in rotating frames of reference (see Section 10.2: Flow in a Rotating Reference
Frame). For rotation defined about the z axis, for example, the forces on the particles in
the Cartesian x and y directions can be written as
! !
ρ ρ
1− Ω2 x + 2Ω uy,p − uy (22.2-12)
ρp ρp

where uy,p and uy are the particle and fluid velocities in the Cartesian y direction, and
! !
ρ ρ
1− Ω2 y − 2Ω ux,p − ux (22.2-13)
ρp ρp

where ux,p and ux are the particle and fluid velocities in the Cartesian x direction.

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Modeling Discrete Phase

Thermophoretic Force
Small particles suspended in a gas that has a temperature gradient experience a force
in the direction opposite to that of the gradient. This phenomenon is known as ther-
mophoresis. FLUENT can optionally include a thermophoretic effect on particles in the
additional acceleration (force/unit mass) term, Fx , in Equation 22.2-1:

1 ∂T
Fx = −DT,p (22.2-14)
mp T ∂x

where DT,p is the thermophoretic coefficient. You can define the coefficient to be constant,
polynomial, or a user-defined function, or you can use the form suggested by Talbot [367]:

6πdp µ2 Cs (K + Ct Kn) 1 ∂T
Fx = − (22.2-15)
ρ(1 + 3Cm Kn)(1 + 2K + 2Ct Kn) mp T ∂x

where: Kn = Knudsen number = 2 λ/dp

λ = mean free path of the fluid
K = k/kp
k = fluid thermal conductivity based on translational
energy only = (15/4) µR
kp = particle thermal conductivity
CS = 1.17
Ct = 2.18
Cm = 1.14
mp = particle mass
T = local fluid temperature
µ = fluid viscosity
This expression assumes that the particle is a sphere and that the fluid is an ideal gas.

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 22.2 Particle Motion Theory

Brownian Force
For sub-micron particles, the effects of Brownian motion can be optionally included in the
additional force term. The components of the Brownian force are modeled as a Gaussian
white noise process with spectral intensity Sn,ij given by [205]

Sn,ij = S0 δij (22.2-16)

where δij is the Kronecker delta function, and

216νkB T
S0 = (22.2-17)
ρp 2
 
π 2 ρd5p ρ
Cc

T is the absolute temperature of the fluid, ν is the kinematic viscosity, and kB is the
Boltzmann constant. Amplitudes of the Brownian force components are of the form
s
πSo
Fbi = ζi (22.2-18)
∆t

where ζi are zero-mean, unit-variance-independent Gaussian random numbers. The am-

plitudes of the Brownian force components are evaluated at each time step. The energy
equation must be enabled in order for the Brownian force to take effect. Brownian force
is intended only for nonturbulent models.

Saffman’s Lift Force

The Saffman’s lift force, or lift due to shear, can also be included in the additional force
term as an option. The lift force used is from Li and Ahmadi [205] and is a generalization
of the expression provided by Saffman [313]:

2Kν 1/2 ρdij

F~ = (~v − ~vp ) (22.2-19)
ρp dp (dlk dkl )1/4

where K = 2.594 and dij is the deformation tensor. This form of the lift force is intended
for small particle Reynolds numbers. Also, the particle Reynolds number based on the
particle-fluid velocity difference must be smaller than the square root of the particle
Reynolds number based on the shear field. Since this restriction is valid for submicron
particles, it is recommended to use this option only for submicron particles.

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Modeling Discrete Phase

22.2.2 Turbulent Dispersion of Particles

The dispersion of particles due to turbulence in the fluid phase can be predicted using
the stochastic tracking model or the particle cloud model (see Section 22.2.2: Turbulent
Dispersion of Particles). The stochastic tracking (random walk) model includes the effect
of instantaneous turbulent velocity fluctuations on the particle trajectories through the
use of stochastic methods (see Section 22.2.2: Stochastic Tracking). The particle cloud
model tracks the statistical evolution of a cloud of particles about a mean trajectory
(see Section 22.2.2: Particle Cloud Tracking). The concentration of particles within the
cloud is represented by a Gaussian probability density function (PDF) about the mean
trajectory. For stochastic tracking a model is available to account for the generation or
dissipation of turbulence in the continuous phase (see Section 22.9.1: Coupling Between
the Discrete and Continuous Phases).

i Turbulent dispersion of particles cannot be included if the Spalart-Allmaras

turbulence model is used.

Stochastic Tracking
When the flow is turbulent, FLUENT will predict the trajectories of particles using the
mean fluid phase velocity, u, in the trajectory equations (Equation 22.2-1). Optionally,
you can include the instantaneous value of the fluctuating gas flow velocity,

u = u + u0 (22.2-20)

to predict the dispersion of the particles due to turbulence.

In the stochastic tracking approach, FLUENT predicts the turbulent dispersion of particles
by integrating the trajectory equations for individual particles, using the instantaneous
0
fluid velocity, u + u (t), along the particle path during the integration. By computing
the trajectory in this manner for a sufficient number of representative particles (termed
the “number of tries”), the random effects of turbulence on the particle dispersion may
be accounted for.
FLUENT uses a stochastic method (random walk model) to determine the instantaneous
gas velocity. In the discrete random walk (DRW) model, the fluctuating velocity com-
ponents are discrete piecewise constant functions of time. Their random value is kept
constant over an interval of time given by the characteristic lifetime of the eddies.
The DRW model may give nonphysical results in strongly nonhomogeneous diffusion-
dominated flows, where small particles should become uniformly distributed. Instead,
the DRW will show a tendency for such particles to concentrate in low-turbulence regions
of the flow.

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 22.2 Particle Motion Theory

The Integral Time

Prediction of particle dispersion makes use of the concept of the integral time scale, T ,
which describes the time spent in turbulent motion along the particle path, ds:

Z ∞ up 0 (t)up 0 (t + s)
T = ds (22.2-21)
0 up 0 2

The integral time is proportional to the particle dispersion rate, as larger values indicate
more turbulent motion in the flow. It can be shown that the particle diffusivity is given
by ui 0 uj 0 T .
For small “tracer” particles that move with the fluid (zero drift velocity), the integral time
becomes the fluid Lagrangian integral time, TL . This time scale can be approximated as

k
TL = CL (22.2-22)

where CL is to be determined as it is not well known. By matching the diffusivity of
tracer particles, ui 0 uj 0 TL , to the scalar diffusion rate predicted by the turbulence model,
νt /σ, one can obtain

k
TL ≈ 0.15 (22.2-23)

for the k- model and its variants, and

k
TL ≈ 0.30 (22.2-24)

when the Reynolds stress model (RSM) is used [75]. For the k-ω models, substitute
ω = /k into Equation 22.2-22. The LES model uses the equivalent LES time scales.

The Discrete Random Walk Model

In the discrete random walk (DRW) model, or “eddy lifetime” model, the interaction of
a particle with a succession of discrete stylized fluid phase turbulent eddies is simulated.
Each eddy is characterized by

• a Gaussian distributed random velocity fluctuation, u0 , v 0 , and w0

• a time scale, τe

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Modeling Discrete Phase

The values of u0 , v 0 , and w0 that prevail during the lifetime of the turbulent eddy are
sampled by assuming that they obey a Gaussian probability distribution, so that
q
0
u = ζ u0 2 (22.2-25)

where ζ is a normally distributed random number, and the remainder of the right-hand
side is the local RMS value of the velocity fluctuations. Since the kinetic energy of
turbulence is known at each point in the flow, these values of the RMS fluctuating
components can be defined (assuming isotropy) as
q q q q
u0 2 = v02 = w0 2 = 2k/3 (22.2-26)

for the k- model, the k-ω model, and their variants. When the RSM is used, nonisotropy
of the stresses is included in the derivation of the velocity fluctuations:

q
0
u = ζ u0 2 (22.2-27)
q
v0 = ζ v02 (22.2-28)
q
w0 = ζ w0 2 (22.2-29)

when viewed in a reference frame in which the second moment of the turbulence is diag-
onal [413]. For the LES model, the velocity fluctuations are equivalent in all directions.
See Section 12.9.4: Inlet Boundary Conditions for the LES Model for details.
The characteristic lifetime of the eddy is defined either as a constant:

τe = 2TL (22.2-30)

where TL is given by Equation 22.2-22 in general (Equation 22.2-23 by default), or as a

random variation about TL :

τe = −TL log(r) (22.2-31)

where r is a uniform random number between 0 and 1 and TL is given by Equation 22.2-23.
The option of random calculation of τe yields a more realistic description of the correlation
function.

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 22.2 Particle Motion Theory

The particle eddy crossing time is defined as

" !#
Le
tcross = −τ ln 1 − (22.2-32)
τ |u − up |

where τ is the particle relaxation time, Le is the eddy length scale, and |u − up | is the
magnitude of the relative velocity.
The particle is assumed to interact with the fluid phase eddy over the smaller of the
eddy lifetime and the eddy crossing time. When this time is reached, a new value of the
instantaneous velocity is obtained by applying a new value of ζ in Equation 22.2-25.

Using the DRW Model

The only inputs required for the DRW model are the value for the integral time-scale
constant, CL (see Equations 22.2-22 and 22.2-30) and the choice of the method used for
the prediction of the eddy lifetime. You can choose to use either a constant value or a
random value by selecting the appropriate option in the Set Injection Properties panel for
each injection, as described in Section 22.12.5: Stochastic Tracking.

i Turbulent dispersion of particles cannot be included if the Spalart-Allmaras

turbulence model is used.

Stochastic Staggering of Particles

In order to obtain a better representation of an injector, the particles can be staggered

either spatially or temporally. When particles are staggered spatially, FLUENT randomly
samples from the region in which the spray is specified (e.g., the sheet thickness in the
pressure-swirl atomizer) so that as the calculation progresses, trajectories will originate
from the entire region. This allows the entire geometry specified in the atomizer to be
sampled while specifying fewer streams in the input panel, thus decreasing computational
expense.
When injecting particles in a transient calculation using relatively large time steps in
relation to the spray event, the particles can clump together in discrete bunches. The
clumps do not look physically realistic, though FLUENT calculates the trajectory for
each particle as it passes through a cell and the coupling to the gas phase is properly
accounted for. To obtain a statistically smoother representation of the spray, the particles
can be staggered in time. During the first time step, the particle is tracked for a random
percentage of its initial step. This results in a sample of the initial volume swept out by
the particle during the first time step and a smoother, more uniform spatial distribution
at longer time intervals.
The menu for staggering is available in the text user interface, under
define/models/dpm/options/particle-staggering.

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Modeling Discrete Phase

The “staggering factor” in the TUI is a constant which multiplies the random sample.
The staggering factor controls the percentage of the initial time step that will be sampled.
For example, if the staggering factor is 0.5, then the parcels in the injection will be tracked
between half and all of their full initial time step. If the staggering factor is 0.1, then the
parcels will be tracked between ninety percent and all of their initial time step. If the
staggering factor is set to 0.9, the parcels will be tracked between ten percent and all of
their initial time step. This allows the user to control the amount of smoothing between
injections.
The default values for the options in the TUI are no temporal staggering and a temporal
staggering factor of 1.0. The temporal staggering factor is inactive until the flag for
temporal staggering is turned on.

Particle Cloud Tracking

Particle dispersion due to turbulent fluctuations can also be modeled with the particle
cloud model [28, 29, 159, 217]. The turbulent dispersion of particles about a mean
trajectory is calculated using statistical methods. The concentration of particles about
the mean trajectory is represented by a Gaussian probability density function (PDF)
whose variance is based on the degree of particle dispersion due to turbulent fluctuations.
The mean trajectory is obtained by solving the ensemble-averaged equations of motion
for all particles represented by the cloud (see Section 22.2.2: Particle Cloud Tracking).
The cloud enters the domain either as a point source or with an initial diameter. The
cloud expands due to turbulent dispersion as it is transported through the domain until
it exits. As mentioned before, the distribution of particles in the cloud is defined by a
probability density function (PDF) based on the position in the cloud relative to the cloud
center. The value of the PDF represents the probability of finding particles represented
by that cloud with residence time t at location xi in the flow field. The average particle
number density can be obtained by weighting the total flow rate of particles represented
by that cloud, ṁ, as

hn(xi )i = ṁP (xi , t) (22.2-33)

The PDFs for particle position are assumed to be multivariate Gaussian. These are
completely described by their mean, µi , and variance, σi 2 , and are of the form

1
P (xi , t) = 3
e−s/2 (22.2-34)
Y
(2π)3/2 σi
i=1

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 22.2 Particle Motion Theory

where

3 
x i − µi 2
X 
s= (22.2-35)
i=1 σi

The mean of the PDF, or the center of the cloud, at a given time represents the most
likely location of the particles in the cloud. The mean location is obtained by integrating
a particle velocity as defined by an equation of motion for the cloud of particles:

Z t
µi (t) ≡ hxi (t)i = hVi (t1 )idt1 + hxi (0)i (22.2-36)
0

The equations of motion are constructed using an ensemble average.

The radius of the particle cloud is based on the variance of the PDF. The variance, σi2 (t),
of the PDF can be expressed in terms of two particle turbulence statistical quantities:

Z t Z t2
σi2 (t) = 2 hu02
p,i (t2 )i Rp,ii (t2 , t1 )dt1 dt2 (22.2-37)
0 0

2 0
where hup,i i are the mean square velocity fluctuations, and Rp,ij (t2 , t1 ) is the particle
velocity correlation function:

hu0p,i (t2 )u0p,j (t1 )i

Rp,ij (t2 , t1 ) = h i1/2 (22.2-38)
hu02 02
p,i (t2 )up,j (t2 )i

By using the substitution τ = |t2 − t1 |, and the fact that

Rp,ij (t2 , t1 ) = Rp,ij (t4 , t3 ) (22.2-39)

whenever |t2 − t1 | = |t4 − t3 |, we can write

Z t Z t2
σi2 (t) = 2 hu02
p,i (t2 )i Rp,ii (τ )dτ dt2 (22.2-40)
0 0

Note that cross correlations in the definition of the variance (Rp,ij , i 6= j) have been
neglected.

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Modeling Discrete Phase

The form of the particle velocity correlation function used determines the particle disper-
sion in the cloud model. FLUENT uses a correlation function first proposed by Wang [389],
and used by Jain [159]. When the gravity vector is aligned with the z-coordinate direc-
tion, Rij takes the form:

u02 −(τ /τa ) St2 B 2 + 1

!
Rp,11 = e StT B − 0.5mT γ T
θ θ
2
u02 −(τ B/T )
!
mT StT γB τ
+ e −1 + + 0.5mT γ
θ θ T
(22.2-41)
Rp,22 = Rp,11 (22.2-42)
u02 StT B −(τ /τa ) u02 −(τ B/T )
Rp,33 = e − e (22.2-43)
θ θ
q
where B = 1 + m2T γ 2 and τa is the aerodynamic response time of the particle:

ρp d2p
τa = (22.2-44)
18µ
and

mT TmE
T = (22.2-45)
m
3/4 3/2
Cµ k
Tf E = (22.2-46)
( 23 k)1/2
τa g
γ = (22.2-47)
u0
τa
St = (22.2-48)
TmE
τa
StT = (22.2-49)
T
θ = St2T (1 + m2T γ 2 ) − 1 (22.2-50)
ū
m = (22.2-51)
u0
ū
TmE = Tf E 0 (22.2-52)
"u #
G(m)
mT = m 1− (22.2-53)
(1 + St)0.4(1+0.01St)
2
2 Z∞ e−y dy
G(m) = √ √ 5/2 (22.2-54)
π 0

m2
1+ π
( π erf(y)y − 1 + e−y2 )

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 22.3 Multicomponent Particle Theory

Using this correlation function, the variance is integrated over the life of the cloud. At
any given time, the cloud radius is set to three standard deviations in the coordinate
directions. The cloud radius is limited to three standard deviations since at least 99.2%
of the area under a Gaussian PDF is accounted for at this distance. Once the cells
within the cloud are established, the fluid properties are ensemble-averaged for the mean
trajectory, and the mean path is integrated in time. This is done with a weighting factor
defined as
Z
P (xi , t)dV
Vcell
W (xi , t) ≡ Z (22.2-55)
P (xi , t)dV
Vcloud

If coupled calculations are performed, sources are distributed to the cells in the cloud
based on the same weighting factors.

Using the Cloud Model

The only inputs required for the cloud model are the values of the minimum and maximum
cloud diameters. The cloud model is enabled in the Set Injection Properties panel for each
injection, as described in Section 22.12.5: Cloud Tracking.

i The cloud model is not available for unsteady particle tracking, or in par-
allel, when using the message passing option for the particles.

22.3 Multicomponent Particle Theory

A number of industrially important processes, such as distillation, absorption and ex-
traction, bring into contact two phases which are not at equilibrium. The rate at which a
specie is transferred from one phase to the other depends on the departure of the system
from equilibrium. The quantitative treatment of these rate processes requires knowledge
of the equilibrium states of the system. Apart from these cases, vapor-liquid equilibrium
(VLE) relationships in multicomponent systems are needed for the solution of many other
classes of engineering problems, such as the computation of evaporation rates in spray
combustion applications.
In FLUENT the rate of vaporization of a single component droplet is computed from
Equation 22.9-20, where Ci,s is the equilibrium concentration of the droplet species in
the gas phase, and is computed in Equation 22.9-21 as:

Ci,s = psat /RTp (22.3-1)

where Tp is the droplet temperature, and psat is the saturation pressure of the droplet
species at Tp .

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Modeling Discrete Phase

For the general case where N components are evaporating from a droplet (distillation),
the evaporation rate of each species is again given by Equation 22.9-20; however, psat in
Equation 22.3-1 must be replaced by pi , the partial pressure of species i, to calculate the
concentration of i at the droplet surface.
The partial pressure of species i can be obtained from the general expression for vapor
liquid equilibrium [343],

Vi L (p − psat,i )
" #
φ̂i yi p = γi xi φsat,i psat,i exp (22.3-2)
RT

which is obtained by equating the fugacity of the liquid and vapor mixtures. Here, φ̂i , is
the fugacity coefficient for species i in the mixture, and accounts for nonideality in the
gas; φsat,i is the fugacity coefficient for pure i at the saturation pressure; γi is the activity
coefficient for species i in the mixture, and accounts for nonideality in the liquid phase; p
is the absolute pressure; T is the temperature; R is the universal gas constant; Vi L is the
molar volume of the liquid; psat,i is the saturation pressure of species i ; and xi and yi are
the equilibrium compositions of species i in the liquid and gas phases, respectively. The
exponential term is the Poynting correction factor and accounts for compressibility effects
within the liquid. Except at high pressures, the Poynting factor is usually negligible.
Under low pressure conditions where the gas phase may be assumed to be ideal, φ̂i ≈ 1
and φsat,i ≈ 1. Furthermore, if the liquid is also assumed to be ideal, γi ≈ 1 and
Equation 22.3-2 reduces to Raoult’s law,

yi p = xi psat,i (22.3-3)

Raoult’s law is the default vapor-liquid equilibrium expression used in the FLUENT mul-
ticomponent droplet model. However, there is a UDF hook available for user-defined
vapor-liquid equilibrium models.
While Raoult’s law represents the simplest form of the VLE equation, keep in mind that
it is of limited use, as the assumptions made for its derivation are usually unrealistic.
The most critical assumption is that the liquid phase is an ideal solution. This is not
likely to be valid, unless the system is made up of species of similar molecular sizes and
chemical nature, such as in the case of benzene and toluene, or n-heptane and n-hexane.
When Raoult’s law is applicable, the vaporization rate of each species from a multicompo-
nent droplet can be computed from Equation 22.9-20, with the equilibrium concentration
of species i in the gas phase Ci,s computed as:

Ci,s = xi psat,i /RTp (22.3-4)

where Tp is the droplet temperature, xi is the mole fraction of species i in the droplet,
and psat,i is the saturation pressure of species i at Tp .

22-18
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 22.4 Wall-Film Model Theory

22.4 Wall-Film Model Theory

22.4.1 Introduction
Spray-wall interaction is an important part of the mixture formation process in port fuel
injected (PFI) engines. A fuel spray impinges on a surface, usually at the intake port near
the intake valve, as well as at the intake valve itself, where it splashes and subsequently
evaporates. The evaporated mixture is entrained into the cylinder of the engine, where
it is mixed with the fresh charge and any residual gas in the cylinder. The mixture that
is compressed and burned, finally exits through the exhaust port. The process repeats
itself between 200 and 8000 times per second, depending on the engine.
Several cycles worth of fuel remain in the intake tract due to film formation on the
walls. This in turn makes the film important in hydrocarbon emissions for PFI engines.
Additionally, film can form inside combustion chambers of direct injection (DI) types
of engines. In a direct injection engine, fuel is injected directly into the combustion
chamber, where the spray can impinge upon the piston if the injection event is early or
late in the cycle. The modeling of the wall-film inside a DI engine, especially in diesel
engines, is compounded by the presence of carbon deposits on the surfaces of the engine.
This carbon deposit absorbs the liquid film as it impinges upon it. It is believed that
the carbon deposits adsorb the fuel later in the cycle, however this phenomena is very
complex and is not well understood.
DPM particles are used to model the wall-film. The wall-film model in FLUENT allows
a single component liquid drop to impinge upon a boundary surface and form a thin
film. The model can be broken down into four major subtopics: interaction during the
initial impact with a wall boundary, subsequent tracking on surfaces, calculation of film
variables, and coupling to the gas phase. Figure 22.4.1 schematically shows the basic
mechanisms considered for the wall-film model.
The main assumptions and restrictions for the wall-film model are as follows:

• The layer is thin, less than 500 microns in thickness. This limitation is due to the
assumption of a linear velocity profile in the film.

• The temperature in the film particles change relatively slowly so that an analytical
integration scheme can be utilized.

• Film particles are assumed to be in direct contact with the wall surface and the
heat transfer from the wall to the film takes place by conduction.

• The film temperature never exceeds the boiling temperature for the liquid.

• The simulation is transient.

• The wall-film model is not available with the Workpile Algorithm shared memory
option in parallel processing.

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Modeling Discrete Phase

Major Physical Phenomena

Convective
heat transfer

Impinging Splashing
Fuel Drops Evaporation Shear Forces Film separation
and sheet breakup






































 






























































 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 










































































 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  
















































































































































































































































































































Conduction

Figure 22.4.1: Mechanisms of Splashing, Momentum, Heat and Mass Trans-

fer for the Wall-Film

If you wish to model a spray impacting a very hot wall, the wall-jet model may be
more appropriate as the assumption in the wall-jet impingement model is that there is
a vapor layer underneath the drops which keeps them from making direct contact with
the boundary surface. This may be a more accurate assumption for in-cylinder diesel
computations at typical operating conditions.

22.4.2 Interaction During Impact with a Boundary

The wall interaction is based on the work of Stanton [354] and O’Rourke [272], where
the regimes are calculated for a drop-wall interaction based on local information. The
four regimes, stick, rebound, spread, and splash are based on the impact energy and wall
temperature. The following chart is helpful in showing the cutoffs.

22-20
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 22.4 Wall-Film Model Theory

E 6 Splash

Spread
Rebound

Stick
-
Tb Tw
Figure 22.4.2: Simplified Decision Chart for Wall Interaction Criterion.

Below the boiling temperature of the liquid, the impinging droplet can either stick, spread
or splash, while above the boiling temperature, the particle can either rebound or splash.
The criteria by which the regimes are partitioned are based on the impact energy and
the boiling temperature of the liquid. The impact energy is defined by

ρV 2 D
!
1
E = r
2
(22.4-1)
σ min (h0 /D, 1) + δbl /D

where ρ is the liquid density, Vr is the relative velocity of the particle in the frame of the
wall (i.e. Vr2 = (Vp − Vw )2 ), D is the diameter of the droplet, and σ is the surface tension
of the liquid. Here, δbl is a boundary layer thickness, defined by
D
δbl = √ (22.4-2)
Re
where the Reynolds number is defined as Re = ρVr D/µ. By defining the energy as in
Equation 22.4-1, the presence of the film on the wall suppresses the splash, but does not
give unphysical results when the film height approaches zero.
The sticking regime is applied when the dimensionless energy E is less than 16, and the
particle velocity is set equal to the wall velocity. In the spreading regime, the initial di-
rection and velocity of the particle are set using the wall-jet model, where the probability
of the drop having a particular direction along the surface is given by an analogy of an
inviscid liquid jet with an empirically defined radial dependence for the momentum flux.
If the wall temperature is above the boiling temperature of the liquid, impingement events
below a critical impact energy (E) results in the particles rebounding from the wall. For
the rebound regime, the particle rebounds with the following coefficient of restitution:

e = 0.993 − 1.76ΘI + 1.56Θ2I − 0.49Θ3I (22.4-3)

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Modeling Discrete Phase

where ΘI is the impingement angle as measured from the wall surface.

Splashing occurs when the impingement energy is above a critical energy threshold,
defined as Ecr = 57.7. The number of splashed droplet parcels is set in the Boundary
Conditions panel with a default number of 4, however, the user can select numbers between
zero and ten. The splashing algorithm follows that described by Stanton [354] and is
detailed in Section 22.4.3: Splashing.

22.4.3 Splashing
If the particle impinging on the surface has a sufficiently high energy, the particle splashes
and several new particles are created. The number of particles created by each impact
is explicitly set by the user in the DPM tab in the Boundary Conditions panel, as in
Figure 22.4.3. The number of splashed parcels may be set to an integer value between
zero and ten. The properties (diameter, magnitude, and direction) of the splashed parcels
are randomly sampled from the experimentally obtained distribution functions described
in the following sections. Setting the number of splashed parcels to zero turns off the
splashing calculation. Bear in mind that each splashed parcel can be considered a discrete
sample of the distribution curves and that selecting the number of splashed drops in the
Boundary Conditions panel does not limit the number of splashed drops, only the number
of parcels representing those drops.
Therefore, for each splashed parcel, a different diameter is obtained by sampling a cu-
mulative probability distribution function (CPDF), which is obtained from a Weibull
distribution function and fitted to the data from Mundo, et al. [255]. The equation is
!  !2 
d d d
pdf = 2 2 exp −  (22.4-4)
D D D

and it represents the probability of finding drops of diameter di in a sample of splashed

drops. This distribution is similar to the Nakamura-Tanasawa distribution function used
√
by O’Rourke [272], but with the peak of the distribution function being D = dmax / 2.
To ensure that the distribution functions produce physical results with an increasing
Weber number, the following expression for dmax from O’Rourke [272] is used. The peak
of the splashed diameter distribution is
2
!
Ecrit 6.4
dmax /d0 = MAX 2
, , 0.06 (22.4-5)
E We
where the expression for energy is given by Equation 22.4-1. Low Weber number impacts
are described by the second term in Equation 22.4-5 and the peak of the minimum
splashed diameter distribution is never less than 0.06 for very high energy impacts in any
of the experiments analyzed by O’Rourke [272]. The Weber number in Equation 22.4-5
is defined using the relative velocity and drop diameter:
ρVr2 D
We = (22.4-6)
σ

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 22.4 Wall-Film Model Theory

Figure 22.4.3: The Discrete Phase Model Panel and the Film Model Parameters

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Modeling Discrete Phase

The cumulative probability distribution function (CPDF) is needed so that a diameter

can be sampled from the experimental data. The CPDF is obtained from integrating
Equation 22.4-4 to obtain
!  !2 
d d
cpdf = 1 − exp −  (22.4-7)
D D

which is bounded by zero and one. An expression for the diameter (which is a function
of D, the impingement Weber number W e, and the impingement energy) is obtained by
inverting Equation 22.4-7 and sampling the CPDF between zero and one. The expression
for the diameter of the ith splashed parcel is therefore given by,
q
di = D − ln (1 − ci )

where ci is the ith random sample. Once the diameter of the splashed drop has been
determined, the probability of finding that drop in a given sample is determined by
evaluating Equation 22.4-4 at the given diameter. The number of drops per parcel can
be expressed as a function of the total number of splashed drops:

Ni = Ntot pdfi (22.4-8)

where the pdfi is for the ith sample. The values of pdfi are then normalized so that their
sum is one. Both the number per parcel (Ni ) and the total number of splashed drops
(Ntot ) is unknown, but an expression for Ntot can be obtained from the conservation of
mass if the total splashed mass is known.
The amount of mass splashed from the surface is a quadratic function of the splashing
energy, obtained from the experimental data from Mundo [255]. The splashed mass
fraction ys is given by
(
1.8x10−4 (E 2 − Ecrit
2 2
) , Ecrit < E 2 < 7500
ys =
0.70 , E 2 > 7500

The authors (O’Rourke et al. [272]) noted that nearly all of the impacts for typical diesel
sprays are well above the upper bound and so the splashing event nearly always ejects
70% of the mass of the impinging drop. To obtain an expression for the total number of
drops, we note that overall conservation of mass requires that the sum of the total mass
of the splashed parcel(s) must equal the splashed mass fraction, or
Nparcels 
ρπ 
pdfn d3n = ys m0
X
Ntot (22.4-9)
6 n=1

where m0 is the total mass of the impinging parcel. The expression for the total number
of splashed drops is
ys m0
Ntot = ρπ PNparcels
6 n=1 (pdfn d3n )

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 22.4 Wall-Film Model Theory

The number of splashed drops per parcel is then determined by Equation 22.4-8 with the
values of pdfi given by Equation 22.4-4.
To calculate the velocity with which the splashed drops leave the surface, additional
correlations are sampled for the normal component of the velocity. A Weibull function,
fit to the data from Mundo [255], is used as the PDF for the normal component. The
probability density is given by
 !bv −1   !bv 
Vni bv Vni /Vnd Vni /Vnd
 
pdf =  exp −  (22.4-10)
Vnd Θv Θv Θv

where
(
2.1, ΘI ≤ 50◦
bv = (22.4-11)
1.10 + 0.02ΘI , ΘI > 50◦

and
Θv = 0.158e0.017ΘI (22.4-12)
where ΘI is the angle at which the parcel impacts the surface, or the impingement angle.
The tangential component of the velocity is obtained from the expression for the reflection
angle Θs :
Θs = 65.4 + 0.226Θl (22.4-13)
combined with
Vni
Vti = (22.4-14)
tan(Θs )
Finally, an energy balance is performed for the new parcels so that the sum of the kinetic
and surface energies of the new drops does not exceed that of the old drops. The energy
balance is given by
N Nparcel 
1 parcel
X 
2
  1    
Ni d2i = md Vd2 mi Vi2 + πσ md d2i − Ecrit
X
mi Vi + πσ
2 i=1 i=1 2

where Ecrit is the threshold energy for splashing to occur. To ensure conservation of
energy, the following correction factor is computed:
1 PNparcel
m V2
2 d d
(mi Vi2 ) + πσ (md d2i ) − Ecrit − πσ i=1 (Ni d2i )
K= 1 PNparcel . (22.4-15)
2 i=1 (mi Vi2 )

This correction factor is needed due to the relatively small number of sampled points for
the velocity of the splashed drops (see Stanton [355] for more detail). The components
of the splashed parcel are multiplied by the square root of K in Equation 22.4-15 so that
energy will be conserved. The normal and tangential velocity components of the splashed
parcels are therefore given by
√ √
Vni0 = KVni and Vti0 = KVti

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Modeling Discrete Phase

FLUENT will limit the velocity of the splashed parcels so that they do not exceed the
impact velocity of the original parcel. It is important to note that splashing events are
inherently transient, so the splashing submodel is only available with unsteady tracking
in FLUENT. Splashing can also cause large increases in source terms in the cells in which
it occurs, which can cause difficulty in convergence between time steps. Thus, it may be
necessary to use a smaller time step during the simulation when splashing is enabled.

22.4.4 Separation Criteria

The film can separate from the wall when the stress at an edge of the film exceeds
the adhesion forces holding the film to the wall. These forces are complex and highly
dependent on local surface conditions. An order of magnitude analysis of a film rounding
a sharp corner shows that the stresses at the edge of a film are proportional to the angle
which the film negotiates. In FLUENT, you can specify the maximum angle that the
film can negotiate using a special text command. For more information, contact your
FLUENT support engineer.

22.4.5 Conservation Equations for Wall-Film Particles

Conservation equations for momentum, mass, and energy for individual parcels in the
wall-film are described below. The particle-based approach for thin films was first for-
mulated by O’Rourke [271] and most of the following derivation is based closely on that
work.

Momentum

The equation for the momentum of a parcel on the film is

d~up ˙ ˙
ρh + h(∇s pf )α = τg~tg + τw~tw + P~ imp,α − Ṁimp,α~up + F~ n,α + ρh(~g − ~aw ) (22.4-16)
dt
where α denotes the current face on which the particle resides, h denotes the current film
height at the particle location, ∇s is the gradient operator restricted to the surface, and
pf is the pressure on the surface of the film. On the right-hand side of Equation 22.4-16,
τg denotes the magnitude of the shear stress of the gas flow on the surface of the film, t~g
is the unit vector in the direction of the relative motion of the gas and the film surface,
µl is the liquid viscosity, and τw is the magnitude of the stress that the wall exerts on
the film. Similarly to the expression for t~g , t~w is the unit vector in the direction of the
relative motion of the film and the wall. The remaining expressions on the right-hand
˙
side of Equation 22.4-16 are P~ imp,α which denotes the impingement pressure on the film
surface, M~˙ imp,α is the impingement momentum source, and F~˙ n,α is the force necessary
to keep the film on the surface, as determined by

~up · n̂α = 0. (22.4-17)

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 22.4 Wall-Film Model Theory

Here, ρh(~g − ~aw ) is the body force term. Note that the body force term can be very
significant, despite the small values of film thickness due to the very high accelera-
tion rates seen in simulations with moving boundaries. The requirement represented
by Equation 22.4-17 is explicitly enforced at each time step in FLUENT for all particles
representing the wall-film.
The term h(∇s pf )α is the surface gradient of the pressure on the face, pf . This pressure,
pf , is the sum of the fluid pressure and the impingement pressure from the drops on the
face, given by
˙
pf = Pcell − P~ imp,α · n̂ + Ṁimp,α~up · n̂
where the impingement mass Ṁimp,α is given by
ZZZ
Ṁimp,α = ρl Vp~v · n̂f (~xs , ~v , r, Td , t)drd~v dTd (22.4-18)

and the impingement pressure is given by

˙
ZZZ
P~ imp,α = ρl Vp~v~v · n̂f (~xs , ~v , r, Td , t)drd~v dTd (22.4-19)

where Vp is the volume of the drop. An approximation of the impingement mass in

Equation 22.4-18 is given by
Ns
!,
X
Ṁimp,α = ρVp Aα ∆t, (22.4-20)
n=0

and the corresponding expression of the impingement pressure in Equation 22.4-19 is

given by  ,
Ni
˙
P~ imp,α =  ρVp (~un+1 − ~unp ) Aα ∆t.
X
p (22.4-21)
n=0

The summation in Equation 22.4-20 is over all the drops which actually stick to the face
α during the time step (Ns ). The summation in Equation 22.4-21 is over all the particles
which impinge upon the face during the same interval (Ni ).
The expression for the stress that the gas exerts on the surface of the wall-film, τg , in
Equation 22.4-16 is given by
τg = Cf (~ug − 2~up )2 = Cf Vrel
2
g

where Cf is the skin friction coefficient and ~ug is the gas velocity evaluated at the film
height above the wall. The assumption made in evaluating the skin friction coefficient
is that the wall shear stress from the gas is constant over the thickness of the film and
the boundary layer above the film (in the normal direction from the face). The stress is
tangent to the wall in the direction of the difference between the wall-film velocity and
the gas velocity, so the unit vector in the direction of the velocity difference along the
surface is
V~relg − (V~relg · n̂)n̂
t̂g =
|V~relg − (V~relg · n̂)n̂|

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Modeling Discrete Phase

where n̂ is the normal face . The expression for the stress that the wall exerts on the
film, τw , in Equation 22.4-16 is given by
µl µl
τw = − |2~up − ~uw | = − |V~relw |
h h
where µl is the liquid viscosity and ~uw is the velocity of the wall. Here, τw acts in the
direction of the velocity difference between the wall and the film, as given by

V~relw − (V~relw · n̂)n̂

t̂w = .
|V~relw − (V~relw · n̂)n̂|

Note that the tangential unit vectors, t̂g and t̂w , are independent and can point in com-
pletely different directions.
Since FLUENT solves a particle position equation of the form
d~up
= α − β~up ,
dt
Equation 22.4-16 must be rearranged. The film particle acceleration is then given by
 
P~imp
!
d~up  Cf |Vrelg | (∇s pf )α µl |u~w | 2Cf |Vrelg | 2µl Ṁimp
= t̂g − + 2
t̂w + + ~
g − + 2+ ~up .
dt ρh ρ ρh ρh ρh ρh ρh
(22.4-22)
~
The terms for Mimp and Pimp are used from the previous time step and the differential
equations for the particle motion are solved with the existing integration routines.

Mass Transfer from the Film

The film vaporization law is applied when the film particle is above the vaporization
temperature Tvap . A wall particle has the temperature limited by the boiling temperature
Tbp and does not have a specific boiling law associated with the physics of film boiling.
The vaporization rate of the film is governed by gradient diffusion from the surface
exposed to the gas phase. The gradient of vapor concentration between the film surface
and the gas phase is
Ṅi = Bf (Ci,s − Ci,∞ ) (22.4-23)
where Ṅi is the molar flux of vapor (with units of kgmol/m2 -s), Bf is the mass transfer
coefficient (in m/s), and Ci,s and Ci,∞ are the vapor concentrations on the film surface
and in the bulk gas, respectively. The units of vapor concentration are kgmol/m3 .
The vapor concentration at the surface is evaluated using the saturated vapor pressure
at the film surface temperature and the bulk gas concentration is obtained from the flow
field solution. The vaporization rate is sensitive to the saturated vapor pressure, similar
to droplet vaporization.

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 22.4 Wall-Film Model Theory

The mass transfer coefficient is obtained using a Nusselt correlation for the heat transfer
coefficient and replacing the Prandtl number with the Schmidt number. The equation is
(
Bf x 0.332Rex1/2 Sc1/3 Rex < 2500, 0.6 < Sc < 50
N ux = = (22.4-24)
kf 0.0296Re4/5
x Sc
1/3
Rex > 2500, 0.6 < Sc < 60

where the Reynolds number is based on a representative length derived from the face
area. The temperature for the film surface is equal to the gas temperature, but is limited
by the boiling temperature of the liquid. The particle properties are evaluated at the
surface temperature when used in correlation 22.4-24.
For multicomponent vaporization, the Schmidt number based on the diffusivity of each
species is used to calculate the correlation in equation 22.4-24 for each component.
The mass of the particle is decreased by

mp (t + ∆t) = mp (t) − Ni Ap Mw,i ∆t (22.4-25)

where Mw,i is the molecular weight of the gas phase species to which the vapor from the
liquid is added. The diameter of the film particle is decreased to account for the mass
loss in the individual parcel. This keeps the number of drops in the parcel constant and
acts only as a place holder. When the parcel detaches from the boundary, the diameter
is set to the height of the film and the number in the parcel is adjusted so that the overall
mass of the parcel is conserved.

Energy Transfer from the Film

To obtain an equation for the temperature in the film, energy flux from the gas side as
well as energy flux from the wall side must be considered. The assumed temperature
profile in the liquid is bilinear, with the surface temperature Ts being the maximum
temperature of the gas at the film height. Furthermore, the boiling point of the liquid
and the wall temperature will be the maximum of the wall face temperature Tw , and
will be the same boiling temperature as the liquid. An energy balance on a film particle
yields
d
{mp Cp Tp } = Qcond + Qconv (22.4-26)
dt
where Qcond is the conduction from the wall, given by
κAp
Qcond = (Tw − Tp )
h
where κ is the thermal conductivity of the liquid and h is the film height at the location
of the particle, as seen in Figure 22.4.4. The convection from the top surface, Qconv is
given by
Qconv = hf Ap (Tg − Tp )
where hf is the film heat transfer coefficient given by Equation 22.4-24 and Ap is the
area represented by a film particle, taken to be a mass weighted percentage of the face

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Modeling Discrete Phase

area, Af . Contributions from the impingement terms are neglected in this formulation,
as well as contributions from the gradients of the mean temperature on the edges of the
film.
Ts

Tp 2h

Tw

Figure 22.4.4: Assumption of a Bilinear Temperature Profile in the Film

Assuming that the temperature changes slowly for each particle in the film, the equation
for the change in temperature of a non vaporizing particle can be written as

dTp κ κ
   
mp Cp = Ap − hf + Tp + hTg + Tw (22.4-27)
dt h h
As the particle trajectory is computed, FLUENT integrates Equation 22.4-27 to obtain
the particle temperature at the next time value, yielding

Tp (t + ∆t) = αp + [Tp (t) − αp ]e−βp ∆t (22.4-28)

where ∆t is the integration time step and αp and βp are given by

hf Tg + κh Tw
αp = (22.4-29)
hf + κh

and
Ap (hf + hκ )
βp = (22.4-30)
mp Cp

When the particle changes its mass during vaporization, an additional term is added to
Equation 22.4-27 to account for the enthalpy of vaporization, which is given by
dTp κ κ
   
mp Cp = Ap − hf + Tp + hTg + Tw + ṁp hf g (22.4-31)
dt h h

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 22.5 Particle Erosion and Accretion Theory

where hf g is the latent heat of vaporization (with units of J/kg) and the expression ṁp
is the rate of evaporation in kg/s. This alters the expression for αp in Equation 22.4-29
so that
hf Tg + κh Tw + ṁp hf g /Ap
αp = (22.4-32)
hf + κh

When the wall-film model is active, the heat flux from the wall to the liquid film is
subtracted from the heat flux from the wall to the gas phase. Additionally, enthalpy
from vaporization of the liquid from the wall is subtracted from the cell to which the
vapor mass goes. Since film boiling is modeled by limiting the liquid phase temperature
to the boiling point of the material, energy in excess of that absorbed by the liquid will
be put into the gas phase. When the thermal boundary conditions on the wall are set
to a constant heat flux, the local temperature of the wall face is used as the thermal
boundary condition for the wall-film particles.

22.5 Particle Erosion and Accretion Theory

Particle erosion and accretion rates can be monitored at wall boundaries. The erosion
rate is defined as

Nparticles
X ṁp C(dp )f (α)v b(v)
Rerosion = (22.5-1)
p=1 Aface

where C(dp ) is a function of particle diameter, α is the impact angle of the particle path
with the wall face, f (α) is a function of impact angle, v is the relative particle velocity,
b(v) is a function of relative particle velocity, and Aface is the area of the cell face at the
wall. Default values are C = 1.8 × 10−9 , f = 1, and b = 0.
Since C, f , and b are defined as boundary conditions at a wall, rather than properties
of a material, the default values are not updated to reflect the material being used. You
will need to specify appropriate values at all walls. Values of these functions for sand
eroding both carbon steel and aluminum are given by Edwards et al. [96].
The erosion rate as calculated above is displayed in units of removed material/(area-
time), i.e., mass flux, and can therefore be changed accordingly to the defined units
in FLUENT. The functions C and f have to be specified in consistent units to build a
dimensionless group with the relative particle velocity and its exponent. To compute
an erosion rate in terms of length/time (mm/year, for example) you can either define a
custom field function to divide the erosion rate by the density of the wall material or
include this division in the units for C and/or f . Note that the units given by FLUENT
when displaying the erosion rate are no longer valid in the latter case.
A variety of erosion models [107, 235, 95, 263, 138, 314] containing model constants [138,
95] and angle functions can be easily implemented into FLUENT. The equations describing

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Modeling Discrete Phase

some of the erosion models can be modified to appear in the form of the general equation
describing the erosion rate, Equation 22.5-1. For example, the Tulsa Angle Dependent
Model [95] described by Equation 22.5-2

ER = 1559B −0.59 Fs v 1.73 f (α) (22.5-2)

can be rewritten in the form of Equation 22.5-1 with the following substitutions:
v 1.73 = v b(v)
1559B −0.59 Fs = C(dp )
where ER is the erosion rate, B is the Brinell hardness, and Fs is a particle shape
coefficient.
User-defined functions can be used to describe erosion models of any form. For more
complex models, such as those models with varying function angles, f (α), the default
Erosion Model in the wall Boundary Conditions panel cannot be used. Hence, a user-defined
function should be used instead. For information on how to apply user-defined functions
for DPM erosion models, refer to the DEFINE DPM EROSION macro in the separate UDF
Manual , or contact your support engineer for further assistance.
Note that the particle erosion and accretion rates can be displayed only when coupled
calculations are enabled.
The accretion rate is defined as

Nparticles
X ṁp
Raccretion = (22.5-3)
p=1 Aface

22.6 Dynamic Drag Model Theory

Accurate determination of droplet drag coefficients is crucial for accurate spray modeling.
FLUENT provides a method that determines the droplet drag coefficient dynamically,
accounting for variations in the droplet shape.
The dynamic drag model is applicable in almost any circumstance. It is compatible with
both the TAB and wave models for droplet breakup. When the collision model is turned
on, collisions reset the distortion and distortion velocities of the colliding droplets.
Many droplet drag models assume the droplet remains spherical throughout the domain.
With this assumption, the drag of a spherical object is determined by the following [218]:



 0.424 Re > 1000
Cd,sphere =    (22.6-1)
 24
Re
1 + 16 Re2/3 Re ≤ 1000

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 22.7 Spray Model Theory

However, as an initially spherical droplet moves through a gas, its shape is distorted
significantly when the Weber number is large. In the extreme case, the droplet shape
will approach that of a disk. The drag of a disk, however, is significantly higher than that
of a sphere. Since the droplet drag coefficient is highly dependent upon the droplet shape,
a drag model that assumes the droplet is spherical is unsatisfactory. The dynamic drag
model accounts for the effects of droplet distortion, linearly varying the drag between
that of a sphere (Equation 22.6-1) and a value of 1.54 corresponding to a disk [218]. The
drag coefficient is given by

Cd = Cd,sphere (1 + 2.632y) (22.6-2)

where y is the droplet distortion, as determined by the solution of

d2 y CF ρg u2 Ck σ Cd µl dy
2
= 2
− 3
y− (22.6-3)
dt Cb ρl r ρl r ρl r2 dt

In the limit of no distortion (y = 0), the drag coefficient of a sphere will be obtained,
while at maximum distortion (y = 1) the drag coefficient corresponding to a disk will be
obtained.
Note that Equation 22.6-3 is obtained from the TAB model for spray breakup, described
in Section 22.7.2: Taylor Analogy Breakup (TAB) Model, but the dynamic drag model
can be used with either of the breakup models.

22.7 Spray Model Theory

In addition to the simple injection types described in Section 22.12.1: Injection Types,
FLUENT also provides more complex injection types for sprays. For most types of injec-
tions, you will need to provide the initial diameter, position, and velocity of the particles.
For sprays, however, there are models available to predict the droplet size and velocity
distributions. Models are also available for droplet breakup and collision, as well as a
dynamically varying drag coefficient which accounts for variation in droplet shape. These
models for realistic spray simulations are described in this section.
Information is organized into the following subsections:

• Section 22.7.1: Droplet Collision Model

• Section 22.7.2: Droplet Breakup Models

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Modeling Discrete Phase

22.7.1 Droplet Collision Model

Introduction
When your simulation includes tracking of droplets, FLUENT provides an option for
estimating the number of droplet collisions and their outcomes in a computationally
efficient manner. The difficulty in any collision calculation is that for N droplets, each
droplet has N − 1 possible collision partners. Thus, the number of possible collision pairs
is approximately 21 N 2 . (The factor of 21 appears because droplet A colliding with droplet
B is identical to droplet B colliding with droplet A. This symmetry reduces the number
of possible collision events by half.)
An important consideration is that the collision algorithm must calculate 12 N 2 possible
collision events at every time step. Since a spray can consist of several million droplets,
the computational cost of a collision calculation from first principles is prohibitive. This
motivates the concept of parcels. Parcels are statistical representations of a number
of individual droplets. For example, if FLUENT tracks a set of parcels, each of which
represents 1000 droplets, the cost of the collision calculation is reduced by a factor of
106 . Because the cost of the collision calculation still scales with the square of N , the
reduction of cost is significant; however, the effort to calculate the possible intersection
of so many parcel trajectories would still be prohibitively expensive.
The algorithm of O’Rourke [269] efficiently reduces the computational cost of the spray
calculation. Rather than using geometry to see if parcel paths intersect, O’Rourke’s
method is a stochastic estimate of collisions. O’Rourke also makes the assumption that
two parcels may collide only if they are located in the same continuous-phase cell. These
two assumptions are valid only when the continuous-phase cell size is small compared
to the size of the spray. For these conditions, the method of O’Rourke is second-order
accurate at estimating the chance of collisions. The concept of parcels together with
the algorithm of O’Rourke makes the calculation of collision possible for practical spray
problems.
Once it is decided that two parcels of droplets collide, the algorithm further determines
the type of collision. Only coalescence and bouncing outcomes are considered. The
probability of each outcome is calculated from the collisional Weber number (W ec ) and
a fit to experimental observations. Here,
2
ρUrel D
W ec = (22.7-1)
σ
where Urel is the relative velocity between two parcels and D is the arithmetic mean
diameter of the two parcels. The state of the two colliding parcels is modified based on
the outcome of the collision.

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 22.7 Spray Model Theory

Use and Limitations

The collision model assumes that the frequency of collisions is much less than the par-
ticle time step. If the particle time step is too large, then the results may be time-
step-dependent. You should adjust the particle length scale accordingly. Additionally,
the model is most applicable for low-Weber-number collisions where collisions result in
bouncing and coalescence. Above a Weber number of about 100, the outcome of collision
could be shattering.
Sometimes the collision model can cause grid-dependent artifacts to appear in the spray.
This is a result of the assumption that droplets can collide only within the same cell.
These tend to be visible when the source of injection is at a mesh vertex. The coalescence
of droplets tends to cause the spray to pull away from cell boundaries. In two dimensions,
a finer mesh and more computational droplets can be used to reduce these effects. In
three dimensions, best results are achieved when the spray is modeled using a polar mesh
with the spray at the center.
If the collision model is used in a transient simulation, multiple DPM iterations per time
step cannot be specified in the Number of Continuous Phase Iterations per DPM Iteration
field in the Discrete Phase Model panel. In such cases, only one DPM iteration per time
step will be calculated.

Theory
As noted above, O’Rourke’s algorithm assumes that two droplets may collide only if they
are in the same continuous-phase cell. This assumption can prevent droplets that are
quite close to each other, but not in the same cell, from colliding, although the effect of
this error is lessened by allowing some droplets that are farther apart to collide. The
overall accuracy of the scheme is second-order in space.

Probability of Collision

The probability of collision of two droplets is derived from the point of view of the larger
droplet, called the collector droplet and identified below with the number 1. The smaller
droplet is identified in the following derivation with the number 2. The calculation is in
the frame of reference of the larger droplet so that the velocity of the collector droplet is
zero. Only the relative distance between the collector and the smaller droplet is important
in this derivation. If the smaller droplet is on a collision course with the collector, the
centers will pass within a distance of r1 + r2 . More precisely, if the smaller droplet center
passes within a flat circle centered around the collector of area π(r1 + r2 )2 perpendicular
to the trajectory of the smaller droplet, a collision will take place. This disk can be used
to define the collision volume, which is the area of the aforementioned disk multiplied by
the distance traveled by the smaller droplet in one time step, namely π(r1 + r2 )2 vrel ∆t.
The algorithm of O’Rourke uses the concept of a collision volume to calculate the prob-
ability of collision. Rather than calculating whether or not the position of the smaller

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Modeling Discrete Phase

droplet center is within the collision volume, the algorithm calculates the probability
of the smaller droplet being within the collision volume. It is known that the smaller
droplet is somewhere within the continuous-phase cell of volume V . If there is a uniform
probability of the droplet being anywhere within the cell, then the chance of the droplet
being within the collision volume is the ratio of the two volumes. Thus, the probability
of the collector colliding with the smaller droplet is

π(r1 + r2 )2 vrel ∆t
P1 = (22.7-2)
V
Equation 22.7-2 can be generalized for parcels, where there are n1 and n2 droplets in
the collector and smaller droplet parcels, respectively. The collector undergoes a mean
expected number of collisions given by

n2 π(r1 + r2 )2 vrel ∆t
n̄ = (22.7-3)
V
The actual number of collisions that the collector experiences is not generally the mean
expected number of collisions. The probability distribution of the number of collisions
follows a Poisson distribution, according to O’Rourke, which is given by

n̄n
P (n) = e−n̄ (22.7-4)
n!
where n is the number of collisions between a collector and other droplets.

Collision Outcomes

Once it is determined that two parcels collide, the outcome of the collision must be
determined. In general, the outcome tends to be coalescence if the droplets collide head-
on, and bouncing if the collision is more oblique. In the reference frame being used here,
the probability of coalescence can be related to the offset of the collector droplet center
and the trajectory of the smaller droplet. The critical offset is a function of the collisional
Weber number and the relative radii of the collector and the smaller droplet.
The critical offset is calculated by O’Rourke using the expression
v !
u
u 2.4f
bcrit = (r1 + r2 ) min 1.0,
t (22.7-5)
We

where f is a function of r1 /r2 , defined as

3 2
r1 r1 r1 r1
     
f = − 2.4 + 2.7 (22.7-6)
r2 r2 r2 r2

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 22.7 Spray Model Theory

√
The value of the actual collision parameter, b, is (r1 + r2 ) Y , where Y is a random
number between 0 and 1. The calculated value of b is compared to bcrit , and if b < bcrit ,
the result of the collision is coalescence. Equation 22.7-4 gives the number of smaller
droplets that coalesce with the collector. The properties of the coalesced droplets are
found from the basic conservation laws.
In the case of a grazing collision, the new velocities are calculated based on conservation
of momentum and kinetic energy. It is assumed that some fraction of the kinetic energy
of the droplets is lost to viscous dissipation and angular momentum generation. This
fraction is related to b, the collision offset parameter. Using assumed forms for the energy
loss, O’Rourke derived the following expression for the new velocity:
!
m1 v1 + m2 v2 + m2 (v1 − v2 ) b − bcrit
v10 = (22.7-7)
m1 + m2 r1 + r2 − bcrit

This relation is used for each of the components of velocity. No other droplet properties
are altered in grazing collisions.

22.7.2 Droplet Breakup Models

FLUENT offers two droplet breakup models: the Taylor analogy breakup (TAB) model
and the wave model. The TAB model is recommended for low-Weber-number injections
and is well suited for low-speed sprays into a standard atmosphere. For Weber numbers
greater than 100, the wave model is more applicable. The wave model is popular for use
in high-speed fuel-injection applications. Details for each model are provided below.

Taylor Analogy Breakup (TAB) Model

Introduction

The Taylor analogy breakup (TAB) model is a classic method for calculating droplet
breakup, which is applicable to many engineering sprays. This method is based upon
Taylor’s analogy [369] between an oscillating and distorting droplet and a spring mass
system. Table 22.7.1 illustrates the analogous components.

Table 22.7.1: Comparison of a Spring-Mass System to a Distorting Droplet

Spring-Mass System Distorting and Oscillating Droplet

restoring force of spring surface tension forces
external force droplet drag force
damping force droplet viscosity forces

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The resulting TAB model equation set, which governs the oscillating and distorting
droplet, can be solved to determine the droplet oscillation and distortion at any given
time. As described in detail below, when the droplet oscillations grow to a critical value
the “parent” droplet will break up into a number of smaller “child” droplets. As a droplet
is distorted from a spherical shape, the drag coefficient changes. A drag model that incor-
porates the distorting droplet effects is available in FLUENT. See Section 22.6: Dynamic
Drag Model Theory for details.

Use and Limitations

The TAB model is best for low-Weber-number sprays. Extremely high-Weber-number

sprays result in shattering of droplets, which is not described well by the spring-mass
analogy.

Droplet Distortion

The equation governing a damped, forced oscillator is [270]

dx d2 x
F − kx − d =m 2 (22.7-8)
dt dt
where x is the displacement of the droplet equator from its spherical (undisturbed) po-
sition. The coefficients of this equation are taken from Taylor’s analogy:

F ρg u 2
= CF (22.7-9)
m ρl r
k σ
= Ck 3 (22.7-10)
m ρl r
d µl
= Cd 2 (22.7-11)
m ρl r

where ρl and ρg are the discrete phase and continuous phase densities, u is the relative
velocity of the droplet, r is the undisturbed droplet radius, σ is the droplet surface
tension, and µl is the droplet viscosity. The dimensionless constants CF , Ck , and Cd will
be defined later.
The droplet is assumed to break up if the distortion grows to a critical ratio of the droplet
radius. This breakup requirement is given as

x > Cb r (22.7-12)

where Cb is a constant equal to 0.5 if breakup is assumed to occur when the distortion
is equal to the droplet radius, i.e., the north and south poles of the droplet meet at

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 22.7 Spray Model Theory

the droplet center. This implicitly assumes that the droplet is undergoing only one
(fundamental) oscillation mode. Equation 22.7-8 is nondimensionalized by setting y =
x/(Cb r) and substituting the relationships in Equations 22.7-9–22.7-11:

d2 y CF ρg u2 Ck σ Cd µl dy
2
= 2
− 3
y− (22.7-13)
dt Cb ρl r ρl r ρl r2 dt
where breakup now occurs for y > 1. For under-damped droplets, the equation governing
y can easily be determined from Equation 22.7-13 if the relative velocity is assumed to
be constant:

" ! #
−(t/td ) 1 dy0 y0 − Wec
y(t) = Wec + e (y0 − Wec ) cos(ωt) + + sin(ωt) (22.7-14)
ω dt td

where

ρg u 2 r
We = (22.7-15)
σ
CF
Wec = We (22.7-16)
Ck Cb
y0 = y(0) (22.7-17)
dy0 dy
= (0) (22.7-18)
dt dt
1 Cd µl
= (22.7-19)
td 2 ρl r 2
σ 1
ω2 = Ck 3 − 2 (22.7-20)
ρl r td

In Equation 22.7-14, u is the relative velocity between the droplet and the gas phase
and We is the droplet Weber number, a dimensionless parameter defined as the ratio
of aerodynamic forces to surface tension forces. The droplet oscillation frequency is
represented by ω. The default value of y0 is 0, based upon the work of Liu et al. [218].
The constants have been chosen to match experiments and theory [190]:

Ck = 8
Cd = 5
1
CF =
3

If Equation 22.7-14 is solved for all droplets, those with y > 1 are assumed to break up.
The size and velocity of the new child droplets must be determined.

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Size of Child Droplets

The size of the child droplets is determined by equating the energy of the parent droplet
to the combined energy of the child droplets. The energy of the parent droplet is [270]
 !2 
π dy
Eparent = 4πr2 σ + K ρl r5  + ω2y2 (22.7-21)
5 dt

where K is the ratio of the total energy in distortion and oscillation to the energy in the
fundamental mode, of the order ( 103
). The child droplets are assumed to be nondistorted
and nonoscillating. Thus, the energy of the child droplets can be shown to be

!2
2 r π dy
Echild = 4πr σ + ρl r 5 (22.7-22)
r32 6 dt

where r32 is the Sauter mean radius of the droplet size distribution. r32 can be found by
equating the energy of the parent and child droplets (i.e., Equations 22.7-21 and 22.7-22),
setting y = 1, and ω 2 = 8σ/ρl r3 :

r
r32 = 8Ky 2 ρl r 3 (dy/dt)2

6K−5
 (22.7-23)
1+ 20
+ σ 120

Once the size of the child droplets is determined, the number of child droplets can easily
be determined by mass conservation.

Velocity of Child Droplets

The TAB model allows for a velocity component normal to the parent droplet velocity
to be imposed upon the child droplets. When breakup occurs, the equator of the parent
droplet is traveling at a velocity of dx/dt = Cb r(dy/dt). Therefore, the child droplets
will have a velocity normal to the parent droplet velocity given by

dy
vnormal = Cv Cb r (22.7-24)
dt
where Cv is a constant of order (1).

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 22.7 Spray Model Theory

Droplet Breakup

To model droplet breakup, the TAB model first determines the amplitude for an un-
damped oscillation (td ≈ ∞) for each droplet at time step n using the following:
v
u !2
u (dy/dt)n
A= t
(y n − Wec )2 + (22.7-25)
ω

According to Equation 22.7-25, breakup is possible only if the following condition is

satisfied:

Wec + A > 1 (22.7-26)

This is the limiting case, as damping will only reduce the chance of breakup. If a
droplet fails the above criterion, breakup does not occur. The only additional calculations
required then, are to update y using a discretized form of Equation 22.7-14 and its
derivative, which are both based on work done by O’Rourke and Amsden [270]:

!n
y n − Wec
( " # )
n+1 −(∆t/td ) n 1 dy
y = Wec + e (y − Wec ) cos(ωt) + + sin(ωt)
ω dt td
(22.7-27)

!n+1
dy Wec − y n+1
= +
dt td
!n
y n − Wec
( " # )
−(∆t/td ) 1 dy
ωe + cos(ω∆t) − (y n − Wec ) sin(ω∆t) (22.7-28)
ω dt td

All of the constants in these expressions are assumed to be constant throughout the time
step.
If the criterion of Equation 22.7-26 is met, then breakup is possible. The breakup time,
tbu , must be determined to see if breakup occurs within the time step ∆t. The value of
tbu is set to the time required for oscillations to grow sufficiently large that the magnitude
of the droplet distortion, y, is equal to unity. The breakup time is determined under the
assumption that the droplet oscillation is undamped for its first period. The breakup time
is therefore the smallest root greater than tn of an undamped version of Equation 22.7-14:

Wec + A cos[ω(t − tn ) + φ] = 1 (22.7-29)

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where

y n − Wec
cos φ = (22.7-30)
A
and

(dy/dt)n
sin φ = − (22.7-31)
Aω

If tbu > tn+1 , then breakup will not occur during the current time step, and y and
(dy/dt) are updated by Equations 22.7-27 and 22.7-28. The breakup calculation then
continues with the next droplet. Conversely, if tn < tbu < tn+1 , then breakup will occur
and the child droplet radii are determined by Equation 22.7-23. The number of child
droplets, N , is determined by mass conservation:

3
rn

n+1 n
N =N (22.7-32)
rn+1
It is assumed that the child droplets are neither distorted nor oscillating; i.e., y =
(dy/dt) = 0. The child droplets are represented by a number of child parcels which
are created from the original parcel. These child parcels are distributed equally along
the equator of the parent droplet in a plane normal to the parent relative velocity vector.
The diameter of each of the child parcels is sampled from a Rosin Rammler distribution
based on the Sauter mean radius (Equation 22.7-23) and a spread parameter of 3.5.
A velocity component normal to the relative velocity vector, with magnitude computed
by Equation 22.7-24, is imposed upon the child droplets. It is decomposed at the equator
into components pointing radially outward.

i A large number of child parcels ensures a smooth distribution of particle

diameters and source terms which is needed when simulating, for example,
evaporating sprays.

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 22.7 Spray Model Theory

Wave Breakup Model

Introduction

An alternative to the TAB model that is appropriate for high-Weber-number flows is the
wave breakup model of Reitz [299], which considers the breakup of the droplets to be
induced by the relative velocity between the gas and liquid phases. The model assumes
that the time of breakup and the resulting droplet size are related to the fastest-growing
Kelvin-Helmholtz instability, derived from the jet stability analysis described below. The
wavelength and growth rate of this instability are used to predict details of the newly-
formed droplets.

Use and Limitations

The wave model is appropriate for high-speed injections, where the Kelvin-Helmholtz
instability is believed to dominate droplet breakup (We > 100). Because this breakup
model can increase the number of computational parcels, you may wish to inject a modest
number of droplets initially.

Jet Stability Analysis

The jet stability analysis described in detail by Reitz and Bracco [301] is presented briefly
here. The analysis considers the stability of a cylindrical, viscous, liquid jet of radius
a issuing from a circular orifice at a velocity v into a stagnant, incompressible, inviscid
gas of density ρ2 . The liquid has a density, ρ1 , and viscosity, µ1 , and a cylindrical
polar coordinate system is used which moves with the jet. An arbitrary infinitesimal
axisymmetric surface displacement of the form

η = η0 eikz+ωt (22.7-33)

is imposed on the initially steady motion and it is thus desired to find the dispersion
relation ω = ω(k) which relates the real part of the growth rate, ω, to its wave number,
k = 2π/λ.
In order to determine the dispersion relation, the linearized equations for the hydrody-
namics of the liquid are solved assuming wave solutions of the form

φ1 = C1 I0 (kr)eikz+ωt (22.7-34)
ψ1 = C2 I1 (Lr)eikz+ωt (22.7-35)

where φ1 and ψ1 are the velocity potential and stream function, respectively, C1 and
C2 are integration constants, I0 and I1 are modified Bessel functions of the first kind,
L2 = k 2 + ω/ν1 , and ν1 is the liquid kinematic viscosity [299]. The liquid pressure is

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Modeling Discrete Phase

obtained from the inviscid part of the liquid equations. In addition, the inviscid gas
equations can be solved to obtain the fluctuating gas pressure at r = a:

K0 (ka)
− p21 = −ρ2 (U − iωk)2 kη (22.7-36)
K1 (ka)

where K0 and K1 are modified Bessel functions of the second kind and u is the relative
velocity between the liquid and the gas. The linearized boundary conditions are

∂η
v1 = (22.7-37)
∂t
∂u1 ∂v1
= − (22.7-38)
∂r ∂z

and

∂2η
!
σ
− p1 + 2µ1 − 2 η + a2 2 + p2 = 0 (22.7-39)
a ∂z

which are mathematical statements of the liquid kinematic free surface condition, conti-
nuity of shear stress, and continuity of normal stress, respectively. Note that u1 is the
axial perturbation liquid velocity, v1 is the radial perturbation liquid velocity, and σ is
the surface tension. Also note that Equation 22.7-38 was obtained under the assumption
that v2 = 0.
As described by Reitz [299], Equations 22.7-37 and 22.7-38 can be used to eliminate
the integration constants C1 and C2 in Equations 22.7-34 and 22.7-35. Thus, when
the pressure and velocity solutions are substituted into Equation 22.7-39, the desired
dispersion relation is obtained:

I 0 (ka) 2kL I1 (ka) I10 (La)

" #
ω + 2ν1 k ω 1
2 2
− 2 =
I0 (ka) k + L2 I0 (ka) I1 (La)

L 2 − a2 L 2 − a2
! 2 !
σk I1 (ka) ρ2 ω I1 (ka) K0 (ka)

2 2
(1 − k a ) + U −i (22.7-40)
ρ1 a2 L 2 + a2 I0 (ka) ρ1 k L 2 + a2 I0 (ka) K1 (ka)

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 22.7 Spray Model Theory

As shown by Reitz [299], Equation 22.7-40 predicts that a maximum growth rate (or
most unstable wave) exists for a given set of flow conditions. Curve fits of numerical
solutions to Equation 22.7-40 were generated for the maximum growth rate, Ω, and the
corresponding wavelength, Λ, and are given by Reitz [299]:

Λ (1 + 0.45Oh0.5 )(1 + 0.4Ta0.7 )

= 9.02 (22.7-41)
a (1 + 0.87We1.67
2 )
0.6

ρ 1 a3 (0.34 + 0.38We1.5
!
2 )
Ω = (22.7-42)
σ (1 + Oh)(1 + 1.4Ta0.6 )

√ √
where Oh = We1 /Re1 is the Ohnesorge number and Ta = Oh We2 is the Taylor
number. Furthermore, We1 = ρ1 U 2 a/σ and We2 = ρ2 U 2 a/σ are the liquid and gas
Weber numbers, respectively, and Re1 = U a/ν1 is the Reynolds number.

Droplet Breakup

In the wave model, breakup of droplet parcels is calculated by assuming that the radius
of the newly-formed droplets is proportional to the wavelength of the fastest-growing
unstable surface wave on the parent droplet. In other words,

r = B0 Λ (22.7-43)

where B0 is a model constant set equal to 0.61 based on the work of Reitz [299]. Fur-
thermore, the rate of change of droplet radius in the parent parcel is given by

da (a − r)
=− , r≤a (22.7-44)
dt τ
where the breakup time, τ , is given by

3.726B1 a
τ= (22.7-45)
ΛΩ
and Λ and Ω are obtained from Equations 22.7-41 and 22.7-42, respectively. The breakup
time constant, B1 , is set to a value of 1.73 as recommended by Liu et al. [218]. Values of
B1 can range between 1 and 60, depending on the injector characterization.
In the wave model, mass is accumulated from the parent drop at a rate given by Equa-
tion 22.7-45 until the shed mass is equal to 5% of the initial parcel mass. At this time, a
new parcel is created with a radius given by Equation 22.7-43. The new parcel is given
the same properties as the parent parcel (i.e., temperature, material, position, etc.) with
the exception of radius and velocity. The new parcel is given a component of velocity

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Modeling Discrete Phase

randomly selected in the plane orthogonal to the direction vector of the parent parcel,
and the momentum of the parent parcel is adjusted so that momentum is conserved. The
velocity magnitude of the new parcel is the same as the parent parcel.
You must also specify the model constants which determine how the gas phase interacts
with the liquid droplets. For example, the breakup time constant B1 is the constant
multiplying the time scale which determines how quickly the parcel will loose mass.
Therefore, a larger number means that it takes longer for the particle to loose a given
amount. A larger number for B1 in the context of interaction with the gas phase would
mean that the interaction with the subgrid is less intense. B0 is the constant for the drop
size and is generally taken to be 0.61.

22.8 Atomizer Model Theory

All of the atomization models use physical atomizer parameters, such as orifice diameter
and mass flow rate, to calculate initial droplet size, velocity, and position.
For realistic atomizer simulations, the droplets must be randomly distributed, both spa-
tially through a dispersion angle and in their time of release. For other types of injections
in FLUENT (nonatomizer), all of the droplets are released along fixed trajectories at the
beginning of the time step. The atomizer models use stochastic trajectory selection and
staggering to attain a random distribution. Further information on staggering can be
found in section Section 22.2.2: Stochastic Staggering of Particles.
Stochastic trajectory selection is the random dispersion of initial droplet directions. All
of the atomizer models provide an initial dispersion angle, and the stochastic trajectory
selection picks an initial direction within this angle. This approach improves the accuracy
of the results for spray-dominated flows. The droplets will be more evenly spread among
the computational cells near the atomizer, which improves the coupling to the gas phase
by spreading drag more smoothly over the cells near the injection. Source terms in
the energy and species conservation equations are also more evenly distributed among
neighboring cells, improving solution convergence.
Five atomizer models are available in FLUENT to predict the spray characteristics from
knowledge of global parameters such as nozzle type and liquid flow rate:

• plain-orifice atomizer

• pressure-swirl atomizer

• flat-fan atomizer

• air-blast/air-assisted atomizer

• effervescent/flashing atomizer

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You can choose them as injection types and define the associated parameters in the Set
Injection Properties panel, as described in Section 22.12.1: Injection Types. Details about
the atomizer models are provided below.

22.8.1 The Plain-Orifice Atomizer Model

The plain-orifice is the most common type of atomizer and the most simply made. How-
ever there is nothing simple about the physics of the internal nozzle flow and the exter-
nal atomization. In the plain-orifice atomizer model in FLUENT, the liquid is accelerated
through a nozzle, forms a liquid jet and then breaks up to form droplets. This apparently
simple process is dauntingly complex. The plain orifice may operate in three different
regimes: single-phase, cavitating and flipped [348]. The transition between regimes is
abrupt, producing dramatically different sprays. The internal regime determines the
velocity at the orifice exit, as well as the initial droplet size and the angle of droplet
dispersion. Diagrams of each case are shown in Figures 22.8.1, 22.8.2, and 22.8.3.

p p
1 2
d liquid jet

orifice walls downstream

gas

Figure 22.8.1: Single-Phase Nozzle Flow (Liquid Completely Fills the Ori-
fice)

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Modeling Discrete Phase

vapor

liquid jet
vapor

orifice walls downstream

gas

Figure 22.8.2: Cavitating Nozzle Flow (Vapor Pockets Form Just after the
Inlet Corners)

liquid jet

orifice walls downstream

gas

Figure 22.8.3: Flipped Nozzle Flow (Downstream Gas Surrounds the Liquid
Jet Inside the Nozzle)

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 22.8 Atomizer Model Theory

Internal Nozzle State

To accurately predict the spray characteristics, the plain-orifice model in FLUENT must
identify the correct state of the internal nozzle flow because the nozzle state has a tremen-
dous effect on the external spray. Unfortunately, there is no established theory for deter-
mining the nozzle state. One must rely on empirical models obtained from experimental
data. FLUENT uses several dimensionless parameters to determine the internal flow
regime for the plain-orifice atomizer model. These parameters and the decision-making
process are summarized below.
A list of the parameters that control internal nozzle flow is given in Table 22.8.1. These
parameters may be combined to form nondimensional characteristic lengths such as r/d
and L/d, as well as nondimensional groups like the Reynolds number based on hydraulic
“head” (Reh ) and the cavitation parameter (K).

Table 22.8.1: List of Governing Parameters for Internal Nozzle Flow

nozzle diameter d
nozzle length L
radius of curvature of the inlet corner r
upstream pressure p1
downstream pressure p2
viscosity µ
liquid density ρl
vapor pressure pv

s
dρl 2(p1 − p2 )
Reh = (22.8-1)
µ ρl

p1 − pv
K= (22.8-2)
p1 − p2

The liquid flow often contracts in the nozzle, as can be seen in Figures 22.8.2 and 22.8.3.
Nurick [266] found it helpful to use a coefficient of contraction (Cc ) to represent the
reduction in the cross-sectional area of the liquid jet. The coefficient of contraction is
defined as the area of the stream of contracting liquid over the total cross-sectional area
of the nozzle. FLUENT uses Nurick’s fit for the coefficient of contraction:

1
Cc = q 1 11.4r
(22.8-3)
2
Cct
− d

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Here, Cct is a theoretical constant equal to 0.611, which comes from potential flow analysis
of flipped nozzles.

Coefficient of Discharge
Another important parameter for describing the performance of nozzles is the coefficient
of discharge (Cd ). The coefficient of discharge is the ratio of the mass flow rate through
the nozzle to the theoretical maximum mass flow rate:

ṁeff
Cd = q (22.8-4)
A 2ρl (p1 − p2 )

where ṁeff is the effective mass flow rate of the nozzle, defined by
2π ṁ
ṁeff = (22.8-5)
∆φ

Here, ṁ is the mass flow rate specified in the user interface, and ∆φ is the difference
between the azimuthal stop angle and the azimuthal start angle

∆φ = φstop − φstart (22.8-6)

as input by the user (see Section 22.12.1: Point Properties for Plain-Orifice Atomizer
Injections). Note that the mass flow rate input by the user should be for the appropriate
start and stop angles, in other words the correct mass flow rate for the sector being
modeled. Note also that for ∆φ of 2π, the effective mass flow rate is identical to the
mass flow rate in the interface.
The cavitation number (K in Equation 22.8-2) is an essential parameter for predicting
the inception of cavitation. The inception of cavitation is known to occur at a value
of Kincep ≈ 1.9 for short, sharp-edged nozzles. However, to include the effects of inlet
rounding and viscosity, an empirical relationship is used:

2
r 1000

Kincep = 1.9 1 − − (22.8-7)
d Reh

Similarly, a critical value of K where flip occurs is given by

1
Kcrit = 1 +  L

2000
 (22.8-8)
1+ 4d
1+ Reh
e70r/d

If r/d is greater than 0.05, then flip is deemed impossible and Kcrit is set to 1.0.

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 22.8 Atomizer Model Theory

The cavitation number, K, is compared to the values of Kincep and Kcrit to identify the
nozzle state. The decision tree is shown in Figure 22.8.4. Depending on the state of the
nozzle, a unique closure is chosen for the above equations.
For a single-phase nozzle (K > Kincep , K ≥ Kcrit ) [207], the coefficient of discharge is
given by

1
Cd = (22.8-9)
1
Cdu
+ 20 (1+2.25L/d)
Reh

where Cdu is the ultimate discharge coefficient, and is defined as

L
Cdu = 0.827 − 0.0085 (22.8-10)
d
For a cavitating nozzle (Kcrit ≤ K ≤ Kincep ) [266] the coefficient of discharge is deter-
mined from

√
Cd = Cc K (22.8-11)

For a flipped nozzle (K < Kcrit ) [266],

Cd = Cct = 0.611 (22.8-12)

K ≤ Kincep K > K incep

K < Kcrit K ≥ K crit K < Kcrit K ≥ Kcrit

flipped cavitating flipped single phase

Figure 22.8.4: Decision Tree for the State of the Cavitating Nozzle

All of the nozzle flow equations are solved iteratively, along with the appropriate relation-
ship for coefficient of discharge as given by the nozzle state. The nozzle state may change
as the upstream or downstream pressures change. Once the nozzle state is determined,
the exit velocity is calculated, and appropriate correlations for spray angle and initial
droplet size distribution are determined.

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Modeling Discrete Phase

Exit Velocity
For a single-phase nozzle, the estimate of exit velocity (u) comes from the conservation
of mass and the assumption of a uniform exit velocity:

ṁeff
u= (22.8-13)
ρl A

For the cavitating nozzle, Schmidt and Corradini [323] have shown that the uniform exit
velocity is not accurate. Instead, they derived an expression for a higher velocity over a
reduced area:

2Cc p1 − p2 + (1 − 2Cc )pv

u= q (22.8-14)
Cc 2ρl (p1 − pv )

This analytical relation is used for cavitating nozzles in FLUENT. For the case of flipped
nozzles, the exit velocity is found from the conservation of mass and the value of the
reduced flow area:

ṁeff
u= (22.8-15)
ρl Cct A

Spray Angle
The correlation for the spray angle (θ) comes from the work of Ranz [295]:
 h q √ i
−1 4π ρg 3
 tan single phase, cavitating

θ CA ρl 6

= (22.8-16)
2 
0.01 flipped



The spray angle for both single-phase and cavitating nozzles depends on the ratio of the
gas and liquid densities and also the parameter CA . For flipped nozzles, the spray angle
has a constant value.
The parameter CA , which you must specify, is thought to be a constant for a given nozzle
geometry. The larger the value, the narrower the spray. Reitz [300] suggests the following
correlation for CA :

L
CA = 3 + (22.8-17)
3.6d

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 22.8 Atomizer Model Theory

The spray angle is sensitive to the internal flow regime of the nozzle. Hence, you may
wish to choose smaller values of CA for cavitating nozzles than for single-phase nozzles.
Typical values range from 4.0 to 6.0. The spray angle for flipped nozzles is a small,
arbitrary value that represents the lack of any turbulence or initial disturbance from the
nozzle.

Droplet Diameter Distribution

One of the basic characteristics of an injection is the distribution of drop size. For
an atomizer, the droplet diameter distribution is closely related to the nozzle state.
FLUENT’s spray models use a two-parameter Rosin-Rammler distribution, characterized
by the most probable droplet size and a spread parameter. The most probable droplet
size, d0 is obtained in FLUENT from the Sauter mean diameter, d32 [200]. For more
information about the Rosin-Rammler size distribution, see Section 22.12.1: Using the
Rosin-Rammler Diameter Distribution Method.
For single-phase nozzle flows, the correlation of Wu et al. [407] is used to calculate d32
and relate the initial drop size to the estimated turbulence quantities of the liquid jet:

d32 = 133.0λWe−0.74 , (22.8-18)

where λ = d/8, λ is the radial integral length scale at the jet exit based upon fully-
developed turbulent pipe flow, and We is the Weber number, defined as

ρl u2 λ
We ≡ . (22.8-19)
σ
Here, σ is the droplet surface tension. For a more detailed discussion of droplet surface
tension and the Weber number, see Section 22.7.2: Droplet Breakup Models. For more
information about mean particle diameters, see Section 22.16.8: Summary Reporting of
Current Particles.
For cavitating nozzles, FLUENT uses a slight modification of Equation 22.8-18. The
initial jet diameter used in Wu’s correlation, d, is calculated from the effective area of
the cavitating orifice exit, and thus represents the effective diameter of the exiting liquid
jet, deff . For an explanation of effective area of cavitating nozzles, please see Schmidt
and Corradini [323].
The length scale for a cavitating nozzle is λ = deff /8, where
s
4ṁeff
deff = . (22.8-20)
πρl u

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Modeling Discrete Phase

For the case of the flipped nozzle, the initial droplet diameter is set to the diameter of
the liquid jet:
q
d0 = d Cct (22.8-21)

where d0 is defined as the most probable diameter.

The second parameter required to specify the droplet size distribution is the spread
parameter, s. The values for the spread parameter are chosen from past modeling expe-
rience and from a review of experimental observations. Table 22.8.2 lists the values of s
for the three nozzle states. The larger the value of the spread parameter, the narrower
the droplet size distribution.

Table 22.8.2: Values of Spread Parameter for Different Nozzle States

State Spread Parameter

single phase 3.5
cavitating 1.5
flipped ∞

Since the correlations of Wu et al. provide the Sauter mean diameter, d32 , these are
converted to the most probable diameter, d0 . Lefebvre [200] gives the most general
relationship between the Sauter mean diameter and most probable diameter for a Rosin-
Rammler distribution. The simplified version for s=3.5 is as follows:

1/s
1

d0 = 1.2726d32 1− (22.8-22)
s
At this point, the droplet size, velocity, and spray angle have been determined and the
initialization of the injections is complete.

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 22.8 Atomizer Model Theory

22.8.2 The Pressure-Swirl Atomizer Model

Another important type of atomizer is the pressure-swirl atomizer, sometimes referred to
by the gas-turbine community as a simplex atomizer. This type of atomizer accelerates
the liquid through nozzles known as swirl ports into a central swirl chamber. The swirling
liquid pushes against the walls of the swirl chamber and develops a hollow air core. It
then emerges from the orifice as a thinning sheet, which is unstable, breaking up into
ligaments and droplets. The pressure-swirl atomizer is very widely used for liquid-fuel
combustion in gas turbines, oil furnaces, and direct-injection spark-ignited automobile
engines. The transition from internal injector flow to fully-developed spray can be divided
into three steps: film formation, sheet breakup, and atomization. A sketch of how this
process is thought to occur is shown in Figure 22.8.5.

half angle
dispersion
angle

Figure 22.8.5: Theoretical Progression from the Internal Atomizer Flow to

the External Spray

The interaction between the air and the sheet is not well understood. It is generally ac-
cepted that an aerodynamic instability causes the sheet to break up. The mathematical
analysis below assumes that Kelvin-Helmholtz waves grow on the sheet and eventually
break the liquid into ligaments. It is then assumed that the ligaments break up into
droplets due to varicose instability. Once the liquid droplets are formed, the spray evo-
lution is determined by drag, collision, coalescence, and secondary breakup.

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The pressure-swirl atomizer model used in FLUENT is called the Linearized Instability
Sheet Atomization (LISA) model of Schmidt et al. [325]. The LISA model is divided into
two stages:

1. film formation

2. sheet breakup and atomization

Both parts of the model are described below.

Film Formation
The centrifugal motion of the liquid within the injector creates an air core surrounded
by a liquid film. The thickness of this film, t, is related to the mass flow rate by

ṁeff = πρut(dinj − t) (22.8-23)

where dinj is the injector exit diameter, and ṁeff is the effective mass flow rate, which is
defined by equation Equation 22.8-5 . The other unknown in Equation 22.8-23 is u, the
axial component of velocity at the injector exit. This quantity depends on internal details
of the injector and is difficult to calculate from first principles. Instead, the approach
of Han et al. [134] is used. The total velocity is assumed to be related to the injector
pressure by
s
2∆p
U = kv (22.8-24)
ρl

where kv is the velocity coefficient. Lefebvre [200] has noted that kv is a function of the
injector design and injection pressure. If the swirl ports are treated as nozzles and if it is
assumed that the dominant portion of the pressure drop occurs at those ports, kv is the
expression for the discharge coefficient (Cd ). For single-phase nozzles with sharp inlet
corners and L/d ratios of 4, a typical Cd value is 0.78 or less [207]. If the nozzles are
cavitating, the value of Cd may be as low as 0.61. Hence, 0.78 should be a practical upper
bound for kv . Reducing kv by 10% to 0.7 approximates the effect of other momentum
losses on the discharge coefficient.
Physical limits on kv require that it be less than unity from conservation of energy, yet
be large enough to permit sufficient mass flow. To guarantee that the size of the air core
is non-negative, the following expression is used for kv :
" s #
4ṁeff ρl
kv = max 0.7, 2 (22.8-25)
d0 ρl cos θ 2∆p

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 22.8 Atomizer Model Theory

Assuming that ∆p is known, Equation 22.8-24 can be used to find U . Once U is deter-
mined, u is found from

u = U cos θ (22.8-26)

where θ is the spray angle, which is assumed to be known. At this point, the thickness
and axial component of the liquid film are known at the injector exit. The tangential
component of velocity (w = U sin θ) is assumed to be equal to the radial velocity compo-
nent of the liquid sheet downstream of the nozzle exit. The axial component of velocity
is assumed to remain constant.

Sheet Breakup and Atomization

The pressure-swirl atomizer model includes the effects of the surrounding gas, liquid
viscosity, and surface tension on the breakup of the liquid sheet. Details of the theoretical
development of the model are given in Senecal et al. [326] and are only briefly presented
here. For a more robust implementation, the gas-phase velocity is neglected in calculating
the relative liquid-gas velocity and is instead set by the user. This avoids having the
injector parameters depend too heavily on the usually under-resolved gas-phase velocity
field very near the injection location.
The model assumes that a two-dimensional, viscous, incompressible liquid sheet of thick-
ness 2h moves with velocity U through a quiescent, inviscid, incompressible gas medium.
The liquid and gas have densities of ρl and ρg , respectively, and the viscosity of the
liquid is µl . A coordinate system is used that moves with the sheet, and a spectrum of
infinitesimal wavy disturbances of the form

η = η0 eikx+ωt (22.8-27)

is imposed on the initially steady motion. The spectrum of disturbances results in fluc-
tuating velocities and pressures for both the liquid and the gas. In Equation 22.8-27, η0
is the initial wave amplitude, k = 2π/λ is the wave number, and ω = ωr + iωi is the
complex growth rate. The most unstable disturbance has the largest value of ωr , denoted
here by Ω, and is assumed to be responsible for sheet breakup. Thus, it is desired to
obtain a dispersion relation ω = ω(k) from which the most unstable disturbance can be
calculated as a function of wave number.
Squire [353], Li and Tankin [206], and Hagerty and Shea [131] have shown that two
solutions, or modes, exist that satisfy the governing equations subject to the boundary
conditions at the upper and lower interfaces. The first solution, called the sinuous mode,
has waves at the upper and lower interfaces in phase. The second solution is called the
varicose mode which has the waves at the upper and lower interfaces π radians out of
phase. It has been shown by numerous authors (e.g., Senecal et. al. [326]) that the

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Modeling Discrete Phase

sinuous mode dominates the growth of varicose waves for low velocities and low gas-to-
liquid density ratios. In addition, it can be shown that the sinuous and varicose modes
become indistinguishable for high-velocity flows. As a result, the atomization model in
FLUENT is based upon the growth of sinuous waves on the liquid sheet.
As derived in Senecal et al. [326], the dispersion relation for the sinuous mode is given
by

ω 2 [tanh(kh) + Q] + [4νl k 2 tanh(kh) + 2iQkU ] +

σk 3
4νl k 4 tanh(kh) − 4νl2 k 3 ` tanh(`h) − QU 2 k 2 + =0 (22.8-28)
ρl

where Q = ρg /ρl and `2 = k 2 + ω/νl .

Above a critical Weber number of Weg = 27/16 (based on the liquid velocity, gas density,
and sheet half-thickness), the fastest-growing waves are short. For Weg < 27/16, the
wavelengths are long compared to the sheet thickness. The speed of modern high pressure
fuel injection systems is high enough to ensure that the film Weber number is well above
this critical limit.
An order-of-magnitude analysis using typical values shows that the terms of second order
in viscosity can be neglected in comparison to the other terms in Equation 22.8-28. Using
this assumption, Equation 22.8-28 reduces to

1 
ωr = −2νl k 2 tanh(kh) +
tanh(kh) + Q 
v " #
3
u
t4ν 2 k 4 tanh2 (kh) − Q2 U 2 k 2 − [tanh(kh) + Q] −QU 2 k 2 + σk
u 
l (22.8-29)
ρl 

For waves that are long compared with the sheet thickness, a mechanism of sheet disin-
tegration proposed by Dombrowski and Johns [84] is adopted. For long waves, ligaments
are assumed to form from the sheet breakup process once the unstable waves reach a
critical amplitude. If the surface disturbance has reached a value of ηb at breakup, a
breakup time, τ , can be evaluated:
!
1 ηb
ηb = η0 eΩτ ⇒ ln (22.8-30)
Ω η0

where Ω, the maximum growth rate, is found by numerically maximizing Equation 22.8-29
as a function of k. The maximum is found using a binary search that checks the sign of
the derivative. The sheet breaks up and ligaments will be formed at a length given by

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 22.8 Atomizer Model Theory

!
U ηb
Lb = U τ = ln (22.8-31)
Ω η0

where the quantity ln( ηη0b ) is an empirical sheet constant that you must specify. The
default value of 12 was obtained theoretically by Weber [392] for liquid jets. Dombrowski
and Hooper [83] showed that a value of 12 for the sheet constant agreed favorably with
experimental sheet breakup lengths over a range of Weber numbers from 2 to 200.
The diameter of the ligaments formed at the point of breakup can be obtained from a
mass balance. If it is assumed that the ligaments are formed from tears in the sheet twice
per wavelength, the resulting diameter is given by
s
8h
dL = (22.8-32)
Ks

where Ks is the wave number corresponding to the maximum growth rate, Ω. The
ligament diameter depends on the sheet thickness, which is a function of the breakup
length. The film thickness is calculated from the breakup length and the radial distance
from the center line to the mid-line of the sheet at the atomizer exit, r0 :

r0 h0
hend =  
θ
(22.8-33)
r0 + Lb sin 2

This mechanism is not used for waves that are short compared to the sheet thickness.
For short waves, the ligament diameter is assumed to be linearly proportional to the
wavelength that breaks up the sheet,

2πCL
dL = (22.8-34)
Ks

where CL , or the ligament constant, is equal to 0.5 by default.

In either the long-wave or the short-wave case, the breakup from ligaments to droplets
is assumed to behave according to Weber’s [392] analysis for capillary instability.

d0 = 1.88dL (1 + 3Oh)1/6 (22.8-35)

Here, Oh is the Ohnesorge number which is a combination of the Reynolds number

and the Weber number (see Section 22.7.2: Jet Stability Analysis for more details about
Oh). Once d0 has been determined from Equation 22.8-35, it is assumed that this droplet
diameter is the most probable droplet size of a Rosin-Rammler distribution with a spread
parameter of 3.5 and a default dispersion angle of 6◦ (which can be modified in the
GUI). The choice of spread parameter and dispersion angle is based on past modeling

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Modeling Discrete Phase

experience [324]. It is important to note that the spray cone angle must be specified by
the user when using this model.

22.8.3 The Air-Blast/Air-Assist Atomizer Model

In order to accelerate the breakup of liquid sheets from an atomizer, an additional air
stream is often directed through the atomizer. The liquid is formed into a sheet by a noz-
zle, and air is then directed against the sheet to promote atomization. This technique is
called air-assisted atomization or air-blast atomization, depending on the quantity of air
and its velocity. The addition of the external air stream past the sheet produces smaller
droplets than without the air. Though the exact mechanism for this enhanced perfor-
mance is not completely understood, it is thought that the assisting air may accelerate
the sheet instability. The air may also help disperse the droplets, preventing collisions
between them. Air-assisted atomization is used in many of the same applications as
pressure-swirl atomization, where especially fine atomization is required.
FLUENT’s air-blast atomization model is a variation of the pressure-swirl model. One
important difference between them is that the sheet thickness is set directly in the air-
blast atomizer model. This input is necessary because of the variety of sheet formation
mechanisms used in air-blast atomizers. Hence the air-blast atomizer model does not
contain the sheet formation equations that were included in the pressure-swirl atomizer
model (Equations 22.8-23–22.8-26). You will also specify the maximum relative velocity
that is produced by the sheet and air. Though this quantity could be calculated, specify-
ing a value relieves you from the necessity of finely resolving the atomizer internal flow.
This feature is convenient for simulations in large domains, where the atomizer is very
small by comparison.
An additional difference is that the air-blast atomizer model assumes that the sheet
breakup is always due to short waves. This assumption is a consequence of the greater
sheet thickness commonly found in air-blast atomizers. Hence the ligament diameter is
assumed to be linearly proportional to the wavelength of the fastest-growing wave on the
sheet, and is calculated from Equation 22.8-34.
Other inputs are similar to the pressure-swirl model – the user must provide the mass
flow rate and spray angle. The angle in the case of the air-blast atomizer is the initial
trajectory of the film as it leaves the end of the orifice. The value of the angle is negative
if the initial film trajectory is inward, towards the centerline. Specification of the inner
and outer diameters of the film at the atomizer exit are also required, in addition to the
dispersion angle whose default value is 6◦ (which can be modified in the GUI).
Since the air-blast atomizer model does not include internal gas flows, the user must create
the air streams surrounding the injector as boundary conditions within the FLUENT
simulation. These streams are ordinary continuous-phase flows and require no special
treatment.

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 22.8 Atomizer Model Theory

22.8.4 The Flat-Fan Atomizer Model

The flat-fan atomizer is very similar to the pressure-swirl atomizer, but it makes a flat
sheet and does not use swirl. The liquid emerges from a wide, thin orifice as a flat liquid
sheet that breaks up into droplets. The primary atomization process is thought to be
similar to the pressure-swirl atomizer. Some researchers believe that flat-fan atomization,
because of jet impingement, is very similar to the atomization of a flat sheet. The flat-fan
model could serve doubly for this application.
The flat-fan atomizer is available only for 3D models. An image of the three-dimensional
flat fan is shown in Figure 22.8.6. The model assumes that the fan originates from a
virtual origin. You need to provide the location of this origin, which is the intersection
of the lines that mark the sides of the fan as well as the location of the center point
of the arc from which the fan originates. FLUENT will find the vector that points from
the origin to the center point in order to determine the direction of the injection. You
also need to provide the half-angle of the fan arc, the width of the orifice (in the normal
direction) and the mass flow rate of the liquid to use the flat-fan atomizer model.

dispersion
angle

half
angle

dispersion
angle

Figure 22.8.6: Flat Fan Viewed from Above and from the Side

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Modeling Discrete Phase

The breakup of the flat fan is calculated very much like the breakup of the sheet in the
pressure-swirl atomizer. The sheet breaks up into ligaments which then form individual
droplets. The only difference is that for short waves, the flat fan sheet is assumed to form
ligaments at half-wavelength intervals. Hence the ligament diameter for short waves is
given by
s
16h
dL = (22.8-36)
Ks

In this case, dL in Equation 22.8-36 is taken to be the most probable diameter, with a
Rosin-Rammler spread parameter of 3.5 and a default dispersion angle of 6◦ . This angle
can be set in the Set Injection Properties panel. In all other respects, the flat-fan atomizer
model is like the sheet breakup portion of the pressure-swirl atomizer.

22.8.5 The Effervescent Atomizer Model

Effervescent atomization is the injection of liquid infused with a super-heated (with
respect to downstream conditions) liquid or propellant. As the volatile liquid exits the
nozzle, it rapidly changes phase. This phase change quickly breaks up the stream into
small droplets with a wide dispersion angle. The model also applies to cases where a
very hot liquid is discharged.
Since the physics of effervescence is not well understood, the model must rely on rough
empirical fits. The photographs of Reitz and Bracco [300] provide some insights. These
photographs show a dense liquid core to the spray, surrounded by a wide shroud of smaller
droplets.
The initial velocity of the droplets is computed from conservation of mass, assuming the
exiting jet has a cross-sectional area that is Cct times the nozzle area, where Cct is a fixed
constant, equal to 0.611 as specified in Equations 22.8-3 and 22.8-12.

ṁeff
u= (22.8-37)
ρl Cct A

The maximum droplet diameter is set to the effective diameter of the exiting jet:
q
dmax = d Cct (22.8-38)

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 22.9 One-Way and Two-Way Coupling

The droplet size is then sampled from a Rosin-Rammler distribution with a spread pa-
rameter of 4.0. (See Section 22.12.1: Using the Rosin-Rammler Diameter Distribution
Method for details on the Rosin-Rammler distribution.) The most probable droplet size
depends on the angle, θ, between the droplet’s stochastic trajectory and the injection
direction:

2
d0 = dmax e−(θ/Θs ) (22.8-39)

The dispersion angle multiplier, Θs , is computed from the quality, x, and the specified
value for the dispersion constant, Ceff :

ṁvapor
x = (22.8-40)
(ṁvapor + ṁliquid )
x
Θs = (22.8-41)
Ceff
This technique creates a spray with large droplets in the central core and a shroud of
smaller surrounding droplets. The droplet temperature is initialized to 0.99 times the
saturation temperature, such that the temperature of the droplet is close to boiling. To
complete the model, the flashing vapor must also be included in the calculation. This
vapor is part of the continuous phase and not part of the discrete phase model. You
must create an inlet at the point of injection when you specify boundary conditions for
the continuous phase. When the effervescent atomizer model is selected, you will need to
specify the nozzle diameter, mass flow rate, mixture quality, saturation temperature of
the volatile substance, spray half-angle and dispersion constant in addition to specifying
the position and direction of the injector.

22.9 One-Way and Two-Way Coupling

You can use FLUENT to predict the discrete phase patterns based on a fixed continu-
ous phase flow field (an uncoupled approach or ”one-way coupling”), or you can include
the effect of the discrete phase on the continuum (a coupled approach or ”two-way cou-
pling”). In the coupled approach, the continuous phase flow pattern is impacted by the
discrete phase (and vice versa), and you can alternate calculations of the continuous
phase and discrete phase equations until a converged coupled solution is achieved. See
Section 22.9.1: Coupling Between the Discrete and Continuous Phases for details.
Using FLUENT’s discrete phase modeling capability, reacting particles or droplets can be
modeled and their impact on the continuous phase can be examined. Several heat and
mass transfer relationships, termed “laws”, are available in FLUENT and the physical
models employed in these laws are described in this section.

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22.9.1 Coupling Between the Discrete and Continuous Phases

As the trajectory of a particle is computed, FLUENT keeps track of the heat, mass, and
momentum gained or lost by the particle stream that follows that trajectory and these
quantities can be incorporated in the subsequent continuous phase calculations. Thus,
while the continuous phase always impacts the discrete phase, you can also incorporate
the effect of the discrete phase trajectories on the continuum. This two-way coupling
is accomplished by alternately solving the discrete and continuous phase equations until
the solutions in both phases have stopped changing. This interphase exchange of heat,
mass, and momentum from the particle to the continuous phase is depicted qualitatively
in Figure 22.9.1.

typical
particle
trajectory
mass-exchange
heat-exchange
momentum-exchange

typical continuous
phase control volume

Figure 22.9.1: Heat, Mass, and Momentum Transfer Between the Discrete
and Continuous Phases

Momentum Exchange
The momentum transfer from the continuous phase to the discrete phase is computed in
FLUENT by examining the change in momentum of a particle as it passes through each
control volume in the FLUENT model. This momentum change is computed as
!
X 18µCD Re
F = (up − u) + Fother ṁp ∆t (22.9-1)
ρp d2p 24

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 22.9 One-Way and Two-Way Coupling

where
µ = viscosity of the fluid
ρp = density of the particle
dp = diameter of the particle
Re = relative Reynolds number
up = velocity of the particle
u = velocity of the fluid
CD = drag coefficient
ṁp = mass flow rate of the particles
∆t = time step
Fother = other interaction forces
This momentum exchange appears as a momentum sink in the continuous phase momen-
tum balance in any subsequent calculations of the continuous phase flow field and can
be reported by FLUENT as described in Section 22.16: Postprocessing for the Discrete
Phase.

Heat Exchange
The heat transfer from the continuous phase to the discrete phase is computed in FLUENT
by examining the change in thermal energy of a particle as it passes through each control
volume in the FLUENT model. In the absence of a chemical reaction (i.e., for all particle
laws except Law 5) the heat exchange is computed as

Z Tp out Z Tp in
Q = (mp in − mp out )[−Hlatref + Hpyrol ] − mp out cp p dT + mp in cp p dT (22.9-2)
Tref Tref

where
mp in = mass of the particle on cell entry (kg)
mp out = mass of the particle on cell exit (kg)
cp p = heat capacity of the particle (J/kg-K)
Hpyrol = heat of pyrolysis as volatiles are evolved (J/kg)
Tp in = temperature of the particle on cell entry (K)
Tp out = temperature of the particle on cell exit (K)
Tref = reference temperature for enthalpy (K)
Hlatref = latent heat at reference conditions (J/kg)
The latent heat at the reference conditions Hlatref for droplet particles is computed as
the difference of the liquid and gas standard formation enthalpies, and can be related to
the latent heat at the boiling point as follows:

Z Tbp Z Tbp
Hlatref = Hlat − cp g dT + cp p dT (22.9-3)
Tref Tref

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Modeling Discrete Phase

where
cp g = heat capacity of gas product species (J/kg-K)
Tbp = boiling point temperature (K)
Hlat = latent heat at the boiling point temperature (J/kg)
For the volatile part of the combusting particles, some constraints are applied to ensure
that the enthalpy source terms do not depend on the particle history. The formulation
should be consistent with the mixing of two gas streams, one consisting of the fluid and
the other consisting of the volatiles. Hence Hlatref is derived by applying a correction to
Hlat , which accounts for different heat capacities in the particle and gaseous phase:

Z Tp,init Z Tp,init
Hlatref = Hlat − cp g dT + cp p dT (22.9-4)
Tref Tref

where
Tp,init = particle initial temperature (K)

Mass Exchange
The mass transfer from the discrete phase to the continuous phase is computed in FLU-
ENT by examining the change in mass of a particle as it passes through each control
volume in the FLUENT model. The mass change is computed simply as

∆mp
M= ṁp,0 (22.9-5)
mp,0

This mass exchange appears as a source of mass in the continuous phase continuity
equation and as a source of a chemical species defined by you. The mass sources are
included in any subsequent calculations of the continuous phase flow field and are reported
by FLUENT as described in Section 22.16: Postprocessing for the Discrete Phase.

Under-Relaxation of the Interphase Exchange Terms

Note that the interphase exchange of momentum, heat, and mass is under-relaxed during
the calculation, so that

Fnew = Fold + α(Fcalculated − Fold ) (22.9-6)

Qnew = Qold + α(Qcalculated − Qold ) (22.9-7)

Mnew = Mold + α(Mcalculated − Mold ) (22.9-8)

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where α is the under-relaxation factor for particles/droplets that you can set in the
Solution Controls panel. The default value for α is 0.5. This value may be reduced to
improve the stability of coupled calculations. Note that the value of α does not influence
the predictions obtained in the final converged solution.
Two options exist when updating the new particle source terms Fnew , Qnew and Mnew . The
first option is to compute the new source terms and the particle source terms, Fcalculated ,
Qcalculated and Mcalculated , at the same time. The second option is to update the new
source terms, Fnew , Qnew and Mnew , every flow iteration, while the particle source terms,
Fcalculated , Qcalculated and Mcalculated , are calculated every Discrete Phase Model iteration.
The latter option is recommended for transient flows, where the particles are updated
once per flow time step.

Interphase Exchange During Stochastic Tracking

When stochastic tracking is performed, the interphase exchange terms, computed via
Equations 22.9-1 to 22.9-8, are computed for each stochastic trajectory with the particle
mass flow rate, ṁp0 , divided by the number of stochastic tracks computed. This implies
that an equal mass flow of particles follows each stochastic trajectory.

Interphase Exchange During Cloud Tracking

When the particle cloud model is used, the interphase exchange terms are computed via
Equations 22.9-1 to 22.9-8 based on ensemble-averaged flow properties in the particle
cloud. The exchange terms are then distributed to all the cells in the cloud based on the
weighting factor defined in Equation 22.2-55.

22.9.2 Particle Types in FLUENT

The laws that you activate depend upon the particle type that you select. In the Set
Injection Properties panel you will specify the Particle Type, and FLUENT will use a given
set of heat and mass transfer laws for the chosen type. All particle types have predefined
sequences of physical laws as shown in the table below:

Particle Type Description Laws Activated

Inert inert/heating or cooling 1, 6
Droplet heating/evaporation/boiling 1, 2, 3, 6
Combusting heating; 1, 4, 5, 6
evolution of volatiles/swelling;
heterogeneous surface reaction
Multicomponent multicomponent droplets/particles 7

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In addition to the above laws, you can define your own laws using a user-defined function.
See the separate UDF Manual for information about user-defined functions.
You can also extend combusting particles to include an evaporating/boiling material by
selecting Wet Combustion in the Set Injection Properties panel.
FLUENT’s physical laws (Laws 1 through 6), which describe the heat and mass transfer
conditions listed in this table, are explained in detail in the sections that follow.

Inert Heating or Cooling (Law 1/Law 6)

The inert heating or cooling laws (Laws 1 and 6) are applied when the particle tempera-
ture is less than the vaporization temperature that you define, Tvap , and after the volatile
fraction, fv,0 , of a particle has been consumed. These conditions may be written as
Law 1:
Tp < Tvap (22.9-9)

Law 6:
mp ≤ (1 − fv,0 )mp,0 (22.9-10)

where Tp is the particle temperature, mp,0 is the initial mass of the particle, and mp is
its current mass.
Law 1 is applied until the temperature of the particle/droplet reaches the vaporiza-
tion temperature. At this point a noninert particle/droplet may proceed to obey one
of the mass-transfer laws (2, 3, 4, and/or 5), returning to Law 6 when the volatile
portion of the particle/droplet has been consumed. (Note that the vaporization temper-
ature, Tvap , is an arbitrary modeling constant used to define the onset of the vaporiza-
tion/boiling/volatilization laws.)
When using Law 1 or Law 6, FLUENT uses a simple heat balance to relate the parti-
cle temperature, Tp (t), to the convective heat transfer and the absorption/emission of
radiation at the particle surface:

dTp 4
m p cp = hAp (T∞ − Tp ) + p Ap σ(θR − Tp4 ) (22.9-11)
dt
where
mp = mass of the particle (kg)
cp = heat capacity of the particle (J/kg-K)
Ap = surface area of the particle (m2 )
T∞ = local temperature of the continuous phase (K)
h = convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 -K)
p = particle emissivity (dimensionless)
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 x 10−8 W/m2 -K4 )
G 1/4
θR = radiation temperature, ( 4σ )

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Equation 22.9-11 assumes that there is negligible internal resistance to heat transfer, i.e.,
the particle is at uniform temperature throughout.
G is the incident radiation in W/m2 :
Z
G= IdΩ (22.9-12)
Ω=4π

where I is the radiation intensity and Ω is the solid angle.

Radiation heat transfer to the particle is included only if you have enabled the P-1 or
discrete ordinates radiation model and you have activated radiation heat transfer to
particles using the Particle Radiation Interaction option in the Discrete Phase Model panel.
Equation 22.9-11 is integrated in time using an approximate, linearized form that assumes
that the particle temperature changes slowly from one time value to the next:

dTp n h i h io
mp cp = Ap − h + p σTp3 Tp + hT∞ + p σθR
4
(22.9-13)
dt
As the particle trajectory is computed, FLUENT integrates Equation 22.9-13 to obtain
the particle temperature at the next time value, yielding

Tp (t + ∆t) = αp + [Tp (t) − αp ]e−βp ∆t (22.9-14)

where ∆t is the integration time step and

4
hT∞ + p σθR
αp = (22.9-15)
h + p σTp3 (t)

and

Ap (h + p σTp3 (t))
βp = (22.9-16)
m p cp

FLUENT can also solve Equation 22.9-13 in conjunction with the equivalent mass transfer
equation using a stiff coupled solver. See Section 22.11.7: Including Coupled Heat-Mass
Solution Effects on the Particles for details.
The heat transfer coefficient, h, is evaluated using the correlation of Ranz and Mar-
shall [296, 297]:

hdp 1/2
Nu = = 2.0 + 0.6Red Pr1/3 (22.9-17)
k∞

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where

dp = particle diameter (m)

k∞ = thermal conductivity of the continuous phase (W/m-K)
Red = Reynolds number based on the particle diameter and
the relative velocity (Equation 22.2-3)
Pr = Prandtl number of the continuous phase (cp µ/k∞ )
Finally, the heat lost or gained by the particle as it traverses each computational cell
appears as a source or sink of heat in subsequent calculations of the continuous phase
energy equation. During Laws 1 and 6, particles/droplets do not exchange mass with the
continuous phase and do not participate in any chemical reaction.

Droplet Vaporization (Law 2)

Law 2 is applied to predict the vaporization from a discrete phase droplet. Law 2 is
initiated when the temperature of the droplet reaches the vaporization temperature,
Tvap , and continues until the droplet reaches the boiling point, Tbp , or until the droplet’s
volatile fraction is completely consumed:

Tp < Tbp (22.9-18)

mp > (1 − fv,0 )mp,0 (22.9-19)

The onset of the vaporization law is determined by the setting of Tvap , a modeling pa-
rameter that has no physical significance. Note that once vaporization is initiated (by
the droplet reaching this threshold temperature), it will continue to vaporize even if the
droplet temperature falls below Tvap . Vaporization will be halted only if the droplet
temperature falls below the dew point. In such cases, the droplet will remain in Law
2 but no evaporation will be predicted. When the boiling point is reached, the droplet
vaporization is predicted by a boiling rate, Law 3, as described in a section that follows.

Mass Transfer During Law 2

During Law 2, the rate of vaporization is governed by gradient diffusion, with the flux
of droplet vapor into the gas phase related to the gradient of the vapor concentration
between the droplet surface and the bulk gas:

Ni = kc (Ci,s − Ci,∞ ) (22.9-20)

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where
Ni = molar flux of vapor (kgmol/m2 -s)
kc = mass transfer coefficient (m/s)
Ci,s = vapor concentration at the droplet surface (kgmol/m3 )
Ci,∞ = vapor concentration in the bulk gas (kgmol/m3 )
Note that FLUENT’s vaporization law assumes that Ni is positive (evaporation). If
conditions exist in which Ni is negative (i.e., the droplet temperature falls below the dew
point and condensation conditions exist), FLUENT treats the droplet as inert (Ni = 0.0).
The concentration of vapor at the droplet surface is evaluated by assuming that the
partial pressure of vapor at the interface is equal to the saturated vapor pressure, psat ,
at the particle droplet temperature, Tp :

psat (Tp )
Ci,s = (22.9-21)
RTp

where R is the universal gas constant.

The concentration of vapor in the bulk gas is known from solution of the transport equa-
tion for species i or from the PDF look-up table for nonpremixed or partially premixed
combustion calculations:

p
Ci,∞ = Xi (22.9-22)
RT∞

where Xi is the local bulk mole fraction of species i, p is the local absolute pressure,
and T∞ is the local bulk temperature in the gas. The mass transfer coefficient in Equa-
tion 22.9-20 is calculated from the Sherwood number correlation [296, 297]:

kc dp 1/2
ShAB = = 2.0 + 0.6Red Sc1/3 (22.9-23)
Di,m

where Di,m = diffusion coefficient of vapor in the bulk (m2 /s)

Sc = the Schmidt number, ρDµi,m
dp = particle (droplet) diameter (m)
The vapor flux given by Equation 22.9-20 becomes a source of species i in the gas phase
species transport equation, (see Section 22.14: Setting Material Properties for the Discrete
Phase) or from the PDF look-up table for nonpremixed combustion calculations.
The mass of the droplet is reduced according to

mp (t + ∆t) = mp (t) − Ni Ap Mw,i ∆t (22.9-24)

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where Mw,i = molecular weight of species i (kg/kgmol)

mp = mass of the droplet (kg)
Ap = surface area of the droplet (m2 )
FLUENT can also solve Equation 22.9-24 in conjunction with the equivalent heat transfer
equation using a stiff coupled solver. See Section 22.11.7: Including Coupled Heat-Mass
Solution Effects on the Particles for details.

Defining the Vapor Pressure and Diffusion Coefficient

You must define the vapor pressure as a polynomial or piecewise linear function of tem-
perature (psat (T )) during the problem definition. Note that the vapor pressure definition
is critical, as psat is used to obtain the driving force for the evaporation process (Equa-
tions 22.9-20 and 22.9-21). You should provide accurate vapor pressure values for tem-
peratures over the entire range of possible droplet temperatures in your problem. Vapor
pressure data can be obtained from a physics or engineering handbook (e.g., [279]).
You must also input the diffusion coefficient, Di,m , during the setup of the discrete phase
material properties. Note that the diffusion coefficient inputs that you supply for the
continuous phase are not used in the discrete phase model.

Heat Transfer to the Droplet

Finally, the droplet temperature is updated according to a heat balance that relates the
sensible heat change in the droplet to the convective and latent heat transfer between
the droplet and the continuous phase:

dTp dmp
mp cp = hAp (T∞ − Tp ) + hfg + Ap p σ(θR 4 − Tp 4 ) (22.9-25)
dt dt

where cp = droplet heat capacity (J/kg-K)

Tp = droplet temperature (K)
h = convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 -K)
T∞ = temperature of continuous phase (K)
dmp
dt
= rate of evaporation (kg/s)
hfg = latent heat (J/kg)
p = particle emissivity (dimensionless)
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 x 10−8 W/m2 -K4 )
I 1/4
θR = radiation temperature, ( 4σ ) , where I is the radiation intensity
Radiation heat transfer to the particle is included only if you have enabled the P-1 or
discrete ordinates radiation model and you have activated radiation heat transfer to
particles using the Particle Radiation Interaction option in the Discrete Phase Model panel.
The heat transferred to or from the gas phase becomes a source/sink of energy during
subsequent calculations of the continuous phase energy equation.

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Droplet Boiling (Law 3)

Law 3 is applied to predict the convective boiling of a discrete phase droplet when the
temperature of the droplet has reached the boiling temperature, Tbp , and while the mass
of the droplet exceeds the nonvolatile fraction, (1 − fv,0 ):

Tp ≥ Tbp (22.9-26)

and

mp > (1 − fv,0 )mp,0 (22.9-27)

When the droplet temperature reaches the boiling point, a boiling rate equation is ap-
plied [188]:
" #
d(dp ) 4k∞ q cp,∞ (T∞ − Tp )
= (1 + 0.23 Red ) ln 1 + (22.9-28)
dt ρp cp,∞ dp hfg

where cp,∞ = heat capacity of the gas (J/kg-K)

ρp = droplet density (kg/m3 )
k∞ = thermal conductivity of the gas (W/m-K)
Equation 22.9-28 was derived assuming steady flow at constant pressure. Note that the
model requires T∞ > Tbp in order for boiling to occur and that the droplet remains at
fixed temperature (Tbp ) throughout the boiling law.
When radiation heat transfer is active, FLUENT uses a slight modification of Equa-
tion 22.9-28, derived by starting from Equation 22.9-25 and assuming that the droplet
temperature is constant. This yields

dmp
− hfg = hAp (T∞ − Tp ) + Ap p σ(θR 4 − Tp 4 ) (22.9-29)
dt
or
" #
d(dp ) 2 k∞ Nu 4
− = (T∞ − Tp ) + p σ(θR − Tp4 ) (22.9-30)
dt ρp hfg dp

Using Equation 22.9-17 for the Nusselt number correlation and replacing the Prandtl
number term with an empirical constant, Equation 22.9-30 becomes
" √ #
d(dp ) 2 2k∞ [1 + 0.23 Red ] 4
− = (T∞ − Tp ) + p σ(θR − Tp4 ) (22.9-31)
dt ρp hfg dp

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In the absence of radiation, this result matches that of Equation 22.9-28 in the limit that
the argument of the logarithm is close to unity. FLUENT uses Equation 22.9-31 when
radiation is active in your model and Equation 22.9-28 when radiation is not active.
Radiation heat transfer to the particle is included only if you have enabled the P-1 or
discrete ordinates radiation model and you have activated radiation heat transfer to
particles using the Particle Radiation Interaction option in the Discrete Phase Model panel.
The droplet is assumed to stay at constant temperature while the boiling rate is applied.
Once the boiling law is entered it is applied for the duration of the particle trajectory.
The energy required for vaporization appears as a (negative) source term in the energy
equation for the gas phase. The evaporated liquid enters the gas phase as species i, as
defined by your input for the destination species (see Section 22.14: Setting Material
Properties for the Discrete Phase).

Devolatilization (Law 4)
The devolatilization law is applied to a combusting particle when the temperature of the
particle reaches the vaporization temperature, Tvap , and remains in effect while the mass
of the particle, mp , exceeds the mass of the nonvolatiles in the particle:

Tp ≥ Tvap and Tp ≥ Tbp (22.9-32)

and

mp > (1 − fv,0 )(1 − fw,0 )mp,0 (22.9-33)

where fw,0 is the mass fraction of the evaporating/boiling material if Wet Combustion is
selected (otherwise, fw,0 = 0). As implied by Equation 22.9-32, the boiling point, Tbp ,
and the vaporization temperature, Tvap , should be set equal to each other when Law 4
is to be used. When wet combustion is active, Tbp and Tvap refer to the boiling and
evaporation temperatures for the combusting material only.
FLUENT provides a choice of four devolatilization models:

• the constant rate model (the default model)

• the single kinetic rate model

• the two competing rates model (the Kobayashi model)

• the chemical percolation devolatilization (CPD) model

Each of these models is described, in turn, below.

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 22.9 One-Way and Two-Way Coupling

Choosing the Devolatilization Model

You will choose the devolatilization model when you are setting physical properties for the
combusting-particle material in the Materials panel, as described in Section 22.14.2: De-
scription of the Properties. By default, the constant rate model (Equation 22.9-34) will
be used.

The Constant Rate Devolatilization Model

The constant rate devolatilization law dictates that volatiles are released at a constant
rate [27]:

1 dmp
− = A0 (22.9-34)
fv,0 (1 − fw,0 )mp,0 dt

where mp = particle mass (kg)

fv,0 = fraction of volatiles initially present in the particle
mp,0 = initial particle mass (kg)
A0 = rate constant (s−1 )
The rate constant A0 is defined as part of your modeling inputs, with a default value of 12
s−1 derived from the work of Pillai [284] on coal combustion. Proper use of the constant
devolatilization rate requires that the vaporization temperature, which controls the onset
of devolatilization, be set appropriately. Values in the literature show this temperature
to be about 600 K [27].
The volatile fraction of the particle enters the gas phase as the devolatilizing species i,
defined by you (see Section 22.14: Setting Material Properties for the Discrete Phase).
Once in the gas phase, the volatiles may react according to the inputs governing the gas
phase chemistry.

The Single Kinetic Rate Model

The single kinetic rate devolatilization model assumes that the rate of devolatilization is
first-order dependent on the amount of volatiles remaining in the particle [16]:

dmp
− = k[mp − (1 − fv,0 )(1 − fw,0 )mp,0 ] (22.9-35)
dt

where mp = particle mass (kg)

fv,0 = mass fraction of volatiles initially present in the particle
fw,0 = mass fraction of evaporating/boiling material (if wet combustion
is modeled)
mp,0 = initial particle mass (kg)
k = kinetic rate (s−1 )

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Modeling Discrete Phase

Note that fv,0 , the fraction of volatiles in the particle, should be defined using a value
slightly in excess of that determined by proximate analysis. The kinetic rate, k, is defined
by input of an Arrhenius type pre-exponential factor and an activation energy:

k = A1 e−(E/RT ) (22.9-36)

FLUENT uses default rate constants, A1 and E, as given in [16].

Equation 22.9-35 has the approximate analytical solution:

mp (t + ∆t) = (1 − fv,0 )(1 − fw,0 )mp,0 + [mp (t) − (1 − fv,0 )(1 − fw,0 )mp,0 ]e−k∆t (22.9-37)

which is obtained by assuming that the particle temperature varies only slightly between
discrete time integration steps.
FLUENT can also solve Equation 22.9-37 in conjunction with the equivalent heat transfer
equation using a stiff coupled solver. See Section 22.11.7: Including Coupled Heat-Mass
Solution Effects on the Particles for details.

The Two Competing Rates (Kobayashi) Model

FLUENT also provides the kinetic devolatilization rate expressions of the form proposed
by Kobayashi [185]:

R1 = A1 e−(E1 /RTp ) (22.9-38)

R2 = A2 e−(E2 /RTp ) (22.9-39)

where R1 and R2 are competing rates that may control the devolatilization over different
temperature ranges. The two kinetic rates are weighted to yield an expression for the
devolatilization as

Z t Z t
mv (t)
 
= (α1 R1 + α2 R2 ) exp − (R1 + R2 ) dt dt (22.9-40)
(1 − fw,0 )mp,0 − ma 0 0

where mv (t) = volatile yield up to time t

mp,0 = initial particle mass at injection
α1 , α2 = yield factors
ma = ash content in the particle

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 22.9 One-Way and Two-Way Coupling

The Kobayashi model requires input of the kinetic rate parameters, A1 , E1 , A2 , and
E2 , and the yields of the two competing reactions, α1 and α2 . FLUENT uses default
values for the yield factors of 0.3 for the first (slow) reaction and 1.0 for the second
(fast) reaction. It is recommended in the literature [185] that α1 be set to the fraction
of volatiles determined by proximate analysis, since this rate represents devolatilization
at low temperature. The second yield parameter, α2 , should be set close to unity, which
is the yield of volatiles at very high temperature.
By default, Equation 22.9-40 is integrated in time analytically, assuming the particle
temperature to be constant over the discrete time integration step. FLUENT can also
solve Equation 22.9-40 in conjunction with the equivalent heat transfer equation using a
stiff coupled solver. See Section 22.11.7: Including Coupled Heat-Mass Solution Effects
on the Particles for details.

The CPD Model

In contrast to the coal devolatilization models presented above, which are based on em-
pirical rate relationships, the chemical percolation devolatilization (CPD) model char-
acterizes the devolatilization behavior of rapidly heated coal based on the physical and
chemical transformations of the coal structure [110, 111, 128].

General Description

During coal pyrolysis, the labile bonds between the aromatic clusters in the coal structure
lattice are cleaved, resulting in two general classes of fragments. One set of fragments
has a low molecular weight (and correspondingly high vapor pressure) and escapes from
the coal particle as a light gas. The other set of fragments consists of tar gas precursors
that have a relatively high molecular weight (and correspondingly low vapor pressure)
and tend to remain in the coal for a long period of time during typical devolatilization
conditions. During this time, reattachment with the coal lattice (which is referred to as
crosslinking) can occur. The high molecular weight compounds plus the residual lattice
are referred to as metaplast. The softening behavior of a coal particle is determined
by the quantity and nature of the metaplast generated during devolatilization. The
portion of the lattice structure that remains after devolatilization is comprised of char
and mineral-compound-based ash.
The CPD model characterizes the chemical and physical processes by considering the
coal structure as a simplified lattice or network of chemical bridges that link the aromatic
clusters. Modeling the cleavage of the bridges and the generation of light gas, char, and
tar precursors is then considered to be analogous to the chemical reaction scheme shown
in Figure 22.9.2.
The variable £ represents the original population of labile bridges in the coal lattice.
Upon heating, these bridges become the set of reactive bridges, £∗ . For the reactive
bridges, two competing paths are available. In one path, the bridges react to form side

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Modeling Discrete Phase

Figure 22.9.2: Coal Bridge

chains, δ. The side chains may detach from the aromatic clusters to form light gas, g1 .
As bridges between neighboring aromatic clusters are cleaved, a certain fraction of the
coal becomes detached from the coal lattice. These detached aromatic clusters are the
heavy-molecular-weight tar precursors that form the metaplast. The metaplast vaporizes
to form coal tar. While waiting for vaporization, the metaplast can also reattach to the
coal lattice matrix (crosslinking). In the other path, the bridges react and become a char
bridge, c, with the release of an associated light gas product, g2 . The total population of
bridges in the coal lattice matrix can be represented by the variable p, where p = £ + c.

Reaction Rates

Given this set of variables that characterizes the coal lattice structure during devolatiliza-
tion, the following set of reaction rate expressions can be defined for each, starting with
the assumption that the reactive bridges are destroyed at the same rate at which they
∗
are created ( ∂£
∂t
= 0):

d£
= −kb £ (22.9-41)
dt
dc £
= kb (22.9-42)
dt ρ+1
" #
dδ £
= 2ρkb − kg δ (22.9-43)
dt ρ+1
dg1
= kg δ (22.9-44)
dt
dg2 dc
= 2 (22.9-45)
dt dt

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 22.9 One-Way and Two-Way Coupling

where the rate constants for bridge breaking and gas release steps, kb and kg , are expressed
in Arrhenius form with a distributed activation energy:

k = Ae−(E±Eσ )/RT (22.9-46)

where A, E, and Eσ are, respectively, the pre-exponential factor, the activation energy,
and the distributed variation in the activation energy, R is the universal gas constant,
and T is the temperature. The ratio of rate constants, ρ = kδ /kc , is set to 0.9 in this
model based on experimental data.

Mass Conservation

The following mass conservation relationships are imposed:

g = g1 + g2 (22.9-47)
g1 = 2f − σ (22.9-48)
g2 = 2(c − c0 ) (22.9-49)

where f is the fraction of broken bridges (f = 1 − p). The initial conditions for this
system are given by the following:

c(0) = c0 (22.9-50)
£(0) = £0 = p 0 − c 0 (22.9-51)
δ(0) = 2f0 = 2(1 − c0 − £0 ) (22.9-52)
g(0) = g1 (0) = g2 (0) = 0 (22.9-53)

where c0 is the initial fraction of char bridges, p0 is the initial fraction of bridges in the
coal lattice, and £0 is the initial fraction of labile bridges in the coal lattice.

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Fractional Change in the Coal Mass

Given the set of reaction equations for the coal structure parameters, it is necessary to
relate these quantities to changes in coal mass and the related release of volatile products.
To accomplish this, the fractional change in the coal mass as a function of time is divided
into three parts: light gas (fgas ), tar precursor fragments (ffrag ), and char (fchar ). This is
accomplished by using the following relationships, which are obtained using percolation
lattice statistics:

r(g1 + g2 )(σ + 1)
fgas (t) = (22.9-54)
4 + 2r(1 − c0 )(σ + 1)
2
ffrag (t) = [ΦF (p) + rΩK(p)] (22.9-55)
2 + r(1 − c0 )(σ + 1)
fchar (t) = 1 − fgas (t) − ffrag (t) (22.9-56)

The variables Φ, Ω, F (p), and K(p) are the statistical relationships related to the cleaving
of bridges based on the percolation lattice statistics, and are given by the following
equations:

" #
£ (σ − 1)δ
Φ = 1+r + (22.9-57)
p 4(1 − p)
δ £
Ω = − (22.9-58)
2(1 − p) p
! σ+1
p0 σ−1
F (p) = (22.9-59)
p
! σ+1
σ+1 0 p0 σ−1
   
K(p) = 1− p (22.9-60)
2 p

r is the ratio of bridge mass to site mass, mb /ma , where

mb = 2Mw,δ (22.9-61)
ma = Mw,1 − (σ + 1)Mw,δ (22.9-62)

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 22.9 One-Way and Two-Way Coupling

where Mw,δ and Mw,1 are the side chain and cluster molecular weights respectively. σ + 1
is the lattice coordination number, which is determined from solid-state nuclear magnetic
esonance (NMR) measurements related to coal structure parameters, and p0 is the root
of the following equation in p (the total number of bridges in the coal lattice matrix):

p0 (1 − p0 )σ−1 = p(1 − p)σ−1 (22.9-63)

In accounting for mass in the metaplast (tar precursor fragments), the part that vaporizes
is treated in a manner similar to flash vaporization, where it is assumed that the finite
fragments undergo vapor/liquid phase equilibration on a time scale that is rapid with
respect to the bridge reactions. As an estimate of the vapor/liquid that is present at
any time, a vapor pressure correlation based on a simple form of Raoult’s Law is used.
The vapor pressure treatment is largely responsible for predicting pressure-dependent
devolatilization yields. For the part of the metaplast that reattaches to the coal lattice,
a cross-linking rate expression given by the following equation is used:

dmcross
= mfrag Across e−(Ecross /RT ) (22.9-64)
dt
where mcross is the amount of mass reattaching to the matrix, mfrag is the amount of
mass in the tar precursor fragments (metaplast), and Across and Ecross are rate expression
constants.

CPD Inputs

Given the set of equations and corresponding rate constants introduced for the CPD
model, the number of constants that must be defined to use the model is a primary
concern. For the relationships defined previously, it can be shown that the following
parameters are coal independent [110]:

• Ab , Eb , Eσb , Ag , Eg , and Eσg for the rate constants kb and kg

• Across , Ecross , and ρ

These constants are included in the submodel formulation and are not input or modified
during problem setup.

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Modeling Discrete Phase

There are an additional five parameters that are coal-specific and must be specified during
the problem setup:

• initial fraction of bridges in the coal lattice, p0

• initial fraction of char bridges, c0

• lattice coordination number, σ + 1

• cluster molecular weight, Mw,1

• side chain molecular weight, Mw,δ

The first four of these are coal structure quantities that are obtained from NMR exper-
imental data. The last quantity, representing the char bridges that either exist in the
parent coal or are formed very early in the devolatilization process, is estimated based
on the coal rank. These quantities are entered in the Materials panel as described in
Section 22.14.2: Description of the Properties. Values for the coal-dependent parameters
for a variety of coals are listed in Table 22.9.1.

13
Table 22.9.1: Chemical Structure Parameters for C NMR for 13 Coals

Coal Type σ+1 p0 Mw,1 Mw,δ c0

Zap (AR) 3.9 .63 277 40 .20
Wyodak (AR) 5.6 .55 410 42 .14
Utah (AR) 5.1 .49 359 36 0
Ill6 (AR) 5.0 .63 316 27 0
Pitt8 (AR) 4.5 .62 294 24 0
Stockton (AR) 4.8 .69 275 20 0
Freeport (AR) 5.3 .67 302 17 0
Pocahontas (AR) 4.4 .74 299 14 .20
Blue (Sandia) 5.0 .42 410 47 .15
Rose (AFR) 5.8 .57 459 48 .10
1443 (lignite, ACERC) 4.8 .59 297 36 .20
1488 (subbituminous, ACERC) 4.7 .54 310 37 .15
1468 (anthracite, ACERC) 4.7 .89 656 12 .25

AR refers to eight types of coal from the Argonne premium sample bank [347, 387]. Sandia refers to
the coal examined at Sandia National Laboratories [109]. AFR refers to coal examined at Advanced
Fuel Research. ACERC refers to three types of coal examined at the Advanced Combustion Engineering
Research Center.

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 22.9 One-Way and Two-Way Coupling

Particle Swelling During Devolatilization

The particle diameter changes during devolatilization according to the swelling coefficient,
Csw , which is defined by you and applied in the following relationship:

dp (1 − fw,0 )mp,0 − mp
= 1 + (Csw − 1) (22.9-65)
dp,0 fv,0 (1 − fw,0 )mp,0

where dp,0 = particle diameter at the start of devolatilization

dp = current particle diameter
w,0 )mp,0 −mp
The term (1−f
fv,0 (1−fw,0 )mp,0
is the ratio of the mass that has been devolatilized to the total
volatile mass of the particle. This quantity approaches a value of 1.0 as the devolatiliza-
tion law is applied. When the swelling coefficient is equal to 1.0, the particle diameter
stays constant. When the swelling coefficient is equal to 2.0, the final particle diam-
eter doubles when all of the volatile component has vaporized, and when the swelling
coefficient is equal to 0.5 the final particle diameter is half of its initial diameter.

Heat Transfer to the Particle During Devolatilization

Heat transfer to the particle during the devolatilization process includes contributions
from convection, radiation (if active), and the heat consumed during devolatilization:

dTp dmp
mp cp = hAp (T∞ − Tp ) + hfg + Ap p σ(θR 4 − Tp 4 ) (22.9-66)
dt dt
Radiation heat transfer to the particle is included only if you have enabled the P-1 or
discrete ordinates radiation model and you have activated radiation heat transfer to
particles using the Particle Radiation Interaction option in the Discrete Phase Model panel.
By default, Equation 22.9-66 is solved analytically, by assuming that the temperature
and mass of the particle do not change significantly between time steps:

Tp (t + ∆t) = αp + [Tp (t) − αp ]e−βp ∆t (22.9-67)

where

hAp T∞ + dm
dt
p
hfg + Ap p σθR 4
αp = (22.9-68)
hAp + p Ap σTp 3

and

Ap (h + p σTp 3 )
βp = (22.9-69)
m p cp

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Modeling Discrete Phase

FLUENT can also solve Equation 22.9-66 in conjunction with the equivalent mass transfer
equation using a stiff coupled solver. See Section 22.11.7: Including Coupled Heat-Mass
Solution Effects on the Particles for details.

Surface Combustion (Law 5)

After the volatile component of the particle is completely evolved, a surface reaction
begins which consumes the combustible fraction, fcomb , of the particle. Law 5 is thus
active (for a combusting particle) after the volatiles are evolved:

mp < (1 − fv,0 )(1 − fw,0 )mp,0 (22.9-70)

and until the combustible fraction is consumed:

mp > (1 − fv,0 − fcomb )(1 − fw,0 )mp,0 (22.9-71)

When the combustible fraction, fcomb , has been consumed in Law 5, the combusting
particle may contain residual “ash” that reverts to the inert heating law, Law 6 (described
previously).
With the exception of the multiple surface reactions model, the surface combustion law
consumes the reactive content of the particle as governed by the stoichiometric require-
ment, Sb , of the surface “burnout” reaction:

char(s) + Sb ox(g) −→ products(g) (22.9-72)

where Sb is defined in terms of mass of oxidant per mass of char, and the oxidant and
product species are defined in the Set Injection Properties panel.
FLUENT provides a choice of four heterogeneous surface reaction rate models for com-
busting particles:

• the diffusion-limited rate model (the default model)

• the kinetics/diffusion-limited rate model

• the intrinsic model

• the multiple surface reactions model

Each of these models is described in detail below. You will choose the surface combustion
model when you are setting physical properties for the combusting-particle material in
the Materials panel, as described in Section 22.14.2: Description of the Properties. By
default, the diffusion-limited rate model will be used.

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 22.9 One-Way and Two-Way Coupling

The Diffusion-Limited Surface Reaction Rate Model

The diffusion-limited surface reaction rate model which is the default model in FLUENT,
assumes that the surface reaction proceeds at a rate determined by the diffusion of the
gaseous oxidant to the surface of the particle:

dmp Yox T∞ ρ
= −4πdp Di,m (22.9-73)
dt Sb (Tp + T∞ )

where Di,m = diffusion coefficient for oxidant in the bulk (m2 /s)
Yox = local mass fraction of oxidant in the gas
ρ = gas density (kg/m3 )
Sb = stoichiometry of Equation 22.9-72
Equation 22.9-73 is derived from the model of Baum and Street [27] with the kinetic con-
tribution to the surface reaction rate ignored. The diffusion-limited rate model assumes
that the diameter of the particles does not change. Since the mass of the particles is
decreasing, the effective density decreases, and the char particles become more porous.

The Kinetic/Diffusion Surface Reaction Rate Model

The kinetic/diffusion-limited rate model assumes that the surface reaction rate is deter-
mined either by kinetics or by a diffusion rate. FLUENT uses the model of Baum and
Street [27] and Field [106], in which a diffusion rate coefficient

[(Tp + T∞ )/2]0.75
D0 = C1 (22.9-74)
dp

and a kinetic rate

R = C2 e−(E/RTp ) (22.9-75)

are weighted to yield a char combustion rate of

dmp D0 R
= −Ap pox (22.9-76)
dt D0 + R

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Modeling Discrete Phase

where Ap is the surface area of the droplet (πd2p ), pox is the partial pressure of oxidant
species in the gas surrounding the combusting particle, and the kinetic rate, R, incorpo-
rates the effects of chemical reaction on the internal surface of the char particle (intrinsic
reaction) and pore diffusion. In FLUENT, Equation 22.9-76 is recast in terms of the
oxidant mass fraction, Yox , as

dmp ρRT∞ Yox D0 R

= −Ap (22.9-77)
dt Mw,ox D0 + R

The particle size is assumed to remain constant in this model while the density is allowed
to decrease.
When this model is enabled, the rate constants used in Equations 22.9-74 and 22.9-75 are
entered in the Materials panel, as described in Section 22.14: Setting Material Properties
for the Discrete Phase.

The Intrinsic Model

The intrinsic model in FLUENT is based on Smith’s model [342], assuming the order of
reaction is equal to unity. Like the kinetic/diffusion model, the intrinsic model assumes
that the surface reaction rate includes the effects of both bulk diffusion and chemical
reaction (see Equation 22.9-77). The intrinsic model uses Equation 22.9-74 to compute
the diffusion rate coefficient, D0 , but the chemical rate, R, is explicitly expressed in terms
of the intrinsic chemical and pore diffusion rates:

dp
R=η ρ p Ag k i (22.9-78)
6
η is the effectiveness factor, or the ratio of the actual combustion rate to the rate attain-
able if no pore diffusion resistance existed [198]:

3
η= (φ coth φ − 1) (22.9-79)
φ2

where φ is the Thiele modulus:

" #1/2
dp Sb ρp Ag ki pox
φ= (22.9-80)
2 De ρox

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 22.9 One-Way and Two-Way Coupling

ρox is the density of oxidant in the bulk gas (kg/m3 ) and De is the effective diffusion
coefficient in the particle pores. Assuming that the pore size distribution is unimodal
and the bulk and Knudsen diffusion proceed in parallel, De is given by

−1
θ 1 1

De = 2 + (22.9-81)
τ DKn D0

where D0 is the bulk molecular diffusion coefficient and θ is the porosity of the char
particle:

ρp
θ =1− (22.9-82)
ρt

ρp and ρt are, respectively, the apparent and true densities of the pyrolysis char.
τ (in
√ Equation 22.9-81) is the tortuosity of the pores. The default value for τ in FLUENT
is 2, which corresponds to an average intersecting angle between the pores and the
external surface of 45◦ [198].
DKn is the Knudsen diffusion coefficient:
s
Tp
DKn = 97.0rp (22.9-83)
Mw,ox

where Tp is the particle temperature and rp is the mean pore radius of the char parti-
cle, which can be measured by mercury porosimetry. Note that macropores (rp > 150
Å) dominate in low-rank chars while micropores (rp < 10 Å) dominate in high-rank
chars [198].
Ag (in Equations 22.9-78 and 22.9-80) is the specific internal surface area of the char
particle, which is assumed in this model to remain constant during char combustion.
Internal surface area data for various pyrolysis chars can be found in [341]. The mean
value of the internal surface area during char combustion is higher than that of the
pyrolysis char [198]. For example, an estimated mean value for bituminous chars is 300
m2 /g [53].
ki (in Equations 22.9-78 and 22.9-80) is the intrinsic reactivity, which is of Arrhenius
form:

ki = Ai e−(Ei /RTp ) (22.9-84)

where the pre-exponential factor Ai and the activation energy Ei can be measured for
each char. In the absence of such measurements, the default values provided by FLUENT
(which are taken from a least squares fit of data of a wide range of porous carbons,
including chars [341]) can be used.

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Modeling Discrete Phase

To allow a more adequate description of the char particle size (and hence density) vari-
ation during combustion, you can specify the burning mode α, relating the char particle
diameter to the fractional degree of burnout U (where U = 1 − mp /mp,0 ) by [340]

dp
= (1 − U )α (22.9-85)
dp,0

where mp is the char particle mass and the subscript zero refers to initial conditions (i.e.,
at the start of char combustion). Note that 0 ≤ α ≤ 1/3 where the limiting values 0 and
1/3 correspond, respectively, to a constant size with decreasing density (zone 1) and a
decreasing size with constant density (zone 3) during burnout. In zone 2, an intermediate
value of α = 0.25, corresponding to a decrease of both size and density, has been found
to work well for a variety of chars [340].
When this model is enabled, the rate constants used in Equations 22.9-74, 22.9-78,
22.9-80, 22.9-81, 22.9-83, 22.9-84, and 22.9-85 are entered in the Materials panel, as
described in Section 22.14: Setting Material Properties for the Discrete Phase.

The Multiple Surface Reactions Model

Modeling multiple particle surface reactions follows a pattern similar to the wall surface
reaction models, where the surface species is now a “particle surface species”. For the
mixture material defined in the Species Model panel, the particle surface species can be
depleted or produced by the stoichiometry of the particle surface reaction (defined in the
Reactions panel). The particle surface species constitutes the reactive char mass of the
particle, hence, if a particle surface species is depleted, the reactive “char” content of the
particle is consumed, and in turn, when a surface species is produced, it is added to the
particle “char” mass. Any number of particle surface species and any number of particle
surface reactions can be defined for any given combusting particle.
Multiple injections can be accommodated, and combusting particles reacting according
to the multiple surface reactions model can coexist in the calculation, with combusting
particles following other char combustion laws. The model is based on oxidation studies
of char particles, but it is also applicable to gas-solid reactions in general, not only to
char oxidation reactions.
See Section 14.3: Particle Surface Reactions for information about particle surface reac-
tions.

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 22.9 One-Way and Two-Way Coupling

Limitations

Note the following limitations of the multiple surface reactions model:

• The model is not available together with the unsteady tracking option.

• The model is available only with the species transport model for volumetric reac-
tions, and not with the nonpremixed, premixed, or partially premixed combustion
models.

Heat and Mass Transfer During Char Combustion

The surface reaction consumes the oxidant species in the gas phase; i.e., it supplies a
(negative) source term during the computation of the transport equation for this species.
Similarly, the surface reaction is a source of species in the gas phase: the product of
the heterogeneous surface reaction appears in the gas phase as a user-selected chemical
species. The surface reaction also consumes or produces energy, in an amount determined
by the heat of reaction defined by you.
The particle heat balance during surface reaction is

dTp dmp
mp cp = hAp (T∞ − Tp ) − fh Hreac + Ap p σ(θR 4 − Tp 4 ) (22.9-86)
dt dt
where Hreac is the heat released by the surface reaction. Note that only a portion (1 − fh )
of the energy produced by the surface reaction appears as a heat source in the gas-
phase energy equation: the particle absorbs a fraction fh of this heat directly. For coal
combustion, it is recommended that fh be set at 1.0 if the char burnout product is CO
and 0.3 if the char burnout product is CO2 [39].
Radiation heat transfer to the particle is included only if you have enabled the P-1 or
discrete ordinates radiation model and you have activated radiation heat transfer to
particles using the Particle Radiation Interaction option in the Discrete Phase Model panel.
By default, Equation 22.9-86 is solved analytically, by assuming that the temperature
and mass of the particle do not change significantly between time steps. FLUENT can
also solve Equation 22.9-86 in conjunction with the equivalent mass transfer equation
using a stiff coupled solver. See Section 22.11.7: Including Coupled Heat-Mass Solution
Effects on the Particles for details.

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Modeling Discrete Phase

Multicomponent Particle Definition (Law 7)

Multicomponent particles are described in FLUENT as a mixture of species within droplets/particles.
The particle mass m is the sum of the masses of the components

X
m= mi (22.9-87)
i

The density of the particle ρp can be either constant, or volume-averaged:

!−1
X mi
ρp = (22.9-88)
i mρi

For particles containing more than one component it is difficult to assign the whole
particle to one process like boiling or heating. Therefore it can be only modeled by a law
integrating all processes of relevance in one equation. The source terms for temperature
and component mass are the sum of the sources from the partial processes:
!
dTp 4
X dmi
m p cp = Ap p σ(θR − Tp4 ) + hAp (T∞ − Tp ) + (hi,p − hi,g ) (22.9-89)
dt i dt
!
dmi
= Mw,i kc,i (Ci,s − Ci,∞ ) (22.9-90)
dt

The equation for the particle temperature T consists of terms for radiation, convective
heating (Equation 22.9-11) and vaporization. Radiation heat transfer to the particle is
included only if you have enabled P-1 or Discrete-Ordinates (DO) radiation and you have
activated radiation heat transfer to the particles using the Particle Radiation Interaction
option in the Discrete Phase Model panel.
The mass of the particle components mi is only influenced by the vaporization (Equa-
tion 22.9-20), where Mw,i is the molecular weight of species i. The mass transfer coefficient
kc,i of component i is calculated from the Sherwood correlation (Equation 22.9-23). The
concentration of vapor at the particle surface Ci,s depends on the saturation pressure of
the component.

Raoult’s Law

The correlation between the vapor concentration of a species Ci,s over the surface and
its mole fraction in the condensed phase Xi (under the assumption of an ideal gas law)
is described by Raoult’s law:

pi Xi p
Ci,s = = (22.9-91)
RT RT

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 22.10 Discrete Phase Model (DPM) Boundary Conditions

You can define your own law other than Raoult’s Law for vapor concentration at the
particle surface using a user-defined function.
See Section 2.5.15: DEFINE DPM VP EQUILIB of the FLUENT UDF Manual for details.

22.10 Discrete Phase Model (DPM) Boundary Conditions

When a particle strikes a boundary face, one of several contingencies may arise:

• The particle may be reflected via an elastic or inelastic collision.

• The particle may escape through the boundary. The particle is lost from the cal-
culation at the point where it impacts the boundary.

• The particle may be trapped at the wall. Nonvolatile material is lost from the
calculation at the point of impact with the boundary; volatile material present in
the particle or droplet is released to the vapor phase at this point.

• The particle may pass through an internal boundary zone, such as radiator or
porous jump.

• The particle may slide along the wall, depending on particle properties and impact
angle.

You also have the option of implementing a user-defined function to model the particle
behavior when hitting the boundary. See the separate UDF Manual for information
about user-defined functions.
These boundary condition options are described in detail in Section 22.13: Setting Bound-
ary Conditions for the Discrete Phase.

22.11 Steps for Using the Discrete Phase Models

You can include a discrete phase in your FLUENT model by defining the initial position,
velocity, size, and temperature of individual particles. These initial conditions, along
with your inputs defining the physical properties of the discrete phase, are used to initiate
trajectory and heat/mass transfer calculations. The trajectory and heat/mass transfer
calculations are based on the force balance on the particle and on the convective/radiative
heat and mass transfer from the particle, using the local continuous phase conditions as
the particle moves through the flow. The predicted trajectories and the associated heat
and mass transfer can be viewed graphically and/or alphanumerically.

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Modeling Discrete Phase

The procedure for setting up and solving a problem involving a discrete phase is outlined
below, and described in detail in Sections 22.11.1–22.16. Only the steps related specifi-
cally to discrete phase modeling are shown here. For information about inputs related to
other models that you are using in conjunction with the discrete phase models, see the
appropriate sections for those models.

1. Enable any of the discrete phase modeling options, if relevant, as described in this
section.

2. Choose a transient or steady treatment of particles as described in

Section 22.11.2: Steady/Transient Treatment of Particles.

3. Enable the required physical submodels for the discrete phase model, as described
in Section 22.11.5: Physical Models for the Discrete Phase Model.

4. Set the numerics parameters and solve the problem, as described in Section 22.11.7: Nu-
merics of the Discrete Phase Model and Section 22.15: Solution Strategies for the
Discrete Phase.

5. Specify the initial conditions and particle size distributions, as described in Sec-
tion 22.12: Setting Initial Conditions for the Discrete Phase.

6. Define the boundary conditions, as described in Section 22.13: Setting Boundary

Conditions for the Discrete Phase.

7. Define the material properties, as described in Section 22.14: Setting Material Prop-
erties for the Discrete Phase.

8. Initialize the flow field.

9. For transient cases, advance the solution in time by taking the desired number of
time steps. Particle positions will be updated as the solution advances in time. If
you are solving an uncoupled flow, the particle position will be updated at the end
of each time step. For a coupled calculation, the positions are iterated on or within
each time step.

10. Solve the coupled or uncoupled flow (Section 22.15: Solution Strategies for the
Discrete Phase).

11. Examine the results, as described in Section 22.16: Postprocessing for the Discrete
Phase.

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 22.11 Steps for Using the Discrete Phase Models

22.11.1 Options for Interaction with the Continuous Phase

If the discrete phase interacts (i.e., exchanges mass, momentum, and/or energy) with the
continuous phase, you should enable the Interaction with the Continuous Phase option.
An input for the Number of Continuous Phase Iterations per DPM Iteration will appear,
which allows you to control the frequency at which the particles are tracked and the
DPM sources are updated.
For steady-state simulations, increasing the Number of Continuous Phase Iterations per
DPM Iteration will increase stability but require more iterations to converge. Figure 22.11.1
shows how the source term, S, when applied to the flow equations, changes with the num-
ber of updates for varying under-relaxation factors. In Figure 22.11.1, S∞ is the final
source term for which a value is reached after a certain number of updates and S0 is the
initial source term at the start of the computation. The value of S0 is typically zero at
the beginning of the calculation.
In addition, another option exists which allows you to control the numerical treatment
of the source terms and how they are applied to the continuous phase equations. Update
DPM Sources Every Flow Iteration is recommended when doing unsteady simulations;
at every DPM Iteration, the particle source terms are recalculated. The source terms
applied to the continuous phase equations transition to the new values every flow iteration
based on Equations 22.9-6 to 22.9-8. This process is controlled by the under-relaxation
factor, specified in the Solution Controls panel, see Section 22.15.2: Under-Relaxation of
the Interphase Exchange Terms.
Figure 22.11.1 can be applied to this option as well. Keep in mind that the DPM source
terms are updated every continuous flow iteration.

22.11.2 Steady/Transient Treatment of Particles

The Discrete Phase Model utilizes a Lagrangian approach to derive the equations for
the underlying physics which are solved transiently. Transient numerical procedures in
the Discrete Phase Model can be applied to resolve steady flow simulations as well as
transient flows.
In the Discrete Phase Model panel you have the option of choosing whether you want
to treat the particles in an unsteady or a steady fashion. This option can be chosen
independent of the settings for the solver. Thus, you can perform steady state trajectory
simulations even when selecting a transient solver for numerical reasons. You can also
specify unsteady particle tracking when solving the steady continuous phase equations.
This can be used to improve numerical stability for very large particle source terms or
simply for postprocessing purposes. Whenever you enable a breakup or collision model
to simulate sprays, the Unsteady Particle Tracking will be switched on automatically.

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Modeling Discrete Phase

Figure 22.11.1: Effect of Number of Source Term Updates on Source Term

Applied to Flow Equations

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 22.11 Steps for Using the Discrete Phase Models

When Unsteady Particle Tracking is enabled, several new options appear. If steady state
equations are solved for the continuous phase, you simply enter the Particle Time Step
Size and the Number of Time Steps, thus tracking particles every time a DPM iteration
is conducted. When you increase the Number of Time Steps, the droplets penetrate the
domain faster.

i Note that you must enter the start and stop times for each injection.

When solving unsteady equations for the continuous phase, you must decide whether you
want to use Fluid Flow Time Step to inject the particles, or whether you prefer a Particle
Time Step Size independent of the Fluid Flow Time Step. With the latter option, you
can use the Discrete Phase Model in combination with changes in the time step for the
continuous equations, as it is done when using adaptive flow time stepping.
If you do not use Fluid Flow Time Step, you will need to decide when to inject the particles
for a new time step. You can either Inject Particles at Particle Time step or at the flow time
step. In any case, the particles will always be tracked in such a way that they coincide
with the flow time of the continuous flow solver.
You can use a user-defined function (DEFINE DPM TIMESTEP) to change the time step for
DPM particle tracking. The time step can be prescribed for special applications where
a certain time step is needed. See Section 2.5.14: DEFINE DPM TIMESTEP of the FLUENT
UDF Manual for details on changing the time step size for DPM particle tracking.

i When the density-based explicit solver is used with the explicit unsteady
formulation, the particles are advanced once per time step and are calcu-
lated at the start of the time step (before the flow is updated).
Additional inputs are required for each injection in the Set Injection Properties panel.
For Unsteady Particle Tracking, the injection Start Time and Stop Time must be specified
under Point Properties. Injections with start and stop times set to zero will be injected
only at the start of the calculation (t = 0). Changing injection settings during a transient
simulation will not affect particles currently released in the domain. At any point during
a simulation, you can clear particles that are currently in the domain by clicking on the
Clear Particles button in the Discrete Phase Model panel.

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Modeling Discrete Phase

For unsteady simulations (with the implicit solvers), several methods can be chosen to
control when the particles are advanced.

• If the Number of Continuous Phase Iterations per DPM Iteration is less than the
number of iterations required to converge the continuous phase between time steps,
then sub-iterations are done. Here, particles are tracked to their new positions
during a time step and DPM sources are updated; particles are then returned to
their original state at the beginning of the time step. At the end of the time
step, particles are advanced to their new positions based on the continuous-phase
solution.

• If the Number of Continuous Phase Iterations per DPM Iteration is larger than the
number of iterations specified to converge the continuous phase between time steps,
the particles are advanced at the beginning of the time step to compute the particle
source terms.

• When you specify a value of Zero as the Number of Continuous Phase Iterations per
DPM Iteration, the particles are advanced at the end of the time step. For this
option, it may be better if the particle source terms are not reset at the begin-
ning of the time step. This can be done with the TUI command define/models
/dpm/interaction/reset-sources-at-timestep?.

In all the above cases, you must provide a sufficient number of particle source term
updates to better control when the particles are advanced, see Figure 22.11.1.

i In steady-state discrete phase modeling, particles do not interact with each

other and are tracked one at a time in the domain.

i If the collision model is used, you will not be able to set the Number of Con-
tinuous Phase Iterations per DPM Iteration. Refer to Section 22.7.1: Droplet
Collision Model for details about this limitation.

22.11.3 Parameter Tracking for the Discrete Phase Model

You will use two parameters to control the time integration of the particle trajectory
equations:

• the length scale/step length factor

This factor is used to set the time step for integration within each control volume.

• the maximum number of time steps

This factor is used to abort trajectory calculations when the particle never exits
the flow domain.

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 22.11 Steps for Using the Discrete Phase Models

Each of these parameters is set in the Discrete Phase Model panel (Figure 22.11.2) under
Tracking Parameters in the Tracking tab.
Define −→ Models −→Discrete Phase...

Figure 22.11.2: The Discrete Phase Model Panel and the Tracking Parameters

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Modeling Discrete Phase

Max. Number Of Steps is the maximum number of time steps used to compute a single
particle trajectory via integration of Equations 22.2-1 and 22.15-1. When the max-
imum number of steps is exceeded, FLUENT abandons the trajectory calculation
for the current particle injection and reports the trajectory fate as “incomplete”.
The limit on the number of integration time steps eliminates the possibility of a
particle being caught in a recirculating region of the continuous phase flow field
and being tracked infinitely. Note that you may easily create problems in which
the default value of 500 time steps is insufficient for completion of the trajectory
calculation. In this case, when trajectories are reported as incomplete within the
domain and the particles are not recirculating indefinitely, you can increase the
maximum number of steps (up to a limit of 109 ).

Length Scale controls the integration time step size used to integrate the equations
of motion for the particle. The integration time step is computed by FLUENT
based on a specified length scale L, and the velocity of the particle (up ) and of the
continuous phase (uc ):

L
∆t = (22.11-1)
up + uc

where L is the Length Scale that you define. As defined by Equation 22.11-1, L is
proportional to the integration time step and is equivalent to the distance that the
particle will travel before its motion equations are solved again and its trajectory
is updated. A smaller value for the Length Scale increases the accuracy of the
trajectory and heat/mass transfer calculations for the discrete phase.
(Note that particle positions are always computed when particles enter/leave a cell;
even if you specify a very large length scale, the time step used for integration will
be such that the cell is traversed in one step.)
Length Scale will appear in the Discrete Phase Model panel when the Specify Length
Scale option is on.

Step Length Factor also controls the time step size used to integrate the equations of
motion for the particle. It differs from the Length Scale in that it allows FLUENT to
compute the time step in terms of the number of time steps required for a particle
to traverse a computational cell. To set this parameter instead of the Length Scale,
turn off the Specify Length Scale option.
The integration time step is computed by FLUENT based on a characteristic time
that is related to an estimate of the time required for the particle to traverse the
current continuous phase control volume. If this estimated transit time is defined
as ∆t∗ , FLUENT chooses a time step ∆t as

∆t∗
∆t = (22.11-2)
λ

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 22.11 Steps for Using the Discrete Phase Models

where λ is the Step Length Factor. As defined by Equation 22.11-2, λ is inversely

proportional to the integration time step and is roughly equivalent to the number
of time steps required to traverse the current continuous phase control volume. A
larger value for the Step Length Factor decreases the discrete phase integration time
step. The default value for the Step Length Factor is 5. Step Length Factor will
appear in the Discrete Phase Model panel when the Specify Length Scale option is
off (the default setting).

One simple rule of thumb to follow when setting the parameters above is that if you want
the particles to advance through a domain consisting of N grid cells into the main flow
direction, the Step Length Factor times N should be approximately equal to the Max.
Number Of Steps.

22.11.4 Alternate Drag Laws

There are five drag laws for the particles that can be selected in the Drag Law drop-down
list under Drag Parameters.
The spherical, nonspherical, Stokes-Cunningham, and high-Mach-number laws described in
Section 22.2.1: Particle Force Balance are always available, and the dynamic-drag law
described in Section 22.6: Dynamic Drag Model Theory is available only when one of
the droplet breakup models is used in conjunction with unsteady tracking. See Sec-
tion 22.11.6: Modeling Spray Breakup for information about enabling the droplet breakup
models.
If the spherical law, the high-Mach-number law, or the dynamic-drag law is selected, no
further inputs are required. If the nonspherical law is selected, the particle Shape Factor
(φ in Equation 22.2-9) must be specified. The shape factor value cannot exceed 1. For
the Stokes-Cunningham law, the Cunningham Correction factor (Cc in Equation 22.2-11)
must be specified.

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Modeling Discrete Phase

22.11.5 Physical Models for the Discrete Phase Model

This section provides instructions for using the optional discrete phase models available in
FLUENT. All of them can be turned on in the Discrete Phase Model panel (Figure 22.11.3).
Define −→ Models −→Discrete Phase...

Figure 22.11.3: The Discrete Phase Model Panel and the Physical Models

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 22.11 Steps for Using the Discrete Phase Models

Including Radiation Heat Transfer Effects on the Particles

If you want to include the effect of radiation heat transfer to the particles (Equa-
tion 13.3-13), you must turn on the Particle Radiation Interaction option under the Physical
Models tab, in the Discrete Phase Model panel (Figure 22.11.3). You will also need to
define additional properties for the particle materials (emissivity and scattering factor),
as described in Section 22.14.2: Description of the Properties. This option is available
only when the P-1 or discrete ordinates radiation model is used.

Including Thermophoretic Force Effects on the Particles

If you want to include the effect of the thermophoretic force on the particle trajectories
(Equation 22.2-14), turn on the Thermophoretic Force option under the Physical Models
tab, in the Discrete Phase Model panel. You will also need to define the thermophoretic
coefficient for the particle material, as described in Section 22.14.2: Description of the
Properties.

Including Brownian Motion Effects on the Particles

For sub-micron particles in laminar flow, you may want to include the effects of Brow-
nian motion (described in Section 22.2.1: Brownian Force) on the particle trajectories.
To do so, turn on the Brownian Motion option under the Physical Models tab. When
Brownian motion effects are included, it is recommended that you also select the Stokes-
Cunningham drag law in the Drag Law drop-down list under Drag Parameters, and specify
the Cunningham Correction (Cc in Equation 22.2-11).

Including Saffman Lift Force Effects on the Particles

For sub-micron particles, you can also model the lift due to shear (the Saffman lift force,
described in Section 22.2.1: Saffman’s Lift Force) in the particle trajectory. To do this,
turn on the Saffman Lift Force option under the Physical Models tab, in the Discrete Phase
Model panel.

Monitoring Erosion/Accretion of Particles at Walls

Particle erosion and accretion rates can be monitored at wall boundaries. These rate
calculations can be enabled in the Discrete Phase Model panel when the discrete phase
is coupled with the continuous phase (i.e., when Interaction with Continuous Phase is se-
lected). Turning on the Erosion/Accretion option will cause the erosion and accretion rates
to be calculated at wall boundary faces when particle tracks are updated. You will also
need to set the Impact Angle Function (f (α) in Equation 22.5-1), Diameter Function (C(dp )
in Equation 22.5-1), and Velocity Exponent Function (b(v) in Equation 22.5-1) in the Wall
boundary conditions panel for each wall zone (as described in Section 22.13.1: Discrete
Phase Boundary Condition Types).

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Modeling Discrete Phase

Including the Effect of Particles on Turbulent Quantities

Particles can damp or produce turbulent eddies ([269]. In FLUENT, the work done by the
turbulent eddies on the particles is subtracted from the turbulent kinetic energy using
the formulation described in [100] and [9].
If you want to consider these effects in the chosen turbulence model, you can turn this
on using Two-Way Turbulence Coupling, under the Physical Models tab.

Tracking in a Reference Frame

Particle tracking is related to a coordinate system. With Track in Absolute Frame en-
abled, you can choose to track the particles in the absolute reference frame. All particle
coordinates and velocities are then computed in this frame. The forces due to friction
with the continuous phase are transformed to this frame automatically.
In rotating flows it might be appropriate for numerical reasons to track the particles in
the relative reference frame. If several reference frames exist in one simulation, then the
particle velocities are transformed to each reference frame when they enter the fluid zone
associated with this reference frame.

22.11.6 Options for Spray Modeling

When you enable particle tracking, the Physical Models tab in Discrete Phase Model panel
will expand to show options related to spray modeling.

Modeling Spray Breakup

To enable the modeling of spray breakup, select the Droplet Breakup option under Spray
Model and then select the desired model (TAB or Wave). A detailed description of these
models can be found in Section 22.7.2: Droplet Breakup Models.
For the TAB model, you will need to specify a value for y0 (the initial distortion at
time equal to zero in Equation 22.7-14) in the y0 field. The default value (y0 = 0) is
recommended. You will also set the number of Breakup Parcels (under Breakup Constants),
to split the droplet into several child parcels, as described in Section 22.7.2: Velocity of
Child Droplets.
For the wave model, you will need to specify values for B0 and B1, where B0 is the
constant B0 in Equation 22.7-43 and B1 is the constant B1 in Equation 22.7-45. You will
generally not need to modify the value of B0, as the default value 0.61 is acceptable for
nearly all cases. A value of 1.73 is recommended for B1.
For steady-state simulations, you will also need to specify an appropriate Particle Time
Step Size and the Number of Time Steps which will control the spray density. See Sec-
tion 22.11.1: Options for Interaction with the Continuous Phase for more information.

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 22.11 Steps for Using the Discrete Phase Models

Note that you may want to use the dynamic drag law when you use one of the spray
breakup models. See Section 22.11.4: Alternate Drag Laws for information about choos-
ing the drag law.

Modeling Droplet Collisions

To include the effect of droplet collisions, as described in Section 22.7.1: Droplet Collision
Model, select the Droplet Collision option under Spray Models. There are no further inputs
for this model.

22.11.7 Numerics of the Discrete Phase Model

The underlying physics of the Discrete Phase Model is described by ordinary differential
equations (ODE) as opposed to the continuous flow which is expressed in the form of
partial differential equations (PDE). Therefore, the Discrete Phase Model uses its own
numerical mechanisms and discretization schemes, which are completely different from
other numerics used in FLUENT.
The Numerics tab gives you control over the numerical schemes for particle tracking as
well as solutions of heat and mass equations (Figure 22.11.4).

Numerics for Tracking of the Particles

To solve equations of motion for the particles, the following numerical schemes are avail-
able:

implicit uses an implicit Euler integration of Equation 22.2-1 which is unconditionally

stable for all particle relaxation times.

trapezoidal uses a semi-implicit trapezoidal integration.

analytic uses an analytical integration of Equation 22.2-1 where the forces are held
constant during the integration.

runge-kutta facilitates a 5th order Runge Kutta scheme derived by Cash and Karp [50].

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Modeling Discrete Phase

Figure 22.11.4: The Discrete Phase Model Panel and the Numerics

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 22.11 Steps for Using the Discrete Phase Models

You can either choose a single tracking scheme, or switch between higher order and lower
order tracking schemes using an automated selection based on the accuracy to be achieved
and the stability range of each scheme. In addition, you can control how accurately the
equations need to be solved.

Accuracy Control enables the solution of equations of motion within a specified toler-
ance. This is done by computing the error of the integration step and reducing the
integration step if the error is too large. If the error is within the given tolerance,
the integration step will also be increased in the next steps.

Tolerance is the maximum relative error which has to be achieved by the tracking
procedure. Based on the numerical scheme, different methods are used to estimate
the relative error. The implemented Runge-Kutta scheme uses an embedded error
control mechanism. The error of the other schemes is computed by comparing the
result of the integration step with the outcome of a two step procedure with half
the step size.

Max. Refinements is the maximum number of step size refinements in one single inte-
gration step. If this number is exceeded the integration will be conducted with the
last refined integration step size.

Automated Tracking Scheme Selection provides a mechanism to switch in an automated

fashion between numerically stable lower order schemes and higher order schemes,
which are stable only in a limited range. In situations where the particle is far from
hydrodynamic equilibrium, an accurate solution can be achieved very quickly with
a higher order scheme, since these schemes need less step refinements for a certain
tolerance. When the particle reaches hydrodynamic equilibrium, the higher order
schemes become inefficient since their step length is limited to a stable range. In
this case, the mechanism switches to a stable lower order scheme and facilitates
larger integration steps.

i This mechanism is only available when Accuracy Control is enabled.

Higher Order Scheme can be chosen from the group consisting of trapezoidal and runge-
kutta scheme.

Lower Order Scheme consists of implicit and the exponential analytic integration scheme.

Tracking Scheme is selectable only if Automated Tracking Scheme Selection is switched

off. You can choose any of the tracking schemes. You also can combine each of the
tracking schemes with Accuracy Control.

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Modeling Discrete Phase

Including Coupled Heat-Mass Solution Effects on the Particles

By default, the solution of the particle heat and mass equations are solved in a segregated
manner. If you enable the Coupled Heat-Mass Solution option, FLUENT will solve this
pair of equations using a stiff, coupled ODE solver with error tolerance control. The
increased accuracy, however, comes at the expense of increased computational expense.

22.11.8 User-Defined Functions

User-defined functions can be used to customize the discrete phase model to include
additional body forces, modify interphase exchange terms (sources), calculate or integrate
scalar values along the particle trajectory, and incorporate nonstandard erosion rate
definitions. See the separate UDF Manual for information about user-defined functions.
In the Discrete Phase Model panel, under User-Defined Functions in the UDF tab, there
are drop-down lists labeled Body Force, Scalar Update, Source, Spray Collide Function,
and DPM Time Step (Figure 22.11.5). If Erosion/Accretion is enabled under the Physical
Models tab, there will be an additional drop-down list labeled Erosion/Accretion. These
lists will show available user-defined functions that can be selected to customize the
discrete phase model.
In addition, you can specify a Number of Scalars which are allocated to each particle and
can be used to store information when implementing your own particle models.

22.11.9 Parallel Processing for the Discrete Phase Model

FLUENT offers two modes of parallel processing for the discrete phase model: the Shared
Memory and the Message Passing options under the Parallel tab, in the Discrete Phase
Model panel. The Shared Memory option is suitable for computations where the machine
running the FLUENT host process is an adequately large, shared memory, multiprocessor
machine. The Message Passing option is turned on by default and is suitable for generic
distributed memory cluster computing.

i When tracking particles in parallel, the DPM model cannot be used with
any of the multiphase flow models (VOF, mixture, or Eulerian) if the Shared
Memory option is enabled. (Note that using the Message Passing option,
when running in parallel, enables the compatibility of all multiphase flow
models with the DPM model.)
The Shared Memory option is implemented using POSIX Threads (pthreads) based on a
shared memory model. Once the Shared Memory option is enabled, you can then select
along with it the Workpile Algorithm and specify the Number of Threads. By default, the
Number of Threads is equal to the number of compute nodes specified for the parallel
computation. You can modify this value based on the computational requirements of the
particle calculations. If, for example, the particle calculations require more computation

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 22.11 Steps for Using the Discrete Phase Models

Figure 22.11.5: The Discrete Phase Model Panel and the UDFs

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Modeling Discrete Phase

than the flow calculation, you can increase the Number of Threads (up to the number of
available processors) to improve performance. When using the Shared Memory option, the
particle calculations are entirely managed by the FLUENT host process. You must make
sure that the machine executing the host process has enough memory to accommodate
the entire grid.

i Note that the Shared Memory option is not available for Windows 2000.

The Message Passing option enables cluster computing and also works on shared memory
machines. With this option enabled, the compute node processes perform the particle
work on their local partitions. Particle migration to other compute nodes is implemented
using message passing primitives. There are no special requirements for the host machine.
Note that this model is not available if the Cloud Model option is turned on under the
Turbulent Dispersion tab of the Set Injection Properties panel. When running FLUENT in
parallel, by default, pathline displays are computed in serial on the host node. Pathline
displays may be computed in parallel on distributed memory systems if the Message
Passing parallel option is selected in the Discrete Phase Model panel.
You may seamlessly switch between the Shared Memory option and the Message Passing
option at any time during the FLUENT session.
In addition to performing general parallel processing of the Discrete Phase Model, you
have the option of implementing DPM-specific user-defined functions in parallel FLUENT.
See Section 7.4: Parallelization of Discrete Phase Model (DPM) UDFs of the separate
UDF Manual for details on parallelization of DPM UDFs.

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 22.12 Setting Initial Conditions for the Discrete Phase

22.12 Setting Initial Conditions for the Discrete Phase

For liquid sprays, a convenient representation of the droplet size distribution is the Rosin-
Rammler expression. The complete range of sizes is divided into an adequate number of
discrete intervals; each represented by a mean diameter for which trajectory calculations
are performed. If the size distribution is of the Rosin-Rammler type, the mass fraction
of droplets of diameter greater than d is given by

¯n
Yd = e−(d/d) (22.12-1)

where d¯ is the size constant and n is the size distribution parameter. Use of the Rosin-
Rammler size distribution is detailed in Section 22.12.1: Using the Rosin-Rammler Di-
ameter Distribution Method.
The primary inputs that you must provide for the discrete phase calculations in FLUENT
are the initial conditions that define the starting positions, velocities, and other param-
eters for each particle stream. These initial conditions provide the starting values for all
of the dependent discrete phase variables that describe the instantaneous conditions of
an individual particle, and include the following:

• position (x, y, z coordinates) of the particle

• velocities (u, v, w) of the particle

Velocity magnitudes and spray cone angle can also be used (in 3D) to define the
initial velocities (see Section 22.12.1: Point Properties for Cone Injections). For
moving reference frames, relative velocities should be specified.

• diameter of the particle, dp

• temperature of the particle, Tp

• mass flow rate of the particle stream that will follow the trajectory of the individual
particle/droplet, ṁp (required only for coupled calculations)

• additional parameters if one of the atomizer models described in Section 22.8: At-
omizer Model Theory is used for the injection

i When an atomizer model is selected, you will not input initial diameter,
velocity, and position quantities for the particles due to the complexities
of sheet and ligament breakup. Instead of initial conditions, the quantities
you will input for the atomizer models are global parameters.

These dependent variables are updated according to the equations of motion

(Section 22.2: Particle Motion Theory) and according to the heat/mass transfer relations

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Modeling Discrete Phase

applied (Section 22.9: One-Way and Two-Way Coupling) as the particle/droplet moves
along its trajectory. You can define any number of different sets of initial conditions for
discrete phase particles/droplets provided that your computer has sufficient memory.

22.12.1 Injection Types

You will define the initial conditions for a particle/droplet stream by creating an “injec-
tion” and assigning properties to it. FLUENT provides 11 types of injections:

• single

• group

• cone (only in 3D)

• solid-cone (only in 3D)

• surface

• plain-orifice atomizer

• pressure-swirl atomizer

• flat-fan-atomizer

• air-blast-atomizer

• effervescent-atomizer

• file

For each nonatomizer injection type, you will specify each of the initial conditions listed
in Section 22.12: Setting Initial Conditions for the Discrete Phase, the type of particle
that possesses these initial conditions, and any other relevant parameters for the particle
type chosen.
You should create a single injection when you want to specify a single value for each of
the initial conditions (Figure 22.12.1). Create a group injection (Figure 22.12.2) when
you want to define a range for one or more of the initial conditions (e.g., a range of
diameters or a range of initial positions). To define hollow spray cone injections in 3D
problems, create a cone injection (Figure 22.12.3). To release particles from a surface
(either a zone surface or a surface you have defined using the items in the Surface menu),
you will create a surface injection. (If you create a surface injection, a particle stream
will be released from each facet of the surface. You can use the Bounded and Sample
Points options in the Plane Surface panel to create injections from a rectangular grid of
particles in 3D (see Section 27.6: Plane Surfaces for details).

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 22.12 Setting Initial Conditions for the Discrete Phase

● ➞

Figure 22.12.1: Particle Injection Defining a Single Particle Stream

➞
●
➞
●
➞
●
➞
●

Figure 22.12.2: Particle Injection Defining an Initial Spatial Distribution of

the Particle Streams
▼
▼

● ▼
▼
▼

Figure 22.12.3: Particle Injection Defining an Initial Spray Distribution of

the Particle Velocity

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Modeling Discrete Phase

Particle initial conditions (position, velocity, diameter, temperature, and mass flow rate)
can also be read from an external file if none of the injection types listed above can be
used to describe your injection distribution. The file has the following form:

(( x y z u v w diameter temperature mass-flow) name )

with all of the parameters in SI units. All the parentheses are required, but the name is
optional.
The inputs for setting injections are described in detail in Section 22.12.4: Defining In-
jection Properties.

Point Properties for Single Injections

For a single injection, you will define the following initial conditions for the particle
stream under the Point Properties heading (in the Set Injection Properties panel):

• position
Set the x, y, and z positions of the injected stream along the Cartesian axes of the
problem geometry in the X-, Y-, and Z-Position fields. (Z-Position will appear only
for 3D problems.)
• velocity
Set the x, y, and z components of the stream’s initial velocity in the X-, Y-, and
Z-Velocity fields. (Z-Velocity will appear only for 3D problems.)
• diameter
Set the initial diameter of the injected particle stream in the Diameter field.
• temperature
Set the initial (absolute) temperature of the injected particle stream in the Tem-
perature field.
• mass flow rate
For coupled phase calculations (see Section 22.15: Solution Strategies for the Dis-
crete Phase), set the mass of particles per unit time that follows the trajectory
defined by the injection in the Flow Rate field. Note that in axisymmetric problems
the mass flow rate is defined per 2π radians and in 2D problems per unit meter
depth (regardless of the reference value for length).
• duration of injection
For unsteady particle tracking (see Section 22.11.2: Steady/Transient Treatment of
Particles), set the starting and ending time for the injection in the Start Time and
Stop Time fields.

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 22.12 Setting Initial Conditions for the Discrete Phase

Point Properties for Group Injections

For group injections, you will define the properties described in Section 22.12.1: Point
Properties for Single Injections for single injections for the First Point and Last Point in
the group. That is, you will define a range of values, φ1 through φN , for each initial
condition φ by setting values for φ1 and φN . FLUENT assigns a value of φ to the ith
injection in the group using a linear variation between the first and last values for φ:

φN − φ1
φi = φ1 + (i − 1) (22.12-2)
N −1

Thus, for example, if your group consists of 5 particle streams and you define a range for
the initial x location from 0.2 to 0.6 meters, the initial x location of each stream is as
follows:

• Stream 1: x = 0.2 meters

• Stream 2: x = 0.3 meters

• Stream 3: x = 0.4 meters

• Stream 4: x = 0.5 meters

• Stream 5: x = 0.6 meters

i In general, you should supply a range for only one of the initial conditions
in a given group—leaving all other conditions fixed while a single condition
varies among the stream numbers of the group. Otherwise you may find,
for example, that your simultaneous inputs of a spatial distribution and
a size distribution have placed the small droplets at the beginning of the
spatial range and the large droplets at the end of the spatial range.
Note that you can use a different method for defining the size distribution of the particles,
as discussed below.

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Modeling Discrete Phase

Using the Rosin-Rammler Diameter Distribution Method

By default, you will define the size distribution of particles by inputting a diameter for
the first and last points and using the linear equation (22.12-2) to vary the diameter
of each particle stream in the group. When you want a different mass flow rate for
each particle/droplet size, however, the linear variation may not yield the distribution
you need. Your particle size distribution may be defined most easily by fitting the size
distribution data to the Rosin-Rammler equation. In this approach, the complete range
of particle sizes is divided into a set of discrete size ranges, each to be defined by a single
stream that is part of the group. Assume, for example, that the particle size data obeys
the following distribution:

Diameter Range (µm) Mass Fraction in Range

0–70 0.05
70–100 0.10
100–120 0.35
120–150 0.30
150–180 0.15
180–200 0.05

The Rosin-Rammler distribution function is based on the assumption that an exponential

relationship exists between the droplet diameter, d, and the mass fraction of droplets with
diameter greater than d, Yd :

n
Yd = e−(d/d) (22.12-3)

FLUENT refers to the quantity d in Equation 22.12-3 as the Mean Diameter and to n as
the Spread Parameter. These parameters are input by you (in the Set Injection Properties
panel under the First Point heading) to define the Rosin-Rammler size distribution. To
solve for these parameters, you must fit your particle size data to the Rosin-Rammler
exponential equation. To determine these inputs, first recast the given droplet size data
in terms of the Rosin-Rammler format. For the example data provided above, this yields
the following pairs of d and Yd :

Diameter, d (µm) Mass Fraction with

Diameter Greater than d, Yd
70 0.95
100 0.85
120 0.50
150 0.20
180 0.05
200 (0.00)

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 22.12 Setting Initial Conditions for the Discrete Phase

A plot of Yd vs. d is shown in Figure 22.12.4.

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
Mass Fraction > d, Yd
0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230 250

Diameter, d ( µm)

Figure 22.12.4: Example of Cumulative Size Distribution of Particles

Next, derive values of d and n such that the data in Figure 22.12.4 fit Equation 22.12-3.
The value for d is obtained by noting that this is the value of d at which Yd = e−1 ≈ 0.368.
From Figure 22.12.4, you can estimate that this occurs for d ≈ 131 µm. The numerical
value for n is given by

ln(− ln Yd )
n=  
ln d/d

By substituting the given data pairs for Yd and d/d into this equation, you can obtain
values for n and find an average. Doing so yields an average value of n = 4.52 for the
example data above. The resulting Rosin-Rammler curve fit is compared to the example
data in Figure 22.12.5. You can input values for d and n, as well as the diameter range
of the data and the total mass flow rate for the combined individual size ranges, using
the Set Injection Properties panel.

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This technique of fitting the Rosin-Rammler curve to spray data is used when reporting
the Rosin-Rammler diameter and spread parameter in the discrete phase summary panel
in Section 22.16.8: Summary Reporting of Current Particles.

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
Mass Fraction > d, Yd

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230 250

Diameter, d ( µm)

Figure 22.12.5: Rosin-Rammler Curve Fit for the Example Particle Size Data

A second Rosin-Rammler distribution is also available based on the natural logarithm of

the particle diameter. If in your case, the smaller-diameter particles in a Rosin-Rammler
distribution have higher mass flows in comparison with the larger-diameter particles, you
may want better resolution of the smaller-diameter particle streams, or “bins”. You can
therefore choose to have the diameter increments in the Rosin-Rammler distribution done
uniformly by ln d.
In the standard Rosin-Rammler distribution, a particle injection may have a diameter
range of 1 to 200 µm. In the logarithmic Rosin-Rammler distribution, the same diameter
range would be converted to a range of ln 1 to ln 200, or about 0 to 5.3. In this way, the
mass flow in one bin would be less-heavily skewed as compared to the other bins.

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When a Rosin-Rammler size distribution is being defined for the group of streams, you
should define (in addition to the initial velocity, position, and temperature) the following
parameters, which appear under the heading for the First Point:

• Total Flow Rate

This is the total mass flow rate of the N streams in the group. Note that in
axisymmetric problems this mass flow rate is defined per 2π radians and in 2D
problems per unit meter depth.

• Min. Diameter
This is the smallest diameter to be considered in the size distribution.

• Max. Diameter
This is the largest diameter to be considered in the size distribution.

• Mean Diameter
This is the size parameter, d, in the Rosin-Rammler equation (22.12-3).

• Spread Parameter
This is the exponential parameter, n, in Equation 22.12-3.

The Stochastic Rosin-Rammler Diameter Distribution Method

For atomizer injections, a Rosin-Rammler distribution is assumed for the particles exiting
the injector. In order to decrease the number of particles necessary to accurately describe
the distribution, the diameter distribution function is randomly sampled for each instance
where new particles are introduced into the domain.
The Rosin-Rammler distribution can be written as
" n #
D

1 − Y = exp − ¯ (22.12-4)
d

where Y is the mass fraction smaller than a given diameter D, d¯ is the Rosin-Rammler
diameter and n is the Rosin-Rammler exponent. This expression can be inverted by
taking logs of both sides and rearranging,

D = d¯(− ln(1 − Y ))1/n . (22.12-5)

Given a mass fraction Y along with parameters d¯ and n, this function will explic-
itly provide a diameter, D. Diameters for the atomizer injectors described in Sec-
tion 22.12.1: Point Properties for Plain-Orifice Atomizer Injections are obtained by uni-
formly sampling Y in equation 22.12-5.

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Point Properties for Cone Injections

In 3D problems, you can define a hollow or solid cone of particle streams using the cone
or solid-cone injection type, respectively. For both types of cone injections, the inputs
are as follows:

• position
Set the coordinates of the origin of the spray cone in the X-, Y-, and Z-Position
fields.

• diameter
Set the diameter of the particles in the stream in the Diameter field.

• temperature
Set the temperature of the streams in the Temperature field.

• axis
Set the x, y, and z components of the vector defining the cone’s axis in the X-Axis,
Y-Axis, and Z-Axis fields.

• velocity
Set the velocity magnitude of the particle streams that will be oriented along the
specified spray cone angle in the Velocity Mag. field.

• cone angle
Set the included half-angle, θ, of the hollow spray cone in the Cone Angle field, as
shown in Figure 22.12.6.

θ
r origin
axis

Figure 22.12.6: Cone Half Angle and Radius

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• radius
A nonzero inner radius can be specified to model injectors that do not emanate
from a single point. Set the radius r (defined as shown in Figure 22.12.6) in the
Radius field. The particles will be distributed about the axis with the specified
radius.

• swirl fraction (hollow cone only)

Set the fraction of the velocity magnitude to go into the swirling component of
the flow in the Swirl Fraction field. The direction of the swirl component is defined
using the right-hand rule about the axis (a negative value for the swirl fraction can
be used to reverse the swirl direction).

• mass flow rate

For coupled calculations, set the total mass flow rate for the streams in the spray
cone in the Total Flow Rate field.

The distribution of the particle streams for the solid cone injection is random, as seen in
Figure 22.12.3. Furthermore, duplicating this injection may not necessarily result in the
same distribution, at the same location.

i For transient calculations, the spatial distribution of streams at the ini-

tial injection location is recalculated at each time step. Sampling different
possible trajectories allows a more accurate representation of a solid cone
using fewer computational parcels. For steady state calculations, the tra-
jectories are initialized one time and kept the same for subsequent DPM
iterations. The trajectories are recalculated when a change in the injection
panel occurs or when a case and data file are saved. If the residuals and so-
lution change when a small change is made to the injection or when a case
and data file are saved, it may mean that there are not enough trajectories
being used to represent the solid cone with sufficient accuracy.
Note that you may want to define multiple spray cones emanating from the same initial
location in order to specify a size known distribution of the spray or to include a known
range of cone angles.

Point Properties for Surface Injections

For surface injections, you will define all the properties described in Section 22.12.1: Point
Properties for Single Injections for single injections except for the initial position of the
particle streams. The initial positions of the particles will be the location of the data
points on the specified surface(s). Note that you will set the Total Flow Rate of all
particles released from the surface (required for coupled calculations only). If you want,
you can scale the individual mass flow rates of the particles by the ratio of the area of

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the face they are released from to the total area of the surface. To scale the mass flow
rates, select the Scale Flow Rate By Face Area option under Point Properties.
Note that many surfaces have nonuniform distributions of points. If you want to generate
a uniform spatial distribution of particle streams released from a surface in 3D, you can
create a bounded plane surface with a uniform distribution using the Plane Surface panel,
as described in Section 27.6: Plane Surfaces. In 2D, you can create a rake using the
Line/Rake Surface panel, as described in Section 27.5: Line and Rake Surfaces.
In addition to the option of scaling the flow rate by the face area, the normal direction
of a face can be used for the injection direction. To use the face normal direction for the
injection direction, select the Inject Using Normal Direction option under Point Properties
(Figure 22.12.9). Once this option is selected, you only need to specify the velocity
magnitude of the injection, not the individual components of the velocity magnitude.

i Note also that only surface injections from boundary surfaces will be moved
with the grid when a sliding mesh or a moving or deforming mesh is being
used.
A nonuniform size distribution can be used for surface injections, as described below.

Using the Rosin-Rammler Diameter Distribution Method

The Rosin-Rammler size distributions described in Section 22.12.1: Using the Rosin-
Rammler Diameter Distribution Method for group injections is also available for surface
injections. If you select one of the Rosin-Rammler distributions, you will need to spec-
ify the following parameters under Point Properties, in addition to the initial velocity,
temperature, and total flow rate:

• Min. Diameter
This is the smallest diameter to be considered in the size distribution.

• Max. Diameter
This is the largest diameter to be considered in the size distribution.

• Mean Diameter
This is the size parameter, d, in the Rosin-Rammler equation (Equation 22.12-3).

• Spread Parameter
This is the exponential parameter, n, in Equation 22.12-3.

• Number of Diameters
This is the number of diameters in each distribution (i.e., the number of different
diameters in the stream injected from each face of the surface).

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FLUENT will inject streams of particles from each face on the surface, with diameters de-
fined by the Rosin-Rammler distribution function. The total number of injection streams
tracked for the surface injection will be equal to the number of diameters in each distri-
bution (Number of Diameters) multiplied by the number of faces on the surface.

Point Properties for Plain-Orifice Atomizer Injections

For a plain-orifice atomizer injection, you will define the following initial conditions under
Point Properties:

• position
Set the x, y, and z positions of the injected stream along the Cartesian axes of the
problem geometry in the X-Position, Y-Position, and Z-Position fields. (Z-Position
will appear only for 3D problems).

• axis (3D only)

Set the x, y, and z components of the vector defining the axis of the orifice in the
X-Axis, Y-Axis, and Z-Axis fields.

• temperature
Set the temperature of the streams in the Temperature field.

• mass flow rate

Set the mass flow rate for the streams in the atomizer in the Flow Rate field. Note
that in 3D sectors, the flow rate must be appropriate for the sector defined by the
Azimuthal Start Angle and Azimuthal Stop Angle.

• duration of injection
For unsteady particle tracking (see Section 22.11.2: Steady/Transient Treatment of
Particles), set the starting and ending time for the injection in the Start Time and
Stop Time fields.

• vapor pressure
Set the vapor pressure governing the flow through the internal orifice (pv in Ta-
ble 22.8.1) in the Vapor Pressure field.

• diameter
Set the diameter of the orifice in the Injector Inner Diam. field (d in Table 22.8.1).

• orifice length
Set the length of the orifice in the Orifice Length field (L in Table 22.8.1).

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• radius of curvature
Set the radius of curvature of the inlet corner in the Corner Radius of Curv. field (r
in Table 22.8.1).

• nozzle parameter
Set the constant for the spray angle correlation in the Constant A field (CA in
Equation 22.8-17).

• azimuthal angles
For 3D sectors, set the Azimuthal Start Angle and Azimuthal Stop Angle.

See Section 22.8.1: The Plain-Orifice Atomizer Model for details about how these inputs
are used.

Point Properties for Pressure-Swirl Atomizer Injections

For a pressure-swirl atomizer injection, you will specify some of the same properties as for
a plain-orifice atomizer. In addition to the position, axis (if 3D), temperature, mass flow
rate, duration of injection (if unsteady), injector inner diameter, and azimuthal angles
(if relevant) described in Section 22.12.1: Point Properties for Plain-Orifice Atomizer
Injections, you will need to specify the following parameters under Point Properties:

• spray angle
Set the value of the spray angle of the injected stream in the Spray Half Angle field
(θ in Equation 22.8-26).

• pressure
Set the absolute pressure upstream of the injection in the Upstream Pressure field
(p1 in Table 22.8.1).

• sheet breakup
Set the value of the empirical constant that determines the length of the ligaments
that are formed after sheet breakup in the Sheet Constant field (ln( ηη0b ) in Equa-
tion 22.8-31).

• ligament diameter
For short waves, set the proportionality constant that linearly relates the ligament
diameter, dL , to the wavelength that breaks up the sheet in the Ligament Constant
field (see Equations 22.8-32–22.8-35).

See Section 22.8.2: The Pressure-Swirl Atomizer Model for details about how these inputs
are used.

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Point Properties for Air-Blast/Air-Assist Atomizer Injections

For an air-blast/air-assist atomizer, you will specify some of the same properties as for a
plain-orifice atomizer. In addition to the position, axis (if 3D), temperature, mass flow
rate, duration of injection (if unsteady), injector inner diameter, and azimuthal angles
(if relevant) described in Section 22.12.1: Point Properties for Plain-Orifice Atomizer
Injections, you will need to specify the following parameters under Point Properties:

• outer diameter
Set the outer diameter of the injector in the Injector Outer Diam. field. This value
is used in conjunction with the Injector Inner Diam. to set the thickness of the liquid
sheet (t in Equation 22.8-23).

• spray angle
Set the initial trajectory of the film as it leaves the end of the orifice in the Spray
Half Angle field (θ in Equation 22.8-26).

• relative velocity
Set the maximum relative velocity that is produced by the sheet and air in the
Relative Velocity field.

• sheet breakup
Set the value of the empirical constant that determines the length of the ligaments
that are formed after sheet breakup in the Sheet Constant field (ln( ηη0b ) in Equa-
tion 22.8-31).

• ligament diameter
For short waves, set the proportionality constant (CL in Equation 22.8-34) that
linearly relates the ligament diameter, dL , to the wavelength that breaks up the
sheet in the Ligament Constant field.

See Section 22.8.3: The Air-Blast/Air-Assist Atomizer Model for details about how these
inputs are used.

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Point Properties for Flat-Fan Atomizer Injections

The flat-fan atomizer model is available only for 3D models. For this type of injection,
you will define the following initial conditions under Point Properties:

• arc position
Set the coordinates of the center point of the arc from which the fan originates in
the X-Center, Y-Center, and Z-Center fields (see Figure 22.8.6).

• virtual position
Set the coordinates of the virtual origin of the fan in the X-Virtual Origin, Y-Virtual
Origin, and Z-Virtual Origin fields. This point is the intersection of the lines that
mark the sides of the fan (see Figure 22.8.6).

• normal vector
Set the direction that is normal to the fan in the X-Fan Normal Vector, Y-Fan Normal
Vector, and Z-Fan Normal Vector fields.

• temperature
Set the temperature of the streams in the Temperature field.

• mass flow rate

Set the mass flow rate for the streams in the atomizer in the Flow Rate field.

• duration of injection
For unsteady particle tracking (see Section 22.11.2: Steady/Transient Treatment of
Particles), set the starting and ending time for the injection in the Start Time and
Stop Time fields.

• spray half angle

Set the initial half angle of the drops as they leave the end of the orifice in the
Spray Half Angle field.

• orifice width
Set the width of the orifice (in the normal direction) in the Orifice Width field.

• sheet breakup
Set the value of the empirical constant that determines the length of the ligaments
that are formed after sheet breakup in the Flat Fan Sheet Constant field (see Equa-
tion 22.8-31).

See Section 22.8.4: The Flat-Fan Atomizer Model for details about how these inputs are
used.

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Point Properties for Effervescent Atomizer Injections

For an effervescent atomizer injection, you will specify some of the same properties as
for a plain-orifice atomizer. In addition to the position, axis (if 3D), temperature, mass
flow rate (including both flashing and nonflashing components), duration of injection (if
unsteady), vapor pressure, injector inner diameter, and azimuthal angles (if relevant)
described in Section 22.12.1: Point Properties for Plain-Orifice Atomizer Injections, you
will need to specify the following parameters under Point Properties:

• mixture quality
Set the mass fraction of the injected mixture that vaporizes in the Mixture Quality
field (x in Equation 22.8-41).

• saturation temperature
Set the saturation temperature of the volatile substance in the Saturation Temp.
field.

• droplet dispersion
Set the parameter that controls the spatial dispersion of the droplet sizes in the
Dispersion Constant field (Ceff in Equation 22.8-41).

• spray angle
Set the initial trajectory of the film as it leaves the end of the orifice in the Maximum
Half Angle field.

See Section 22.8.5: The Effervescent Atomizer Model for details about how these inputs
are used.

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22.12.2 Particle Types

When you define a set of initial conditions (as described in Section 22.12.4: Defining
Injection Properties), you will need to specify the type of particle. The particle types
available to you depend on the range of physical models that you have defined in the
Models family of panels.

• An “inert” particle is a discrete phase element (particle, droplet, or bubble) that

obeys the force balance (Equation 22.2-1) and is subject to heating or cooling via
Law 1 (Section 22.9.2: Inert Heating or Cooling (Law 1/Law 6)). The inert type is
available for all FLUENT models.
• A “droplet” particle is a liquid droplet in a continuous-phase gas flow that obeys
the force balance (Equation 22.2-1) and that experiences heating/cooling via Law
1 followed by vaporization and boiling via Laws 2 and 3 (Section 22.9.2: Droplet
Vaporization (Law 2) and Section 22.9.2: Droplet Boiling (Law 3)). The droplet
type is available when heat transfer is being modeled and at least two chemical
species are active or the nonpremixed or partially premixed combustion model is
active. You should use the ideal gas law to define the gas-phase density (in the
Materials panel, as discussed in Section 8.3.5: Density Inputs for the Incompressible
Ideal Gas Law) when you select the droplet type.
• A “combusting” particle is a solid particle that obeys the force balance (Equa-
tion 22.2-1) and experiences heating/cooling via Law 1 followed by devolatilization
via Law 4 (Section 22.9.2: Devolatilization (Law 4)), and a heterogeneous surface
reaction via Law 5 (Section 22.9.2: Surface Combustion (Law 5)). Finally, the
nonvolatile portion of a combusting particle is subject to inert heating via Law
6. You can also include an evaporating material with the combusting particle by
selecting the Wet Combustion option in the Set Injection Properties panel. This
allows you to include a material that evaporates and boils via Laws 2 and 3 (Sec-
tion 22.9.2: Droplet Vaporization (Law 2) and Section 22.9.2: Droplet Boiling (Law
3)) before devolatilization of the particle material begins. The combusting type
is available when heat transfer is being modeled and at least three chemical species
are active or the nonpremixed combustion model is active. You should use the ideal
gas law to define the gas-phase density (in the Materials panel) when you select the
combusting particle type.
• A ”multicomponent” particle is, as the name implies, a mixture of droplet particles.
These particles contain more than one component, which due to its complexity of
assigning a whole particle to one process, have to be modeled by a law that inte-
grates all processes of relevance in one equation. Law 7, the multicomponent law
(Section 22.9.2: Multicomponent Particle Definition (Law 7)) is used for such sys-
tems. You should use the volume weighted mixing law to define the particle mixture
density (in the Materials panel) when you select the particle-mixture material type.

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 22.12 Setting Initial Conditions for the Discrete Phase

22.12.3 Creating, Modifying, Copying, Deleting, and Listing Injections

You will use the Injections panel (Figure 22.12.7) to create, copy, delete, and list injections.
Define −→Injections...

Figure 22.12.7: The Injections Panel

(You can also click on the Injections... button in the Discrete Phase Model panel to open
the Injections panel.)

Creating Injections
To create an injection, click on the Create button. A new injection will appear in the
Injections list and the Set Injection Properties panel will open automatically to allow
you to set the injection properties (as described in Section 22.12.4: Defining Injection
Properties).

Modifying Injections
To modify an existing injection, select its name in the Injections list and click on the Set...
button. The Set Injection Properties panel will open, and you can modify the properties
as needed.
If you have two or more injections for which you want to set some of the same properties,
select their names in the Injections list and click on the Set... button. The Set Multiple
Injection Properties panel will open, which will allow you to set the common properties.

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For instructions about using this panel, see Section 22.12.7: Defining Properties Common
to More than One Injection.

Copying Injections
To copy an existing injection to a new injection, select the existing injection in the
Injections list and click on the Copy button. The Set Injection Properties panel will open
with a new injection that has the same properties as the injection you selected. This is
useful if you want to set another injection with similar properties.

Deleting Injections
You can delete an injection by selecting its name in the Injections list and clicking on the
Delete button.

Listing Injections
To list the initial conditions for the particle streams in the selected injection, click on
the List button. FLUENT reports the initial conditions (in SI units) in the console under
various columns:

• The particle stream number is in the column headed NO.

• The particle type (IN for inert, DR for droplet, or CP for combusting particle) is in
the column headed TYP.

• The x, y, and z positions are in the columns headed (X), (Y), and (Z).

• The x, y, and z velocities are in the columns headed (U), (V), and (W).

• The temperature is in the column headed (T).

• The diameter is in the column headed (DIAM).

• The mass flow rate in the column headed (MFLOW).

Shortcuts for Selecting Injections

FLUENT provides a shortcut for selecting injections with names that match a specified
pattern. To use this shortcut, enter the pattern under Injection Name Pattern and then
click Match to select the injections with names that match the specified pattern. For
example, if you specify drop*, all injections that have names beginning with drop (e.g.,
drop-1, droplet) will be selected automatically. If they are all selected already, they will
be deselected. If you specify drop?, all surfaces with names consisting of drop followed
by a single character will be selected (or deselected, if they are all selected already).

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 22.12 Setting Initial Conditions for the Discrete Phase

22.12.4 Defining Injection Properties

Once you have created an injection (using the Injections panel, as described in Sec-
tion 22.12.3: Creating, Modifying, Copying, Deleting, and Listing Injections), you will
use the Set Injection Properties panel (Figure 22.12.8) to define the injection properties.
(Remember that this panel will open when you create a new injection, or when you select
an existing injection and click on the Set... button in the Injections panel.)

Figure 22.12.8: The Set Injection Properties Panel

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The procedure for defining an injection is as follows:

1. If you want to change the name of the injection from its default name, enter a
new one in the Injection Name field. This is recommended if you are defining a
large number of injections so you can easily distinguish them. When assigning
names to your injections, keep in mind the selection shortcut described in Sec-
tion 22.12.3: Creating, Modifying, Copying, Deleting, and Listing Injections.

2. Choose the type of injection in the Injection Type drop-down list. The eleven choices
(single, group, cone, solid-cone, surface, plain-orifice-atomizer, pressure-swirl-atomizer,
air-blast-atomizer, flat-fan-atomizer, effervescent-atomizer, and file) are described in
Section 22.12.1: Injection Types. Note that if you select any of the atomizer models,
you will also need to set the Viscosity and Droplet Surface Tension in the Materials
panel.

i If you are using sliding or moving/deforming meshes in your simulation,

you should not use surface injections because they are not compatible with
moving meshes.
3. If you are defining a single injection, go to the next step. For a group, cone, solid-
cone, or any of the atomizer injections, set the Number of Particle Streams in the
group, spray cone, or atomizer.
If you are defining a surface injection (see Figure 22.12.9), choose the surface(s)
from which the particles will be released in the Release From Surfaces list. If you
are reading the injection from a file, click on the File... button at the bottom of the
Set Injection Properties panel and specify the file to be read in the resulting Select
File dialog box. The parameters in the injection file must be in SI units.

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 22.12 Setting Initial Conditions for the Discrete Phase

Figure 22.12.9: Setting Surface Injection Properties

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4. Select Inert, Droplet, Combusting, or Multicomponent as the Particle Type. The

available types are described in Section 22.12.2: Particle Types.

5. Choose the material for the particle(s) in the Material drop-down list. If this is
the first time you have created a particle of this type, you can choose from all of
the materials of this type defined in the database. If you have already created a
particle of this type, the only available material will be the material you selected
for that particle. You can define additional materials by copying them from the
database or creating them from scratch, as discussed in Section 22.14.2: Setting
Discrete-Phase Physical Properties and described in detail in Section 8.1.2: Using
the Materials Panel.

6. If you are defining a group or surface injection and you want to change from the
default linear (for group injections) or uniform (for surface injections) interpola-
tion method used to determine the size of the particles, select rosin-rammler or
rosin-rammler-logarithmic in the Diameter Distribution drop-down list. The Rosin-
Rammler method for determining the range of diameters for a group injection
is described in Section 22.12.1: Using the Rosin-Rammler Diameter Distribution
Method.

7. If you have created a customized particle law using user-defined functions, turn
on the Custom option under Laws and specify the appropriate laws as described in
Section 22.12.6: Custom Particle Laws.

8. If your particle type is Inert, go to the next step. If you are defining Droplet particles,
select the gas phase species created by the vaporization and boiling laws (Laws 2
and 3) in the Evaporating Species drop-down list.
If you are defining Combusting particles, select the gas phase species created by
the devolatilization law (Law 4) in the Devolatilizing Species drop-down list, the
gas phase species that participates in the surface char combustion reaction (Law
5) in the Oxidizing Species list, and the gas phase species created by the surface
char combustion reaction (Law 5) in the Product Species list. Note that if the
Combustion Model for the selected combusting particle material (in the Materials
panel) is the multiple-surface-reaction model, then the Oxidizing Species and Product
Species lists will be disabled because the reaction stoichiometry has been defined
in the mixture material.
If you are defining Multicomponent particles, law 7 will go into effect. Notice that
the Components tab will become active when this particle type is selected. See
below for information on the Components tab.

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 22.12 Setting Initial Conditions for the Discrete Phase

9. Click the Point Properties tab (the default), and specify the point properties (posi-
tion, velocity, diameter, temperature, and—if appropriate—mass flow rate and any
atomizer-related parameters) as described for each injection type in Sections 22.12.1–
22.12.1.
For surface injections, you can enable the Scale Flow Rate by Face Area and you
can choose the injection direction. To use the face normal direction for the injec-
tion direction, select the Inject Using Normal Direction option under Point Properties
(Figure 22.12.9). Once this option is selected, you only need to specify the ve-
locity magnitude of the injection, not the individual components of the velocity
magnitude.

10. If the flow is turbulent and you wish to include the effects of turbulence on the parti-
cle dispersion, click the Turbulent Dispersion tab, turn on the Stochastic Model or the
Cloud Model, and set the related parameters as described in Section 22.12.5: Mod-
eling Turbulent Dispersion of Particles.

11. If your combusting particle includes an evaporating material, click the Wet Com-
bustion tab, select the Wet Combustion option, and then select the material that
is evaporating/boiling from the particle before devolatilization begins in the Liq-
uid Material drop-down list. You should also set the volume fraction of the liquid
present in the particle by entering the value of the Liquid Fraction. Finally, select
the gas phase species created by the evaporating and boiling laws in the Evaporating
Species drop-down list in the top part of the panel.

12. If you include multicomponent droplets as the material in your discrete phase
model, a Components tab will become active. In this tab, you will specify the
Mass Fraction of each of the components. Note that the sum of the Mass fractions
should add up to unity, otherwise FLUENT will adjust the values such that you have
a sum of 1 for the mass fraction, and will prompt you to accept the entry. Under
Vaporized Species, select not-vaporizing if the component in the particle does not
vaporize. Otherwise, select from the Vaporized Species drop-down list the species
that will be vaporized.
To change the components of a multicomponent droplet, copy the droplet materials
from the Fluent Database Materials panel, or define the droplet materials in the
Materials panel, then add them to the Selected Species list in the Species panel by
clicking the Edit... button (in the Materials panel) next to Mixture Species.

13. If you want to use a user-defined function to initialize the injection properties, click
the UDF tab to access the UDF inputs. You can select an Initialization function
under User-Defined Functions to modify injection properties at the time the particles
are injected into the domain. This allows the position and/or properties of the
injection to be set as a function of flow conditions. See the separate UDF Manual
for information about user-defined functions.

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22.12.5 Modeling Turbulent Dispersion of Particles

As mentioned in Section 22.12.4: Defining Injection Properties, you can choose for each
injection stochastic tracking or cloud tracking as the method for modeling turbulent
dispersion of particles.

Stochastic Tracking
For turbulent flows, if you choose to use the stochastic tracking technique, you must
enable it and specify the “number of tries”. Stochastic tracking includes the effect of tur-
bulent velocity fluctuations on the particle trajectories using the DRW model described
in Section 22.2.2: Stochastic Tracking.

1. Click the Turbulent Dispersion tab in the Set Injection Properties panel.

2. Enable stochastic tracking by turning on the Stochastic Model under Stochastic

Tracking.

3. Specify the Number Of Tries:

• An input of zero tells FLUENT to compute the particle trajectory based on the
mean continuous phase velocity field (Equation 22.2-1), ignoring the effects of
turbulence on the particle trajectories.
• An input of 1 or greater tells FLUENT to include turbulent velocity fluctua-
tions in the particle force balance as in Equation 22.2-20. The trajectory is
computed more than once if your input exceeds 1: two trajectory calculations
are performed if you input 2, three trajectory calculations are performed if
you input 3, etc. Each trajectory calculation includes a new stochastic repre-
sentation of the turbulent contributions to the trajectory equation.
When a sufficient number of tries is requested, the trajectories computed will
include a statistical representation of the spread of the particle stream due to
turbulence. Note that for unsteady particle tracking, the Number of Tries is
set to 1 if Stochastic Tracking is enabled.

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 22.12 Setting Initial Conditions for the Discrete Phase

If you want the characteristic lifetime of the eddy to be random (Equation 22.2-31),
enable the Random Eddy Lifetime option. You will generally not need to change the
Time Scale Constant (CL in Equation 22.2-22) from its default value of 0.15, unless you
are using the Reynolds Stress turbulence model (RSM), in which case a value of 0.3 is
recommended.
Figure 22.12.10 illustrates a discrete phase trajectory calculation computed via the “mean”
tracking (number of tries = 0) and Figure 22.12.11 illustrates the “stochastic” tracking
(number of tries > 1) option.
When multiple stochastic trajectory calculations are performed, the momentum and mass
defined for the injection are divided evenly among the multiple particle/droplet tracks,
and are thus spread out in terms of the interphase momentum, heat, and mass transfer
calculations. Including turbulent dispersion in your model can thus have a significant
impact on the effect of the particles on the continuous phase when coupled calculations
are performed.

3.04e-02

2.84e-02

2.63e-02

2.43e-02

2.23e-02

2.03e-02

1.82e-02

1.62e-02

1.42e-02

1.22e-02

1.01e-02

8.10e-03

6.08e-03

4.05e-03

2.03e-03

0.00e+00

Particle Traces Colored by Particle Time (s)

Figure 22.12.10: Mean Trajectory in a Turbulent Flow

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3.00e-02

2.80e-02

2.60e-02

2.40e-02

2.20e-02

2.00e-02

1.80e-02

1.60e-02

1.40e-02

1.20e-02

1.00e-02

8.00e-03

6.00e-03

4.00e-03

2.00e-03

0.00e+00

Particle Traces Colored by Particle Time (s)

Figure 22.12.11: Stochastic Trajectories in a Turbulent Flow

Cloud Tracking
For turbulent flows, you can also include the effects of turbulent dispersion on the injec-
tion. When cloud tracking is used, the trajectory will be tracked as a cloud of particles
about a mean trajectory, as described in Section 22.2.2: Particle Cloud Tracking.

1. Click the Turbulent Dispersion tab in the Set Injection Properties panel.

2. Enable cloud tracking by turning on the Cloud Model under Cloud Tracking.

3. Specify the minimum and maximum cloud diameters. Particles enter the domain
with an initial cloud diameter equal to the Min. Cloud Diameter. The particle
cloud’s maximum allowed diameter is specified by the Max. Cloud Diameter.
You may want to restrict the Max. Cloud Diameter to a relevant length scale for the
problem to improve computational efficiency in complex domains where the mean
trajectory may become stuck in recirculation regions.

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22.12.6 Custom Particle Laws

If the standard FLUENT laws, Laws 1 through 7, do not adequately describe the physics
of your discrete phase model, you can modify them by creating custom laws with user-
defined functions. See the separate UDF Manual for information about user-defined
functions. You can also create custom laws by using a subset of the existing FLUENT
laws (e.g., Laws 1, 2, and 4), or a combination of existing laws and user-defined functions.
Once you have defined and loaded your user-defined function(s), you can create a custom
law by enabling the Custom option under Laws in the Set Injection Properties panel. This
will open the Custom Laws panel. In the drop-down list to the left of each of the six
particle laws, you can select the appropriate particle law for your custom law. Each list
contains the available options that can be chosen (the standard laws plus any user-defined
functions you have loaded).

Figure 22.12.12: The Custom Laws Panel

There is a seventh drop-down list in the Custom Laws panel labeled Switching. You may
wish to have FLUENT vary the laws used depending on conditions in the model. You can
customize the way FLUENT switches between laws by selecting a user-defined function
from this drop-down list.
An example of when you might want to use a custom law might be to replace the stan-
dard devolatilization law with a specialized devolatilization law that more accurately
describes some unique aspects of your model. After creating and loading a user-defined
function that details the physics of your devolatilization law, you would visit the Custom
Laws panel and replace the standard devolatilization law (Law 2) with your user-defined
function.

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22.12.7 Defining Properties Common to More than One Injection

If you have a number of injections for which you want to set the same properties, FLUENT
provides a shortcut so that you do not need to visit the Set Injection Properties panel for
each injection to make the same changes.
As described in Section 22.12.4: Defining Injection Properties, if you select more than
one injection in the Injections panel, clicking the Set... button will open the Set Multiple
Injection Properties panel (Figure 22.12.13) instead of the Set Injection Properties panel.

Figure 22.12.13: The Set Multiple Injection Properties Panel

Depending on the type of injections you have selected (single, group, atomizers, etc.),
there will be different categories of properties listed under Injections Setup. The names
of these categories correspond to the headings within the Set Injection Properties panel
(e.g., Particle Type and Stochastic Tracking). Only those categories that are appropriate
for all of your selected injections (which are shown in the Injections list) will be listed. If
all of these injections are of the same type, more categories of properties will be available
for you to modify. If the injections are of different types, you will have fewer categories
to select from.

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Modifying Properties
To modify a property, perform the following steps:

1. Select the appropriate category in the Injections Setup list. For example, if you want
to set the same flow rate for all of the selected injections, select Point Properties.
The panel will expand to show the properties that appear under that heading in
the Set Injection Properties panel.

2. Set the property (or properties) to be modified, as described below.

3. Click Apply. FLUENT will report the change in the console window.

i You must click Apply to save the property settings within each category. If,
for example, you want to modify the flow rate and the stochastic tracking
parameters, you will need to select Point Properties in the Injections Setup
list, specify the flow rate, and click Apply. You would then repeat the
process for the stochastic tracking parameters, clicking Apply again when
you are done.

There are two types of properties that can be modified using the Set Multiple Injection
Properties panel.
The first type involves one of the following actions:

• selecting a value from a drop-down list

• choosing an option using a radio button

The second type involves one of the following actions:

• entering a value in a field

• turning an option on or off

Setting the first type of property works the same way as in the Set Injection Properties
panel. For example, if you select Particle Type in the Injections Setup list, the panel will
expand to show the portion of the Set Injection Properties panel where you choose the
particle type. You can simply choose the desired type and click Apply.
Setting the second type of property requires an additional step. If you select a category
in the Injections Setup list that contains this type of property, the expanded portion of the
panel will look like the corresponding part of the Set Injection Properties panel, with the
addition of Modify check buttons (see Figure 22.12.13). To change one of the properties,

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first turn on the Modify check button to its left, and then specify the desired status or
value.
For example, if you would like to enable stochastic tracking, first turn on the Modify
check button to the left of Stochastic Model. This will make the property active so you
can modify its status. Then, under Property, turn on the Stochastic Model check button.
(Be sure to click Apply when you are done setting stochastic tracking parameters.)
If you would like to change the value of Number of Tries, select the Modify check button
to its left to make it active, and then enter the new value in the field. Make sure you
click Apply when you have finished modifying the stochastic tracking properties.

i The setting for a property that has not been activated with the Modify
check button is not relevant, because it will not be applied to the selected
injections when you click Apply. After you turn on Modify for a particular
property, clicking Apply will modify that property for all of the selected
injections, so make sure that you have the settings the way that you want
them before you do this. If you make a mistake, you will have to return
to the Set Injection Properties panel for each injection to fix the incorrect
setting, if it is not possible to do so in the Set Multiple Injection Properties
panel.

Modifying Properties Common to a Subset of Selected Injections

Note that it is possible to change a property that is relevant for only a subset of the
selected injections. For example, if some of the selected injections are using stochastic
tracking and some are not, enabling the Random Eddy Lifetime option and clicking Apply
will turn this option on only for those injections that are using stochastic tracking. The
other injections will be unaffected.

22.13 Setting Boundary Conditions for the Discrete Phase

When a particle reaches a physical boundary (e.g., a wall or inlet boundary) in your
model, FLUENT applies a discrete phase boundary condition to determine the fate of the
trajectory at that boundary. The boundary condition, or trajectory fate, can be defined
separately for each zone in your FLUENT model.

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22.13.1 Discrete Phase Boundary Condition Types

The available boundary conditions, as noted in Section 22.10: Discrete Phase Model
(DPM) Boundary Conditions, include the following:

• “reflect”
The particle rebounds the off the boundary in question with a change in its mo-
mentum as defined by the coefficient of restitution. (See Figure 22.13.1.)
coefficient V2,n
of =
restitution V
1,n

θ1
θ
2

Figure 22.13.1: “Reflect” Boundary Condition for the Discrete Phase

The normal coefficient of restitution defines the amount of momentum in the di-
rection normal to the wall that is retained by the particle after the collision with
the boundary [366]:

v2,n
en = (22.13-1)
v1,n

where vn is the particle velocity normal to the wall and the subscripts 1 and 2 refer
to before and after collision, respectively. Similarly, the tangential coefficient of
restitution, et , defines the amount of momentum in the direction tangential to the
wall that is retained by the particle.
A normal or tangential coefficient of restitution equal to 1.0 implies that the particle
retains all of its normal or tangential momentum after the rebound (an elastic
collision). A normal or tangential coefficient of restitution equal to 0.0 implies that
the particle retains none of its normal or tangential momentum after the rebound.
Nonconstant coefficients of restitution can be specified for wall zones with the
“reflect” type boundary condition. The coefficients are set as a function of the
impact angle, θ1 , in Figure 22.13.1.
Note that the default setting for both coefficients of restitution is a constant value
of 1.0 (all normal and tangential momentum retained).

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Modeling Discrete Phase

• “trap”
The trajectory calculations are terminated and the fate of the particle is recorded as
“trapped”. In the case of evaporating droplets, their entire mass instantaneously
passes into the vapor phase and enters the cell adjacent to the boundary. See
Figure 22.13.2. In the case of combusting particles, the remaining volatile mass is
passed into the vapor phase.

volatile fraction
flashes to vapor

θ1

Figure 22.13.2: “Trap” Boundary Condition for the Discrete Phase

• “escape”
The particle is reported as having “escaped” when it encounters the boundary in
question. Trajectory calculations are terminated. See Figure 22.13.3.

particle vanishes

Figure 22.13.3: “Escape” Boundary Condition for the Discrete Phase

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 22.13 Setting Boundary Conditions for the Discrete Phase

• “wall-jet”
The direction and velocity of the droplet particles are given by the resulting mo-
mentum flux, which is a function of the impingement angle, φ, and Weber number.
See Figure 22.13.4.
z
y
H(Ψ)
φ
Ψ

x
side view top view

Figure 22.13.4: “Wall Jet” Boundary Condition for the Discrete Phase

The “wall-jet” type boundary condition assumes an analogy with an inviscid jet
impacting a solid wall. Equation 22.13-2 shows the analytical solution for an ax-
isymmetric impingement assuming an empirical function for the sheet height (H)
as a function of the angle that the drop leaves the impingement (Ψ).

Ψ
H(Ψ) = Hπ eβ(1− π ) (22.13-2)
where Hπ is the sheet height at Ψ = π and β is a constant determined from conser-
vation of mass and momentum. The probability that a drop leaves the impingement
point at an angle between Ψ and Ψ + δΨ is given by integrating the expression for
H(Ψ)

π
Ψ = − ln[1 − P (1 − e−β )] (22.13-3)
β
where P is a random number between 0 and 1. The expression for β is given in
Naber and Reitz [258] as

eβ + 1
sin(φ) = (22.13-4)
(eβ − 1)(1 + ( βπ )2 )
The “wall-jet” type boundary condition is appropriate for high-temperature walls
where no significant liquid film is formed, and in high-Weber-number impacts where
the spray acts as a jet. The model is not appropriate for regimes where film is
important (e.g., port fuel injection in SI engines, rainwater runoff, etc.).

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Modeling Discrete Phase

• “wall-film”
This boundary condition consists of four regimes: stick, rebound, spread, and
splash, which are based on the impact energy and wall temperature. Detailed
information on the wall-film model can be found in Section 22.4: Wall-Film Model
Theory.

• “interior”
This boundary condition means that the particles will pass through the internal
boundary. This option is available only for internal boundary zones, such as a
radiator or a porous jump.

It is also possible to use a user-defined function to compute the behavior of the particles
at a physical boundary. See the separate UDF Manual for information about user-defined
functions.
Because you can stipulate any of these conditions at flow boundaries, it is possible to
incorporate mixed discrete phase boundary conditions in your FLUENT model.
Discrete phase boundary conditions can be set for boundaries in the panels opened from
the Boundary Conditions panel. When one or more injections have been defined, inputs
for the discrete phase will appear in the panels (e.g., Figure 22.13.5).
Select reflect, trap, escape, wall-jet, or user-defined in the Boundary Cond. Type drop-down
list under Discrete Phase Model Conditions. (In the Walls panel, you will need to click on
the DPM tab to access the Discrete Phase Model Conditions.) If you select user-defined,
you can select a user-defined function in the Boundary Cond. Function drop-down list.
For internal boundary zones, such as a radiator or a porous jump, you can also choose
an interior boundary condition. The interior condition means that the particles will pass
through the internal boundary.
If you select the reflect type at a wall (only), you can define a constant, polynomial,
piecewise-linear, or piecewise-polynomial function for the Normal and Tangent coefficients
of restitution under Discrete Phase Reflection Coefficients. See Section 22.13.1: Discrete
Phase Boundary Condition Types for details about the boundary condition types and
the coefficients of restitution. The panels for defining the polynomial, piecewise-linear,
and piecewise-polynomial functions are the same as those used for defining temperature-
dependent properties. See Section 8.2: Defining Properties Using Temperature-Dependent
Functions for details.

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 22.13 Setting Boundary Conditions for the Discrete Phase

Figure 22.13.5: Discrete Phase Boundary Conditions in the Wall Panel

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Default Discrete Phase Boundary Conditions

FLUENT makes the following assumptions regarding boundary conditions:

• The reflect type is assumed at wall, symmetry, and axis boundaries, with both
coefficients of restitution equal to 1.0

• The escape type is assumed at all flow boundaries (pressure and velocity inlets,
pressure outlets, etc.)

• The interior type is assumed at all internal boundaries (radiator, porous jump, etc.)

The coefficient of restitution can be modified only for wall boundaries.

22.13.2 Setting Particle Erosion and Accretion Parameters

If the Erosion/Accretion option is selected in the Discrete Phase Model panel, the erosion
rate expression must be specified at the walls. The erosion rate is defined in Equa-
tion 22.5-1 as a product of the mass flux and specified functions for the particle diam-
eter, impact angle, and velocity exponent. Under Erosion Model in the Wall panel, you
can define a constant, polynomial, piecewise-linear, or piecewise-polynomial function for the
Impact Angle Function, Diameter Function, and Velocity Exponent Function (f (α), C(dp ),
and b(v) in Equation 22.5-1). See Sections 22.5 and 22.11.5 for a detailed description
of these functions and Section 8.2: Defining Properties Using Temperature-Dependent
Functions for details about using the panels for defining polynomial, piecewise-linear,
and piecewise-polynomial functions.

22.14 Setting Material Properties for the Discrete Phase

In order to apply the physical models described in earlier sections to the prediction of
the discrete phase trajectories and heat/mass transfer, FLUENT requires many physical
property inputs.

22.14.1 Summary of Property Inputs

Tables 22.14.1–22.14.5 summarize which of these property inputs are used for each par-
ticle type and in which of the equations for heat and mass transfer each property input
is used. Detailed descriptions of each input are provided in Section 22.14.2: Setting
Discrete-Phase Physical Properties.

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 22.14 Setting Material Properties for the Discrete Phase

Table 22.14.1: Property Inputs for Inert Particles

Property Symbol
density ρp in Eq. 22.2-1
specific heat cp in Eq. 22.9-11
particle emissivity p in Eq. 22.9-11
particle scattering factor f in Eq. 13.3-13
thermophoretic coefficient DT,p in Eq. 22.2-14

Table 22.14.2: Property Inputs for Droplet Particles

Properties Symbol
density ρp in Eq. 22.2-1
specific heat cp in Eq. 22.9-25
thermal conductivity kp in Eq. 22.2-15
viscosity µ in Eq. 22.7-11
latent heat hfg in Eq. 22.9-25
vaporization temperature Tvap in Eq. 22.9-18
boiling point Tbp in Eq. 22.9-18, 22.9-26
volatile component fraction fv0 in Eq. 22.9-19, 22.9-27
binary diffusivity Di,m in Eq. 22.9-23
saturation vapor pressure psat (T ) in Eq. 22.9-21
heat of pyrolysis hpyrol in Eq. 22.9-2
droplet surface tension σ in Eq. 22.8-19, 22.7-10
particle emissivity p in Eq. 22.9-25, 22.9-31
particle scattering factor f in Eq. 13.3-13
thermophoretic coefficient DT,p in Eq. 22.2-14

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Table 22.14.3: Property Inputs for Combusting Particles (Laws 1–4)

Properties Symbol
density ρp in Eq. 22.2-1
specific heat cp in Eq. 22.9-11
latent heat hfg in Eq. 22.9-2
vaporization temperature Tvap = Tbp in Eq. 22.9-32
volatile component fraction fv0 in Eq. 22.9-33
swelling coefficient Csw in Eq. 22.9-65
burnout stoichiometric ratio Sb in Eq. 22.9-72
combustible fraction fcomb in Eq. 22.9-71
heat of reaction for burnout Hreac in Eq. 22.9-72 22.9-86
fraction of reaction heat given to solid fh in Eq. 22.9-86
particle emissivity p in Eq. 22.9-66, 22.9-86
particle scattering factor f in Eq. 13.3-13
thermophoretic coefficient DT,p in Eq. 22.2-14
devolatilization model
– law 4, constant rate
– – constant A0 in Eq. 22.9-34
– law 4, single rate
– – pre-exponential factor A1 in Eq. 22.9-35
– – activation energy E in Eq. 22.9-35
– law 4, two rates
– – pre-exponential factors A1 , A2 in Eq. 22.9-38, 22.9-39
– – activation energies E1 , E2 in Eq. 22.9-38, 22.9-39
– – weighting factors α1 , α2 in Eq. 22.9-40
– law 4, CPD
– – initial fraction of bridges in coal lattice p0 in Eq. 22.9-51
– – initial fraction of char bridges c0 in Eq. 22.9-50
– – lattice coordination number σ + 1 in Eq. 22.9-62
– – cluster molecular weight Mw,1 in Eq. 22.9-62
– – side chain molecular weight Mw,δ in Eq. 22.9-61

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 22.14 Setting Material Properties for the Discrete Phase

Table 22.14.4: Property Inputs for Combusting Particles (Law 5)

Properties Symbol
combustion model
– law 5, diffusion rate
– – binary diffusivity Di,m in Eq. 22.9-73
– law 5, diffusion/kinetic rate
– – mass diffusion limited rate constant C1 in Eq. 22.9-74
– – kinetics limited rate pre-exp. factor C2 in Eq. 22.9-75
– – kinetics limited rate activ. energy E in Eq. 22.9-75
– law 5, intrinsic rate
– – mass diffusion limited rate constant C1 in Eq. 22.9-74
– – kinetics limited rate pre-exp. factor Ai in Eq. 22.9-84
– – kinetics limited rate activ. energy Ei in Eq. 22.9-84
– – char porosity θ in Eq. 22.9-81
– – mean pore radius rp in Eq. 22.9-83
– – specific internal surface area Ag in Eq. 22.9-78, 22.9-80
– – tortuosity τ in Eq. 22.9-81
– – burning mode α in Eq. 22.9-85
– law 5, multiple surface reaction
– – binary diffusivity Di,m in Eq. 22.9-73

Table 22.14.5: Property Inputs for Multicomponent Particles (Law 7)

Property Symbol
mixture species selected droplets for components
density ρp in Eq. 22.2-1
specific heat cp in Eq. 22.9-89
thermal conductivity kp in Eq. 22.2-15
vapor particle equilibrium Ci,s in Eq. 22.3-4

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22.14.2 Setting Discrete-Phase Physical Properties

The Concept of Discrete-Phase Materials
When you create a particle injection and define the initial conditions for the discrete
phase (as described in Section 22.12: Setting Initial Conditions for the Discrete Phase),
you choose a particular material as the particle’s material. All particle streams of that
material will have the same physical properties.
Discrete-phase materials are divided into four categories, corresponding to the four types
of particles available. These material types are inert-particle, droplet-particle, combusting-
particle, and multicomponent-particle. Each material type will be added to the Material
Type list in the Materials panel when an injection of that type of particle is defined
(in the Set Injection Properties or Set Multiple Injection Properties panel, as described in
Section 22.12: Setting Initial Conditions for the Discrete Phase). The first time you
create an injection of each particle type, you will be able to choose a material from the
database, and this will become the default material for that type of particle. That is,
if you create another injection of the same type of particle, your selected material will
be used for that injection as well. You may choose to modify the predefined properties
for your selected particle material, if you want (as described in Section 8.1.2: Modifying
Properties of an Existing Material). If you need only one set of properties for each type
of particle, you need not define any new materials; you can simply use the same material
for all particles.

i If you do not find the material you want in the database, you can se-
lect a material that is close to the one you wish to use, and then modify
the properties and give the material a new name, as described in Sec-
tion 8.1.2: Creating a New Material.

i Note that a discrete-phase material type will not appear in the Material
Type list in the Materials panel until you have defined an injection of that
type of particles. This means, for example, that you cannot define or mod-
ify any combusting-particle materials until you have defined a combusting
particle injection (as described in Section 22.12: Setting Initial Conditions
for the Discrete Phase).
For a particle-mixture material type, you will need to select the species in your mixture.
To do this, click the Edit... button next to Mixture Species in the Materials panel. The
Species panel will open, where you will include your Selected Species. The selected species
will now be available in the Set Injection Properties panel, under the Components tab.

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 22.14 Setting Material Properties for the Discrete Phase

Defining Additional Discrete-Phase Materials

In many cases, a single set of physical properties (density, heat capacity, etc.) is appro-
priate for each type of discrete phase particle considered in a given model. Sometimes,
however, a single model may contain two different types of inert, droplet, combusting
particles, or multicomponent particles (e.g., heavy particles and gaseous bubbles or two
different types of evaporating liquid droplets). In such cases, it is necessary to assign a
different set of properties to the two (or more) different types of particles. This is easily
accomplished by defining two or more inert, droplet, or combusting particle materials
and using the appropriate one for each particle injection.
You can define additional discrete-phase materials either by copying them from the
database or by creating them from scratch. See Section 8.1.2: Using the Materials Panel
for instructions on using the Materials panel to perform these actions.

i Recall that you must define at least one injection (as described in Sec-
tion 22.12: Setting Initial Conditions for the Discrete Phase) containing
particles of a certain type before you will be able to define additional ma-
terials for that particle type.

Description of the Properties

The properties that appear in the Materials panel vary depending on the particle type (se-
lected in the Set Injection Properties or Set Multiple Injection Properties panel, as described
in Sections 22.12.4 and 22.12.7) and the physical models you are using in conjunction
with the discrete-phase model.
Below, all properties you may need to define for a discrete-phase material are listed. See
Tables 22.14.1–22.14.4 to see which properties are defined for each type of particle.

Density is the density of the particulate phase in units of mass per unit volume of the
discrete phase. This density is the mass density and not the volumetric density.
Since certain particles may swell during the trajectory calculations, your input is
actually an “initial” density.

Cp is the specific heat, cp , of the particle. The specific heat may be defined as a func-
tion of temperature by selecting one of the function types from the drop-down list to
the right of Cp. See Section 8.2: Defining Properties Using Temperature-Dependent
Functions for details about temperature-dependent properties. For multicomponent
particles, it can be calculated as a mass-weighted value of the specific heat of the
droplet component.

Thermal Conductivity is the thermal conductivity of the particle. This input is specified
in units of W/m-K in SI units or Btu/ft-h-◦ F in British units and is treated as a
constant by FLUENT.

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Modeling Discrete Phase

Latent Heat is the latent heat of vaporization, hfg , required for phase change from an
evaporating liquid droplet (Equation 22.9-25) or for the evolution of volatiles from
a combusting particle (Equation 22.9-66). This input is supplied in units of J/kg in
SI units or of Btu/lbm in British units and is treated as a constant by FLUENT. For
the droplet particle, the latent heat value at the boiling point temperature should
be used.

Thermophoretic Coefficient is the coefficient DT,p in Equation 22.2-14, and appears

when the thermophoretic force (which is described in Section 22.2.1: Thermophoretic
Force) is included in the trajectory calculation (i.e., when the Thermophoretic Force
option is enabled in the Discrete Phase Model panel). The default is the expression
developed by Talbot [367] (talbot-diffusion-coeff) and requires no input from you.
You can also define the thermophoretic coefficient as a function of temperature by
selecting one of the function types from the drop-down list to the right of Ther-
mophoretic Coefficient. See Section 8.2: Defining Properties Using Temperature-
Dependent Functions for details about temperature-dependent properties.

Vaporization Temperature is the temperature, Tvap , at which the calculation of va-

porization from a liquid droplet or devolatilization from a combusting particle is
initiated by FLUENT. Until the particle temperature reaches Tvap , the particle is
heated via Law 1, Equation 22.9-11. This temperature input represents a modeling
decision rather than any physical characteristic of the discrete phase.

Boiling Point is the temperature, Tbp , at which the calculation of the boiling rate
equation (22.9-28) is initiated by FLUENT. When a droplet particle reaches the
boiling point, FLUENT applies Law 3 and assumes that the droplet temperature is
constant at Tbp . The boiling point denotes the temperature at which the particle
law transitions from the vaporization law to the boiling law.

Volatile Component Fraction (fv0 ) is the fraction of a droplet particle that may va-
porize via Laws 2 and/or 3 (Section 22.9.2: Droplet Vaporization (Law 2)). For
combusting particles, it is the fraction of volatiles that may be evolved via Law 4
(Section 22.9.2: Devolatilization (Law 4)).

Binary Diffusivity is the mass diffusion coefficient, Di,m , used in the vaporization law,
Law 2 (Equation 22.9-23). This input is also used to define the mass diffusion
of the oxidizing species to the surface of a combusting particle, Di,m , as given in
Equation 22.9-73. (Note that the diffusion coefficient inputs that you supply for
the continuous phase are not used for the discrete phase.)

Saturation Vapor Pressure is the saturated vapor pressure, psat , defined as a function
of temperature, which is used in the vaporization law, Law 2 (Equation 22.9-21).
The saturated vapor pressure may be defined as a function of temperature by
selecting one of the function types from the drop-down list to the right of its name.
(See Section 8.2: Defining Properties Using Temperature-Dependent Functions for

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 22.14 Setting Material Properties for the Discrete Phase

details about temperature-dependent properties.) In the case of unrealistic inputs,

FLUENT restricts the range of Psat to between 0.0 and the operating pressure.
Correct input of a realistic vapor pressure curve is essential for accurate results
from the vaporization model.

Heat of Pyrolysis is the heat of the instantaneous pyrolysis reaction, hpyrol , that the
evaporating/boiling species may undergo when released to the continuous phase.
This input represents the conversion of the evaporating species to lighter compo-
nents during the evaporation process. The heat of pyrolysis should be input as a
positive number for exothermic reaction and as a negative number for endother-
mic reaction. The default value of zero implies that the heat of pyrolysis is not
considered. This input is used in Equation 22.9-2.

Swelling Coefficient is the coefficient Csw in Equation 22.9-65, which governs the swelling
of the coal particle during the devolatilization law, Law 4 (Section 22.9.2: De-
volatilization (Law 4)). A swelling coefficient of unity (the default) implies that
the coal particle stays at constant diameter during the devolatilization process.

Burnout Stoichiometric Ratio is the stoichiometric requirement, Sb , for the burnout

reaction, Equation 22.9-72, in terms of mass of oxidant per mass of char in the
particle.

Combustible Fraction is the mass fraction of char, fcomb , in the coal particle, i.e., the
fraction of the initial combusting particle that will react in the surface reaction,
Law 5 (Equation 22.9-71).

Heat of Reaction for Burnout is the heat released by the surface char combustion re-
action, Law 5 (Equation 22.9-72). This parameter is input in terms of heat release
(e.g., Joules) per unit mass of char consumed in the surface reaction.

React. Heat Fraction Absorbed by Solid is the parameter fh (Equation 22.9-86), which
controls the distribution of the heat of reaction between the particle and the con-
tinuous phase. The default value of zero implies that the entire heat of reaction is
released to the continuous phase.

Devolatilization Model defines which version of the devolatilization model, Law 4, is

being used. If you want to use the default constant rate devolatilization model,
Equation 22.9-34, retain the selection of constant in the drop-down list to the right
of Devolatilization Model and input the rate constant A0 in the field below the list.
You can activate one of the optional devolatilization models (the single kinetic rate,
two kinetic rates, or CPD model, as described in Section 22.9.2: Devolatilization
(Law 4)) by choosing single rate, two-competing-rates, or cpd-model in the drop-down
list.

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When the single kinetic rate model (single-rate) is selected, the Single Rate De-
volatilization Model panel will appear and you will enter the Pre-exponential Factor,
A1 , and the Activation Energy, E, to be used in Equation 22.9-36 for the computa-
tion of the kinetic rate.
When the two competing rates model (two-competing-rates) is selected, the Two
Competing Rates Model panel will appear and you will enter, for the First Rate
and the Second Rate, the Pre-exponential Factor (A1 in Equation 22.9-38 and A2
in Equation 22.9-39), Activation Energy (E1 in Equation 22.9-38 and E2 in Equa-
tion 22.9-39), and Weighting Factor (α1 and α2 in Equation 22.9-40). The constants
you input are used in Equations 22.9-38 through 22.9-40.
When the CPD model (cpd-model) is selected, the CPD Model panel will appear and
you will enter the Initial Fraction of Bridges in Coal Lattice (p0 in Equation 22.9-51),
Initial Fraction of Char Bridges (c0 in Equation 22.9-50), Lattice Coordination Number
(σ + 1 in Equation 22.9-62), Cluster Molecular Weight (Mw,1 in Equation 22.9-62),
and Side Chain Molecular Weight (Mw,δ in Equation 22.9-61).
Note that the Single Rate Devolatilization Model, Two Competing Rates Model, and
CPD Model panels are modal panels, which means that you must tend to them
immediately before continuing the property definitions.

Combustion Model defines which version of the surface char combustion law (Law 5)
is being used. If you want to use the default diffusion-limited rate model, retain
the selection of diffusion-limited in the drop-down list to the right of Combustion
Model. No additional inputs are necessary, because the binary diffusivity defined
above will be used in Equation 22.9-73.
To use the kinetics/diffusion-limited rate model for the surface combustion model,
select kinetics/diffusion-limited in the drop-down list. The Kinetics/Diffusion-Limited
Combustion Model panel will appear and you will enter the Mass Diffusion Limited
Rate Constant (C1 in Equation 22.9-74), Kinetics Limited Rate Pre-exponential Fac-
tor (C2 in Equation 22.9-75), and Kinetics Limited Rate Activation Energy (E in
Equation 22.9-75).
Note that the Kinetics/Diffusion-Limited Combustion Model panel is a modal panel,
which means that you must tend to it immediately before continuing the property
definitions.
To use the intrinsic model for the surface combustion model, select intrinsic-model in
the drop-down list. The Intrinsic Combustion Model panel will appear and you will
enter the Mass Diffusion Limited Rate Constant (C1 in Equation 22.9-74), Kinetics
Limited Rate Pre-exponential Factor (Ai in Equation 22.9-84), Kinetics Limited Rate
Activation Energy (Ei in Equation 22.9-84), Char Porosity (θ in Equation 22.9-81),
Mean Pore Radius (rp in Equation 22.9-83), Specific Internal Surface Area (Ag in
Equations 22.9-78 and 22.9-80), Tortuosity (τ in Equation 22.9-81), and Burning
Mode, alpha (α in Equation 22.9-85).

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 22.14 Setting Material Properties for the Discrete Phase

Note that the Intrinsic Combustion Model panel is a model panel, which means that
you must tend to it immediately before continuing the property definitions.
To use the multiple surface reactions model, select multiple-surface-reactions in the
drop-down list. FLUENT will display a dialog box informing you that you will need
to open the Reactions panel, where you can review or modify the particle surface
reactions that you specified as described in Section 14.1.2: Overview of User Inputs
for Modeling Species Transport and Reactions.

i If you have not yet defined any particle surface reactions, you must be sure
to define them now. See Section 14.3.3: Using the Multiple Surface Reac-
tions Model for Discrete-Phase Particle Combustion for more information
about using the multiple surface reactions model.
You will notice that the Burnout Stoichiometric Ratio and Heat of Reaction for
Burnout are no longer available in the Materials panel, as these parameters are now
computed from the particle surface reactions you defined in the Reactions panel.
Note that the multiple surface reactions model is available only if the Particle Surface
option for Reactions is enabled in the Species Model panel. See Section 14.3.2: User
Inputs for Particle Surface Reactions for details.

When the effect of particles on radiation is enabled (for the P-1 or discrete ordinates
radiation model only) in the Discrete Phase Model panel, you will need to define the
following additional parameters:

Particle Emissivity is the emissivity of particles in your model, p , used to compute

radiation heat transfer to the particles (Equations 22.9-11, 22.9-25, 22.9-31, 22.9-66,
and 22.9-86) when the P-1 or discrete ordinates radiation model is active. Note that
you must enable radiation to particles, using the Particle Radiation Interaction option
in the Discrete Phase Model panel. Recommended values of particle emissivity are
1.0 for coal particles and 0.5 for ash [220].

Particle Scattering Factor is the scattering factor, fp , due to particles in the P-1 or
discrete ordinates radiation model (Equation 13.3-13). Note that you must enable
particle effects in the radiation model, using the Particle Radiation Interaction option
in the Discrete Phase Model panel. The recommended value of fp for coal combustion
modeling is 0.9 [220]. Note that if the effect of particles on radiation is enabled,
scattering in the continuous phase will be ignored in the radiation model.

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When an atomizer injection model and/or the droplet breakup or collision model is
enabled in the Set Injection Properties panel (atomizers) and/or Discrete Phase Model panel
(droplet breakup/collision), you will need to define the following additional parameters:

Viscosity is the droplet viscosity, µl . The viscosity may be defined as a function of tem-
perature by selecting one of the function types from the drop-down list to the right
of Viscosity. See Section 8.2: Defining Properties Using Temperature-Dependent
Functions for details about temperature-dependent properties. You also have the
option of implementing a user-defined function to model the droplet viscosity. See
the separate UDF Manual for information about user-defined functions.

Droplet Surface Tension is the droplet surface tension, σ. The surface tension may be
defined as a function of temperature by selecting one of the function types from
the drop-down list to the right of Droplet Surface Tension. See Section 8.2: Defining
Properties Using Temperature-Dependent Functions for details about temperature-
dependent properties. You also have the option of implementing a user-defined
function to model the droplet surface tension. See the separate UDF Manual for
information about user-defined functions.

Vapor-Particle-Equilibrium is the selected approach for the calculation of the vapor

concentration of the components at the surface. This can be Raoult’s law (Equa-
tion 22.3-4), or a user-defined function that provides this value.

22.15 Solution Strategies for the Discrete Phase

Solution of the discrete phase implies integration in time of the force balance on the
particle (Equation 22.2-1) to yield the particle trajectory. As the particle is moved
along its trajectory, heat and mass transfer between the particle and the continuous
phase are also computed via the heat/mass transfer laws (Section 22.9: One-Way and
Two-Way Coupling). The accuracy of the discrete phase calculation thus depends on
the time accuracy of the integration and upon the appropriate coupling between the
discrete and continuous phases when required. Numerical controls are described in Sec-
tion 22.11.7: Numerics of the Discrete Phase Model. Coupling and performing trajectory
calculations are described in Section 22.15.2: Performing Trajectory Calculations. Sec-
tions 22.15.3 and 22.11.9 provide information about resetting interphase exchange terms
and using the parallel solver for a discrete phase calculation.

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22.15.1 Integration of Particle Equation of Motion

The trajectory equations, and any auxiliary equations describing heat or mass transfer
to/from the particle, are solved by stepwise integration over discrete time steps. Integra-
tion of time in Equation 22.2-1 yields the velocity of the particle at each point along the
trajectory, with the trajectory itself predicted by

dx
= up (22.15-1)
dt
Equations 22.2-1 and 22.15-1 are a set of coupled ordinary differential equations. Equa-
tion 22.2-1 can be cast into the following general form

dup 1
= (u − up ) + a (22.15-2)
dt τp

where the term a includes accelerations due to all other forces except drag force.
This set can be solved for constant u, a and τp by analytical integration. For the particle
velocity at the new location un+1
p we get
 
− ∆t − ∆t
 
un+1
p
n
=u +e τ
p unp −u n
− aτp e τ
p −1 (22.15-3)

The new location xn+1

p can be computed from a similar relationship.
 
− ∆t

xn+1
p = xnp + ∆t(un + aτp ) + τp 1 − e τ p unp − un − aτp (22.15-4)

In these equations unp and un represent particle velocities and fluid velocities at the old
location. Equations 22.15-3 and 22.15-4 are applied when using the analytic discretization
scheme.
The set of Equations 22.2-1 and 22.15-1 can also be solved using numerical discretization
schemes. When applying the Euler implicit discretization to Equation 22.15-2 we get

un
unp + ∆t(a + τp
)
un+1
p = ∆t (22.15-5)
1+ τp

When applying a trapezoidal discretization to Equation 22.15-2 the variables up and un

on the right hand side are taken as averages, while accelerations, a, due to other forces
are held constant. We get

un+1
p − unp 1
= (u∗ − u∗p ) + an (22.15-6)
∆t τp

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The averages u∗p and u∗ are computed from

1 n
u∗p = (u + un+1 ) (22.15-7)
2 p p

1 n
u∗ = (u + un+1 ) (22.15-8)
2
un+1 = un + ∆tunp · ∇un (22.15-9)

The particle velocity at the new location n + 1 is computed by

 
1 ∆t ∆t
unp (1 − 2 τp
) + τp
un + 12 ∆tunp · ∇un + ∆ta
un+1
p = 1 ∆t (22.15-10)
1+ 2 τp

For the implicit and the trapezoidal schemes the new particle location is always computed
by a trapezoidal discretization of Equation 22.15-1.

1  n 
xn+1
p = x n
p + ∆t u p + u n+1
p (22.15-11)
2
Equations 22.15-2 and 22.15-1 can also be computed using a Runge-Kutta scheme which
was published by Cash and Karp [50]. The ordinary differential equations can be con-
sidered as vectors, where the left hand side is the derivative ~y 0 and the right hand side is
an arbitrary function f~(t, ~y ).

~y 0 = f~(t, ~y ) (22.15-12)

We get

~y n+1 = ~y n + c1~k1 + c2~k2 + c3~k3 + c4~k4 + c5~k5 + c6~k6 (22.15-13)

with

~k1 = ∆tf~(t, ~y n )
~k2 = ∆tf~(t + a2 ∆t, ~y n + b21~k1 )
~k3 = ∆tf~(t + a3 ∆t, ~y n + b31~k1 + b32~k2 )
~k4 = ∆tf~(t + a4 ∆t, ~y n + b41~k1 + b42~k2 + b43~k3 )
~k5 = ∆tf~(t + a5 ∆t, ~y n + b51~k1 + b52~k2 + b53~k3 + b54~k4 )
~k6 = ∆tf~(t + a6 ∆t, ~y n + b61~k1 + b62~k2 + b63~k3 + b64~k4 + b65~k5 )

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 22.15 Solution Strategies for the Discrete Phase

The coefficients a2 . . . a6 , b21 . . . b65 , and c1 . . . c6 are taken from Cash and Karp [50]
This scheme provides an embedded error control, which is switched off, when no Accuracy
Control is enabled.
For rotating reference frames, the integration is carried out in the rotating frame with
the extra terms described in Equations 22.2-12 and 22.2-13, thus accounting for system
rotation. Using the mechanisms available for accuracy control, the trajectory integration
will be done accurately in time.
The analytic scheme is very efficient. It can become inaccurate for large steps and in situ-
ations where the particles are not in hydrodynamic equilibrium with the continuous flow.
The numerical schemes implicit and trapezoidal, in combination with Automated Tracking
Scheme Selection, consider most of the changes in the forces acting on the particles and
are chosen as default schemes. The runge-kutta scheme is recommended of nondrag force
changes along a particle integration step.
The integration step size of the higher-order schemes, trapezoidal and runge-kutta, is
limited to a stable range. Therefore it is recommended to use them in combination with
Automated Tracking Scheme Selection.

22.15.2 Performing Trajectory Calculations

The trajectories of your discrete phase injections are computed when you display the
trajectories using graphics or when you perform solution iterations. That is, you can dis-
play trajectories without impacting the continuous phase, or you can include their effect
on the continuum (termed a coupled calculation). In turbulent flows, trajectories can
be based on mean (time-averaged) continuous phase velocities or they can be impacted
by instantaneous velocity fluctuations in the fluid. This section describes the procedures
and commands you use to perform coupled or uncoupled trajectory calculations, with or
without stochastic tracking or cloud tracking.

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Modeling Discrete Phase

Uncoupled Calculations
For the uncoupled calculation, you will perform the following two steps:

1. Solve the continuous phase flow field.

2. Plot (and report) the particle trajectories for discrete phase injections of interest.

In the uncoupled approach, this two-step procedure completes the modeling effort, as
illustrated in Figure 22.15.1. The particle trajectories are computed as they are displayed,
based on a fixed continuous-phase flow field. Graphical and reporting options are detailed
in Section 22.16: Postprocessing for the Discrete Phase.

continuous phase flow field calculation

particle trajectory calculation

Figure 22.15.1: Uncoupled Discrete Phase Calculations

This procedure is adequate when the discrete phase is present at a low mass and mo-
mentum loading, in which case the continuous phase is not impacted by the presence of
the discrete phase.

Coupled Calculations
In a coupled two-phase simulation, FLUENT modifies the two-step procedure above as
follows:

1. Solve the continuous phase flow field (prior to introduction of the discrete phase).

2. Introduce the discrete phase by calculating the particle trajectories for each discrete
phase injection.

3. Recalculate the continuous phase flow, using the interphase exchange of momentum,
heat, and mass determined during the previous particle calculation.

4. Recalculate the discrete phase trajectories in the modified continuous phase flow
field.

5. Repeat the previous two steps until a converged solution is achieved in which both
the continuous phase flow field and the discrete phase particle trajectories are un-
changed with each additional calculation.

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 22.15 Solution Strategies for the Discrete Phase

This coupled calculation procedure is illustrated in Figure 22.15.2. When your FLUENT
model includes a high mass and/or momentum loading in the discrete phase, the coupled
procedure must be followed in order to include the important impact of the discrete phase
on the continuous phase flow field.
continuous phase flow field calculation

particle trajectory calculation

update continuous phase source terms

Figure 22.15.2: Coupled Discrete Phase Calculations

i When you perform coupled calculations, all defined discrete phase injec-
tions will be computed. You cannot calculate a subset of the injections
you have defined.

Procedures for a Coupled Two-Phase Flow

If your FLUENT model includes prediction of a coupled two-phase flow, you should begin
with a partially (or fully) converged continuous-phase flow field. You will then create
your injection(s) and set up the coupled calculation.
For each discrete-phase iteration, FLUENT computes the particle/droplet trajectories and
updates the interphase exchange of momentum, heat, and mass in each control volume.
These interphase exchange terms then impact the continuous phase when the continuous
phase iteration is performed. During the coupled calculation, FLUENT will perform the
discrete phase iteration at specified intervals during the continuous-phase calculation.
The coupled calculation continues until the continuous phase flow field no longer changes
with further calculations (i.e., all convergence criteria are satisfied). When convergence
is reached, the discrete phase trajectories no longer change either, since changes in the
discrete phase trajectories would result in changes in the continuous phase flow field.

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Modeling Discrete Phase

The steps for setting up the coupled calculation are as follows:

1. Solve the continuous phase flow field.

2. In the Discrete Phase Model panel (Figure 22.11.2), enable the Interaction with
Continuous Phase option.

3. Set the frequency with which the particle trajectory calculations are introduced in
the Number Of Continuous Phase Iterations Per DPM Iteration field. If you set this
parameter to 5, for example, a discrete phase iteration will be performed every fifth
continuous phase iteration. The optimum number of iterations between trajectory
calculations depends upon the physics of your FLUENT model.

i Note that if you set this parameter to 0, FLUENT will not perform any
discrete phase iterations.

During the coupled calculation (which you initiate using the Iterate panel in the usual
manner) you will see the following information in the FLUENT console as the continuous
and discrete phase iterations are performed:

iter continuity x-velocity y-velocity k epsilon energy time/it

314 2.5249e-01 2.8657e-01 1.0533e+00 7.6227e-02 2.9771e-02 9.8181e-03 :00:05
315 2.7955e-01 2.5867e-01 9.2736e-01 6.4516e-02 2.6545e-02 4.2314e-03 :00:03

DPM Iteration ....

number tracked= 9, number escaped= 1, aborted= 0, trapped= 0, evaporated = 8,i
Done.
316 1.9206e-01 1.1860e-01 6.9573e-01 5.2692e-02 2.3997e-02 2.4532e-03 :00:02
317 2.0729e-01 3.2982e-02 8.3036e-01 4.1649e-02 2.2111e-02 2.5369e-01 :00:01
318 3.2820e-01 5.5508e-02 6.0900e-01 5.9018e-02 2.6619e-02 4.0394e-02 :00:00

Note that you can perform a discrete phase calculation at any time by using the
solve/dpm-update text command.

Stochastic Tracking in Coupled Calculations

If you include the stochastic prediction of turbulent dispersion in the coupled two-phase
flow calculations, the number of stochastic tries applied each time the discrete phase
trajectories are introduced during coupled calculations will be equal to the Number of
Tries specified in the Set Injection Properties panel. Input of this parameter is described
in Section 22.12.5: Stochastic Tracking.
Note that the number of tries should be set to 0 if you want to perform the coupled
calculation based on the mean continuous phase flow field. An input of n ≥ 1 requests n

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 22.16 Postprocessing for the Discrete Phase

stochastic trajectory calculations for each particle in the injection. Note that when the
number of stochastic tracks included is small, you may find that the ensemble average
of the trajectories is quite different each time the trajectories are computed. These
differences may, in turn, impact the convergence of your coupled solution. For this
reason, you should include an adequate number of stochastic tracks in order to avoid
convergence troubles in coupled calculations.

Under-Relaxation of the Interphase Exchange Terms

When you are coupling the discrete and continuous phases for steady-state calculations,
using the calculation procedures noted above, FLUENT applies under-relaxation to the
momentum, heat, and mass transfer terms. This under-relaxation serves to increase the
stability of the coupled calculation procedure by letting the impact of the discrete phase
change only gradually:

Enew = Eold + α(Ecalculated − Eold ) (22.15-14)

where Enew is the exchange term, Eold is the previous value, Ecalculated is the newly
computed value, and α is the particle/droplet under-relaxation factor. FLUENT uses a
default value of 0.5 for α. You can modify α by changing the value in the Discrete Phase
Sources field under Under-Relaxation Factors in the Solution Controls panel. You may need
to decrease α in order to improve the stability of coupled discrete phase calculations.

22.15.3 Resetting the Interphase Exchange Terms

If you have performed coupled calculations, resulting in nonzero interphase sources/sinks
of momentum, heat, and/or mass that you do not want to include in subsequent calcu-
lations, you can reset these sources to zero.
Solve −→ Initialize −→Reset DPM Sources
When you select the Reset DPM Sources menu item, the sources will immediately be reset
to zero without any further confirmation from you.

22.16 Postprocessing for the Discrete Phase

After you have completed your discrete phase inputs and any coupled two-phase calcula-
tions of interest, you can display and store the particle trajectory predictions. FLUENT
provides both graphical and alphanumeric reporting facilities for the discrete phase, in-
cluding the following:

• graphical display of the particle trajectories

• summary reports of trajectory fates

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Modeling Discrete Phase

• step-by-step reports of the particle position, velocity, temperature, and diameter

• alphanumeric reports and graphical display of the interphase exchange of momen-
tum, heat, and mass
• sampling of trajectories at boundaries and lines/planes
• summary reporting of current particles in the domain
• histograms of trajectory data at sample planes
• display of erosion/accretion rates

This section provides detailed descriptions of each of these postprocessing options.

(Note that plotting or reporting trajectories does not change the source terms.)

22.16.1 Displaying of Trajectories

When you have defined discrete phase particle injections, as described in Section 22.12: Set-
ting Initial Conditions for the Discrete Phase, you can display the trajectories of these
discrete particles using the Particle Tracks panel (Figure 22.16.1).
Display −→Particle Tracks...
The procedure for drawing trajectories for particle injections is as follows:

1. Select the particle injection(s) you wish to track in the Release From Injections list.
(You can choose to track a specific particle, instead, as described below.)
2. Set the length scale and the maximum number of steps in the Discrete Phase Model
panel, as described in Section 22.11.7: Numerics of the Discrete Phase Model.
Define −→ Models −→Discrete Phase...
If stochastic and/or cloud tracking is desired, set the related parameters in the Set
Injection Properties panel, as described in Section 22.12.5: Stochastic Tracking.
3. Set any of the display options described below.
4. Click on the Display button to draw the trajectories or click on the Pulse button
to animate the particle positions. The Pulse button will become the Stop ! button
during the animation, and you must click on Stop ! to stop the pulsing.

i For unsteady particle tracking simulations, clicking on Display will show

only the current location of the particles. Typically, you should select
point in the Style drop-down list when displaying transient particle locations
since individual positions will be displayed. The Pulse button option is not
available for unsteady tracking.

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 22.16 Postprocessing for the Discrete Phase

Figure 22.16.1: The Particle Tracks Panel

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Modeling Discrete Phase

Specifying Individual Particles for Display

It is also possible to display the trajectory for an individual particle stream instead of
for all the streams in a given injection. To do so, you will first need to determine which
particle is of interest. Use the Injections panel to list the particle streams in the desired
injection, as described in Section 22.12.3: Creating, Modifying, Copying, Deleting, and
Listing Injections.
Define −→Injections...
Note the ID numbers listed in the first column of the listing printed in the FLUENT
console. Then perform the following steps after step 1 above:

1. Enable the Track Single Particle Stream option in the Particle Tracks panel.

2. In the Stream ID field, specify the ID number of the particle stream for which you
want to plot the trajectory.

Options for Particle Trajectory Plots

The options mentioned above include the following: you can include the grid in the
trajectory display, control the style of the trajectories (including the twisting of ribbon-
style trajectories), color them by different scalar fields and control the color scale, and
coarsen trajectory plots. You can also choose node or cell values for display. If you are
“pulsing” the trajectories, you can control the pulse mode. Finally, you can generate an
XY plot of the particle trajectory data (e.g., residence time) as a function of time or path
length and save this XY plot data to a file.
Plotting particle trajectories can be very time consuming, therefore, to reduce the plotting
time, a coarsening factor can be used to reduce the number of points that are plotted.
Providing a coarsening factor of n, will result in each nth point being plotted for a given
trajectory in any cell. This coarsening factor is specified in the Particle Tracks panel, in
the Coarsen field and is only valid for steady state cases. For example, if the coarsening
factor is set to 2, then FLUENT will plot alternate points.

i Note that if any particle or pathline enters a new cell, this point will always
be plotted.
To reduce plotting time in transient cases, FLUENT has available an option to skip
plotting every nth particle in an injection. Selecting this option is also done in the
Particle Tracks panel menu by specifying a nonzero integer in the Skip field. For example,
if an individual stream is selected and the skip option is set to 1, every other particle will
be plotted. If the entire injection is selected with a skip option of 1, every other particle
will be plotted for all streams in the injection.

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These options are controlled in exactly the same way that pathline-plotting options are
controlled. See Section 28.1.4: Options for Pathline Plots for details about setting the
trajectory plotting options mentioned above.
Note that in addition to coloring the trajectories by continuous phase variables, you
can also color them according to the following discrete phase variables: particle time,
particle velocity, particle diameter, particle density, particle mass, particle temperature,
particle law number, particle time step, and particle Reynolds number. These variables
are included in the Particle Variables... category of the Color By list. To display the
minimum and maximum values in the domain, click the Update Min/Max button.

Graphical Display for Axisymmetric Geometries

For axisymmetric problems in which the particle has a nonzero circumferential velocity
component, the trajectory of an individual particle is often a spiral about the centerline
of rotation. FLUENT displays the r and x components of the trajectory (but not the θ
component) projected in the axisymmetric plane.

22.16.2 Reporting of Trajectory Fates

When you perform trajectory calculations by displaying the trajectories (as described
in Section 22.16.1: Displaying of Trajectories), FLUENT will provide information about
the trajectories as they are completed. By default, the number of trajectories with each
possible fate (escaped, aborted, evaporated, etc.) is reported:

DPM Iteration ....

num. tracked = 7, escaped = 4, aborted = 0, trapped = 0, evaporated = 3, inco
Done.

You can also track particles through the domain without displaying the trajectories by
clicking on the Track button at the bottom of the panel. This allows the listing of reports
without also displaying the tracks.

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Trajectory Fates
The possible fates for a particle trajectory are as follows:

• “Escaped” trajectories are those that terminate at a flow boundary for which the
“escape” condition is set.
• “Incomplete” trajectories are those that were terminated when the maximum al-
lowed number of time steps—as defined by the Max. Number Of Steps input in the
Discrete Phase Model panel (see Section 22.11.7: Numerics of the Discrete Phase
Model)—was exceeded.
• “Trapped” trajectories are those that terminate at a flow boundary where the
“trap” condition has been set.
• “Evaporated” trajectories include those trajectories along which the particles were
evaporated within the domain.
• “Aborted” trajectories are those that fail to complete due to roundoff reasons. You
may want to retry the calculation with a modified length scale and/or different
initial conditions.
• “Shed” trajectories are newly generated particles during the breakup of a larger
droplet. They appear only if a breakup model is enabled.
• “Coalesced” trajectories are removed particles which have coalesced after particle-
particle collisions. They appear only if the coalescence model is enabled.
• “Splashed” trajectories are particles which are newly generated when a particle
touches a wall-film. Those trajectories appear only if the wall-film model is enabled.

Summary Reports
You can request additional detail about the trajectory fates as the particles exit the
domain, including the mass flow rates through each boundary zone, mass flow rate of
evaporated droplets, and composition of the particles.

1. Follow steps 1 and 2 in Section 22.16.1: Displaying of Trajectories for displaying

trajectories.
2. Select Summary as the Report Type and click Display or Track.

A detailed report similar to the following example will appear in the console window.
(You may also choose to write this report to a file by selecting File as the Report to option,
clicking on the Write... button (which was originally the Display button), and specifying
a file name for the summary report file in the resulting Select File dialog box.)

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DPM Iteration ....

num. tracked = 10, escaped = 8, aborted = 0, trapped = 0, evaporated = 0, inc

Fate Number Elapsed Time (s)

Min Max Avg Std Dev
---- ------ ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---
Incomplete 2 1.485e+01 2.410e+01 1.947e+01 4.623e+00
Escaped - Zone 7 8 4.940e+00 2.196e+01 1.226e+01 4.871e+00

(*)- Mass Transfer Summary -(*)

Fate Mass Flow (kg/s)

Initial Final Change
---- ---------- ---------- ----------
Incomplete 1.388e-03 1.943e-04 -1.194e-03
Escaped - Zone 7 1.502e-03 2.481e-04 -1.254e-03

(*)- Energy Transfer Summary -(*)

Fate Heat Content (W)

Initial Final Change
---- ---------- ---------- ----------
Incomplete 4.051e+02 3.088e+02 -9.630e+01
Escaped - Zone 7 4.383e+02 3.914e+02 -4.696e+01

(*)- Combusting Particles -(*)

Fate Volatile Content (kg/s) Char Content (kg/s)

Initial Final %Conv Initial Final
---- ---------- ---------- ------- ---------- ---------- --
Incomplete 6.247e-04 0.000e+00 100.00 5.691e-04 0.000e+00 1
Escaped - Zone 7 6.758e-04 0.000e+00 100.00 6.158e-04 3.782e-05

Done.

The report groups together particles with each possible fate, and reports the number of
particles, the time elapsed during trajectories, and the mass and energy transfer. This
information can be very useful for obtaining information such as where particles are
escaping from the domain, where particles are colliding with surfaces, and the extent of
heat and mass transfer to/from the particles within the domain. Additional information
is reported for combusting particles.

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Elapsed Time

The number of particles with each fate is listed under the Number heading. (Particles
that escape through different zones or are trapped at different zones are considered to
have different fates, and are therefore listed separately.) The minimum, maximum, and
average time elapsed during the trajectories of these particles, as well as the standard
deviation about the average time, are listed in the Min, Max, Avg, and Std Dev columns.
This information indicates how much time the particle(s) spent in the domain before
they escaped, aborted, evaporated, or were trapped.

Fate Number Elapsed Time (s)

Min Max Avg Std Dev
---- ------ ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---
Incomplete 2 1.485e+01 2.410e+01 1.947e+01 4.623e+00
Escaped - Zone 7 8 4.940e+00 2.196e+01 1.226e+01 4.871e+00

Also, on the right side of the report are listed the injection name and index of the
trajectories with the minimum and maximum elapsed times. (You may need to use the
scroll bar to view this information.)

Elapsed Time (s) Injection, Index

Min Max Avg Std Dev Min Max
--- ---------- ---------- ---------- -------------------- ------------------
+01 2.410e+01 1.947e+01 4.623e+00 injection-0 1 injection-0 0
+00 2.196e+01 1.226e+01 4.871e+00 injection-0 9 injection-0 2

Mass Transfer Summary

For all droplet or combusting particles with each fate, the total initial and final mass flow
rates and the change in mass flow rate are reported in the Initial, Final, and Change
columns. With this information, you can determine how much mass was transferred to
the continuous phase from the particles.

(*)- Mass Transfer Summary -(*)

Fate Mass Flow (kg/s)

Initial Final Change
---- ---------- ---------- ----------
Incomplete 1.388e-03 1.943e-04 -1.194e-03
Escaped - Zone 7 1.502e-03 2.481e-04 -1.254e-03

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Energy Transfer Summary

For all particles with each fate, the total initial and final heat content and the change in
heat content are reported in the Initial, Final, and Change columns. This report tells
you how much heat was transferred from the continuous phase to the particles.

(*)- Energy Transfer Summary -(*)

Fate Heat Content (W)

Initial Final Change
---- ---------- ---------- ----------
Incomplete 4.051e+02 3.088e+02 -9.630e+01
Escaped - Zone 7 4.383e+02 3.914e+02 -4.696e+01

Combusting Particles

If combusting particles are present, FLUENT will include additional reporting on the
volatiles and char converted. These reports are intended to help you identify the com-
position of the combusting particles as they exit the computational domain.

(*)- Combusting Particles -(*)

Fate Volatile Content (kg/s) Char Content (kg/s)

Initial Final %Conv Initial Final %Conv
---- ---------- ---------- ------- ---------- ---------- -------
Incomplete 6.247e-04 0.000e+00 100.00 5.691e-04 0.000e+00 100.00
Escaped - Zone 7 6.758e-04 0.000e+00 100.00 6.158e-04 3.782e-05 93.86

The total volatile content at the start and end of the trajectory is reported in the Initial
and Final columns under Volatile Content. The percentage of volatiles that has been
devolatilized is reported in the %Conv column.
The total reactive portion (char) at the start and end of the trajectory is reported in the
Initial and Final columns under Char Content. The percentage of char that reacted
is reported in the %Conv column.

Combusting Particles with the Multiple Surface Reaction Model

If the multiple surface reaction model is used with combusting particles, FLUENT will
include additional reporting on the mass of the individual solid species that constitute
the particle mass.

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(*)- Multiple Surface Reactions -(*)

Fate Species Species Content (kg/s)

Names Initial Final %Conv
---- ------- ---------- ---------- -------
Escaped - Zone 6 c<s> 6.080e-02 1.487e-06 100.00
Escaped - Zone 6 s<s> 3.200e-03 5.077e-06 99.84
Escaped - Zone 6 cao 0.000e+00 1.153e-03 0.00
Escaped - Zone 6 caso4 0.000e+00 9.266e-04 0.00
Escaped - Zone 6 caco3 8.000e-03 5.260e-03 34.25

The total mass of each solid species in the particles at the start and end of the trajectory
is reported in the Initial and Final columns, respectively. The percentage of each
species that is reacted is reported in the %Conv column. Note that for the solid reaction
products (e.g., if the mass of a solid species has increased in the particle), the conversion
is reported to be 0.

22.16.3 Step-by-Step Reporting of Trajectories

At times, you may want to obtain a detailed, step-by-step report of the particle trajec-
tory/trajectories. Such reports can be obtained in alphanumeric format. This capability
allows you to monitor the particle position, velocity, temperature, or diameter as the
trajectory proceeds.
The procedure for generating files containing step-by-step reports is listed below:

1. Follow steps 1 and 2 in Section 22.16.1: Displaying of Trajectories for displaying

trajectories. You may want to track only one particle at a time, using the Track
Single Particle Stream option.

2. Select Step By Step as the Report Type.

i This option is only available for steady-state cases. For transient cases, see
Section 22.16.4: Reporting of Current Positions for Unsteady Tracking.

3. Select File as the Report to option. (The Display button will become the Write...
button.)

4. In the Significant Figures field, enter the number of significant figures to be used in
the step-by-step report.

5. Click on the Write... button and specify a file name for the step-by-step report file
in the resulting Select File dialog box.

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A detailed report similar to the following example will be saved to the specified file before
the trajectories are plotted. (You may also choose to print the report in the console by
choosing Console as the Report to option and clicking on Display or Track, but the report
is very long that it is unlikely to be of use to you in that form.)
The step-by-step report lists the particle position and velocity of the particle at selected
time steps along the trajectory:

Time X-Position Y-Position Z-Velocity X-Velocity Y-Velocity Z-Veloc

0.000e+00 1.411e-03 3.200e-03 0.000e+00 2.650e+01 0.000e+00 0.000e
3.773e-05 2.411e-03 3.200e-03 0.000e+00 2.648e+01 0.000e+00 0.000e
5.403e-05 2.822e-03 3.192e-03 0.000e+00 2.647e+01 0.000e+00 0.000e
9.181e-05 3.822e-03 3.192e-03 0.000e+00 2.644e+01 0.000e+00 0.000e
1.296e-04 4.821e-03 3.192e-03 0.000e+00 2.642e+01 0.000e+00 0.000e
1.608e-04 5.644e-03 3.192e-03 0.000e+00 2.639e+01 0.000e+00 0.000e
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .

Also listed are the diameter, temperature, density, and mass of the particle. (You may
need to use the scroll bar to view this information.) In addition, the variable you have
selected in the Color By list is also listed. This provides you with a simple way to export
any variable along a particle trajectory onto the console or into a file.
Note that the Coarsen option affects the step-by-step report.

Y-Velocity Z-Velocity Diameter Temperature Density Mass ColorBy

0.000e+00 0.000e+00 2.000e-04 3.000e+02 1.30e+03 5.445e-09 0.000e+00
0.000e+00 0.000e+00 2.000e-04 3.006e+02 1.30e+03 5.445e-09 3.773e-05
0.000e+00 0.000e+00 2.000e-04 3.009e+02 1.30e+03 5.445e-09 5.403e-05
0.000e+00 0.000e+00 2.000e-04 3.015e+02 1.30e+03 5.445e-09 9.181e-05
0.000e+00 0.000e+00 2.000e-04 3.022e+02 1.30e+03 5.445e-09 1.296e-04
0.000e+00 0.000e+00 2.000e-04 3.027e+02 1.30e+03 5.445e-09 1.608e-04
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .

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22.16.4 Reporting of Current Positions for Unsteady Tracking

In transient cases, when using unsteady tracking, you may want to obtain a report of the
particle trajectory/trajectories showing the current positions of the particles. Selecting
Current Positions under Report Type in the Particle Tracks panel enables the display of the
current positions of the particles.
The procedure for generating files containing current position reports is listed below:

1. Follow steps 1 and 2 in Section 22.16.1: Displaying of Trajectories for displaying

trajectories. You may want to track only one particle stream at a time, using the
Track Single Particle Stream option.

2. Select Current Position as the Report Type.

3. Select File as the Report to option. (The Display button will become the Write...
button.)

4. In the Significant Figures field, enter the number of significant figures to be used in
the step-by-step report.

5. Click on the Write... button and specify a file name for the current position report
file in the resulting Select File dialog box.

The current position report lists the positions and velocities of all particles that are
currently in the domain:

Time X-Position Y-Position Z-Position X-Velocity Y-Velocity Z-Veloc

0.000e+00 1.000e-03 3.120e-02 0.000e+00 1.000e+01 5.000e+00 0.000e
1.672e-05 1.168e-03 3.128e-02 0.000e+00 1.010e+01 4.988e+00 0.000e
3.342e-05 1.337e-03 3.137e-02 0.000e+00 1.019e+01 4.977e+00 0.000e
5.010e-05 1.508e-03 3.145e-02 0.000e+00 1.028e+01 4.965e+00 0.000e
6.675e-05 1.680e-03 3.153e-02 0.000e+00 1.038e+01 4.954e+00 0.000e
8.338e-05 1.854e-03 3.161e-02 0.000e+00 1.047e+01 4.942e+00 0.000e
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .

Also listed are the diameter, temperature, density, mass of the particles, number in parcel
and the variable selected from the Color By list. (You may need to use the scroll bar to
view this information.)

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elocity Diameter Temperature Density Mass Number ColorBy

000e+00 7.000e-05 3.000e+02 1.300e+03 2.335e-10 3.183e+03 0.000e+00
000e+00 7.000e-05 3.009e+02 1.300e+03 2.335e-10 3.183e+03 1.672e-05
000e+00 7.000e-05 3.019e+02 1.300e+03 2.335e-10 3.183e+03 3.342e-05
000e+00 7.000e-05 3.028e+02 1.300e+03 2.335e-10 3.183e+03 5.010e-05
000e+00 7.000e-05 3.037e+02 1.300e+03 2.335e-10 3.183e+03 6.675e-05
000e+00 7.000e-05 3.046e+02 1.300e+03 2.335e-10 3.183e+03 8.338e-05
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .

22.16.5 Reporting of Interphase Exchange Terms and Discrete Phase

Concentration
FLUENT reports the magnitudes of the interphase exchange of momentum, heat, and
mass in each control volume in your FLUENT model. It can also report the total con-
centration of the discrete phase. You can display these variables graphically, by drawing
contours, profiles, etc. They are all contained in the Discrete Phase Model... category of
the variable selection drop-down list that appears in postprocessing panels:

• DPM Concentration

• DPM Mass Source

• DPM X,Y,Z Momentum Source

• DPM Swirl Momentum Source

• DPM Sensible Enthalpy Source

• DPM Enthalpy Source

• DPM Absorption Coefficient

• DPM Emission

• DPM Scattering

• DPM Burnout

• DPM Evaporation/Devolatilization

• DPM (species) Source

• DPM Erosion

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• DPM Accretion

• DPM (species) Concentration

See Chapter 30: Field Function Definitions for definitions of these variables.
Note that these exchange terms are updated and displayed only when coupled calcu-
lations are performed. Displaying and reporting particle trajectories (as described in
Sections 22.16.1 and 22.16.2) will not affect the values of these exchange terms.

22.16.6 Sampling of Trajectories

Particle states (position, velocity, diameter, temperature, and mass flow rate) can be
written to files at various boundaries and planes (lines in 2D) using the Sample Trajectories
panel (Figure 22.16.2).
Report −→ Discrete Phase −→Sample...

Figure 22.16.2: The Sample Trajectories Panel

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The procedure for generating files containing the particle samples is listed below:

1. Select the injections to be tracked in the Release From Injections list.

2. Select the surfaces at which samples will be written. These can be boundaries from
the Boundaries list or planes from the Planes list (in 3D) or lines from the Lines list
(in 2D).

3. Click on the Compute button. Note that for unsteady particle tracking, the Compute
button will become the Start button (to initiate sampling) or a Stop button (to stop
sampling).

Clicking on the Compute button will cause the particles to be tracked and their status to
be written to files when they encounter selected surfaces. The file names will be formed
by appending .dpm to the surface name.
For unsteady particle tracking, clicking on the Start button will open the files and write
the file header sections. If the solution is advanced in time by computing some time
steps, the particle trajectories will be updated and the particle states will be written to
the files as they cross the selected planes or boundaries. Clicking on the Stop button will
close the files and end the sampling.
For stochastic tracking, it may be useful to repeat this process multiple times and append
the results to the same file, while monitoring the sample statistics at each update. To
do this, enable the Append Files option before repeating the calculation (clicking on
Compute). Similarly, you can cause erosion and accretion rates to be accumulated for
repeated trajectory calculations by turning on the Accumulate Erosion/Accretion Rates
option. (See also Section 22.16.9: Postprocessing of Erosion/Accretion Rates.) The
format and the information written for the sample output can also be controlled through
a user-defined function, which can be selected in the Output drop-down list. See the
separate UDF Manual for information about user-defined functions.

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22.16.7 Histogram Reporting of Samples

Histograms can be plotted from sample files created in the Sample Trajectories panel
(as described in Section 22.16.6: Sampling of Trajectories) using the Trajectory Sample
Histograms panel (Figure 22.16.3).
Report −→ Discrete Phase −→Histogram...

Figure 22.16.3: The Trajectory Sample Histograms Panel

The procedure for plotting histograms from data in a sample file is listed below:

1. Select a file to be read by clicking on the Read... button. After you read in the
sample file, the boundary name will appear in the Sample list.

2. Select the data sample in the Sample list, and then select the data to be plotted
from the Fields list.

3. Click on the Plot button at the bottom of the panel to display the histogram.

By default, the percent of particles will be plotted on the y axis. You can plot the
actual number of particles by deselecting Percent under Options. The number of “bins”
or intervals in the plot can be set in the Divisions field. You can delete samples from the
list with the Delete button and update the Min/Max values with the Compute button.

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22.16.8 Summary Reporting of Current Particles

For many mass-transfer and flow processes, it is desirable to know the mean diameter
of the particles. A mean diameter, Djk , is calculated from the particle size distribution
using the following general expression [188]:
Z ∞
Dj f (D)dD
j−k
(Djk ) ≡ Z 0∞ (22.16-1)
Dk f (D)dD
0

where j and k are integers and f (D) is the distribution function (e.g., Rosin-Rammler).
D10 , for example, is the average (arithmetic) particle diameter. The Sauter mean diam-
eter (SMD), D32 , is the diameter of a particle whose ratio of volume to surface area is
equal to that of all particles in the computation. A summary of common mean diameters
is given in Table 22.16.1.

Table 22.16.1: Common Mean Diameters and Their Fields of Application

j k Order Name Field of Application

j+k
1 0 1 Mean diameter, D10 Comparisons, evaporation
2 0 2 Mean surface diameter, D20 Absorption
3 0 3 Mean volume diameter, D30 Hydrology
2 1 3 Overall surface diameter, D21 Adsorption
3 1 4 Overall volume diameter, D31 Evaporation, molecular diffusion
3 2 5 Sauter mean diameter, D32 Combustion, mass transfer, and
efficiency studies
4 3 7 De Brouckere diameter, D43 Combustion equilibrium

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Summary information (number, mass, average diameter) for particles currently in the
computational domain can be reported using the Particle Summary panel (Figure 22.16.4).
Report −→ Discrete Phase −→Summary...

Figure 22.16.4: The Particle Summary Panel

The procedure for reporting a summary for particle injections is as follows:

1. Select the particle injection(s) for which you want to generate a summary in the
Injections list.
FLUENT provides a shortcut for selecting injections with names that match a spec-
ified pattern. To use this shortcut, enter the pattern under Injection Name Pattern
and then click Match to select the injections with names that match the speci-
fied pattern. For example, if you specify drop*, all injections that have names
beginning with drop (e.g., drop-1, droplet) will be selected automatically. If they
are all selected already, they will be deselected. If you specify drop?, all surfaces
with names consisting of drop followed by a single character will be selected (or
deselected, if they are all selected already).

2. Click Summary to display the injection summary in the console window.

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(*)- Summary for Injection: injection-0 -(*)

Total number of parcels : 1862

Total number of particles : 1.196710e+05
Total mass : 1.128303e-05 (kg)
Maximum RMS distance from injector : 7.372527e-01 (m)
Maximum particle diameter : 3.072739e-04 (m)
Minimum particle diameter : 1.756993e-06 (m)
Overall RR Spread Parameter : 1.446806e+00
Maximum Error in RR fit : 1.071220e-01
Overall RR diameter (D_RR): 9.051303e-05 (m)
Overall mean diameter (D_10): 4.663269e-05 (m)
Overall mean surface area (D_20): 5.344694e-05 (m)
Overall mean volume (D_30): 6.121478e-05 (m)
Overall surface diameter (D_21): 6.125692e-05 (m)
Overall volume diameter (D_31): 7.013570e-05 (m)
Overall Sauter diameter (D_32): 8.030141e-05 (m)
Overall De Brouckere diameter (D_43): 1.082971e-04 (m)

22.16.9 Postprocessing of Erosion/Accretion Rates

You can calculate the erosion and accretion rates in a cumulative manner (over a series
of injections) by using the Sample Trajectories panel. First select an injection in the
Release From Injections list and compute its trajectory. Then turn on the Accumulate
Erosion/Accretion Rates option, select the next injection (after deselecting the first one),
and click Compute again. The rates will accumulate at the surfaces each time you click
Compute.

i Both the erosion rate and the accretion rate are defined at wall face surfaces
only, so they cannot be displayed at node values.

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Chapter 23. Modeling Multiphase Flows

This chapter discusses the general multiphase models that are available in FLUENT.
Section 23.1: Introduction provides a brief introduction to multiphase modeling, Chap-
ter 22: Modeling Discrete Phase discusses the Lagrangian dispersed phase model, and
Chapter 24: Modeling Solidification and Melting describes FLUENT’s model for solidifi-
cation and melting.

• Section 23.1: Introduction

• Section 23.2: Choosing a General Multiphase Model

• Section 23.3: Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory

• Section 23.4: Mixture Model Theory

• Section 23.5: Eulerian Model Theory

• Section 23.6: Wet Steam Model Theory

• Section 23.7: Modeling Mass Transfer in Multiphase Flows

• Section 23.8: Modeling Species Transport in Multiphase Flows

• Section 23.9: Steps for Using a Multiphase Model

• Section 23.10: Setting Up the VOF Model

• Section 23.11: Setting Up the Mixture Model

• Section 23.12: Setting Up the Eulerian Model

• Section 23.13: Setting Up the Wet Steam Model

• Section 23.14: Solution Strategies for Multiphase Modeling

• Section 23.15: Postprocessing for Multiphase Modeling

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23.1 Introduction
A large number of flows encountered in nature and technology are a mixture of phases.
Physical phases of matter are gas, liquid, and solid, but the concept of phase in a mul-
tiphase flow system is applied in a broader sense. In multiphase flow, a phase can be
defined as an identifiable class of material that has a particular inertial response to and
interaction with the flow and the potential field in which it is immersed. For example,
different-sized solid particles of the same material can be treated as different phases be-
cause each collection of particles with the same size will have a similar dynamical response
to the flow field.

23.1.1 Multiphase Flow Regimes

Multiphase flow regimes can be grouped into four categories: gas-liquid or liquid-liquid
flows; gas-solid flows; liquid-solid flows; and three-phase flows.

Gas-Liquid or Liquid-Liquid Flows

The following regimes are gas-liquid or liquid-liquid flows:

• Bubbly flow: This is the flow of discrete gaseous or fluid bubbles in a continuous
fluid.
• Droplet flow: This is the flow of discrete fluid droplets in a continuous gas.
• Slug flow: This is the flow of large bubbles in a continuous fluid.
• Stratified/free-surface flow: This is the flow of immiscible fluids separated by a
clearly-defined interface.

See Figure 23.1.1 for illustrations of these regimes.

Gas-Solid Flows
The following regimes are gas-solid flows:

• Particle-laden flow: This is flow of discrete particles in a continuous gas.

• Pneumatic transport: This is a flow pattern that depends on factors such as solid
loading, Reynolds numbers, and particle properties. Typical patterns are dune
flow, slug flow, packed beds, and homogeneous flow.
• Fluidized bed: This consists of a vertical cylinder containing particles, into which
a gas is introduced through a distributor. The gas rising through the bed suspends
the particles. Depending on the gas flow rate, bubbles appear and rise through the
bed, intensifying the mixing within the bed.

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 23.1 Introduction

See Figure 23.1.1 for illustrations of these regimes.

Liquid-Solid Flows
The following regimes are liquid-solid flows:

• Slurry flow: This flow is the transport of particles in liquids. The fundamental
behavior of liquid-solid flows varies with the properties of the solid particles relative
to those of the liquid. In slurry flows, the Stokes number (see Equation 23.2-4) is
normally less than 1. When the Stokes number is larger than 1, the characteristic
of the flow is liquid-solid fluidization.

• Hydrotransport: This describes densely-distributed solid particles in a continuous

liquid

• Sedimentation: This describes a tall column initially containing a uniform dispersed

mixture of particles. At the bottom, the particles will slow down and form a sludge
layer. At the top, a clear interface will appear, and in the middle a constant settling
zone will exist.

See Figure 23.1.1 for illustrations of these regimes.

Three-Phase Flows
Three-phase flows are combinations of the other flow regimes listed in the previous sec-
tions.

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Modeling Multiphase Flows

slug flow bubbly, droplet, or

particle-laden flow

stratified/free-surface flow pneumatic transport,

hydrotransport, or slurry flow

sedimentation fluidized bed

Figure 23.1.1: Multiphase Flow Regimes

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 23.2 Choosing a General Multiphase Model

23.1.2 Examples of Multiphase Systems

Specific examples of each regime described in Section 23.1.1: Multiphase Flow Regimes
are listed below:

• Bubbly flow examples include absorbers, aeration, air lift pumps, cavitation, evap-
orators, flotation, and scrubbers.

• Droplet flow examples include absorbers, atomizers, combustors, cryogenic pump-

ing, dryers, evaporation, gas cooling, and scrubbers.

• Slug flow examples include large bubble motion in pipes or tanks.

• Stratified/free-surface flow examples include sloshing in offshore separator devices

and boiling and condensation in nuclear reactors.

• Particle-laden flow examples include cyclone separators, air classifiers, dust collec-
tors, and dust-laden environmental flows.

• Pneumatic transport examples include transport of cement, grains, and metal pow-
ders.

• Fluidized bed examples include fluidized bed reactors and circulating fluidized beds.

• Slurry flow examples include slurry transport and mineral processing

• Hydrotransport examples include mineral processing and biomedical and physio-

chemical fluid systems

• Sedimentation examples include mineral processing.

23.2 Choosing a General Multiphase Model

The first step in solving any multiphase problem is to determine which of the regimes
provides some broad guidelines for determining appropriate models for each regime, and
how to determine the degree of interphase coupling for flows involving bubbles, droplets,
or particles, and the appropriate model for different amounts of coupling.

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23.2.1 Approaches to Multiphase Modeling

Advances in computational fluid mechanics have provided the basis for further insight
into the dynamics of multiphase flows. Currently there are two approaches for the nu-
merical calculation of multiphase flows: the Euler-Lagrange approach (discussed in Sec-
tion 22.1.1: Overview) and the Euler-Euler approach (discussed in the following section).

The Euler-Euler Approach

In the Euler-Euler approach, the different phases are treated mathematically as inter-
penetrating continua. Since the volume of a phase cannot be occupied by the other
phases, the concept of phasic volume fraction is introduced. These volume fractions are
assumed to be continuous functions of space and time and their sum is equal to one.
Conservation equations for each phase are derived to obtain a set of equations, which
have similar structure for all phases. These equations are closed by providing constitutive
relations that are obtained from empirical information, or, in the case of granular flows,
by application of kinetic theory.
In FLUENT, three different Euler-Euler multiphase models are available: the volume of
fluid (VOF) model, the mixture model, and the Eulerian model.

The VOF Model

The VOF model (described in Section 23.3: Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory) is
a surface-tracking technique applied to a fixed Eulerian mesh. It is designed for two or
more immiscible fluids where the position of the interface between the fluids is of interest.
In the VOF model, a single set of momentum equations is shared by the fluids, and the
volume fraction of each of the fluids in each computational cell is tracked throughout the
domain. Applications of the VOF model include stratified flows, free-surface flows, filling,
sloshing, the motion of large bubbles in a liquid, the motion of liquid after a dam break,
the prediction of jet breakup (surface tension), and the steady or transient tracking of
any liquid-gas interface.

The Mixture Model

The mixture model (described in Section 23.4: Mixture Model Theory) is designed for two
or more phases (fluid or particulate). As in the Eulerian model, the phases are treated as
interpenetrating continua. The mixture model solves for the mixture momentum equation
and prescribes relative velocities to describe the dispersed phases. Applications of the
mixture model include particle-laden flows with low loading, bubbly flows, sedimentation,
and cyclone separators. The mixture model can also be used without relative velocities
for the dispersed phases to model homogeneous multiphase flow.

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 23.2 Choosing a General Multiphase Model

The Eulerian Model

The Eulerian model (described in Section 23.5: Eulerian Model Theory) is the most com-
plex of the multiphase models in FLUENT. It solves a set of n momentum and continuity
equations for each phase. Coupling is achieved through the pressure and interphase ex-
change coefficients. The manner in which this coupling is handled depends upon the type
of phases involved; granular (fluid-solid) flows are handled differently than nongranular
(fluid-fluid) flows. For granular flows, the properties are obtained from application of ki-
netic theory. Momentum exchange between the phases is also dependent upon the type
of mixture being modeled. FLUENT’s user-defined functions allow you to customize the
calculation of the momentum exchange. Applications of the Eulerian multiphase model
include bubble columns, risers, particle suspension, and fluidized beds.

23.2.2 Model Comparisons

In general, once you have determined the flow regime that best represents your multiphase
system, you can select the appropriate model based on the following guidelines:

• For bubbly, droplet, and particle-laden flows in which the phases mix and/or
dispersed-phase volume fractions exceed 10%, use either the mixture model (de-
scribed in Section 23.4: Mixture Model Theory) or the Eulerian model (described
in Section 23.5: Eulerian Model Theory).
• For slug flows, use the VOF model. See Section 23.3: Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model
Theory for more information about the VOF model.
• For stratified/free-surface flows, use the VOF model. See Section 23.3: Volume of
Fluid (VOF) Model Theory for more information about the VOF model.
• For pneumatic transport, use the mixture model for homogeneous flow (described
in Section 23.4: Mixture Model Theory) or the Eulerian model for granular flow
(described in Section 23.5: Eulerian Model Theory).
• For fluidized beds, use the Eulerian model for granular flow. See Section 23.5: Eu-
lerian Model Theory for more information about the Eulerian model.
• For slurry flows and hydrotransport, use the mixture or Eulerian model (described,
respectively, in Sections 23.4 and 23.5).
• For sedimentation, use the Eulerian model. See Section 23.5: Eulerian Model
Theory for more information about the Eulerian model.
• For general, complex multiphase flows that involve multiple flow regimes, select
the aspect of the flow that is of most interest, and choose the model that is most
appropriate for that aspect of the flow. Note that the accuracy of results will not
be as good as for flows that involve just one flow regime, since the model you use
will be valid for only part of the flow you are modeling.

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As discussed in this section, the VOF model is appropriate for stratified or free-surface
flows, and the mixture and Eulerian models are appropriate for flows in which the phases
mix or separate and/or dispersed-phase volume fractions exceed 10%. (Flows in which
the dispersed-phase volume fractions are less than or equal to 10% can be modeled using
the discrete phase model described in Chapter 22: Modeling Discrete Phase.)
To choose between the mixture model and the Eulerian model, you should consider the
following guidelines:

• If there is a wide distribution of the dispersed phases (i.e., if the particles vary
in size and the largest particles do not separate from the primary flow field), the
mixture model may be preferable (i.e., less computationally expensive). If the
dispersed phases are concentrated just in portions of the domain, you should use
the Eulerian model instead.
• If interphase drag laws that are applicable to your system are available (either
within FLUENT or through a user-defined function), the Eulerian model can usually
provide more accurate results than the mixture model. Even though you can apply
the same drag laws to the mixture model, as you can for a nongranular Eulerian
simulation, if the interphase drag laws are unknown or their applicability to your
system is questionable, the mixture model may be a better choice. For most cases
with spherical particles, then the Schiller-Naumann law is more than adequate. For
cases with nonspherical particles, then a user-defined function can be used.
• If you want to solve a simpler problem, which requires less computational effort, the
mixture model may be a better option, since it solves a smaller number of equations
than the Eulerian model. If accuracy is more important than computational effort,
the Eulerian model is a better choice. Keep in mind, however, that the complexity
of the Eulerian model can make it less computationally stable than the mixture
model.

FLUENT’s multiphase models are compatible with FLUENT’s dynamic mesh modeling
feature. For more information on the dynamic mesh feature, see Section 11: Modeling
Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes. For more information about how other FLU-
ENT models are compatible with FLUENT’s multiphase models, see Appendix A: FLUENT
Model Compatibility.

Detailed Guidelines
For stratified and slug flows, the choice of the VOF model, as indicated in Section 23.2.2: Model
Comparisons, is straightforward. Choosing a model for the other types of flows is less
straightforward. As a general guide, there are some parameters that help to identify the
appropriate multiphase model for these other flows: the particulate loading, β, and the
Stokes number, St. (Note that the word “particle” is used in this discussion to refer to
a particle, droplet, or bubble.)

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The Effect of Particulate Loading

Particulate loading has a major impact on phase interactions. The particulate loading is
defined as the mass density ratio of the dispersed phase (d) to that of the carrier phase
(c):

αd ρd
β= (23.2-1)
αc ρc
The material density ratio

ρd
γ= (23.2-2)
ρc
is greater than 1000 for gas-solid flows, about 1 for liquid-solid flows, and less than 0.001
for gas-liquid flows.
Using these parameters it is possible to estimate the average distance between the indi-
vidual particles of the particulate phase. An estimate of this distance has been given by
Crowe et al. [69]:

1/3
L π1+κ

= (23.2-3)
dd 6 κ

where κ = βγ . Information about these parameters is important for determining how the
dispersed phase should be treated. For example, for a gas-particle flow with a particulate
loading of 1, the interparticle space dLd is about 8; the particle can therefore be treated
as isolated (i.e., very low particulate loading).
Depending on the particulate loading, the degree of interaction between the phases can
be divided into the following three categories:

• For very low loading, the coupling between the phases is one-way (i.e., the fluid
carrier influences the particles via drag and turbulence, but the particles have no
influence on the fluid carrier). The discrete phase (Chapter 22: Modeling Discrete
Phase), mixture, and Eulerian models can all handle this type of problem correctly.
Since the Eulerian model is the most expensive, the discrete phase or mixture model
is recommended.
• For intermediate loading, the coupling is two-way (i.e., the fluid carrier influences
the particulate phase via drag and turbulence, but the particles in turn influence
the carrier fluid via reduction in mean momentum and turbulence). The discrete
phase(Chapter 22: Modeling Discrete Phase) , mixture, and Eulerian models are
all applicable in this case, but you need to take into account other factors in order
to decide which model is more appropriate. See below for information about using
the Stokes number as a guide.

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• For high loading, there is two-way coupling plus particle pressure and viscous
stresses due to particles (four-way coupling). Only the Eulerian model will handle
this type of problem correctly.

The Significance of the Stokes Number

For systems with intermediate particulate loading, estimating the value of the Stokes
number can help you select the most appropriate model. The Stokes number can be
defined as the relation between the particle response time and the system response time:

τd
St = (23.2-4)
ts
ρ d2
d d
where τd = 18µ c
and ts is based on the characteristic length (Ls ) and the characteristic
velocity (Vs ) of the system under investigation: ts = LVss .
For St  1.0, the particle will follow the flow closely and any of the three models (discrete
phase(Chapter 22: Modeling Discrete Phase) , mixture, or Eulerian) is applicable; you
can therefore choose the least expensive (the mixture model, in most cases), or the most
appropriate considering other factors. For St > 1.0, the particles will move independently
of the flow and either the discrete phase model (Chapter 22: Modeling Discrete Phase)
or the Eulerian model is applicable. For St ≈ 1.0, again any of the three models is
applicable; you can choose the least expensive or the most appropriate considering other
factors.

Examples

For a coal classifier with a characteristic length of 1 m and a characteristic velocity of

10 m/s, the Stokes number is 0.04 for particles with a diameter of 30 microns, but 4.0
for particles with a diameter of 300 microns. Clearly the mixture model will not be
applicable to the latter case.
For the case of mineral processing, in a system with a characteristic length of 0.2 m and a
characteristic velocity of 2 m/s, the Stokes number is 0.005 for particles with a diameter
of 300 microns. In this case, you can choose between the mixture and Eulerian models.
(The volume fractions are too high for the discrete phase model (Chapter 22: Modeling
Discrete Phase), as noted below.)

Other Considerations

Keep in mind that the use of the discrete phase model (Chapter 22: Modeling Discrete
Phase) is limited to low volume fractions. Also, the discrete phase model is the only mul-
tiphase model that allows you to specify the particle distribution or include combustion
modeling in your simulation.

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23.2.3 Time Schemes in Multiphase Flow

In many multiphase applications, the process can vary spatially as well as temporally. In
order to accurately model multiphase flow, both higher-order spatial and time discretiza-
tion schemes are necessary. In addition to the first-order time scheme in FLUENT, the
second-order time scheme is available in the Mixture and Eulerian multiphase models,
and with the VOF Implicit Scheme.

i The second-order time scheme cannot be used with the VOF Explicit
Schemes.
The second-order time scheme has been adapted to all the transport equations, includ-
ing mixture phase momentum equations, energy equations, species transport equations,
turbulence models, phase volume fraction equations, the pressure correction equation,
and the granular flow model. In multiphase flow, a general transport equation (similar
to that of Equation 25.3-15) may be written as

∂(αρφ)
+ ∇ · (αρV~ φ) = ∇ · τ + Sφ (23.2-5)
∂t
Where φ is either a mixture (for the mixture model) or a phase variable, α is the phase
volume fraction (unity for the mixture equation), ρ is the mixture phase density, V~ is
the mixture or phase velocity (depending on the equations), τ is the diffusion term, and
Sφ is the source term.
As a fully implicit scheme, this second-order time-accurate scheme achieves its accuracy
by using an Euler backward approximation in time (see Equation 25.3-17). The general
transport equation, Equation 23.2-5 is discretized as

3(αp ρp φp V ol)n+1 − 4(αp ρp φp V ol)n + (αp ρp φp )n−1

= (23.2-6)
2∆t

[Anb (φnb − φp )]n+1 + S U n+1 − S p n+1 φp n+1

X

Equation 23.2-6 can be written in simpler form:

X
Ap φp = An bφn b + Sφ (23.2-7)

where
1.5(αp ρp V ol)n+1
Anb n+1 + S p n+1 +
P
Ap = ∆t
2(αp ρp φp V ol)n −0.5(αp ρp φp V ol)n−1
Sφ = S U n+1 + ∆t

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This scheme is easily implemented based on FLUENT’s existing first-order Euler scheme.
It is unconditionally stable, however, the negative coefficient at the time level tn−1 , of the
three-time level method, may produce oscillatory solutions if the time steps are large.
This problem can be eliminated if a bounded second-order scheme is introduced. How-
ever, oscillating solutions are most likely seen in compressible liquid flows. Therefore,
in this version of FLUENT, a bounded second-order time scheme has been implemented
for compressible liquid flows only. For single phase and multiphase compressible liquid
flows, the second-order time scheme is, by default, the bounded scheme.

23.2.4 Stability and Convergence

The process of solving a multiphase system is inherently difficult, and you may encounter
some stability or convergence problems. If a time-dependent problem is being solved, and
patched fields are used for the initial conditions, it is recommended that you perform a
few iterations with a small time step, at least an order of magnitude smaller than the
characteristic time of the flow. You can increase the size of the time step after performing
a few time steps. For steady solutions it is recommended that you start with a small
under-relaxation factor for the volume fraction, it is also recommended not to start with
a patch of volume fraction equal to zero. Another option is to start with a mixture
multiphase calculation, and then switch to the Eulerian multiphase model.
Stratified flows of immiscible fluids should be solved with the VOF model (see Sec-
tion 23.3: Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory). Some problems involving small volume
fractions can be solved more efficiently with the Lagrangian discrete phase model (see
Chapter 22: Modeling Discrete Phase).
Many stability and convergence problems can be minimized if care is taken during the
setup and solution processes (see Section 23.14.4: Eulerian Model).

23.3 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory

23.3.1 Overview and Limitations of the VOF Model
Overview
The VOF model can model two or more immiscible fluids by solving a single set of
momentum equations and tracking the volume fraction of each of the fluids throughout
the domain. Typical applications include the prediction of jet breakup, the motion of
large bubbles in a liquid, the motion of liquid after a dam break, and the steady or
transient tracking of any liquid-gas interface.

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Limitations
The following restrictions apply to the VOF model in FLUENT:

• You must use the pressure-based solver. The VOF model is not available with
either of the density-based solvers.

• All control volumes must be filled with either a single fluid phase or a combination
of phases. The VOF model does not allow for void regions where no fluid of any
type is present.

• Only one of the phases can be defined as a compressible ideal gas. There is no
limitation on using compressible liquids using user-defined functions.

• Streamwise periodic flow (either specified mass flow rate or specified pressure drop)
cannot be modeled when the VOF model is used.

• The second-order implicit time-stepping formulation cannot be used with the VOF
explicit scheme.

• When tracking particles in parallel, the DPM model cannot be used with the VOF
model if the shared memory option is enabled (Section 22.11.9: Parallel Processing
for the Discrete Phase Model). (Note that using the message passing option, when
running in parallel, enables the compatibility of all multiphase flow models with
the DPM model.)

Steady-State and Transient VOF Calculations

The VOF formulation in FLUENT is generally used to compute a time-dependent solution,
but for problems in which you are concerned only with a steady-state solution, it is
possible to perform a steady-state calculation. A steady-state VOF calculation is sensible
only when your solution is independent of the initial conditions and there are distinct
inflow boundaries for the individual phases. For example, since the shape of the free
surface inside a rotating cup depends on the initial level of the fluid, such a problem
must be solved using the time-dependent formulation. On the other hand, the flow of
water in a channel with a region of air on top and a separate air inlet can be solved with
the steady-state formulation.
The VOF formulation relies on the fact that two or more fluids (or phases) are not
interpenetrating. For each additional phase that you add to your model, a variable is
introduced: the volume fraction of the phase in the computational cell. In each control
volume, the volume fractions of all phases sum to unity. The fields for all variables and
properties are shared by the phases and represent volume-averaged values, as long as
the volume fraction of each of the phases is known at each location. Thus the variables
and properties in any given cell are either purely representative of one of the phases, or

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representative of a mixture of the phases, depending upon the volume fraction values.
In other words, if the q th fluid’s volume fraction in the cell is denoted as αq , then the
following three conditions are possible:

• αq = 0: The cell is empty (of the q th fluid).

• αq = 1: The cell is full (of the q th fluid).

• 0 < αq < 1: The cell contains the interface between the q th fluid and one or more
other fluids.

Based on the local value of αq , the appropriate properties and variables will be assigned
to each control volume within the domain.

23.3.2 Volume Fraction Equation

The tracking of the interface(s) between the phases is accomplished by the solution of a
continuity equation for the volume fraction of one (or more) of the phases. For the q th
phase, this equation has the following form:
 
n
1 ∂ X
(αq ρq ) + ∇ · (αq ρq~vq ) = Sαq + (ṁpq − ṁqp ) (23.3-1)
ρq ∂t p=1

where ṁqp is the mass transfer from phase q to phase p and ṁpq is the mass transfer from
phase p to phase q. By default, the source term on the right-hand side of Equation 23.3-1,
Sαq , is zero, but you can specify a constant or user-defined mass source for each phase.
See Section 23.7: Modeling Mass Transfer in Multiphase Flows for more information on
the modeling of mass transfer in FLUENT’s general multiphase models.
The volume fraction equation will not be solved for the primary phase; the primary-phase
volume fraction will be computed based on the following constraint:

n
X
αq = 1 (23.3-2)
q=1

The volume fraction equation may be solved either through implicit or explicit time
discretization.

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The Implicit Scheme

When the implicit scheme is used for time discretization, FLUENT’s standard finite-
difference interpolation schemes, QUICK, Second Order Upwind and First Order Upwind,
and the Modified HRIC schemes, are used to obtain the face fluxes for all cells, including
those near the interface.
 
αqn+1 ρn+1
q − αqn ρnq n+1 n+1
n
V + (ρn+1
X X
q Uf αq,f ) = Sα +
q (ṁpq − ṁqp ) V (23.3-3)
∆t f p=1

Since this equation requires the volume fraction values at the current time step (rather
than at the previous step, as for the explicit scheme), a standard scalar transport equation
is solved iteratively for each of the secondary-phase volume fractions at each time step.
The implicit scheme can be used for both time-dependent and steady-state calculations.
See Section 23.10.1: Choosing a VOF Formulation for details.

The Explicit Scheme

In the explicit approach, FLUENT’s standard finite-difference interpolation schemes are
applied to the volume fraction values that were computed at the previous time step.
 
αqn+1 ρn+1
q − αqn ρnq n
V + (ρq Ufn αq,f
n
X X
) =  (ṁpq − ṁqp ) + Sαq  V (23.3-4)
∆t f p=1

where n + 1 = index for new (current) time step

n = index for previous time step
αq,f = face value of the q th volume fraction, computed from the first-
or second-order upwind, QUICK, modified HRIC, or CICSAM scheme
V = volume of cell
Uf = volume flux through the face, based on normal velocity
This formulation does not require iterative solution of the transport equation during each
time step, as is needed for the implicit scheme.

i When the explicit scheme is used, a time-dependent solution must be com-

puted.
When the explicit scheme is used for time discretization, the face fluxes can be interpo-
lated either using interface reconstruction or using a finite volume discretization scheme
(Section 23.3.2: Interpolation near the Interface). The reconstruction based schemes
available in FLUENT are Geo-Reconstruct and Donor-Acceptor. The discretization schemes
available with explicit scheme for VOF are First Order Upwind, Second Order Upwind,
CICSAM, Modified HRIC, and QUICK.

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Interpolation near the Interface

FLUENT’s control-volume formulation requires that convection and diffusion fluxes through
the control volume faces be computed and balanced with source terms within the control
volume itself.
In the geometric reconstruction and donor-acceptor schemes, FLUENT applies a spe-
cial interpolation treatment to the cells that lie near the interface between two phases.
Figure 23.3.1 shows an actual interface shape along with the interfaces assumed during
computation by these two methods.

actual interface shape

interface shape represented by

the geometric reconstruction
(piecewise-linear) scheme

interface shape represented by

the donor-acceptor scheme

Figure 23.3.1: Interface Calculations

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The explicit scheme and the implicit scheme treat these cells with the same interpo-
lation as the cells that are completely filled with one phase or the other (i.e., using
the standard upwind (Section 25.3.1: First-Order Upwind Scheme), second-order (Sec-
tion 25.3.1: Second-Order Upwind Scheme), QUICK (Section 25.3.1: QUICK Scheme,
modified HRIC (Section 25.3.1: Modified HRIC Scheme), or CICSAM scheme), rather
than applying a special treatment.

The Geometric Reconstruction Scheme

In the geometric reconstruction approach, the standard interpolation schemes that are
used in FLUENT are used to obtain the face fluxes whenever a cell is completely filled
with one phase or another. When the cell is near the interface between two phases, the
geometric reconstruction scheme is used.
The geometric reconstruction scheme represents the interface between fluids using a
piecewise-linear approach. In FLUENT this scheme is the most accurate and is applicable
for general unstructured meshes. The geometric reconstruction scheme is generalized
for unstructured meshes from the work of Youngs [412]. It assumes that the interface
between two fluids has a linear slope within each cell, and uses this linear shape for
calculation of the advection of fluid through the cell faces. (See Figure 23.3.1.)
The first step in this reconstruction scheme is calculating the position of the linear in-
terface relative to the center of each partially-filled cell, based on information about
the volume fraction and its derivatives in the cell. The second step is calculating the
advecting amount of fluid through each face using the computed linear interface repre-
sentation and information about the normal and tangential velocity distribution on the
face. The third step is calculating the volume fraction in each cell using the balance of
fluxes calculated during the previous step.

i When the geometric reconstruction scheme is used, a time-dependent solu-

tion must be computed. Also, if you are using a conformal grid (i.e., if the
grid node locations are identical at the boundaries where two subdomains
meet), you must ensure that there are no two-sided (zero-thickness) walls
within the domain. If there are, you will need to slit them, as described in
Section 6.8.6: Slitting Face Zones.

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Modeling Multiphase Flows

The Donor-Acceptor Scheme

In the donor-acceptor approach, the standard interpolation schemes that are used in
FLUENT are used to obtain the face fluxes whenever a cell is completely filled with
one phase or another. When the cell is near the interface between two phases, a “donor-
acceptor” scheme is used to determine the amount of fluid advected through the face [145].
This scheme identifies one cell as a donor of an amount of fluid from one phase and
another (neighbor) cell as the acceptor of that same amount of fluid, and is used to
prevent numerical diffusion at the interface. The amount of fluid from one phase that
can be convected across a cell boundary is limited by the minimum of two values: the
filled volume in the donor cell or the free volume in the acceptor cell.
The orientation of the interface is also used in determining the face fluxes. The interface
orientation is either horizontal or vertical, depending on the direction of the volume
fraction gradient of the q th phase within the cell, and that of the neighbor cell that shares
the face in question. Depending on the interface’s orientation as well as its motion, flux
values are obtained by pure upwinding, pure downwinding, or some combination of the
two.

i When the donor-acceptor scheme is used, a time-dependent solution must

be computed. Also, the donor-acceptor scheme can be used only with
quadrilateral or hexahedral meshes. In addition, if you are using a con-
formal grid (i.e., if the grid node locations are identical at the boundaries
where two subdomains meet), you must ensure that there are no two-sided
(zero-thickness) walls within the domain. If there are, you will need to slit
them, as described in Section 6.8.6: Slitting Face Zones.

The Compressive Interface Capturing Scheme for Arbitrary Meshes (CICSAM)

The compressive interface capturing scheme for arbitrary meshes (CICSAM), based on
the Ubbink’s work [377], is a high resolution differencing scheme. The CICSAM scheme is
particularly suitable for flows with high ratios of viscosities between the phases. CICSAM
is implemented in FLUENT as an explicit scheme and offers the advantage of producing
an interface that is almost as sharp as the geometric reconstruction scheme.

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 23.3 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory

23.3.3 Material Properties

The properties appearing in the transport equations are determined by the presence of
the component phases in each control volume. In a two-phase system, for example, if
the phases are represented by the subscripts 1 and 2, and if the volume fraction of the
second of these is being tracked, the density in each cell is given by

ρ = α2 ρ2 + (1 − α2 )ρ1 (23.3-5)

In general, for an n-phase system, the volume-fraction-averaged density takes on the

following form:

X
ρ= αq ρq (23.3-6)

All other properties (e.g., viscosity) are computed in this manner.

23.3.4 Momentum Equation

A single momentum equation is solved throughout the domain, and the resulting velocity
field is shared among the phases. The momentum equation, shown below, is dependent
on the volume fractions of all phases through the properties ρ and µ.

∂ h  i
(ρ~v ) + ∇ · (ρ~v~v ) = −∇p + ∇ · µ ∇~v + ∇~v T + ρ~g + F~ (23.3-7)
∂t
One limitation of the shared-fields approximation is that in cases where large velocity
differences exist between the phases, the accuracy of the velocities computed near the
interface can be adversely affected.
Note that if the viscosity ratio is more than 1x103 , this may lead to convergence diffi-
culties. The compressive interface capturing scheme for arbitrary meshes (CICSAM)
(Section 23.3.2: The Compressive Interface Capturing Scheme for Arbitrary Meshes
(CICSAM)) is suitable for flows with high ratios of viscosities between the phases, thus
solving the problem of poor convergence.

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23.3.5 Energy Equation

The energy equation, also shared among the phases, is shown below.

∂
(ρE) + ∇ · (~v (ρE + p)) = ∇ · (keff ∇T ) + Sh (23.3-8)
∂t
The VOF model treats energy, E, and temperature, T , as mass-averaged variables:

n
X
αq ρq Eq
q=1
E= Xn (23.3-9)
αq ρq
q=1

where Eq for each phase is based on the specific heat of that phase and the shared
temperature.
The properties ρ and keff (effective thermal conductivity) are shared by the phases. The
source term, Sh , contains contributions from radiation, as well as any other volumetric
heat sources.
As with the velocity field, the accuracy of the temperature near the interface is limited in
cases where large temperature differences exist between the phases. Such problems also
arise in cases where the properties vary by several orders of magnitude. For example, if a
model includes liquid metal in combination with air, the conductivities of the materials
can differ by as much as four orders of magnitude. Such large discrepancies in properties
lead to equation sets with anisotropic coefficients, which in turn can lead to convergence
and precision limitations.

23.3.6 Additional Scalar Equations

Depending upon your problem definition, additional scalar equations may be involved in
your solution. In the case of turbulence quantities, a single set of transport equations is
solved, and the turbulence variables (e.g., k and  or the Reynolds stresses) are shared
by the phases throughout the field.

23.3.7 Time Dependence

For time-dependent VOF calculations, Equation 23.3-1 is solved using an explicit time-
marching scheme. FLUENT automatically refines the time step for the integration of the
volume fraction equation, but you can influence this time step calculation by modifying
the Courant number. You can choose to update the volume fraction once for each time
step, or once for each iteration within each time step. These options are discussed in
more detail in Section 23.10.4: Setting Time-Dependent Parameters for the VOF Model.

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23.3.8 Surface Tension and Wall Adhesion

The VOF model can also include the effects of surface tension along the interface between
each pair of phases. The model can be augmented by the additional specification of the
contact angles between the phases and the walls. You can specify a surface tension
coefficient as a constant, as a function of temperature, or through a UDF. The solver
will include the additional tangential stress terms (causing what is termed as Marangoni
convection) that arise due to the variation in surface tension coefficient. Variable surface
tension coefficient effects are usually important only in zero/near-zero gravity conditions.

Surface Tension
Surface tension arises as a result of attractive forces between molecules in a fluid. Con-
sider an air bubble in water, for example. Within the bubble, the net force on a molecule
due to its neighbors is zero. At the surface, however, the net force is radially inward, and
the combined effect of the radial components of force across the entire spherical surface
is to make the surface contract, thereby increasing the pressure on the concave side of
the surface. The surface tension is a force, acting only at the surface, that is required
to maintain equilibrium in such instances. It acts to balance the radially inward inter-
molecular attractive force with the radially outward pressure gradient force across the
surface. In regions where two fluids are separated, but one of them is not in the form
of spherical bubbles, the surface tension acts to minimize free energy by decreasing the
area of the interface.
The surface tension model in FLUENT is the continuum surface force (CSF) model pro-
posed by Brackbill et al. [40]. With this model, the addition of surface tension to the
VOF calculation results in a source term in the momentum equation. To understand the
origin of the source term, consider the special case where the surface tension is constant
along the surface, and where only the forces normal to the interface are considered. It can
be shown that the pressure drop across the surface depends upon the surface tension co-
efficient, σ, and the surface curvature as measured by two radii in orthogonal directions,
R1 and R2 :

1 1
 
p2 − p1 = σ + (23.3-10)
R1 R2

where p1 and p2 are the pressures in the two fluids on either side of the interface.
In FLUENT, a formulation of the CSF model is used, where the surface curvature is
computed from local gradients in the surface normal at the interface. Let n be the
surface normal, defined as the gradient of αq , the volume fraction of the q th phase.

n = ∇αq (23.3-11)

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The curvature, κ, is defined in terms of the divergence of the unit normal, n̂ [40]:

κ = ∇ · n̂ (23.3-12)

where

n
n̂ = (23.3-13)
|n|

The surface tension can be written in terms of the pressure jump across the surface. The
force at the surface can be expressed as a volume force using the divergence theorem. It
is this volume force that is the source term which is added to the momentum equation.
It has the following form:

X αi ρi κj ∇αj + αj ρj κi ∇αi
Fvol = σij 1 (23.3-14)
pairs ij, i<j 2
(ρi + ρj )

This expression allows for a smooth superposition of forces near cells where more than
two phases are present. If only two phases are present in a cell, then κi = −κj and
∇αi = −∇αj , and Equation 23.3-14 simplifies to

ρκi ∇αi
Fvol = σij 1 (23.3-15)
2
(ρi + ρj )

where ρ is the volume-averaged density computed using Equation 23.3-6. Equation 23.3-15
shows that the surface tension source term for a cell is proportional to the average density
in the cell.
Note that the calculation of surface tension effects on triangular and tetrahedral meshes
is not as accurate as on quadrilateral and hexahedral meshes. The region where surface
tension effects are most important should therefore be meshed with quadrilaterals or
hexahedra.

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 23.3 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory

When Surface Tension Effects Are Important

The importance of surface tension effects is determined based on the value of two di-
mensionless quantities: the Reynolds number, Re, and the capillary number, Ca; or the
Reynolds number, Re, and the Weber number, We. For Re  1, the quantity of interest
is the capillary number:

µU
Ca = (23.3-16)
σ
and for Re  1, the quantity of interest is the Weber number:

ρLU 2
We = (23.3-17)
σ
where U is the free-stream velocity. Surface tension effects can be neglected if Ca  1
or We  1.
Several surface tension options are provided through the text user interface (TUI) using
the solve/set/surface-tension command:
solve −→ set −→surface-tension
The surface-tension command prompts you for the following information:

• whether you require node-based smoothing

The default value is no indicating that cell-based smoothing will be used for the
VOF calculations.

• the number of smoothings

The default value is 1. A higher value can be used in case of tetrahedral and
triangular meshes in order to reduce any spurious velocities.

• the smoothing relaxation factor

The default is 1. This is useful in the cases where VOF smoothing causes a problem
(e.g., liquid enters through the inlet with wall adhesion on).

• whether you want to use VOF gradients at the nodes for curvature calculations
With this option, FLUENT uses VOF gradients directly from the nodes to calculate
the curvature for surface tension forces. The default is yes which produces better
results with surface tension compared to gradients that are calculated at the cell
centers.

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Wall Adhesion
An option to specify a wall adhesion angle in conjunction with the surface tension model
is also available in the VOF model. The model is taken from work done by Brackbill et
al. [40]. Rather than impose this boundary condition at the wall itself, the contact angle
that the fluid is assumed to make with the wall is used to adjust the surface normal in
cells near the wall. This so-called dynamic boundary condition results in the adjustment
of the curvature of the surface near the wall.
If θw is the contact angle at the wall, then the surface normal at the live cell next to the
wall is

n̂ = n̂w cos θw + t̂w sin θw (23.3-18)

where n̂w and t̂w are the unit vectors normal and tangential to the wall, respectively.
The combination of this contact angle with the normally calculated surface normal one
cell away from the wall determine the local curvature of the surface, and this curvature
is used to adjust the body force term in the surface tension calculation.
The contact angle θw is the angle between the wall and the tangent to the interface
at the wall, measured inside the phase listed in the left column under Wall Adhesion in
the Momentum tab of the Wall panel. For example, if you are setting the contact angle
between the oil and air phases in the Wall panel shown in Figure 23.3.2, θw is measured
inside the oil phase, as seen in Figure 23.3.3.

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 23.3 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory

Figure 23.3.2: The Wall Panel for a Mixture in a VOF Calculation with Wall
Adhesion

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Modeling Multiphase Flows

OIL
interface
AIR
interface
AIR
OR OIL
θW = 30
o
θW = 30 o

wall wall

Figure 23.3.3: Measuring the Contact Angle

23.3.9 Open Channel Flow

FLUENT can model the effects of open channel flow (e.g., rivers, dams, and surface-
piercing structures in unbounded stream) using the VOF formulation and the open chan-
nel boundary condition. These flows involve the existence of a free surface between the
flowing fluid and fluid above it (generally the atmosphere). In such cases, the wave prop-
agation and free surface behavior becomes important. Flow is generally governed by the
forces of gravity and inertia. This feature is mostly applicable to marine applications
and the analysis of flows through drainage systems.
Open channel flows are characterized by the dimensionless Froude Number, which is
defined as the ratio of inertia force and hydrostatic force.

V
Fr = √ (23.3-19)
gy

where V is the velocity magnitude, g is gravity, and y is a length scale, in this case,
the distance from the bottom of the channel to the free surface. The denominator in
Equation 23.3-19 is the propagation speed of the wave. The wave speed as seen by the
fixed observer is defined as

√
Vw = V ± gy (23.3-20)

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 23.3 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory

Based on the Froude number, open channel flows can be classified in the following three
categories:

√
• When F r < 1, i.e., V < gy (thus Vw < 0 or Vw > 0), the flow is known to be
subcritical where disturbances can travel upstream as well as downstream. In this
case, downstream conditions might affect the flow upstream.

• When F r = 1 (thus Vw = 0), the flow is known to be critical, where upstream

propagating waves remain stationary. In this case, the character of the flow changes.
√
• When F r > 1, i.e., V > gy (thus Vw > 0), the flow is known to be supercritical
where disturbances cannot travel upstream. In this case, downstream conditions
do not affect the flow upstream.

Upstream Boundary Conditions

There are two options available for the upstream boundary condition for open channel
flows:

• pressure inlet

• mass flow rate

Pressure Inlet

The total pressure p0 at the inlet can be given as

1 → →
−
p0 = (ρ − ρ0 )V 2 + (ρ − ρ0 )|−
→
g |(ĝ · ( b − −
a )) (23.3-21)
2
→
−
where b and − →a are the position vectors of the face centroid and any point on the free
surface, respectively, Here, free surface is assumed to be horizontal and normal to the
direction of gravity. −
→g is the gravity vector, |−
→
g | is the gravity magnitude, ĝ is the unit
vector of gravity, V is the velocity magnitude, ρ is the density of the mixture in the cell,
and ρ0 is the reference density.
From this, the dynamic pressure q is

ρ − ρ0 2
q= V (23.3-22)
2
and the static pressure ps is

→
− →
ps = (ρ − ρ0 )|−
→
g |(ĝ · ( b − −
a )) (23.3-23)

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Modeling Multiphase Flows

which can be further expanded to

→
−
ps = (ρ − ρ0 )|−
→
g |((ĝ · b ) + ylocal ) (23.3-24)

where the distance from the free surface to the reference position, ylocal , is

ylocal = −(−
→
a · ĝ) (23.3-25)

Mass Flow Rate

The mass flow rate for each phase associated with the open channel flow is defined by

ṁphase = ρphase (Areaphase )(V elocity) (23.3-26)

Volume Fraction Specification

In open channel flows, FLUENT internally calculates the volume fraction based on the
input parameters specified in the Boundary Conditions panel, therefore this option has
been disabled.
For subcritical inlet flows (Fr < 1), FLUENT reconstructs the volume fraction values on
the boundary by using the values from the neighboring cells. This can be accomplished
using the following procedure:

• Calculate the node values of volume fraction at the boundary using the cell values.

• Calculate the volume fraction at the each face of boundary using the interpolated
node values.

For supercritical inlet flows (Fr > 1), the volume fraction value on the boundary can be
calculated using the fixed height of the free surface from the bottom.

Downstream Boundary Conditions

Pressure Outlet

Determining the static pressure is dependent on the Pressure Specification Method. Using
the Free Surface Level, the static pressure is dictated by Equation 23.3-23 and Equa-
tion 23.3-25, otherwise you must specify the static pressure as the Gauge Pressure.
For subcritical outlet flows (Fr < 1), if there are only two phases, then the pressure is
taken from the pressure profile specified over the boundary, otherwise the pressure is
taken from the neighboring cell. For supercritical flows (Fr >1), the pressure is always
taken from the neighboring cell.

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 23.4 Mixture Model Theory

Outflow Boundary

Outflow boundary conditions can be used at the outlet of open channel flows to model
flow exits where the details of the flow velocity and pressure are not known prior to
solving the flow problem. If the conditions are unknown at the outflow boundaries, then
FLUENT will extrapolate the required information from the interior.
It is important, however, to understand the limitations of this boundary type:

• You can only use single outflow boundaries at the outlet, which is achieved by set-
ting the flow rate weighting to 1. In other words, outflow splitting is not permitted
in open channel flows with outflow boundaries.

• There should be an initial flow field in the simulation to avoid convergence issues
due to flow reversal at the outflow, which will result in an unreliable solution.

• An outflow boundary condition can only be used with mass flow inlets. It is not
compatible with pressure inlets and pressure outlets. For example, if you choose
the inlet as pressure-inlet, then you can only use pressure-outlet at the outlet. If you
choose the inlet as mass-flow-inlet, then you can use either outflow or pressure-outlet
boundary conditions at the outlet. Note that this only holds true for open channel
flow.

• Note that the outflow boundary condition assumes that flow is fully developed
in the direction perpendicular to the outflow boundary surface. Therefore, such
surfaces should be placed accordingly.

Backflow Volume Fraction Specification

FLUENT internally calculates the volume fraction values on the outlet boundary by using
the neighboring cell values, therefore, this option is disabled.

23.4 Mixture Model Theory

23.4.1 Overview and Limitations of the Mixture Model
Overview
The mixture model is a simplified multiphase model that can be used to model multiphase
flows where the phases move at different velocities, but assume local equilibrium over
short spatial length scales. The coupling between the phases should be strong. It can
also be used to model homogeneous multiphase flows with very strong coupling and the
phases moving at the same velocity. In addition, the mixture model can be used to
calculate non-Newtonian viscosity.

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The mixture model can model n phases (fluid or particulate) by solving the momentum,
continuity, and energy equations for the mixture, the volume fraction equations for the
secondary phases, and algebraic expressions for the relative velocities. Typical applica-
tions include sedimentation, cyclone separators, particle-laden flows with low loading,
and bubbly flows where the gas volume fraction remains low.
The mixture model is a good substitute for the full Eulerian multiphase model in several
cases. A full multiphase model may not be feasible when there is a wide distribution of
the particulate phase or when the interphase laws are unknown or their reliability can
be questioned. A simpler model like the mixture model can perform as well as a full
multiphase model while solving a smaller number of variables than the full multiphase
model.
The mixture model allows you to select granular phases and calculates all properties of
the granular phases. This is applicable for liquid-solid flows.

Limitations
The following limitations apply to the mixture model in FLUENT:

• You must use the pressure-based solver. The mixture model is not available with
either of the density-based solvers.

• Only one of the phases can be defined as a compressible ideal gas. There is no
limitation on using compressible liquids using user-defined functions.

• Streamwise periodic flow with specified mass flow rate cannot be modeled when
the mixture model is used (the user is allowed to specify a pressure drop).

• Solidification and melting cannot be modeled in conjunction with the mixture

model.

• The LES turbulence model cannot be used with the mixture model if the cavitation
model is enabled.

• The relative velocity formulation cannot be used in combination with the MRF and
mixture model (see Section 10.3.1: Limitations).

• The mixture model cannot be used for inviscid flows.

• The shell conduction model for walls cannot be used with the mixture model.

• When tracking particles in parallel, the DPM model cannot be used with the mix-
ture model if the shared memory option is enabled (Section 22.11.9: Parallel Pro-
cessing for the Discrete Phase Model). (Note that using the message passing option,
when running in parallel, enables the compatibility of all multiphase flow models
with the DPM model.)

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 23.4 Mixture Model Theory

The mixture model, like the VOF model, uses a single-fluid approach. It differs from the
VOF model in two respects:

• The mixture model allows the phases to be interpenetrating. The volume fractions
αq and αp for a control volume can therefore be equal to any value between 0 and
1, depending on the space occupied by phase q and phase p.

• The mixture model allows the phases to move at different velocities, using the
concept of slip velocities. (Note that the phases can also be assumed to move
at the same velocity, and the mixture model is then reduced to a homogeneous
multiphase model.)

The mixture model solves the continuity equation for the mixture, the momentum equa-
tion for the mixture, the energy equation for the mixture, and the volume fraction equa-
tion for the secondary phases, as well as algebraic expressions for the relative velocities
(if the phases are moving at different velocities).

23.4.2 Continuity Equation

The continuity equation for the mixture is

∂
(ρm ) + ∇ · (ρm~vm ) = 0 (23.4-1)
∂t
where ~vm is the mass-averaged velocity:
Pn
k=1 αk ρk~vk
~vm = (23.4-2)
ρm

and ρm is the mixture density:

n
X
ρm = αk ρk (23.4-3)
k=1

αk is the volume fraction of phase k.

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23.4.3 Momentum Equation

The momentum equation for the mixture can be obtained by summing the individual
momentum equations for all phases. It can be expressed as

∂ h 
T
i
(ρm~vm ) + ∇ · (ρm~vm~vm ) = −∇p + ∇ · µm ∇~vm + ∇~vm +
∂t
n
!
ρm~g + F~ + ∇ ·
X
αk ρk~vdr,k~vdr,k (23.4-4)
k=1

where n is the number of phases, F~ is a body force, and µm is the viscosity of the mixture:

n
X
µm = αk µk (23.4-5)
k=1

~vdr,k is the drift velocity for secondary phase k:

~vdr,k = ~vk − ~vm (23.4-6)

23.4.4 Energy Equation

The energy equation for the mixture takes the following form:

n n
∂ X X
(αk ρk Ek ) + ∇ · (αk~vk (ρk Ek + p)) = ∇ · (keff ∇T ) + SE (23.4-7)
∂t k=1 k=1

P
where keff is the effective conductivity ( αk (kk + kt )), where kt is the turbulent thermal
conductivity, defined according to the turbulence model being used). The first term on
the right-hand side of Equation 23.4-7 represents energy transfer due to conduction. SE
includes any other volumetric heat sources.
In Equation 23.4-7,

p v2
Ek = hk − + k (23.4-8)
ρk 2

for a compressible phase, and Ek = hk for an incompressible phase, where hk is the

sensible enthalpy for phase k.

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 23.4 Mixture Model Theory

23.4.5 Relative (Slip) Velocity and the Drift Velocity

The relative velocity (also referred to as the slip velocity) is defined as the velocity of a
secondary phase (p) relative to the velocity of the primary phase (q):

~vpq = ~vp − ~vq (23.4-9)

The mass fraction for any phase (k) is defined as

αk ρk
ck = (23.4-10)
ρm

The drift velocity and the relative velocity (~vqp ) are connected by the following expression:

n
X
~vdr,p = ~vpq − ck~vqk (23.4-11)
k=1

FLUENT’s mixture model makes use of an algebraic slip formulation. The basic assump-
tion of the algebraic slip mixture model is that to prescribe an algebraic relation for the
relative velocity, a local equilibrium between the phases should be reached over short
spatial length scale. Following Manninen et al. [230], the form of the relative velocity is
given by:

τp (ρp − ρm )
~vpq = ~a (23.4-12)
fdrag ρp

where τp is the particle relaxation time

ρp d2p
τp = (23.4-13)
18µq

d is the diameter of the particles (or droplets or bubbles) of secondary phase p, ~a is the
secondary-phase particle’s acceleration. The default drag function fdrag is taken from
Schiller and Naumann [321]:
(
1 + 0.15 Re0.687 Re ≤ 1000
fdrag = (23.4-14)
0.0183 Re Re > 1000

and the acceleration ~a is of the form

∂~vm
~a = ~g − (~vm · ∇)~vm − (23.4-15)
∂t

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The simplest algebraic slip formulation is the so-called drift flux model, in which the ac-
celeration of the particle is given by gravity and/or a centrifugal force and the particulate
relaxation time is modified to take into account the presence of other particles.
In turbulent flows the relative velocity should contain a diffusion term due to the disper-
sion appearing in the momentum equation for the dispersed phase. FLUENT adds this
dispersion to the relative velocity:

(ρp − ρm )d2p νm
~vpq = ~a − ∇αq (23.4-16)
18µq fdrag αp σD

where (νm ) is the mixture turbulent viscosity and (σD ) is a Prandtl dispersion coefficient.
When you are solving a mixture multiphase calculation with slip velocity, you can directly
prescribe formulations for the drag function. The following choices are available:

• Schiller-Naumann (the default formulation)

• Morsi-Alexander

• symmetric

• constant

• user-defined

See Section 23.5.4: Interphase Exchange Coefficients for more information on these drag
functions and their formulations, and Section 23.11.1: Defining the Phases for the Mixture
Model for instructions on how to enable them.
Note that, if the slip velocity is not solved, the mixture model is reduced to a homogeneous
multiphase model. In addition, the mixture model can be customized (using user-defined
functions) to use a formulation other than the algebraic slip method for the slip velocity.
See the separate UDF Manual for details.

23.4.6 Volume Fraction Equation for the Secondary Phases

From the continuity equation for secondary phase p, the volume fraction equation for
secondary phase p can be obtained:

n
∂ X
(αp ρp ) + ∇ · (αp ρp~vm ) = −∇ · (αp ρp~vdr,p ) + (ṁqp − ṁpq ) (23.4-17)
∂t q=1

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 23.4 Mixture Model Theory

23.4.7 Granular Properties

Since the concentration of particles is an important factor in the calculation of the effec-
tive viscosity for the mixture, we may use the granular viscosity (see section on Eulerian
granular flows) to get a value for the viscosity of the suspension. The volume weighted
averaged for the viscosity would now contain shear viscosity arising from particle mo-
mentum exchange due to translation and collision.
The collisional and kinetic parts, and the optional frictional part, are added to give the
solids shear viscosity:

µs = µs,col + µs,kin + µs,fr (23.4-18)

Collisional Viscosity
The collisional part of the shear viscosity is modeled as [121, 364]

1/2
4 Θs

µs,col = αs ρs ds g0,ss (1 + ess ) (23.4-19)
5 π

Kinetic Viscosity
FLUENT provides two expressions for the kinetic viscosity.
The default expression is from Syamlal et al. [364]:
√
αs ds ρs Θs π 2
 
µs,kin = 1 + (1 + ess ) (3ess − 1) αs g0,ss (23.4-20)
6 (3 − ess ) 5

The following optional expression from Gidaspow et al. [121] is also available:
√ 2
10ρs ds Θs π 4

µs,kin = 1 + g0,ss αs (1 + ess ) (23.4-21)
96αs (1 + ess ) g0,ss 5

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Modeling Multiphase Flows

23.4.8 Granular Temperature

The viscosities need the specification of the granular temperature for the sth solids phase.
Here we use an algebraic equation derived from the transport equation by neglecting
convection and diffusion and takes the form [364]

0 = (−ps I + τ s ) : ∇~vs − γΘs + φls (23.4-22)

where
(−ps I + τ s ) : ∇~vs = the generation of energy by the solid stress tensor
γΘs = the collisional dissipation of energy
φls = the energy exchange between the lth
fluid or solid phase and the sth solid phase
The collisional dissipation of energy, γΘs , represents the rate of energy dissipation within
the sth solids phase due to collisions between particles. This term is represented by the
expression derived by Lun et al. [222]

12(1 − e2ss )g0,ss

γΘm = √ ρs αs2 Θ3/2
s (23.4-23)
ds π

The transfer of the kinetic energy of random fluctuations in particle velocity from the sth
solids phase to the lth fluid or solid phase is represented by φls [121]:

φls = −3Kls Θs (23.4-24)

FLUENT allows you to solve for the granular temperature with the following options:

• algebraic formulation (the default)

This is obtained by neglecting convection and diffusion in the transport equation
(Equation 23.4-22) [364].
• constant granular temperature
This is useful in very dense situations where the random fluctuations are small.
• UDF for granular temperature

23.4.9 Solids Pressure

The total solid pressure is calculated and included in the mixture momentum equations:
N
X
Ps,total = pq (23.4-25)
q=1

where pq is presented in the section for granular flows by equation Equation 23.5-48

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 23.5 Eulerian Model Theory

23.5 Eulerian Model Theory

Details about the Eulerian multiphase model are presented in the following subsections:

• Section 23.5.1: Overview and Limitations of the Eulerian Model

• Section 23.5.2: Volume Fractions

• Section 23.5.3: Conservation Equations

• Section 23.5.4: Interphase Exchange Coefficients

• Section 23.5.5: Solids Pressure

• Section 23.5.6: Maximum Packing Limit in Binary Mixtures

• Section 23.5.7: Solids Shear Stresses

• Section 23.5.8: Granular Temperature

• Section 23.5.9: Description of Heat Transfer

• Section 23.5.10: Turbulence Models

• Section 23.5.11: Solution Method in FLUENT

23.5.1 Overview and Limitations of the Eulerian Model

Overview
The Eulerian multiphase model in FLUENT allows for the modeling of multiple sepa-
rate, yet interacting phases. The phases can be liquids, gases, or solids in nearly any
combination. An Eulerian treatment is used for each phase, in contrast to the Eulerian-
Lagrangian treatment that is used for the discrete phase model.
With the Eulerian multiphase model, the number of secondary phases is limited only
by memory requirements and convergence behavior. Any number of secondary phases
can be modeled, provided that sufficient memory is available. For complex multiphase
flows, however, you may find that your solution is limited by convergence behavior. See
Section 23.14.4: Eulerian Model for multiphase modeling strategies.
FLUENT’s Eulerian multiphase model does not distinguish between fluid-fluid and fluid-
solid (granular) multiphase flows. A granular flow is simply one that involves at least
one phase that has been designated as a granular phase.

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Modeling Multiphase Flows

The FLUENT solution is based on the following:

• A single pressure is shared by all phases.

• Momentum and continuity equations are solved for each phase.
• The following parameters are available for granular phases:
– Granular temperature (solids fluctuating energy) can be calculated for each
solid phase. You can select either an algebraic formulation, a constant, a
user-defined function, or a partial differential equation.
– Solid-phase shear and bulk viscosities are obtained by applying kinetic the-
ory to granular flows. Frictional viscosity for modeling granular flow is also
available. You can select appropriate models and user-defined functions for
all properties.
• Several interphase drag coefficient functions are available, which are appropriate
for various types of multiphase regimes. (You can also modify the interphase drag
coefficient through user-defined functions, as described in the separate UDF Man-
ual.)
• All of the k- turbulence models are available, and may apply to all phases or to
the mixture.

Limitations
All other features available in FLUENT can be used in conjunction with the Eulerian
multiphase model, except for the following limitations:

• The Reynolds Stress turbulence model is not available on a per phase basis.
• Particle tracking (using the Lagrangian dispersed phase model) interacts only with
the primary phase.
• Streamwise periodic flow with specified mass flow rate cannot be modeled when
the Eulerian model is used (the user is allowed to specify a pressure drop).
• Inviscid flow is not allowed.
• Melting and solidification are not allowed.
• When tracking particles in parallel, the DPM model cannot be used with the Eule-
rian multiphase model if the shared memory option is enabled (Section 22.11.9: Par-
allel Processing for the Discrete Phase Model). (Note that using the message pass-
ing option, when running in parallel, enables the compatibility of all multiphase
flow models with the DPM model.)

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 23.5 Eulerian Model Theory

To change from a single-phase model, where a single set of conservation equations for
momentum, continuity and (optionally) energy is solved, to a multiphase model, addi-
tional sets of conservation equations must be introduced. In the process of introduc-
ing additional sets of conservation equations, the original set must also be modified.
The modifications involve, among other things, the introduction of the volume fractions
α1 , α2 , . . . αn for the multiple phases, as well as mechanisms for the exchange of momen-
tum, heat, and mass between the phases.

23.5.2 Volume Fractions

The description of multiphase flow as interpenetrating continua incorporates the concept
of phasic volume fractions, denoted here by αq . Volume fractions represent the space
occupied by each phase, and the laws of conservation of mass and momentum are satisfied
by each phase individually. The derivation of the conservation equations can be done
by ensemble averaging the local instantaneous balance for each of the phases [10] or by
using the mixture theory approach [37].
The volume of phase q, Vq , is defined by
Z
Vq = αq dV (23.5-1)
V

where

n
X
αq = 1 (23.5-2)
q=1

The effective density of phase q is

ρ̂q = αq ρq (23.5-3)

where ρq is the physical density of phase q.

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23.5.3 Conservation Equations

The general conservation equations from which the equations solved by FLUENT are
derived are presented in this section, followed by the solved equations themselves.

Equations in General Form

Conservation of Mass

The continuity equation for phase q is

n
∂ X
(αq ρq ) + ∇ · (αq ρq~vq ) = (ṁpq − ṁqp ) + Sq (23.5-4)
∂t p=1

where ~vq is the velocity of phase q and ṁpq characterizes the mass transfer from the pth
to q th phase, and ṁqp characterizes the mass transfer from phase q to phase p, and you
are able to specify these mechanisms separately.
By default, the source term Sq on the right-hand side of Equation 23.5-4 is zero, but you
can specify a constant or user-defined mass source for each phase. A similar term appears
in the momentum and enthalpy equations. See Section 23.7: Modeling Mass Transfer in
Multiphase Flows for more information on the modeling of mass transfer in FLUENT’s
general multiphase models.

Conservation of Momentum

The momentum balance for phase q yields

∂
(αq ρq~vq ) + ∇ · (αq ρq~vq~vq ) = −αq ∇p + ∇ · τ q + αq ρq~g +
∂t
n
~ pq + ṁpq~vpq − ṁqp~vqp ) + (F~q + F~lift,q + F~vm,q )
X
(R (23.5-5)
p=1

where τ q is the q th phase stress-strain tensor

2
τ q = αq µq (∇~vq + ∇~vqT ) + αq (λq − µq )∇ · ~vq I (23.5-6)
3

Here µq and λq are the shear and bulk viscosity of phase q, F~q is an external body force,
F~lift,q is a lift force, F~vm,q is a virtual mass force, R
~ pq is an interaction force between
phases, and p is the pressure shared by all phases.
~vpq is the interphase velocity, defined as follows. If ṁpq > 0 (i.e., phase p mass is being
transferred to phase q), ~vpq = ~vp ; if ṁpq < 0 (i.e., phase q mass is being transferred to
phase p), ~vpq = ~vq . Likewise, if ṁqp > 0 then vqp = vq , if ṁqp < 0 then vqp = vp .

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 23.5 Eulerian Model Theory

~ pq .
Equation 23.5-5 must be closed with appropriate expressions for the interphase force R
This force depends on the friction, pressure, cohesion, and other effects, and is subject
~ pq = −R
to the conditions that R ~ qp and R
~ qq = 0.

FLUENT uses a simple interaction term of the following form:

n n
~ pq =
X X
R Kpq (~vp − ~vq ) (23.5-7)
p=1 p=1

where Kpq (= Kqp ) is the interphase momentum exchange coefficient (described in Sec-
tion 23.5.4: Interphase Exchange Coefficients).

Lift Forces

For multiphase flows, FLUENT can include the effect of lift forces on the secondary phase
particles (or droplets or bubbles). These lift forces act on a particle mainly due to velocity
gradients in the primary-phase flow field. The lift force will be more significant for larger
particles, but the FLUENT model assumes that the particle diameter is much smaller
than the interparticle spacing. Thus, the inclusion of lift forces is not appropriate for
closely packed particles or for very small particles.
The lift force acting on a secondary phase p in a primary phase q is computed from [90]

F~lift = −0.5ρq αp (~vq − ~vp ) × (∇ × ~vq ) (23.5-8)

The lift force F~lift will be added to the right-hand side of the momentum equation for
both phases (F~lift,q = −F~lift,p ).
In most cases, the lift force is insignificant compared to the drag force, so there is no
reason to include this extra term. If the lift force is significant (e.g., if the phases separate
quickly), it may be appropriate to include this term. By default, F~lift is not included.
The lift force and lift coefficient can be specified for each pair of phases, if desired.

i It is important that if you include the lift force in your calculation, you
need not include it everywhere in the computational domain since it is
computationally expensive to converge. For example, in the wall boundary
layer for turbulent bubbly flows in channels, the lift force is significant
when the slip velocity is large in the vicinity of high strain rates for the
primary phase.

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Virtual Mass Force

For multiphase flows, FLUENT includes the “virtual mass effect” that occurs when a
secondary phase p accelerates relative to the primary phase q. The inertia of the primary-
phase mass encountered by the accelerating particles (or droplets or bubbles) exerts a
“virtual mass force” on the particles [90]:
!
dq~vq dp~vp
F~vm = 0.5αp ρq − (23.5-9)
dt dt

dq
The term dt
denotes the phase material time derivative of the form

dq (φ) ∂(φ)
= + (~vq · ∇)φ (23.5-10)
dt ∂t

The virtual mass force F~vm will be added to the right-hand side of the momentum equation
for both phases (F~vm,q = −F~vm,p ).
The virtual mass effect is significant when the secondary phase density is much smaller
than the primary phase density (e.g., for a transient bubble column). By default, F~vm is
not included.

Conservation of Energy

To describe the conservation of energy in Eulerian multiphase applications, a separate

enthalpy equation can be written for each phase:

n
∂ ∂pq X
(αq ρq hq )+∇·(αq ρq ~uq hq ) = −αq +τ q : ∇~uq −∇·~qq +Sq + (Qpq + ṁpq hpq − ṁqp hqp )
∂t ∂t p=1
(23.5-11)
where hq is the specific enthalpy of the q th phase, ~qq is the heat flux, Sq is a source term
that includes sources of enthalpy (e.g., due to chemical reaction or radiation), Qpq is
the intensity of heat exchange between the pth and q th phases, and hpq is the interphase
enthalpy (e.g., the enthalpy of the vapor at the temperature of the droplets, in the case
of evaporation). The heat exchange between phases must comply with the local balance
conditions Qpq = −Qqp and Qqq = 0.

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 23.5 Eulerian Model Theory

Equations Solved by FLUENT

The equations for fluid-fluid and granular multiphase flows, as solved by FLUENT, are
presented here for the general case of an n-phase flow.

Continuity Equation

The volume fraction of each phase is calculated from a continuity equation:

 
n
1 ∂ X
(αq ρq ) + ∇ · (αq ρq~vq ) = (ṁpq − ṁqp ) (23.5-12)
ρrq ∂t p=1

where ρrq is the phase reference density, or the volume averaged density of the q th phase
in the solution domain.
The solution of this equation for each secondary phase, along with the condition that the
volume fractions sum to one (given by Equation 23.5-2), allows for the calculation of the
primary-phase volume fraction. This treatment is common to fluid-fluid and granular
flows.

Fluid-Fluid Momentum Equations

The conservation of momentum for a fluid phase q is

∂
(αq ρq~vq ) + ∇ · (αq ρq~vq~vq ) = −αq ∇p + ∇ · τ q + αq ρq~g +
∂t
n
X
(Kpq (~vp − ~vq ) + ṁpq~vpq − ṁqp~vqp ) +
p=1

(F~q + F~lift,q + F~vm,q ) (23.5-13)

Here ~g is the acceleration due to gravity and τ q , F~q , F~lift,q , and F~vm,q are as defined for
Equation 23.5-5.

Fluid-Solid Momentum Equations

Following the work of [7, 52, 81, 121, 199, 222, 268, 364], FLUENT uses a multi-fluid
granular model to describe the flow behavior of a fluid-solid mixture. The solid-phase
stresses are derived by making an analogy between the random particle motion arising
from particle-particle collisions and the thermal motion of molecules in a gas, taking into
account the inelasticity of the granular phase. As is the case for a gas, the intensity of the
particle velocity fluctuations determines the stresses, viscosity, and pressure of the solid
phase. The kinetic energy associated with the particle velocity fluctuations is represented

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Modeling Multiphase Flows

by a “pseudothermal” or granular temperature which is proportional to the mean square

of the random motion of particles.
The conservation of momentum for the fluid phases is similar to Equation 23.5-13, and
that for the sth solid phase is

∂
(αs ρs~vs ) + ∇ · (αs ρs~vs~vs ) = −αs ∇p − ∇ps + ∇ · τ s + αs ρs~g +
∂t
N
X
(Kls (~vl − ~vs ) + ṁls~vls − ṁsl~vsl ) +
l=1

(F~s + F~lift,s + F~vm,s ) (23.5-14)

where ps is the sth solids pressure, Kls = Ksl is the momentum exchange coefficient
between fluid or solid phase l and solid phase s, N is the total number of phases, and
F~q , F~lift,q , and F~vm,q are as defined for Equation 23.5-5.

Conservation of Energy

The equation solved by FLUENT for the conservation of energy is Equation 23.5-11.

23.5.4 Interphase Exchange Coefficients

It can be seen in Equations 23.5-13 and 23.5-14 that momentum exchange between the
phases is based on the value of the fluid-fluid exchange coefficient Kpq and, for granular
flows, the fluid-solid and solid-solid exchange coefficients Kls .

Fluid-Fluid Exchange Coefficient

For fluid-fluid flows, each secondary phase is assumed to form droplets or bubbles. This
has an impact on how each of the fluids is assigned to a particular phase. For example,
in flows where there are unequal amounts of two fluids, the predominant fluid should be
modeled as the primary fluid, since the sparser fluid is more likely to form droplets or
bubbles. The exchange coefficient for these types of bubbly, liquid-liquid or gas-liquid
mixtures can be written in the following general form:

αq αp ρp f
Kpq = (23.5-15)
τp

where f , the drag function, is defined differently for the different exchange-coefficient
models (as described below) and τp , the “particulate relaxation time”, is defined as

ρp d2p
τp = (23.5-16)
18µq

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 23.5 Eulerian Model Theory

where dp is the diameter of the bubbles or droplets of phase p.

Nearly all definitions of f include a drag coefficient (CD ) that is based on the relative
Reynolds number (Re). It is this drag function that differs among the exchange-coefficient
models. For all these situations, Kpq should tend to zero whenever the primary phase is
not present within the domain. To enforce this, the drag function f is always multiplied
by the volume fraction of the primary phase q, as is reflected in Equation 23.5-15.

• For the model of Schiller and Naumann [321]

CD Re
f= (23.5-17)
24
where
(
24(1 + 0.15 Re0.687 )/Re Re ≤ 1000
CD = (23.5-18)
0.44 Re > 1000

and Re is the relative Reynolds number. The relative Reynolds number for the
primary phase q and secondary phase p is obtained from

ρq |~vp − ~vq |dp

Re = (23.5-19)
µq

The relative Reynolds number for secondary phases p and r is obtained from

ρrp |~vr − ~vp |drp

Re = (23.5-20)
µrp

where µrp = αp µp + αr µr is the mixture viscosity of the phases p and r.

The Schiller and Naumann model is the default method, and it is acceptable for
general use for all fluid-fluid pairs of phases.

• For the Morsi and Alexander model [253]

CD Re
f= (23.5-21)
24
where

a2 a3
CD = a1 + + 2 (23.5-22)
Re Re

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Modeling Multiphase Flows

and Re is defined by Equation 23.5-19 or 23.5-20. The a’s are defined as follows:




0, 24, 0 0 < Re < 0.1



 3.690, 22.73, 0.0903 0.1 < Re < 1
1.222, 29.1667, −3.8889




 1 < Re < 10
0.6167, 46.50, −116.67 10 < Re < 100


a1 , a 2 , a 3 =  (23.5-23)
  0.3644, 98.33, −2778 100 < Re < 1000
0.357, 148.62, −47500 1000 < Re < 5000





0.46, −490.546, 578700 5000 < Re < 10000






0.5191, −1662.5, 5416700 Re ≥ 10000

The Morsi and Alexander model is the most complete, adjusting the function def-
inition frequently over a large range of Reynolds numbers, but calculations with
this model may be less stable than with the other models.

• For the symmetric model

αp (αp ρp + αq ρq )f
Kpq = (23.5-24)
τpq

where

(αp ρp + αq ρq )( dp +d
2
q 2
)
τpq = (23.5-25)
18(αp µp + αq µq )

and

CD Re
f= (23.5-26)
24
where
(
24(1 + 0.15 Re0.687 )/Re Re ≤ 1000
CD = (23.5-27)
0.44 Re > 1000

and Re is defined by Equation 23.5-19 or 23.5-20. Note that if there is only one
dispersed phase, then dp = dq in Equation 23.5-25.
The symmetric model is recommended for flows in which the secondary (dispersed)
phase in one region of the domain becomes the primary (continuous) phase in
another. Thus for a single dispersed phase, dp = dq and (dp +d
2
q)
= dp . For example,
if air is injected into the bottom of a container filled halfway with water, the air
is the dispersed phase in the bottom half of the container; in the top half of the
container, the air is the continuous phase. This model can also be used for the
interaction between secondary phases.

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 23.5 Eulerian Model Theory

You can specify different exchange coefficients for each pair of phases. It is also possible
to use user-defined functions to define exchange coefficients for each pair of phases. If the
exchange coefficient is equal to zero (i.e., if no exchange coefficient is specified), the flow
fields for the fluids will be computed independently, with the only “interaction” being
their complementary volume fractions within each computational cell.

Fluid-Solid Exchange Coefficient

The fluid-solid exchange coefficient Ksl can be written in the following general form:

αs ρs f
Ksl = (23.5-28)
τs

where f is defined differently for the different exchange-coefficient models (as described
below), and τs , the “particulate relaxation time”, is defined as

ρs d2s
τs = (23.5-29)
18µl

where ds is the diameter of particles of phase s.

All definitions of f include a drag function (CD ) that is based on the relative Reynolds
number (Res ). It is this drag function that differs among the exchange-coefficient models.

• For the Syamlal-O’Brien model [363]

CD Res αl
f= 2
(23.5-30)
24vr,s

where the drag function has a form derived by Dalla Valle [74]
 2
4.8
CD = 0.63 + q  (23.5-31)
Res /vr,s

This model is based on measurements of the terminal velocities of particles in

fluidized or settling beds, with correlations that are a function of the volume fraction
and relative Reynolds number [306]:

ρl ds |~vs − ~vl |
Res = (23.5-32)
µl

where the subscript l is for the lth fluid phase, s is for the sth solid phase, and ds is
the diameter of the sth solid phase particles.

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The fluid-solid exchange coefficient has the form

!
3αs αl ρl Res
Ksl = 2
CD |~vs − ~vl | (23.5-33)
4vr,s ds vr,s

where vr,s is the terminal velocity correlation for the solid phase [115]:

 q 
2
vr,s = 0.5 A − 0.06 Res + (0.06 Res ) + 0.12 Res (2B − A) + A2 (23.5-34)

with

A = αl4.14 (23.5-35)

and

B = 0.8αl1.28 (23.5-36)

for αl ≤ 0.85, and

B = αl2.65 (23.5-37)

for αl > 0.85.

This model is appropriate when the solids shear stresses are defined according to
Syamlal et al. [364] (Equation 23.5-64).

• For the model of Wen and Yu [397], the fluid-solid exchange coefficient is of the
following form:

3 αs αl ρl |~vs − ~vl | −2.65

Ksl = CD αl (23.5-38)
4 ds
where

24 h i
CD = 1 + 0.15(αl Res )0.687 (23.5-39)
αl Res
and Res is defined by Equation 23.5-32.
This model is appropriate for dilute systems.

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 23.5 Eulerian Model Theory

• The Gidaspow model [121] is a combination of the Wen and Yu model [397] and
the Ergun equation [98].
When αl > 0.8, the fluid-solid exchange coefficient Ksl is of the following form:

3 αs αl ρl |~vs − ~vl | −2.65

Ksl = CD αl (23.5-40)
4 ds
where

24 h i
CD = 1 + 0.15(αl Res )0.687 (23.5-41)
αl Res
When αl ≤ 0.8,

αs (1 − αl )µl ρl αs |~vs − ~vl |

Ksl = 150 2
+ 1.75 (23.5-42)
αl ds ds
This model is recommended for dense fluidized beds.

Solid-Solid Exchange Coefficient

The solid-solid exchange coefficient Kls has the following form [362]:
 2

3 (1 + els ) π
2
+ Cfr,ls π8 αs ρs αl ρl (dl + ds )2 g0,ls
Kls = |~vl − ~vs | (23.5-43)
2π (ρl d3l + ρs d3s )

where
els = the coefficient of restitution
Cfr,ls = the coefficient of friction between the lth and sth
solid-phase particles (Cfr,ls = 0)
dl = the diameter of the particles of solid l
g0,ls = the radial distribution coefficient
Note that the coefficient of restitution is described in Section 23.5.5: Solids Pressure
and the radial distribution coefficient is described in Section 23.5.5: Radial Distribution
Function.

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23.5.5 Solids Pressure

For granular flows in the compressible regime (i.e., where the solids volume fraction is less
than its maximum allowed value), a solids pressure is calculated independently and used
for the pressure gradient term, ∇ps , in the granular-phase momentum equation. Because
a Maxwellian velocity distribution is used for the particles, a granular temperature is
introduced into the model, and appears in the expression for the solids pressure and
viscosities. The solids pressure is composed of a kinetic term and a second term due to
particle collisions:

ps = αs ρs Θs + 2ρs (1 + ess )αs2 g0,ss Θs (23.5-44)

where ess is the coefficient of restitution for particle collisions, g0,ss is the radial distribu-
tion function, and Θs is the granular temperature. FLUENT uses a default value of 0.9
for ess , but the value can be adjusted to suit the particle type. The granular temperature
Θs is proportional to the kinetic energy of the fluctuating particle motion, and will be
described later in this section. The function g0,ss (described below in more detail) is a
distribution function that governs the transition from the “compressible” condition with
α < αs,max , where the spacing between the solid particles can continue to decrease, to
the “incompressible” condition with α = αs,max , where no further decrease in the spacing
can occur. A value of 0.63 is the default for αs,max , but you can modify it during the
problem setup.
Other formulations that are also available in FLUENT are [364]

ps = 2ρs (1 + ess )αs2 g0,ss Θs (23.5-45)

and [227]

1
ps = αs ρs Θs [(1 + 4αs g0,ss ) + [(1 + ess )(1 − ess + 2µf ric )]] (23.5-46)
2
When more than one solids phase are calculated, the above expression does not take into
account the effect of other phases. A derivation of the expressions from the Boltzman
equations for a granular mixture are beyond the scope of this manual, however there is
a need to provide a better formulation so that some properties may feel the presence of
other phases. A known problem is that N solids phases with identical properties should be
consistent when the same phases are described by a single solids phase. Equations derived
empirically may not satisfy this property and need to be changed accordingly without
deviating significantly from the original form. From [120], a general solids pressure
formulation in the presence of other phases could be of the form

N
π
g0,pq d3qp nq np (1 + eqp )f (mp , mq , Θp , Θq )
X
pq = αq ρq Θq + (23.5-47)
p=1 3

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 23.5 Eulerian Model Theory

where dpq = dp +d
2
q
is the average diameter, np , nq are the number of particles, mp and mq
are the masses of the particles in phases p and q, and f is a function of the masses of the
particles and their granular temperatures. For now, we have to simplify this expression
so that it depends only on the granular temperature of phase q

N
X d3pq
pq = αq ρq Θq + 2 (1 + epq )g0,pq αq αp ρq Θq (23.5-48)
p=1 d3q

Since all models need to be cast in the general form, it follows that

N
X d3pq
pq = αq ρq Θq + ( pc,qp )ρq Θq (23.5-49)
p=1 d3q

where pc,qp is the collisional part of the pressure between phases q and p.
The above expression reverts to the one solids phase expression when N = 1 and q = p
but also has the property of feeling the presence of other phases.

Radial Distribution Function

The radial distribution function, g0 , is a correction factor that modifies the probability
of collisions between grains when the solid granular phase becomes dense. This function
may also be interpreted as the nondimensional distance between spheres:

s + dp
g0 = (23.5-50)
s
where s is the distance between grains. From Equation 23.5-50 it can be observed that
for a dilute solid phase s → ∞, and therefore g0 → 1. In the limit when the solid phase
compacts, s → 0 and g0 → ∞. The radial distribution function is closely connected
to the factor χ of Chapman and Cowling’s [52] theory of nonuniform gases. χ is equal
to 1 for a rare gas, and increases and tends to infinity when the molecules are so close
together that motion is not possible.

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Modeling Multiphase Flows

In the literature there is no unique formulation for the radial distribution function. FLU-
ENT has a number of options:

• For one solids phase, use [268]:

 ! 1 −1
αs 3
g0 = 1 −  (23.5-51)
αs,max

This is an empirical function and does not extends easily to n phases. For two
identical phases with the property that αq = α1 + α2 , the above function is not
consistent for the calculation of the partial pressures p1 and p2 , pq = p1 + p2 . In
order to correct this problem, FLUENT uses the following consistent formulation:
 ! 1 −1 N
αs 3
1 X αk
g0,ll = 1 −  + dl (23.5-52)
αs,max 2 k=1 dk

where

N
X
αs = αk (23.5-53)
k=1

and k are solids phases only.

• The following expression is also available [152]:

N
1 3 X αk
g0,ll = αs + dl (23.5-54)
(1 − αs,max ) 2 k=1 dk

• Also available [227], slightly modified for n solids phases, is the following:

N
1 + 2.5αs + 4.59αs2 + 4.52αs3 1 X αk
g0,ll = 3 0.678 + dl (23.5-55)
2 k=1 dk
 
αs
1− αs,max

• The following equation [364] is available:

αk
3( N
P
1 k=1 dk )
g0,kl = + dk dl (23.5-56)
(1 − αs ) (1 − αs )2 (dj + dk )

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 23.5 Eulerian Model Theory

When the number of solid phases is greater than 1, Equation 23.5-52, Equation 23.5-54
and Equation 23.5-55 are extended to

dm g0,ll + dl g0,mm
g0,lm = (23.5-57)
dm + dl

It is interesting to note that equations Equation 23.5-54 and Equation 23.5-55 compare
well with [6] experimental data, while Equation 23.5-56 reverts to the [48] derivation.

23.5.6 Maximum Packing Limit in Binary Mixtures

The packing limit is not a fixed quantity and may change according to the number of
particles present within a given volume and the diameter of the particles. Small particles
accumulate in between larger particles increasing the packing limit. For a binary mixture
FLUENT uses the correlations proposed by [101].
For a binary mixture with diameters d1 > d2 , the mixture composition is defined as
X1 = α1α+α
1
2

where

α1,max
X1 <= (23.5-58)
(α1,max + (1 − α1,max )α2,max )

The maximum packing limit for the mixture is given by

s
d2
αs,max = (α1,max − α2,max + [1 − ](1 − α1,max )α2,max ) (23.5-59)
d1
X1
∗(α1,max + (1 − α1,max )α2,max )
α1,max
+α2,max (23.5-60)

otherwise, the maximum packing limit for the binary mixture is

s
d2
[1 − ](α1,max + (1 − α1,max )α2,max )(1 − X1 ) + α1,max (23.5-61)
d1

The packing limit is used for the calculation of the radial distribution function.

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23.5.7 Solids Shear Stresses

The solids stress tensor contains shear and bulk viscosities arising from particle momen-
tum exchange due to translation and collision. A frictional component of viscosity can
also be included to account for the viscous-plastic transition that occurs when particles
of a solid phase reach the maximum solid volume fraction.
The collisional and kinetic parts, and the optional frictional part, are added to give the
solids shear viscosity:

µs = µs,col + µs,kin + µs,fr (23.5-62)

Collisional Viscosity
The collisional part of the shear viscosity is modeled as [121, 364]

1/2
4 Θs

µs,col = αs ρs ds g0,ss (1 + ess ) (23.5-63)
5 π

Kinetic Viscosity
FLUENT provides two expressions for the kinetic part.
The default expression is from Syamlal et al. [364]:
√
αs ds ρs Θs π 2
 
µs,kin = 1 + (1 + ess ) (3ess − 1) αs g0,ss (23.5-64)
6 (3 − ess ) 5

The following optional expression from Gidaspow et al. [121] is also available:
√ 2
10ρs ds Θs π 4

µs,kin = 1 + g0,ss αs (1 + ess ) (23.5-65)
96αs (1 + ess ) g0,ss 5

Bulk Viscosity
The solids bulk viscosity accounts for the resistance of the granular particles to compres-
sion and expansion. It has the following form from Lun et al. [222]:

1/2
4 Θs

λs = αs ρs ds g0,ss (1 + ess ) (23.5-66)
3 π
Note that the bulk viscosity is set to a constant value of zero, by default. It is also
possible to select the Lun et al. expression or use a user-defined function.

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 23.5 Eulerian Model Theory

Frictional Viscosity
In dense flow at low shear, where the secondary volume fraction for a solid phase nears
the packing limit, the generation of stress is mainly due to friction between particles.
The solids shear viscosity computed by FLUENT does not, by default, account for the
friction between particles.
If the frictional viscosity is included in the calculation, FLUENT uses Schaeffer’s [319]
expression:

ps sin φ
µs,fr = √ (23.5-67)
2 I2D

where ps is the solids pressure, φ is the angle of internal friction, and I2D is the second
invariant of the deviatoric stress tensor. It is also possible to specify a constant or user-
defined frictional viscosity.
In granular flows with high solids volume fraction, instantaneous collisions are less im-
portant. The application of kinetic theory to granular flows is no longer relevant since
particles are in contact and the resulting frictional stresses need to be taken into account.
FLUENT extends the formulation of the frictional viscosity and employs other models, as
well as providing new hooks for UDFs. See the separate UDF Manual for details.
The frictional stresses are usually written in Newtonian form:

~
τf riction = −Pf riction I~ + µf riction (∇~us + (∇~us )T ) (23.5-68)

The frictional stress is added to the stress predicted by the kinetic theory when the solids
volume fraction exceeds a critical value. This value is normally set to 0.5 when the flow
is three-dimensional and the maximum packing limit is about 0.63. Then

PS = Pkinetic + Pf riction (23.5-69)

µS = µkinetic + µf riction (23.5-70)

The derivation of the frictional pressure is mainly semi-empirical, while the frictional vis-
cosity can be derived from the first principles. The application of the modified Coulomb
law leads to an expression of the form

Pf riction sin φ
µf riction = √ (23.5-71)
2 I2D

Where φ is the angle of internal friction and I2D is the second invariant of the deviatoric
stress tensor.

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Two additional models are available in FLUENT: the Johnson and Jackson [166] model
for frictional pressure and Syamlal et al [364].
The Johnson and Jackson [166] model for frictional pressure is defined as

(αs − αs,min )n
Pf riction = Fr (23.5-72)
(αs,max − αs )p

With coefficient Fr = 0.05, n=2 and p = 3 [267]. The critical value for the solids volume
fraction is 0.5. The coefficient Fr was modified to make it a function of the volume
fraction:

F r = 0.1αs (23.5-73)

The frictional viscosity for this model is of the form

µf riction = Pf riction sin φ (23.5-74)

The second model that is employed is Syamlal et al [364], described in Equation 23.5-64.
Comparing the two models results in the frictional normal stress differing by orders of
magnitude.
The radial distribution function is an important parameter in the description of the solids
pressure resulting from granular kinetic theory. If we use the models of Lun et al. [222] or
Gidaspow [120] the radial function tends to infinity as the volume fraction tends to the
packing limit. It would then be possible to use this pressure directly in the calculation
of the frictional viscosity, as it has the desired effect. This approach is also available in
FLUENT by default.

i The introduction of the frictional viscosity helps in the description of fric-

tional flows, however a complete description would require the introduction
of more physics to capture the elastic regime with the calculation of the
yield stress and the use of the flow-rule. These effects can be added by the
user via UDFs to model static regime. Small time steps are required to get
good convergence behavior.

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23.5.8 Granular Temperature

The granular temperature for the sth solids phase is proportional to the kinetic energy of
the random motion of the particles. The transport equation derived from kinetic theory
takes the form [81]

" #
3 ∂
(ρs αs Θs ) + ∇ · (ρs αs~vs Θs ) = (−ps I+τ s ) : ∇~vs +∇·(kΘs ∇Θs )−γΘs +φls (23.5-75)
2 ∂t

where
(−ps I + τ s ) : ∇~vs = the generation of energy by the solid stress tensor
kΘs ∇Θs = the diffusion of energy (kΘs is the diffusion coefficient)
γΘs = the collisional dissipation of energy
φls = the energy exchange between the lth
fluid or solid phase and the sth solid phase
Equation 23.5-75 contains the term kΘs ∇Θs describing the diffusive flux of granular
energy. When the default Syamlal et al. model [364] is used, the diffusion coefficient for
granular energy, kΘs is given by

√
15ds ρs αs Θs π 12 16
 
kΘs = 1 + η 2 (4η − 3)αs g0,ss + (41 − 33η)ηαs g0,ss ) (23.5-76)
4(41 − 33η) 5 15π

where

1
η = (1 + ess )
2
FLUENT uses the following expression if the optional model of Gidaspow et al. [121] is
enabled:

q s
150ρs ds (Θπ)  6
2
2 Θs
kΘs = 1 + αs g0,ss (1 + es ) + 2ρs αs ds (1 + ess )g0,ss (23.5-77)
384(1 + ess )g0,ss 5 π

The collisional dissipation of energy, γΘs , represents the rate of energy dissipation within
the sth solids phase due to collisions between particles. This term is represented by the
expression derived by Lun et al. [222]

12(1 − e2ss )g0,ss

γΘm = √ ρs αs2 Θ3/2
s (23.5-78)
ds π

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The transfer of the kinetic energy of random fluctuations in particle velocity from the sth
solids phase to the lth fluid or solid phase is represented by φls [121]:

φls = −3Kls Θs (23.5-79)

FLUENT allows the user to solve for the granular temperature with the following options:

• algebraic formulation (the default)

It is obtained by neglecting convection and diffusion in the transport equation,
Equation 23.5-75 [364].
• partial differential equation
This is given by Equation 23.5-75 and it is allowed to choose different options for
it properties.
• constant granular temperature
This is useful in very dense situations where the random fluctuations are small.
• UDF for granular temperature

For a granular phase s, we may write the shear force at the wall in the following form:
π√ αs q
τ~s = − 3φ ρs g0 Θs U~s,|| (23.5-80)
6 αs,max

Here U~s,|| is the particle slip velocity parallel to the wall, φ is the specularity coefficient
between the particle and the wall, αs,max is the volume fraction for the particles at
maximum packing, and g0 is the radial distribution function that is model dependent.
The general boundary condition for granular temperature at the wall takes the form
[166]

π√ αs q π √ αs 3
qs = 3φ ρs g0 Θs )U~s,|| · U~s,|| − 3 (1 − e2sw )ρs g0 Θs2 (23.5-81)
6 αs,max 4 αs,max

23.5.9 Description of Heat Transfer

The internal energy balance for phase q is written in terms of the phase enthalpy, Equa-
tion 23.5-11, defined by
Z
Hq = cp,q dTq (23.5-82)

where cp,q is the specific heat at constant pressure of phase q. The thermal boundary
conditions used with multiphase flows are the same as those for a single-phase flow. See
Chapter 7: Boundary Conditions for details.

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 23.5 Eulerian Model Theory

The Heat Exchange Coefficient

The rate of energy transfer between phases is assumed to be a function of the temperature
difference

Qpq = hpq (Tp − Tq ) (23.5-83)

where hpq (= hqp ) is the heat transfer coefficient between the pth phase and the q th phase.
The heat transfer coefficient is related to the pth phase Nusselt number, Nup , by

6κq αp αq Nup
hpq = (23.5-84)
dp 2

Here κq is the thermal conductivity of the q th phase. The Nusselt number is typically
determined from one of the many correlations reported in the literature. In the case of
fluid-fluid multiphase, FLUENT uses the correlation of Ranz and Marshall [296, 297]:

Nup = 2.0 + 0.6Re1/2

p Pr
1/3
(23.5-85)

where Rep is the relative Reynolds number based on the diameter of the pth phase and
the relative velocity |u~p − u~q |, and Pr is the Prandtl number of the q th phase:

c p q µq
Pr = (23.5-86)
κq

In the case of granular flows (where p = s), FLUENT uses a Nusselt number correlation
by Gunn [130], applicable to a porosity range of 0.35–1.0 and a Reynolds number of up
to 105 :

Nus = (7 − 10αf + 5αf2 )(1 + 0.7Re0.2

s Pr
1/3
) + (1.33 − 2.4αf + 1.2αf2 )Re0.7
s Pr
1/3
(23.5-87)

The Prandtl number is defined as above with q = f . For all these situations, hpq should
tend to zero whenever one of the phases is not present within the domain. To enforce
this, hpq is always multiplied by the volume fraction of the primary phase q, as reflected
in Equation 23.5-84.

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23.5.10 Turbulence Models

To describe the effects of turbulent fluctuations of velocities and scalar quantities in
a single phase, FLUENT uses various types of closure models, as described in Chap-
ter 12: Modeling Turbulence. In comparison to single-phase flows, the number of terms
to be modeled in the momentum equations in multiphase flows is large, and this makes
the modeling of turbulence in multiphase simulations extremely complex.
FLUENT provides three methods for modeling turbulence in multiphase flows within the
context of the k- models. In addition, FLUENT provides two turbulence options within
the context of the Reynolds stress models (RSM).
The k- turbulence model options are:

• mixture turbulence model (the default)

• dispersed turbulence model

• turbulence model for each phase

i Note that the descriptions of each method below are presented based on
the standard k- model. The multiphase modifications to the RNG and
realizable k- models are similar, and are therefore not presented explicitly.
The RSM turbulence model options are:

• mixture turbulence model (the default)

• dispersed turbulence model

For either category, the choice of model depends on the importance of the secondary-
phase turbulence in your application.

k- Turbulence Models

FLUENT provides three turbulence model options in the context of the k- models: the
mixture turbulence model (the default), the dispersed turbulence model, or a per-phase
turbulence model.

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 23.5 Eulerian Model Theory

k- Mixture Turbulence Model

The mixture turbulence model is the default multiphase turbulence model. It represents
the first extension of the single-phase k- model, and it is applicable when phases separate,
for stratified (or nearly stratified) multiphase flows, and when the density ratio between
phases is close to 1. In these cases, using mixture properties and mixture velocities is
sufficient to capture important features of the turbulent flow.
The k and  equations describing this model are as follows:

∂ µt,m
 
(ρm k) + ∇ · (ρm~vm k) = ∇ · ∇k + Gk,m − ρm  (23.5-88)
∂t σk

and

∂ µt,m 
 
(ρm ) + ∇ · (ρm~vm ) = ∇ · ∇ + (C1 Gk,m − C2 ρm ) (23.5-89)
∂t σ k

where the mixture density and velocity, ρm and ~vm , are computed from

N
X
ρm = αi ρi (23.5-90)
i=1

and

N
X
αi ρi~vi
i=1
~vm = N
(23.5-91)
X
αi ρi
i=1

the turbulent viscosity, µt,m , is computed from

k2
µt,m = ρm Cµ (23.5-92)

and the production of turbulence kinetic energy, Gk,m , is computed from

Gk,m = µt,m (∇~vm + (∇~vm )T ) : ∇~vm (23.5-93)

The constants in these equations are the same as those described in Section 12.4.1: Stan-
dard k- Model for the single-phase k- model.

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k- Dispersed Turbulence Model

The dispersed turbulence model is the appropriate model when the concentrations of the
secondary phases are dilute. In this case, interparticle collisions are negligible and the
dominant process in the random motion of the secondary phases is the influence of the
primary-phase turbulence. Fluctuating quantities of the secondary phases can therefore
be given in terms of the mean characteristics of the primary phase and the ratio of the
particle relaxation time and eddy-particle interaction time.
The model is applicable when there is clearly one primary continuous phase and the rest
are dispersed dilute secondary phases.

Assumptions

The dispersed method for modeling turbulence in FLUENT assumes the following:

• a modified k- model for the continuous phase

Turbulent predictions for the continuous phase are obtained using the standard
k- model supplemented with extra terms that include the interphase turbulent
momentum transfer.

• Tchen-theory correlations for the dispersed phases

Predictions for turbulence quantities for the dispersed phases are obtained using the
Tchen theory of dispersion of discrete particles by homogeneous turbulence [142].

• interphase turbulent momentum transfer

In turbulent multiphase flows, the momentum exchange terms contain the cor-
relation between the instantaneous distribution of the dispersed phases and the
turbulent fluid motion. It is possible to take into account the dispersion of the
dispersed phases transported by the turbulent fluid motion.

• a phase-weighted averaging process

The choice of averaging process has an impact on the modeling of dispersion in
turbulent multiphase flows. A two-step averaging process leads to the appearance
of fluctuations in the phase volume fractions. When the two-step averaging pro-
cess is used with a phase-weighted average for the turbulence, however, turbulent
fluctuations in the volume fractions do not appear. FLUENT uses phase-weighted
averaging, so no volume fraction fluctuations are introduced into the continuity
equations.

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 23.5 Eulerian Model Theory

Turbulence in the Continuous Phase

The eddy viscosity model is used to calculate averaged fluctuating quantities. The
Reynolds stress tensor for continuous phase q takes the following form:

00 2 ~ q )I + ρq µt,q (∇U ~qT )

~ q + ∇U
τ q = − (ρq kq + ρq µt,q ∇ · U (23.5-94)
3
~ q is the phase-weighted velocity.
where U
The turbulent viscosity µt,q is written in terms of the turbulent kinetic energy of phase
q:

kq2
µt,q = ρq Cµ (23.5-95)
q

and a characteristic time of the energetic turbulent eddies is defined as

3 kq
τt,q = Cµ (23.5-96)
2 q

where q is the dissipation rate and Cµ = 0.09.

The length scale of the turbulent eddies is
s
3 kq3/2
Lt,q = Cµ (23.5-97)
2 q

Turbulent predictions are obtained from the modified k- model:

∂ ~ q kq ) = ∇ · (αq µt,q ∇kq ) + αq Gk,q − αq ρq q + αq ρq Πkq (23.5-98)

(αq ρq kq ) + ∇ · (αq ρq U
∂t σk

and

∂ ~ q q ) = ∇ · (αq µt,q ∇q ) + αq q (C1 Gk,q − C2 ρq q ) + αq ρq Πq

(αq ρq q ) + ∇ · (αq ρq U
∂t σ kq
(23.5-99)
Here Πkq and Πq represent the influence of the dispersed phases on the continuous phase
q, and Gk,q is the production of turbulent kinetic energy, as defined in Section 12.4.4: Mod-
eling Turbulent Production in the k- Models. All other terms have the same meaning
as in the single-phase k- model.

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The term Πkq can be derived from the instantaneous equation of the continuous phase
and takes the following form, where M represents the number of secondary phases:

M
Kpq ~p − U
~ q ) · ~vdr )
(< ~vq00 · ~vp00 > +(U
X
Πk q = (23.5-100)
p=1 αq ρq

which can be simplified to

M
X Kpq
Πk q = (kpq − 2kq + ~vpq · ~vdr ) (23.5-101)
p=1 αq ρq

where klq is the covariance of the velocities of the continuous phase q and the dispersed
phase l (calculated from Equation 23.5-109 below), ~vpq is the relative velocity, and ~vdr is
the drift velocity (defined by Equation 23.5-114 below).
Πq is modeled according to Elgobashi et al. [97]:

q
Πq = C3 Πk (23.5-102)
kq q

where C3 = 1.2.

Turbulence in the Dispersed Phase

Time and length scales that characterize the motion are used to evaluate dispersion
coefficients, correlation functions, and the turbulent kinetic energy of each dispersed
phase.
The characteristic particle relaxation time connected with inertial effects acting on a
dispersed phase p is defined as
!
−1 ρp
τF,pq = αp ρq Kpq + CV (23.5-103)
ρq

The Lagrangian integral time scale calculated along particle trajectories, mainly affected
by the crossing-trajectory effect [70], is defined as

τt,q
τt,pq = q (23.5-104)
(1 + Cβ ξ 2 )

where

|~vpq |τt,q
ξ= (23.5-105)
Lt,q

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 23.5 Eulerian Model Theory

and

Cβ = 1.8 − 1.35 cos2 θ (23.5-106)

where θ is the angle between the mean particle velocity and the mean relative velocity.
The ratio between these two characteristic times is written as

τt,pq
ηpq = (23.5-107)
τF,pq

Following Simonin [334], FLUENT writes the turbulence quantities for dispersed phase p
as follows:

b2 + ηpq
!
kp = kq (23.5-108)
1 + ηpq
!
b + ηpq
kpq = 2kq (23.5-109)
1 + ηpq
1
Dt,pq = kpq τt,pq (23.5-110)
3
2 1
 
Dp = Dt,pq + kp − b kpq τF,pq (23.5-111)
3 3
!−1
ρp
b = (1 + CV ) + CV (23.5-112)
ρq

and CV = 0.5 is the added-mass coefficient.

Interphase Turbulent Momentum Transfer

The turbulent drag term for multiphase flows (Kpq (~vp −~vq ) in Equation 23.5-7) is modeled
as follows, for dispersed phase p and continuous phase q:

~p − U
Kpq (~vp − ~vq ) = Kpq (U ~ q ) − Kpq~vdr (23.5-113)

The second term on the right-hand side of Equation 23.5-113 contains the drift velocity:
!
Dp Dq
~vdr = − ∇αp − ∇αq (23.5-114)
σpq αp σpq αq

Here Dp and Dq are diffusivities, and σpq is a dispersion Prandtl number. When using
Tchen theory in multiphase flows, FLUENT assumes Dp = Dq = Dt,pq and the default
value for σpq is 0.75.

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Modeling Multiphase Flows

The drift velocity results from turbulent fluctuations in the volume fraction. When
multiplied by the exchange coefficient Kpq , it serves as a correction to the momentum
exchange term for turbulent flows. This correction is not included, by default, but you
can enable it during the problem setup.
You can enable the effect of drift velocity by performing the following:

1. If it is not already done, set the k-epsilon Multiphase Model to Dispersed in the
Viscous panel.

2. Enter the multiphase-options text command in the console window.

define −→ models −→ viscous −→ multiphase-turbulence −→
multiphase-options

/define/models/viscous/multiphase-turbulence> multiphase-options
Enable dispersion force in momentum? [no] yes
Enable interphase k-epsilon source? [no] yes

The effect of the drift velocity is influenced both by the momentum equation and,
to a lesser extent, the turbulence equation. Therefore, you should answer yes to
both questions to take into account the effect of drift velocity.

k- Turbulence Model for Each Phase

The most general multiphase turbulence model solves a set of k and  transport equations
for each phase. This turbulence model is the appropriate choice when the turbulence
transfer among the phases plays a dominant role.
Note that, since FLUENT is solving two additional transport equations for each sec-
ondary phase, the per-phase turbulence model is more computationally intensive than
the dispersed turbulence model.

Transport Equations

The Reynolds stress tensor and turbulent viscosity are computed using Equations 23.5-94
and 23.5-95. Turbulence predictions are obtained from

∂ ~ q kq ) = ∇ · (αq µt,q ∇kq ) + (αq Gk,q − αq ρq q ) +

(αq ρq kq ) + ∇ · (αq ρq U
∂t σk
N N N
X X
~ ~ µt,l X
~ q )· µt,q ∇αq (23.5-115)
~l −U
Klq (Clq kl −Cql kq )− Klq (Ul − Uq )· ∇αl + Klq (U
l=1 l=1 αl σl l=1 αq σq

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 23.5 Eulerian Model Theory

and

"
∂ ~ q q ) = ∇ · (αq µt,q ∇q ) + q
(αq ρq q ) + ∇ · (αq ρq U C1 αq Gk,q − C2 αq ρq q +
∂t σ kq
N N N
!#
~ q ) · µt,l ∇αl +
~l − U ~ q ) · µt,q ∇αq
~l − U
X X X
C3 Klq (Clq kl − Cql kq ) − Klq (U Klq (U
l=1 l=1 αl σl l=1 αq σq
(23.5-116)
The terms Clq and Cql can be approximated as
!
ηlq
Clq = 2, Cql = 2 (23.5-117)
1 + ηlq

where ηlq is defined by Equation 23.5-107.

Interphase Turbulent Momentum Transfer

The turbulent drag term (Kpq (~vp − ~vq ) in Equation 23.5-7) is modeled as follows, where
l is the dispersed phase (replacing p in Equation 23.5-7) and q is the continuous phase:

N N N
~l − U
~q) −
X X X
Klq (~vl − ~vq ) = Klq (U Klq~vdr,lq (23.5-118)
l=1 l=1 l=1

Here U~ l and U
~ q are phase-weighted velocities, and ~vdr,lq is the drift velocity for phase
l (computed using Equation 23.5-114, substituting l for p). Note that FLUENT will
compute the diffusivities Dl and Dq directly from the transport equations, rather than
using Tchen theory (as it does for the dispersed turbulence model).
As noted above, the drift velocity results from turbulent fluctuations in the volume
fraction. When multiplied by the exchange coefficient Klq , it serves as a correction to
the momentum exchange term for turbulent flows. This correction is not included, by
default, but you can enable it during the problem setup.
The turbulence model for each phase in FLUENT accounts for the effect of the turbulence
field of one phase on the other(s). If you want to modify or enhance the interaction of the
multiple turbulence fields and interphase turbulent momentum transfer, you can supply
these terms using user-defined functions.

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Modeling Multiphase Flows

RSM Turbulence Models

Multiphase turbulence modeling typically involves two equation models that are based
on single-phase models and often cannot accurately capture the underlying flow physics.
Additional turbulence modeling for multiphase flows is diminished even more when the
basic underlying single-phase model cannot capture the complex physics of the flow. In
such situations, the logical next step is to combine the Reynolds stress model with the
multiphase algorithm in order to handle challenging situations in which both factors,
RSM for turbulence and the Eulerian multiphase formulation, are a precondition for
accurate predictions [66].
The phase-averaged continuity and momentum equations for a continuous phase are:

∂
(αc ρc ) + ∇ · (αc ρc Ũc ) = 0 (23.5-119)
∂t

∂
Ũc ) = −αc ∇p̃ + ∇ · τ̃ct + FDc
O
(αc ρrmc Ũc ) + ∇ · (αc ρrmc Ũc (23.5-120)
∂t
For simplicity, the laminar stress-strain tensor and other body forces such as gravity
have been omitted from Equations 23.5-119-23.5-120. The tilde denotes phase-averaged
variables while an overbar (e.g., αc ) reflects time-averaged values. In general, any variable
Φ can have a phase-average value defined as

αc Φc
Φ̃c = (23.5-121)
αc

Considering only two phases for simplicity, the drag force between the continuous and
the dispersed phases can be defined as:

αd u0d αc u0c
" !#
FDc = Kdc (Ũd − Ũc ) − − (23.5-122)
αd αc

where Kdc is the drag coefficient. Several terms in the Equation 23.5-122 need to be
modeled in order to close the phase-averaged momentum equations. Full descriptions of
all modeling assumptions can be found in [65]. This section only describes the different
modeling definition of the turbulent stresses τ˜t that appears in Equation 23.5-120.
The turbulent stress that appears in the momentum equations need to be defined on a
per-phase basis and can be calculated as:

τ˜t k = −αk ρk R̃k,ij (23.5-123)

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where the subscript k is replaced by c for the primary (i.e., continuous) phase or by d for
any secondary (i.e., dispersed) phases. As is the case for single-phase flows, the current
multiphase Reynolds stress model (RSM) also solves the transport equations for Reynolds
stresses Rij . FLUENT includes two methods for modeling turbulence in multiphase flows
within the context of the RSM model: the dispersed turbulence model, and the mixture
turbulence model.

RSM Dispersed Turbulence Model

The dispersed turbulence model is used when the concentrations of the secondary phase
are dilute and the primary phase turbulence is regarded as the dominant process. Conse-
quently, the transport equations for turbulence quantities are only solved for the primary
(continuous) phase, while the predictions of turbulence quantities for dispersed phases
are obtained using the Tchen theory. The transport equation for the primary phase
Reynolds stresses in the case of the dispersed model are:

! " #
∂ ∂ ∂ Ũj ∂ Ũi ∂ ∂
(αρR̃ij ) + (αρŨk R̃ij ) = −αρ R̃ik + R̃jk + αµ (R̃ij )
∂t ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk
∂ ∂u0 ∂u0
− [αρu0i u0j u0k ] + αp( i + j )
∂xk ∂xj ∂xi
− αρ˜ij + ΠR,ij (23.5-124)

The variables in Equation 23.5-124 are per continuous phase c and the subscript is omitted
for clarity. The last term of Equation 23.5-124, ΠR,ij , takes into account the interaction
between the continuous and the dispersed phase turbulence. A general model for this
term can be of the form:

ΠR,ij = Kdc C1,dc (Rdc,ij − Rc,ij ) + Kdc C2,dc adc,i bdc,j (23.5-125)

where C1 and C2 are unknown coefficients, adc,i is the relative velocity, bdc,j represents
the drift or the relative velocity, and Rdc,ij is the unknown particulate-fluid velocity
correlation. To simplify this unknown term, the following assumption has been made:

2
ΠR,ij = δij Πk (23.5-126)
3
where δij is the Kronecker delta, and Πk represents the modified version of the original
Simonin model [334].

Πkc = Kdc (k̃dc − 2k̃c + Ṽrel · Ṽdrift ) (23.5-127)

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where K̃c represents the turbulent kinetic energy of the continuous phase, k̃dc is the
continuous-dispersed phase velocity covariance and finally, Ṽrel and Ṽdrift stand for the
relative and the drift velocities, respectively. In order to achieve full closure, the transport
equation for the turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rate (˜) is required. The modeling
of ˜ together with all other unknown terms in Equation 23.5-127 are modeled in the same
way as in [65].

RSM Mixture Turbulence Model

The main assumption for the mixture model is that all phases share the same turbu-
lence field which consequently means that the term ΠR in the Reynolds stress transport
equations (Equation 23.5-124) is neglected. Apart from that, the equations maintain the
same form but with phase properties and phase velocities being replaced with mixture
properties and mixture velocities. The mixture density, for example, can be expressed as

N
X
ρm = αi ρi (23.5-128)
i=1

while mixture velocities can be expressed as

PN
αi ρi Ũi
Ũm = Pi=1
N (23.5-129)
i=1 αi ρi

where N is the number of species.

23.5.11 Solution Method in FLUENT

For Eulerian multiphase calculations, FLUENT uses the phase coupled SIMPLE (PC-
SIMPLE) algorithm [380] for the pressure-velocity coupling. PC-SIMPLE is an extension
of the SIMPLE algorithm [277] to multiphase flows. The velocities are solved coupled by
phases, but in a segregated fashion. The block algebraic multigrid scheme used by the
density-based solver described in [395] is used to solve a vector equation formed by the
velocity components of all phases simultaneously. Then, a pressure correction equation
is built based on total volume continuity rather than mass continuity. Pressure and
velocities are then corrected so as to satisfy the continuity constraint.

The Pressure-Correction Equation

For incompressible multiphase flow, the pressure-correction equation takes the form

n n
( )
1 ∂
αk ρk + ∇ · αk ρk~vk0 + ∇ · αk ρk~vk∗ − ( (ṁlk − ṁkl )) = 0
X X
(23.5-130)
k=1 ρrk ∂t l=1

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 23.6 Wet Steam Model Theory

where ρrk is the phase reference density for the k th phase (defined as the total volume
average density of phase k), ~vk0 is the velocity correction for the k th phase, and ~vk∗ is the
value of ~vk at the current iteration. The velocity corrections are themselves expressed as
functions of the pressure corrections.

Volume Fractions
The volume fractions are obtained from the phase continuity equations. In discretized
form, the equation of the k th volume fraction is

X
ap,k αk = (anb,k αnb,k ) + bk = Rk (23.5-131)
nb

In order to satisfy the condition that all the volume fractions sum to one,

n
X
αk = 1 (23.5-132)
k=1

23.6 Wet Steam Model Theory

23.6.1 Overview and Limitations of the Wet Steam Model
Overview
During the rapid expansion of steam, a condensation process will take place shortly
after the state path crosses the vapor-saturation line. The expansion process causes the
super-heated dry steam to first subcool and then nucleate to form a two-phase mixture
of saturated vapor and fine liquid droplets known as wet steam.
Modeling wet steam is very important in the analysis and design of steam turbines. The
increase in steam turbine exit wetness can cause severe erosion to the turbine blades at
the low-pressure stages, and a reduction in aerodynamic efficiency of the turbine stages
operating in the wet steam region [251].
FLUENT has adopted the Eulerian-Eulerian approach for modeling wet steam flow. The
flow mixture is modeled using the compressible Navier-Stokes equations, in addition to
two transport equations for the liquid-phase mass-fraction (β), and the number of liquid-
droplets per unit volume (η). The phase change model, which involves the formation of
liquid-droplets in a homogeneous nonequilibrium condensation process, is based on the
classical nonisothermal nucleation theory.
This section describes the theoretical aspects of the wet steam model. Information about
enabling the model and using your own property functions and data with the wet steam
model is provided in Section 23.13: Setting Up the Wet Steam Model. Solution settings

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and strategies for the wet steam model can be found in Section 23.14.5: Wet Steam Model.
Postprocessing variables are described in Section 23.15.1: Model-Specific Variables.

Limitations
The following restrictions and limitations currently apply to the wet steam model in
FLUENT:

• The wet steam model is available for the density-based solvers only.

• Pressure inlet, mass-flow inlet, and pressure outlet are the only inflow and outflow
boundary conditions available.

• When the wet steam model is active, the access to the Materials panel is restricted
because the fluid mixture properties are determined from the built in steam prop-
erty functions or from the user-defined wet steam property functions. Therefore, if
solid properties need to be set and adjusted, then it must be done in the Materials
panel before activating the wet steam model.

23.6.2 Wet Steam Flow Equations

The wet steam is a mixture of two-phases. The primary phase is the gaseous-phase
consisting of water-vapor (denoted by the subscript v) while the secondary phase is the
liquid-phase consisting of condensed-water droplets (denoted by the subscript l).
The following assumptions are made in this model:

• The velocity slip between the droplets and gaseous-phase is negligible.

• The interactions between droplets are neglected.

• The mass fraction of the condensed phase, β (also known as wetness factor), is
small (β < 0.2).

• Since droplet sizes are typically very small (from approximately 0.1 microns to
approximately 100 microns), it is assumed that the volume of the condensed liquid
phase is negligible.

From the preceding assumptions, it follows that the mixture density (ρ) can be related
to the vapor density (ρv ) by the following equation:

ρv
ρ= (23.6-1)
(1 − β)

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 23.6 Wet Steam Model Theory

In addition, the temperature and the pressure of the mixture will be equivalent to the
temperature and pressure of the vapor-phase.
The mixture flow is governed by the compressible Navier-Stokes equations given in vector
form by Equation 25.5-4:

∂W ∂ Z I Z
Q dV + [F − G] · dA = H dV (23.6-2)
∂Q ∂t V V

where Q=(P,u,v,w,T) are mixture quantities. The flow equations are solved using the
same density-based solver algorithms employed for general compressible flows.
To model wet steam, two additional transport equations are needed [153]. The first
transport equation governs the mass fraction of the condensed liquid phase (β):

∂ρβ
+ ∇ · (ρ−
→
v β) = Γ (23.6-3)
∂t
where Γ is the mass generation rate due to condensation and evaporation (kg per unit
volume per second). The second transport equation models the evolution of the number
density of the droplets per unit volume:

∂ρη
+ ∇ · (ρ−
→
v η) = ρI (23.6-4)
∂t
where I is the nucleation rate (number of new droplets per unit volume per second).
To determine the number of droplets per unit volume, Equation 23.6-1 and the average
droplet volume Vd are combined in the following expression:

β
η= (23.6-5)
(1 − β)Vd (ρl /ρv )

where ρl is the liquid density and the average droplet volume is defined as

4
Vd = πr3d (23.6-6)
3
where rd is the droplet radius.
Together, Equation 23.6-2, Equation 23.6-3, and Equation 23.6-4 form a closed system
of equations which, along with Equation 23.6-1, permit the calculation of the wet steam
flow field.

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23.6.3 Phase Change Model

The following is assumed in the phase change model:

• The condensation is homogeneous (i.e., no impurities present to form nuclei).

• The droplet growth is based on average representative mean radii.

• The droplet is assumed to be spherical.

• The droplet is surrounded by infinite vapor space.

• The heat capacity of the fine droplet is negligible compared with the latent heat
released in condensation.

The mass generation rate Γ in the classical nucleation theory during the nonequilibrium
condensation process is given by the sum of mass increase due to nucleation (the formation
of critically sized droplets) and also due to growth/demise of these droplets [153].
Therefore, Γ is written as:
4 ∂r
Γ = πρl Ir∗ 3 + 4πρl ηr2 (23.6-7)
3 ∂t

where r is the average radius of the droplet, and r∗ is the Kelvin-Helmholtz critical droplet
radius, above which the droplet will grow and below which the droplet will evaporate.
An expression for r∗ is given by [411].

2σ
r∗ = (23.6-8)
ρl RT ln S

where σ is the liquid surface tension evaluated at temperature T , ρl is the condensed

liquid density (also evaluated at temperature T ), and S is the super saturation ratio
defined as the ratio of vapor pressure to the equilibrium saturation pressure:

P
s= (23.6-9)
Psat (T )

The expansion process is usually very rapid. Therefore, when the state path crosses the
saturated-vapor line, the process will depart from equilibrium, and the supersaturation
ratio S can take on values greater than one.

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 23.6 Wet Steam Model Theory

The condensation process involves two mechanisms, the transfer of mass from the vapor
to the droplets and the transfer of heat from the droplets to the vapor in the form of
latent heat. This energy transfer relation was presented in [409] and used in [153] and
can be written as:

∂r P γ+1
= √ Cp (T0 − T ) (23.6-10)
∂t hlv ρl 2πRT 2γ

where T0 is the droplet temperature.

The classical homogeneous nucleation theory describes the formation of a liquid-phase
in the form of droplets from a supersaturated phase in the absence of impurities or
foreign particles. The nucleation rate described by the steady-state classical homogeneous
nucleation theory [411] and corrected for nonisothermal effects, is given by:

!s  
4πr∗ 2 σ
qc ρ2v 2σ − 3Kb T
I= e (23.6-11)
(1 + θ) ρl Mm 3 π

where qc is evaporation coefficient, kb is the Boltzmann constant, Mm is mass of one

molecule, σ is the liquid surface tension, and ρl is the liquid density at temperature T .
A nonisothermal correction factor, θ, is given by:
! !
2(γ − 1) hlv hlv
θ= − 0.5 (23.6-12)
(γ + 1) RT RT

where hlv is the specific enthalpy of evaporation at pressure p and γ is the ratio of specific
heat capacities.

23.6.4 Built-in Thermodynamic Wet Steam Properties

There are many equations that describe the thermodynamic state and properties of steam.
While some of these equations are accurate in generating property tables, they are not
suitable for fast CFD computations. Therefore, FLUENT uses a simpler form of the
thermodynamic state equations [410] for efficient CFD calculations that are accurate
over a wide range of temperatures and pressures. These equations are described below.

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Equation of State
The steam equation of state used in the solver, which relates the pressure to the vapor
density and the temperature, is given by [410]:

P = ρv RT (1 + Bρv + Cρv 2 ) (23.6-13)

where B, and C are the second and the third virial coefficients given by the following
empirical functions:

τ −1 5
B = a1 (1 + ) + a2 eτ (1 − e−τ ) 2 + a3 τ (23.6-14)
α

where B is given in m3 /kg, τ = 1500

T
with T given in Kelvin, α = 10000.0, a1 = 0.0015,
a2 = -0.000942, and a3 = -0.0004882.

C = a(τ − τ0 )e−ατ + b (23.6-15)

T
where C is given in m6 /kg 2 , τ = 647.286
with T given in Kelvin, τo = 0.8978, α=11.16,
a= 1.772, and b= 1.5E-06.
The two empirical functions that define the virial coefficients B and C cover the temper-
ature range from 273 K to 1073 K.
The vapor isobaric specific heat capacity Cpv is given by:

C2
   
Cpv = Cp0 (T ) + R [(1 − αv T )(B − B1 ) − B2 ] ρv + (1 − 2αv T )C + αv T C1 − ρv 2
2
(23.6-16)
The vapor specific enthalpy, hv is given by:

C1 2
 
hv = h0 (T ) + RT (B − B1 )ρv + (C − )ρv (23.6-17)
2
The vapor specific entropy, sv is given by:
" #
(C + C1 ) 2
sv = s0 (T ) − R ln ρv + (B + B1 )ρv + ρv (23.6-18)
2

The isobaric specific heat at zero pressure is defined by the following empirical equation:

X6
Cp0 (T ) = ai T i−2 (23.6-19)
i=1

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 23.6 Wet Steam Model Theory

where Cp0 is in KJ/kg K, a1 = 46.0, a2 = 1.47276, a3 = 8.38930E-04, a4 = -2.19989E-07,

a5 = 2.46619E-10, and a6 = -9.70466E-14.
and
2 2
B1 = T dB
dT
, C1 = T dC
dT
, B2 = T 2 dB
dT 2
, and C2 = T 2 dC
dT 2
.
Both h0 (T ) and s0 (T ) are functions of temperature and they are defined by:
Z
h0 (T ) = Cp0 dT + hc (23.6-20)

Z
Cp0
s0 (T ) = dT + sc (23.6-21)
T
where hc and sc are arbitrary constants.
The vapor dynamic viscosity µv and thermal conductivity Ktv are also functions of
temperature and were obtained from [409].

Saturated Vapor Line

The saturation pressure equation as a function of temperature was obtained from [302].
The example provided in Section 23.13.5: UDWSPF Example contains a function called
wetst satP() that represents the formulation for the saturation pressure.

Saturated Liquid Line

At the saturated liquid-line, the liquid density, surface tension, specific heat Cp, dynamic
viscosity, and thermal conductivity must be defined. The equation for liquid density, ρl ,
was obtained from [302]. The liquid surface tension equation was obtained from [409].
While the values of Cpl , µl and Ktl were curve fit using published data from [93] and
then written in polynomial forms. The example provided in Section 23.13.5: UDWSPF
Example contains functions called wetst cpl(), wetst mul(), and wetst ktl() that
represent formulations for Cpl , µl and Ktl .

Mixture Properties
The mixture properties are related to vapor and liquid properties via the wetness factor
using the following mixing law:

φm = φl β + (1 − β)φv (23.6-22)

where φ represents any of the following thermodynamic properties: h, s, Cp, Cv, µ or

Kt.

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23.7 Modeling Mass Transfer in Multiphase Flows

This section describes the modeling of mass transfer in the framework of FLUENT’s gen-
eral multiphase models (i.e., Eulerian multiphase, mixture multiphase, VOF multiphase).
There are numerous kinds of mass transfer processes that can be modeled in FLUENT. You
can use models available in FLUENT (e.g. FLUENT’s cavitation model), or define your
own mass transfer model via user-defined functions. See Section 23.7.3: UDF-Prescribed
Mass Transfer and the separate UDF Manual for more information about the modeling
of mass transfer via user-defined functions.
Information about mass transfer is presented in the following subsections:

• Section 23.7.1: Source Terms due to Mass Transfer

• Section 23.7.2: Unidirectional Constant Rate Mass Transfer

• Section 23.7.3: UDF-Prescribed Mass Transfer

• Section 23.7.4: Cavitation Models

i Note that FLUENT’s current cavitation model can only be used in the
framework of the mixture multiphase model.

23.7.1 Source Terms due to Mass Transfer

FLUENT adds contributions due to mass transfer only to the momentum, species, and
energy equations. No source term is added for other scalars such as turbulence or user-
defined scalars.
Let mpi qj be the mass transfer rate per unit volume from the ith species of phase p to
the j th species of phase q. In case a particular phase does not have a mixture material
associated with it, the mass transfer will be with the bulk phase.

Mass Equation
The contribution to the mass source for phase p in a cell is

mp = −mpi qj (23.7-1)

and for phase q is

mq = mpi qj (23.7-2)

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 23.7 Modeling Mass Transfer in Multiphase Flows

Momentum Equation
For VOF or mixture models, there is no momentum source.
For the Eulerian model, the momentum source in a cell for phase p is

mp~up = −mpi qj ~up (23.7-3)

and for phase q is

mq ~uq = mpi qj ~up (23.7-4)

Energy Equation
For all multiphase models, the following energy sources are added.
The energy source in a cell for phase p is

Hp = −mpi qj (hip ) (23.7-5)

and for phase q is

i j
Hq = mpi qj (hip + hf p − hf q ) (23.7-6)
i j
where hf p and hf q are the formation enthalpies of species i of phase p and species j of
phase q respectively and hip is the enthalpy of species i of phase p (with reference to the
formation enthalpy).

Species Equation
The species source in a cell for species i of phase p is

mip = −mpi qj (23.7-7)

and for species j of phase q is

mjq = mpi qj (23.7-8)

Other Scalar Equations

No source/sink terms are added for turbulence quantities and other scalars. The transfer
of these scalar quantities due to mass transfer could be modeled using user-defined source
terms.

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23.7.2 Unidirectional Constant Rate Mass Transfer

The unidirectional mass transfer model defines a positive mass flow rate per unit volume
from phase p to phase q:

m˙pq = max[0, λpq ] − max[0, −λpq ] (23.7-9)

where

λpq = ṙαp ρq (23.7-10)

and ṙ is a constant rate of particle shrinking or swelling, such as the rate of burning of
a liquid droplet. This is not available for the VOF model.
If phase p is a mixture material and a mass transfer mechanism is defined for species i
of phase p, then

λpq = ṙαp yp,i ρq (23.7-11)

where yp,i is the mass fraction of species i in phase p.

23.7.3 UDF-Prescribed Mass Transfer

Because there is no universal model for mass transfer, FLUENT provides a UDF that you
can use to input models for different types of mass transfer, e.g. evaporation, condensa-
tion, boiling, etc. Note that when using this UDF, FLUENT will automatically add the
source contribution to all relevant momentum and scalar equations. This contribution
is based on the assumption that the mass “created” or “destroyed” will have the same
momentum and energy of the phase from which it was created or destroyed. If you would
like to input your source terms directly into momentum, energy, or scalar equations, then
the appropriate path is to use UDFs for user-defined sources for all equations, rather than
the UDF for mass transfer. See the separate UDF Manual for more information about
UDF-based mass transfer in multiphase.

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 23.7 Modeling Mass Transfer in Multiphase Flows

23.7.4 Cavitation Models

This section provides information about the cavitation model used in FLUENT. You can
use FLUENT’s current cavitation model to include cavitation effects in two-phase flows
when the mixture model is used.

Overview of the Cavitation Model

A liquid at constant temperature can be subjected to a decreasing pressure, which may
fall below the saturated vapor pressure. The process of rupturing the liquid by a decrease
of pressure at constant temperature is called cavitation. The liquid also contains the
micro-bubbles of noncondensable (dissolved or ingested) gases, or nuclei, which under
decreasing pressure may grow and form cavities. In such processes, very large and steep
density variations happen in the low-pressure/cavitating regions.
The cavitation model implemented here is based on the so-called “full cavitation model”,
developed by Singhal et al. [335]. It accounts for all first-order effects (i.e., phase change,
bubble dynamics, turbulent pressure fluctuations, and noncondensable gases). However,
unlike the original approach [335] assuming single-phase, isothermal, variable fluid density
flows, the cavitation model in FLUENT is under the framework of multiphase flows. It
has the capability to account for multiphase (N-phase) flows or flows with multiphase
species transport, the effects of slip velocities between the liquid and gaseous phases, and
the thermal effects and compressibility of both liquid and gas phases. The cavitation
model can be used with the mixture multiphase model (with or without slip velocities).
The complete cavitation model capability in FLUENT can be presented in two parts:

• the basic cavitation model

This includes a description of the fundamental modeling approach and the standard
two-phase cavitation model.

• the extended cavitation model capability

This includes a description of the extension of the cavitation model for multiphase
(N-phase) flows, or flows with multiphase species transport applications.

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Basic Cavitation Model

In the standard two-phase cavitation model, the following assumptions are made:

• The system under investigation involves only two phases (a liquid and its vapor),
and a certain fraction of separately modeled noncondensable gases.
• Both bubble formation (evaporation) and collapse (condensation) are taken into
account in the model.
• The mass fraction of noncondensable gases is known in advance.

The cavitation model offers the following capabilities:

• The cavitation model accounts for the mass transfer between a single liquid and its
vapor.
• It is compatible with all the available turbulence models in FLUENT.
• It can be solved with the mixture energy equation.
• It is fully compatible with dynamic mesh and nonconformal interfaces.
• Both liquid and vapor phases can be incompressible or compressible. The noncon-
densible gases are assumed to always be compressible. For compressible liquids,
the density can be described using a user-defined function. See the separate UDF
Manual for more information on user-defined density functions.
• The parameters used in the mass transfer model for cavitation (vaporization pres-
sure, liquid surface tension coefficient) can be either a constant or a function of
temperature.

The following limitations apply to the cavitation model in FLUENT:

• The cavitation model cannot be used with the VOF model, because the surface
tracking schemes for the VOF model are incompatible with the interpenetrating
continua assumption of the cavitation model.
• The cavitation model can be used only for multiphase simulations that use the
mixture model. It is always preferable to solve for cavitation using the mixture
model without slip velocity; slip velocities can be turned on if the problem suggests
that there is significant slip between phases.
• The cavitation model can only used for cavitating flow occurring in a single liquid
fluid;
• With the cavitation model, the primary phase must be liquid, the secondary phase
must be vapor.

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 23.7 Modeling Mass Transfer in Multiphase Flows

Vapor Mass Fraction and Vapor Transport

The working fluid is assumed to be a mixture of liquid, vapor and noncondensable gases.
Standard governing equations in the mixture model and the mixture turbulence model
describe the flow and account for the effects of turbulence. A vapor transport equation
governs the vapor mass fraction, f , given by:

∂
(ρf ) + ∇(ρv~v f ) = ∇(γ∇f ) + Re − Rc (23.7-12)
∂t
where ρ is the mixture density, v~v is the velocity vector of the vapor phase, γ is the
effective exchange coefficient, and Re and Rc are the vapor generation and condensation
rate terms (or phase change rates). The rate expressions are derived from the Rayleigh-
Plesset equations, and limiting bubble size considerations (interface surface area per
unit volume of vapor) [335]. These rates are functions of the instantaneous, local static
pressure and are given by:
when p < psat
s
Vch 2(psat − p)
Re = Ce ρl ρv (1 − f ) (23.7-13)
σ 3ρl

when p > psat

s
Vch 2(p − psat )
Rc = Cc ρl ρv f (23.7-14)
σ 3ρl

where the suffixes l and v denote the liquid and vapor phases, Vch is a characteristic
√
velocity, which is approximated by the local turbulence intensity, (i.e. Vch = k), σ is
the surface tension coefficient of the liquid, psat is the liquid saturation vapor pressure at
the given temperature, and Ce and Cc are empirical constants. The default values are
Ce = 0.02 and Cc = 0.01.

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Turbulence-Induced Pressure Fluctuations

Significant effect of turbulence on cavitating flows has been reported [312]. FLUENT’s
cavitation model accounts for the turbulence-induced pressure fluctuations by simply
raising the phase-change threshold pressure from psat to

1
pv = (psat + pturb ) (23.7-15)
2
where

pturb = 0.39ρk (23.7-16)

where k is the local turbulence kinetic energy.

Effects of Noncondensable Gases

The operating liquid usually contains small finite amounts of noncondensable gases (e.g.,
dissolved gases, aeration). Even a very small amount (e.g., 10 ppm) of noncondensable
gases can have significant effects on the cavitating flow field due to expansion at low
pressures (following the ideal gas law). In the present approach, the working fluid is
assumed to be a mixture of the liquid phase and the gaseous phase, with the gaseous
phase comprising of the liquid vapor and the noncondensable gases. The density of the
mixture, ρ, is calculated as

ρ = αv ρv + αg ρg + (1 − αv − αg )ρl (23.7-17)

where ρl , ρv , and ρg are the densities of the liquid, the vapor, and the noncondensable
gases, respectively, and αl , αv , and αg are the respective volume fractions. The relation-
ship between the mass fraction (fi ) in Equations 23.7-12–23.7-14 and the volume fraction
(αi ) in Equation 23.7-17 is

ρ
αi = fi (23.7-18)
ρi

The combined volume fraction of vapor and gas (i.e., αv + αg ) is commonly referred to
as the void fraction (α).
It may be noted that the noncondensable gas is not defined as a phase or a material.
When using the ideal gas law to compute the noncondensable gas density, the molecular
weight and temperature are required. By default, the gas is assumed to be air and the
molecular weight is set to 29.0. However, if the noncondensable gas is not air, then
the molecular weight can be changed by using a text command. For more information,
contact your FLUENT support engineer.

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As for the temperature, the default value is set to 300 K when the energy equation is not
activated. If the temperature is different, but still a constant (i.e., isothermal flow), you
can change the temperature in FLUENT in the following way:

• Activate the energy equation.

Define −→ Models −→Energy...

• Open the Solution Initialization panel.

Solve −→ Initialize −→Initialize...

• In the Solution Initialization, set the initial value as a desired temperature.

• Open the Solution Controls panel.

Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

• In the Solution Controls panel, under Equations, turn off the energy equation by
deselecting Energy in the list.. By so doing, FLUENT uses the initial values for the
temperature.

Phase Change Rates

After accounting for the effects of turbulence-induced pressure fluctuations and noncon-
densable gases, the final phase rate expressions are written as:
when p < pv

√ s
k 2(pv − p)
Re = Ce ρl ρv (1 − fv − fg ) (23.7-19)
σ 3ρl

when p > pv

√ s
k 2(p − pv )
Rc = Cc ρl ρl fv (23.7-20)
σ 3ρl

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Additional Guidelines for the Cavitation Model

In practical applications of the cavitation model, several factors greatly influence nu-
merical stability. For instance, high pressure difference between the inlet and exit, large
ratio of liquid to vapor density, and near zero saturation pressure all cause unfavorable
effects on solution convergence. In addition, poor initial conditions very often lead to an
unrealistic pressure field and unexpected cavitating zones, which, once present, are then
usually very difficult for the model to correct. The following is a list of factors that must
be considered when using the cavitation model, along with tips to help address potential
numerical problems:

• relaxation factors
In general, small relaxation factors are advised for momentum equations, usually,
between 0.05 – 0.4; The relaxation factor for the pressure-correction equation should
usually be larger than those for momentum equations, say in the range 0.2 – 0.7.
The density and the vaporization mass (source term in the vapor equation) can also
be relaxed to improve convergence, Typically, the relaxation factor for density is set
between the values of 0.3 and 1.0, while for the vaporization mass values between
0.1 and 1.0 may be appropriate. For some extreme cases, even smaller relaxation
factors may be required for all the equations.

• initial conditions
Though no special initial condition settings are required, it is suggested that the
vapor fraction is always set to inlet values. The pressure is set close to the high-
est pressure among the inlets and outlets to avoid unexpected low pressure and
cavitating spots. Also, in complicated cases, it may be beneficial to obtain a real-
istic pressure field before substantial cavities are formed. This can be achieved by
performing the following steps:
1. Set near zero relaxation factors for the vaporization mass and for density, and
increase them to reasonable values after a sufficient number of iterations.
2. Obtain a converged / near-converged solution for a single phase liquid flow,
and then switch on the cavitation model.

• noncondensable gases
Noncondensable gases are usually present in liquids. Even a small amount (e.g.,
15 ppm) of noncondensable gases can have significant effects on both the physical
realism and the convergence characteristics of the solution. A value of zero for the
mass fraction of noncondensable gases should generally be avoided. In some cases, if
the liquid is purified of noncondensable gases, a much smaller value (e.g., 10−8 ) may
be used to replace the default value of 1.5×10−5 . In fact, higher mass fractions of
the noncondensable gases may, in many cases, enhance numerical stability and lead
to more realistic results. In particular, when the saturation pressure of a liquid at a

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certain temperature is zero or very small, noncondensable gases will play a crucial
role both numerically and physically.

• limits for dependent variables

In many cases, setting the pressure upper limit to a reasonable value can help
convergence greatly at the early stage of the solution. It is advised to always limit
the maximum pressure when it is possible. By default, FLUENT sets the maximum
pressure limit to 5.0×1010 Pascal.

• the relaxation factor for the pressure correction equation

For cavitating flows, a special relaxation factor is introduced for the pressure cor-
rection equation. By default, this factor is set to 0.7, which should work well for
most of the cases. For some very complicated cases, however, you may experience
the divergence of the AMG solver. Under those circumstances, this value may be
reduced to no less than 0.4. You can set the value of this relaxation factor by typing
a text command. For more information, contact your FLUENT support engineer.

• pressure discretization schemes

As for many multiphase flows, it is more desirable to use the following pressure
discretization schemes in cavitation applications:
– body force weighted
– second order
– PRESTO!
The standard and linear schemes generally are not very effective in complex cavi-
tating flows.

Extended Cavitation Model Capability

In many practical applications, when cavitation occurs, there exist other gaseous species
in the systems investigated. For instance, in a ventilated supercavitating vehicle, air is
injected into a liquid to stabilize or increase the cavitation along the vehicle surfaces. Also
in some cases, the incoming flow is a mixture of a liquid and some gaseous species. In
order to be able to predict those type of cavitating flows, the basic two-phase cavitation
model needs to be extended to a multiphase (N-phase) flows, or a multiphase species
transport cavitation model.

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Multiphase Cavitation Model

The multiphase cavitation model is an extension of the basic two-phase cavitation model
to multiphase flows. In addition to the primary liquid and secondary vapor phase, more
secondary gaseous phases can be included into the computational system under the fol-
lowing assumptions/limitations:

• Mass transfer (cavitation) only occurs between the first and the second phases.

• The basic cavitation model is still used to model the phase changes between the
liquid and vapor.

• Only one secondary phase can be defined as compressible gas phase, while a user-
defined density may be applied to all the phases.

• The predescribed noncondensable gases can still be included in the system. To

exclude noncondensable gases from the system, the mass fraction needs to be set
to 0, and the noncondensable gas needs to be modeled by a separate compressible
gas phase.

• For an noncavitating phase i, the general transport equation governing the mass
fraction fi given by:

∂
(ρfi ) + ∇(ρv~v fi ) = ∇(γfi ∇fi ) + Sfi (23.7-21)
∂t
where Sfi is a (user-defined) source term. By default, Sfi = 0.

Multiphase Species Transport Cavitation Model

In some cases, there are several gas phase components in a system. It is desirable to
consider them all compressible. Since only one compressible gas phase is allowed in the
general multiphase approach, the multiphase species transport approach offers an option
to handle these type of applications by assuming that there is one compressible gas phase
with multiple species.
The detailed description of the multiphase species transport approach can be found in
Section 23.8: Modeling Species Transport in Multiphase Flows. The multiphase species
transport cavitation model can be summarized as follows:

• All the assumptions/limitations for the multiphase cavitation model also apply
here.

• The primary phase can only be a single liquid.

• All the secondary phases allow more than one species.

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 23.8 Modeling Species Transport in Multiphase Flows

• The vapor, either as a phase or a species, must be in the second phase.

• The mass transfer between a liquid and a vapor phase/species is modeled by the
basic cavitation model.

• The mass transfer between other phases or species are modeled with the standard
mass transfer approach. In the standard model, the zero constant rate should be
chosen.

• For the phases with multiple species, the phase shares the same pressure as the
other phases, but each species has its own pressure (i.e., partial pressure). As a
result, the vapor density and the pressure used in Equation 23.7-19 are the partial
density and pressure of the vapor.

23.8 Modeling Species Transport in Multiphase Flows

Species transport, as described in Chapter 14: Modeling Species Transport and Finite-
Rate Chemistry, can also be applied to multiphase flows. You can choose to solve the
conservation equations for chemical species in multiphase flows by having FLUENT, for
each phase k, predict the local mass fraction of each species, Yi k , through the solution
of a convection-diffusion equation for the ith species. The generalized chemical species
conservation equation (Equation 14.1-1), when applied to a multiphase mixture can be
represented in the following form:

n
∂ q q q q
(ρ α Yi )+∇·(ρq αq~v q Yi q ) = −∇·αq J~i +αq Ri q +αq Si q + (ṁpi qj − ṁqj pi )+R (23.8-1)
X
∂t p=1

where Ri q is the net rate of production of homogeneous species i by chemical reaction for
phase q, ṁqj pi is the mass transfer source between species i and j from phase q to p, and
R is the heterogeneous reaction rate. In addition, αq is the volume fraction for phase q
and Si q is the rate of creation by addition from the dispersed phase plus any user-defined
sources.
FLUENT treats homogeneous gas phase chemical reactions the same as a single-phase
chemical reaction. The reactants and the products belong to the same mixture material
(set in the Species Model panel), and hence the same phase. The reaction rate is scaled
by the volume fraction of the particular phase in the cell.
The set-up of a homogeneous gas phase chemical reaction in FLUENT is the same as it is
for a single phase. For more information, see Chapter 14: Modeling Species Transport and
Finite-Rate Chemistry. For most multiphase species transport problems, boundary con-
ditions for a particular species are set in the associated phase boundary condition panel
(see Chapter 23.9.8: Defining Multiphase Boundary Conditions), and postprocessing and

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reporting of results is performed on a per-phase basis (see Section 23.15: Postprocessing

for Multiphase Modeling).
For multiphase species transport simulations, the Species Model panel allows you to in-
clude Volumetric, Wall Surface, and Particle Surface reactions. FLUENT treats multiphase
surface reactions as it would a single-phase reaction. The reaction rate is scaled with
the volume fraction of the particular phase in the cell. For more information, see Chap-
ter 14: Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry.

i To turn off reactions for a particular phase, while keeping the reactions
active for other phases. turn on Volumetric under Reactions in the Species
Model panel. Then, in the Materials panel, select none from the Reactions
drop-down list.
The species of different phases is entirely independent. There is no implicit relationship
between them even if they share the same name. Explicit relationships between species of
different phases can be specified through mass transfer and heterogeneous reactions. For
more information on mass transfer and heterogeneous reactions, see Section 23.9.7: In-
cluding Mass Transfer Effects and Section 23.9.6: Specifying Heterogeneous Reactions,
respectively.
Some phases may have a fluid material associated with them instead of a mixture ma-
terial. The species equations are solved in those phases that are assigned a mixture
material. The species equation above is solved for the mass fraction of the species in a
particular phase. The mass transfer and heterogeneous reactions will be associated with
the bulk fluid for phases with a single fluid material.

23.8.1 Limitations
The following limitations exist for the modeling of species transport for multiphase flows:

• The nonpremixed, premixed, partially-premixed combustion, or the composition

PDF transport species transport models are not available for multiphase species
reactions.

• The stiff chemistry solver is not available for multiphase species reactions.

• Only the laminar finite-rate, finite-rate/eddy-dissipation and eddy-dissipation

turbulence-chemistry models of homogeneous reactions are available for multiphase
species transport.

• The discrete phase model (DPM) is not compatible with multiphase species trans-
port.

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 23.8 Modeling Species Transport in Multiphase Flows

23.8.2 Mass and Momentum Transfer with Multiphase Species Transport

The FLUENT multiphase mass transfer model accommodates mass transfer between
species belonging to different phases. Instead of a matrix-type input, multiple mass
transfer mechanisms need to be input. Each mass transfer mechanism defines the mass
transfer phenomenon from one entity to another entity. An entity is either a particular
species in a phase, or the bulk phase itself if the phase does not have a mixture mate-
rial associated with it. The mass transfer phenomenon could be specified either through
the inbuilt unidirectional “constant-rate” mass transfer (Section 23.7.2: Unidirectional
Constant Rate Mass Transfer) or through user-defined functions.
FLUENT loops through all the mass transfer mechanisms to compute the net mass
source/sink of each species in each phase. The net mass source/sink of a species is
used to compute species and mass source terms. FLUENT will also automatically add
the source contribution to all relevant momentum and energy equations based on that
assumption that the momentum and energy carried along with the transferred mass. For
other equations, the transport due to mass transfer needs to be explicitly modeled by
the user.

Source Terms due to Heterogeneous Reactions

Consider the following reaction:

aA + bB → cC + dD (23.8-2)

Let as assume that A and C belong to phase 1 and B and D to phase 2.

Mass Transfer

Mass source for the phases are given by:

S1 = R(cMc − aMa ) (23.8-3)

S2 = R(dMd − bMb ) (23.8-4)

where S is the mass source, M is the molecular weight, and R is the reaction rate.
The general expression for the mass source for the ith phase is

γjr Mjr
X
Sri = −R (23.8-5)
ri

γjp Mjp
X
Spi = R (23.8-6)
pi
Si = Spi + Sri (23.8-7)

where γ is the stoichiometric coefficient, p represents the product, and r represents the
reactant.

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Momentum Transfer

Momentum transfer is more complicated, but we can assume that the reactants mix
(conserving momentum) and the products take momentum in the ratio of the rate of
their formation.
The net velocity, ~unet , of the reactants is given by:
aMa~u1 + bMb~u2
~unet = (23.8-8)
aMa + bMb

The general expression for the net velocity of the reactants is given by:
P r r
rγ M ~ ur
~unet = P j r j r j (23.8-9)
r γj Mj

where j represents the j th item (either a reactant or a product).

Momentum transfer for the phases is then given by:

S1~u = R(cMc~unet − aMa~u1 ) (23.8-10)

S2~u = R(dMd~unet − bMb~u2 ) (23.8-11)

The general expression is

Si~u = Spi ~unet − R γjr Mjr ~ui
X
(23.8-12)
ri

If we assume that there is no momentum transfer, then the above term will be zero.

Species Transfer

The general expression for source for k th species in the j th phase is

k k
γjr Mjr
X
Srik = −R (23.8-13)
rik
k k
γjp Mjp
X
Spki = R (23.8-14)
pki

Sik = Spki + Srik (23.8-15)

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 23.8 Modeling Species Transport in Multiphase Flows

Heat Transfer

For heat transfer, we need to consider the formation enthalpies of the reactants and
products as well:
The net enthalpy of the reactants is given by:

aMa (Ha + hfa ) + bMb (Hb + hfb )

Hnet = (23.8-16)
aMa + bMb

where hf represents the formation enthalpy, and H represents the enthalpy.

The general expression for Hnet is:
r
γjr Mjr (Hjr + hf j )
P
r
Hnet = P r r (23.8-17)
r γj Mj

If we assume that this enthalpy gets distributed to the products in the ratio of their mass
production rates, heat transfer for the phases are given by:

S1H = R(cMc Hnet − aMa H a − cMc hcf ) (23.8-18)

S2H = R(dMd Hnet − bMb H − b
dMd hdf ) (23.8-19)

The last term in the above equations appears because our enthalpy is with reference to
the formation enthalpy.
The general expression for the heat source is:
!
p
SiH γjr Mjr Hjr γjp Mjp hf j
X X
= Spi Hnet − R + (23.8-20)
ri pi

If we assume that there is no heat transfer, we can assume that the different species only
carry their formation enthalpies with them. Thus the expression for Hnet will be:
r
γjr Mjr hf j
P
r
Hnet = P r r (23.8-21)
r γj Mj

The expression SiH will be

p
SiH = Spi Hnet − R γjp Mjp hf j
X
(23.8-22)
pi

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23.9 Steps for Using a Multiphase Model

The procedure for setting up and solving a general multiphase problem is outlined below,
and described in detail in the subsections that follow. Remember that only the steps that
are pertinent to general multiphase calculations are shown here. For information about
inputs related to other models that you are using in conjunction with the multiphase
model, see the appropriate sections for those models.
See also Section 23.12.1: Additional Guidelines for Eulerian Multiphase Simulations for
guidelines on simplifying Eulerian multiphase simulations.

1. Enable the multiphase model you want to use (VOF, mixture, or Eulerian) and
specify the number of phases. For the VOF model, specify the VOF formulation
as well.
Define −→ Models −→Multiphase...
See Sections 23.9.1 and 23.10.1 for details.

2. Copy the material representing each phase from the materials database.
Define −→Materials...
If the material you want to use is not in the database, create a new material.
See Section 8.1.2: Using the Materials Panel for details about copying from the
database and creating new materials. See Sections 23.10.5 and 23.11.3 for additional
information about specifying material properties for a compressible phase (VOF
and mixture models only). It is possible to turn off reactions in some materials
by selecting none in the Reactions drop-down list under Properties in the Materials
panel.

i If your model includes a particulate (granular) phase, you will need to

create a new material for it in the fluid materials category (not the solid
materials category).

3. Define the phases, and specify any interaction between them (e.g., surface tension
if you are using the VOF model, slip velocity functions if you are using the mixture
model, or drag functions if you are using the Eulerian model).
Define −→Phases...
See Sections 23.9.3–23.12.2 for details.

4. (Eulerian model only) If the flow is turbulent, define the multiphase turbulence
model.
Define −→ Models −→Viscous...
See Section 23.12.3: Modeling Turbulence for details.

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5. If body forces are present, turn on gravity and specify the gravitational acceleration.
Define −→Operating Conditions...
See Section 23.9.4: Including Body Forces for details.

6. Specify the boundary conditions, including the secondary-phase volume fractions

at flow boundaries and (if you are modeling wall adhesion in a VOF simulation)
the contact angles at walls.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...
See Section 23.9.8: Defining Multiphase Boundary Conditions for details.

7. Set any model-specific solution parameters.

Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
See Sections 23.10.4 and 23.14 for details.

8. Initialize the solution and set the initial volume fractions for the secondary phases.
Solve −→ Initialize −→Patch...
See Section 23.14.1: Setting Initial Volume Fractions for details.

9. Calculate a solution and examine the results. Postprocessing and reporting of

results is available for each phase that is selected.
See Sections 23.14 and 23.15 for details.

This section provides instructions and guidelines for using the VOF, mixture, and Eule-
rian multiphase models.
Information is presented in the following subsections:

• Section 23.9.1: Enabling the Multiphase Model

• Section 23.9.2: Solving a Homogeneous Multiphase Flow

• Section 23.9.3: Defining the Phases

• Section 23.9.4: Including Body Forces

• Section 23.9.5: Modeling Multiphase Species Transport

• Section 23.9.6: Specifying Heterogeneous Reactions

• Section 23.9.7: Including Mass Transfer Effects

• Section 23.9.8: Defining Multiphase Boundary Conditions

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23.9.1 Enabling the Multiphase Model

To enable the VOF, mixture, or Eulerian multiphase model, select Volume of Fluid, Mix-
ture, or Eulerian as the Model in the Multiphase Model panel (Figure 23.9.1).
Define −→ Models −→Multiphase...

Figure 23.9.1: The Multiphase Model Panel

The panel will expand to show the relevant inputs for the selected multiphase model.

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 23.9 Steps for Using a Multiphase Model

If you selected the VOF model, the inputs are as follows:

• number of phases

• VOF formulation (see Section 23.10.1: Choosing a VOF Formulation)

• (optional) implicit body force formulation (see Section 23.9.4: Including Body
Forces)

If you selected the mixture model, the inputs are as follows:

• number of phases

• whether or not to compute the slip velocities (see Section 23.9.2: Solving a Homo-
geneous Multiphase Flow)

• (optional) implicit body force formulation (see Section 23.9.4: Including Body
Forces)

If you selected the Eulerian model, the input is the following:

• number of phases

To specify the number of phases for the multiphase calculation, enter the appropriate
value in the Number of Phases field. You can specify up to 20 phases.

23.9.2 Solving a Homogeneous Multiphase Flow

If you are using the mixture model, you have the option to disable the calculation of
slip velocities and solve a homogeneous multiphase flow (i.e., one in which the phases all
move at the same velocity). By default, FLUENT will compute the slip velocities for the
secondary phases, as described in Section 23.4.5: Relative (Slip) Velocity and the Drift
Velocity. If you want to solve a homogeneous multiphase flow, turn off Slip Velocity under
Mixture Parameters.

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23.9.3 Defining the Phases

To define the phases (including their material properties) and any interphase interaction
(e.g., surface tension and wall adhesion for the VOF model, slip velocity for the mixture
model, drag functions for the mixture and the Eulerian models), you will use the Phases
panel (Figure 23.9.2).
Define −→Phases...

Figure 23.9.2: The Phases Panel

Each item in the Phase list in this panel is one of two types, as indicated in the Type list:
primary-phase indicates that the selected item is the primary phase, and secondary-phase
indicates that the selected item is a secondary phase. To specify any interaction between
the phases, click the Interaction... button.
Instructions for defining the phases and interaction are provided in Sections 23.10.3,
23.11.1, and 23.12.2 for the VOF, mixture, and Eulerian models, respectively.

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23.9.4 Including Body Forces

When large body forces (e.g., gravity or surface tension forces) exist in multiphase flows,
the body force and pressure gradient terms in the momentum equation are almost in
equilibrium, with the contributions of convective and viscous terms small in comparison.
Segregated algorithms converge poorly unless partial equilibrium of pressure gradient and
body forces is taken into account. FLUENT provides an optional “implicit body force”
treatment that can account for this effect, making the solution more robust.
The basic procedure involves augmenting the correction equation for the face flow rate,
Equation 25.4-13, with an additional term involving corrections to the body force. This
results in extra body force correction terms in Equation 25.4-11, and allows the flow to
achieve a realistic pressure field very early in the iterative process.
To include this body force, turn on Gravity in the Operating Conditions panel and specify
the Gravitational Acceleration.
Define −→Operating Conditions...
For VOF calculations, you should also turn on the Specified Operating Density option
in the Operating Conditions panel, and set the Operating Density to be the density of
the lightest phase. (This excludes the buildup of hydrostatic pressure within the lightest
phase, improving the round-off accuracy for the momentum balance.) If any of the phases
is compressible, set the Operating Density to zero.

i For VOF and mixture calculations involving body forces, it is recom-

mended that you also turn on the Implicit Body Force treatment for the
Body Force Formulation in the Multiphase Model panel. This treatment im-
proves solution convergence by accounting for the partial equilibrium of
the pressure gradient and body forces in the momentum equations. See
Section 23.9.4: Including Body Forces for details.

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23.9.5 Modeling Multiphase Species Transport

FLUENT lets you describe a multiphase species transport and volumetric reaction (Sec-
tion 23.8: Modeling Species Transport in Multiphase Flows) in a fashion that is similar
to setting up a single-phase chemical reaction using the Species Model panel (e.g., Fig-
ure 23.9.3).
Define −→ Models −→ Species −→Transport & Reaction...

Figure 23.9.3: The Species Model Panel with a Multiphase Model Enabled

1. Select Species Transport under Model.

2. Turn on Volumetric under Reactions.

3. Select a specific phase using the Phase drop-down list under Phase Properties.

4. Click the Set... button to display the Phase Properties panel (Figure 23.9.4).

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Figure 23.9.4: The Phase Properties Panel

In the Phase Properties panel, the material for each phase is listed in the Material
drop-down list. From this list, you can choose the material that you want to use
for a specific phase. The drop-down list contains all of the materials that have been
defined for your simulation. If you want to inspect or edit any of the properties
of any of the materials, then you need to open the Materials panel by clicking the
Edit... button.

5. In the Species Model panel, choose the Turbulence-Chemistry Interaction model.

Three models are available:
Laminar Finite-Rate computes only the Arrhenius rate (see Equation 14.1-8) and
neglects turbulence-chemistry interaction.
Eddy-Dissipation (for turbulent flows) computes only the mixing rate (see Equa-
tions 14.1-26 and 14.1-27).
Finite-Rate/Eddy-Dissipation (for turbulent flows) computes both the Arrhenius
rate and the mixing rate and uses the smaller of the two.

When modeling multiphase species transport, additional inputs may also be required
depending on your modeling needs. See, for example, Section 23.9.6: Specifying Het-
erogeneous Reactions for more information defining heterogeneous reactions, or Sec-
tion 23.9.7: Including Mass Transfer Effects for more information on mass transfer effects.

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23.9.6 Specifying Heterogeneous Reactions

You can use FLUENT to define multiple heterogeneous reactions and stoichiometry using
the Phase Interaction panel (e.g., Figure 23.9.5).
Define −→Phases...

1. In the Phases panel (Figure 23.9.2), click the Interaction... button to open the Phase
Interaction panel.

Figure 23.9.5: The Phase Interaction Panel for Heterogeneous Reactions

2. Click the Reactions tab in the Phase Interaction panel.

3. Set the total number of reactions (volumetric reactions, wall surface reactions, and
particle surface reactions) in the Total Number of Heterogeneous Reactions field.
(Use the arrows to change the value, or type in the value and press <Enter>.)

4. Specify the Reaction Name of each reaction that you want to define.

5. Set the ID of each reaction you want to define. (Again, if you type in the value be
sure to press <Enter>.)

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6. For each reaction, specify how many reactants and products are involved in the
reaction by increasing the value of the Number of Reactants and the Number of
Products. Select each reactant or product in the Reaction tab and then set its stoi-
chiometric coefficient in the Stoich. Coefficient field. (The stoichiometric coefficient
0 00
is the constant νi,r or νi,r in Equation 14.1-6.)

7. For each reaction, indicate the Phase and Species and the stoichiometric coefficient
for each of your reactants and products.

8. For each reaction, indicate an applicable user-defined function using the Reaction
Rate Function drop-down list.

i The heterogeneous reaction rates can only be specified using a user-defined

function. A UDF is available for an Arrhenius-type reaction with rate
exponents that are equivalent to the stoichiometric coefficients.
For more information, see the separate UDF Manual.

i FLUENT assumes that the reactants are mixed thoroughly before reacting
together, thus the heat and momentum transfer is based on this assump-
tion. This assumption can be deactivated using a text command. For more
information, contact your FLUENT support engineer.

23.9.7 Including Mass Transfer Effects

As discussed in Section 23.7: Modeling Mass Transfer in Multiphase Flows, mass transfer
effects in the framework of FLUENT’s general multiphase models (i.e., Eulerian multi-
phase, mixture multiphase, or VOF multiphase) can be modeled in one of three ways:

• unidirectional constant rate mass transfer (not available for VOF calculations)

• UDF-prescribed mass transfer

• mass transfer through cavitation (only valid for the mixture multiphase model)

Because of the different procedures and limitations involved, defining mass transfer
through cavitation is described separately in Section 23.11.2: Including Cavitation Effects.

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To define mass transfer in a multiphase simulation, either as unidirectional constant or

using a UDF, you will need to use the Phase Interaction panel (e.g., Figure 23.9.6).
Define −→Phases...

1. In the Phases panel (Figure 23.9.2), click the Interaction... button to open the Phase
Interaction panel.

Figure 23.9.6: The Phase Interaction Panel for Mass Transfer

2. Click the Mass tab in the Phase Interaction panel.

3. Specify the Number of Mass Transfer Mechanisms. You can include any number
of mass transfer mechanisms in your simulation. Note also that the same pair of
phases can have multiple mass transfer mechanisms and you have the ability to
activate and deactivate the mechanisms of your choice.

4. For each mechanism, specify the phase of the source material under From Phase.

5. If species transport is part of the simulation, and the source phase is composed of
a mixture material, then specify the species of the source phase mixture material
in the corresponding Species drop-down list.

6. For each mechanism, specify the phase of the destination material phase under To
Phase.

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7. If species transport is part of the simulation, and the destination phase is composed
of a mixture material, then specify the species of the destination phase mixture
material in the corresponding Species drop-down list.

8. For each mass transfer mechanism, select the desired mass transfer correlation
under Mechanism. The following choices are available:
constant-rate enables a constant, unidirectional mass transfer.
user-defined allows you to implement a correlation reflecting a model of your
choice, through a user-defined function.
FLUENT will automatically include the terms needed to model mass transfer in all
relevant conservation equations. Another option to model mass transfer between
phases is through the use of user-defined sources and their inclusion in the rele-
vant conservation equations. This approach is a more involved but more powerful,
allowing you to split the source terms according to a model of your choice.

i Note that momentum, energy, and turbulence are also transported with the
mass that is transferred. FLUENT assumes that the reactants are mixed
thoroughly before reacting together, thus the heat and momentum transfer
is based on this assumption. This assumption can be deactivated using
a text command. For more information, contact your FLUENT support
engineer.
When your model involves the transport of multiphase species, you can define a mass
transfer mechanism between species from different phases. If a particular phase does not
have a species associated with it, then the mass transfer throughout the system will be
performed by the bulk fluid material.

i Note that including species transport effects in the mass transport of multi-
phase simulation requires that Species Transport be turned on in the Species
Model panel.
Define −→ Models −→ Species −→Transport & Reaction...

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23.9.8 Defining Multiphase Boundary Conditions

Multiphase boundary conditions are set in the Boundary Conditions panel (Figure 23.9.7),
but the procedure for setting multiphase boundary conditions is slightly different than
for single-phase models. You will need to set some conditions separately for individual
phases, while other conditions are shared by all phases (i.e., the mixture), as described
in detail below.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

Figure 23.9.7: The Boundary Conditions Panel

Boundary Conditions for the Mixture and the Individual Phases

The conditions you need to specify for the mixture and those you need to specify for the
individual phases will depend on which of the three multiphase models you are using.
Details for each model are provided below.

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VOF Model

If you are using the VOF model, the conditions you need to specify for each type of zone
are listed below and summarized in Table 23.9.1.

• For an exhaust fan, inlet vent, intake fan, outlet vent, pressure inlet, pressure outlet,
or velocity inlet, there are no conditions to be specified for the primary phase. For
each secondary phase, you will need to set the volume fraction as a constant, a
profile (see Section 7.26: Boundary Profiles), or a user-defined function (see the
separate UDF Manual). All other conditions are specified for the mixture.

• For a mass flow inlet, you will need to set the mass flow rate or mass flux for each
individual phase. All other conditions are specified for the mixture.

i Note that if you read a VOF case that was set up in a version of FLUENT
prior to 6.1, you will need to redefine the conditions at the mass flow inlets.
• For an axis, fan, outflow, periodic, porous jump, radiator, solid, symmetry, or wall
zone, all conditions are specified for the mixture. There are no conditions to be set
for the individual phases.

• For a wall zone, you can specify the contact angle if wall adhesion option is enabled.

• For a fluid zone, mass sources are specified for the individual phases, and all other
sources are specified for the mixture.
If the fluid zone is not porous, all other conditions are specified for the mixture.
If the fluid zone is porous, you will enable the Porous Zone option in the Fluid panel
for the mixture. The porosity inputs (if relevant) are also specified for the mixture.
The resistance coefficients and direction vectors, however, are specified separately
for each phase. See Section 7.19.6: User Inputs for Porous Media for details about
these inputs. All other conditions are specified for the mixture.

See Chapter 7: Boundary Conditions for details about the relevant conditions for each
type of boundary. Note that the pressure far-field boundary is not available with the
VOF model.

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Table 23.9.1: Phase-Specific and Mixture Conditions for the VOF Model

Type Primary Phase Secondary Phase Mixture

exhaust fan; nothing volume fraction all others
inlet vent;
intake fan;
outlet vent;
pressure inlet;
pressure outlet;
velocity inlet
mass flow inlet mass flow/flux mass flow/flux all others
axis; nothing nothing all others
fan;
outflow;
periodic;
porous jump;
radiator;
solid;
symmetry;
wall
pressure far-field not available not available not available
fluid mass source; mass source; porous zone;
other porous inputs other porous inputs porosity;
all others

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Mixture Model

If you are using the mixture model, the conditions you need to specify for each type of
zone are listed below and summarized in Table 23.9.2.

• For an exhaust fan, outlet vent, or pressure outlet, there are no conditions to be
specified for the primary phase. For each secondary phase, you will need to set the
volume fraction as a constant, a profile (see Section 7.26: Boundary Profiles), or
a user-defined function (see the separate UDF Manual). All other conditions are
specified for the mixture.
• For an inlet vent, intake fan, or pressure inlet, you will specify for the mixture which
direction specification method will be used at this boundary (Normal to Boundary
or Direction Vector). If you select the Direction Vector specification method, you
will specify the coordinate system (3D only) and flow-direction components for
the individual phases. For each secondary phase, you will need to set the volume
fraction (as described above). All other conditions are specified for the mixture.
• For a mass flow inlet, you will need to set the mass flow rate or mass flux for each
individual phase. All other conditions are specified for the mixture.

i Note that if you read a mixture multiphase case that was set up in a version
of FLUENT previous to 6.1, you will need to redefine the conditions at the
mass flow inlets.
• For a velocity inlet, you will specify the velocity for the individual phases. For each
secondary phase, you will need to set the volume fraction (as described above). All
other conditions are specified for the mixture.
• For an axis, fan, outflow, periodic, porous jump, radiator, solid, symmetry, or wall
zone, all conditions are specified for the mixture. There are no conditions to be set
for the individual phases. Outflow boundary conditions are not available for the
cavitation model.
• For a fluid zone, mass sources are specified for the individual phases, and all other
sources are specified for the mixture.
If the fluid zone is not porous, all other conditions are specified for the mixture.
If the fluid zone is porous, you will enable the Porous Zone option in the Fluid panel
for the mixture. The porosity inputs (if relevant) are also specified for the mixture.
The resistance coefficients and direction vectors, however, are specified separately
for each phase. See Section 7.19.6: User Inputs for Porous Media for details about
these inputs. All other conditions are specified for the mixture.

See Chapter 7: Boundary Conditions for details about the relevant conditions for each
type of boundary. Note that the pressure far-field boundary is not available with the
mixture model.

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Table 23.9.2: Phase-Specific and Mixture Conditions for the Mixture Model

Type Primary Phase Secondary Phase Mixture

exhaust fan; nothing volume fraction all others
outlet vent;
pressure outlet
inlet vent; coord. system; coord. system; dir. spec.
intake fan; flow direction flow direction; method;
pressure inlet volume fraction all others
mass flow inlet mass flow/flux mass flow/flux all others
velocity inlet velocity velocity; all others
volume fraction
axis; nothing nothing all others
fan;
outflow (n/a for
cavitation
model);
periodic;
porous jump;
radiator;
solid;
symmetry;
wall
pressure far-field not available not available not available
fluid mass source; mass source; porous zone;
other porous inputs other porous inputs porosity;
all others

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Eulerian Model

If you are using the Eulerian model, the conditions you need to specify for each type
of zone are listed below and summarized in Tables 23.9.3, 23.9.4, 23.9.5, and 23.9.6.
Note that the specification of turbulence parameters will depend on which of the three
multiphase turbulence models you are using, as indicated in Tables 23.9.4–23.9.6. See
Sections 23.5.10 and 23.12.3 for more information about multiphase turbulence models.

• For an exhaust fan, outlet vent, or pressure outlet, there are no conditions to be
specified for the primary phase if you are modeling laminar flow or using the mixture
turbulence model (the default multiphase turbulence model), except for backflow
total temperature if heat transfer is on.
For each secondary phase, you will need to set the volume fraction as a constant,
a profile (see Section 7.26: Boundary Profiles), or a user-defined function (see the
separate UDF Manual). If the phase is granular, you will also need to set its
granular temperature. If heat transfer is on, you will also need to set the backflow
total temperature.
If you are using the mixture turbulence model, you will need to specify the turbu-
lence boundary conditions for the mixture. If you are using the dispersed turbulence
model, you will need to specify them for the primary phase. If you are using the
per-phase turbulence model, you will need to specify them for the primary phase
and for each secondary phase.
All other conditions are specified for the mixture.

• For an inlet vent, intake fan, or pressure inlet, you will specify for the mixture which
direction specification method will be used at this boundary (Normal to Boundary
or Direction Vector). If you select the Direction Vector specification method, you
will specify the coordinate system (3D only) and flow-direction components for
the individual phases. If heat transfer is on, you will also need to set the total
temperature for the individual phases.
For each secondary phase, you will need to set the volume fraction (as described
above). If the phase is granular, you will also need to set its granular temperature.
If you are using the mixture turbulence model, you will need to specify the turbu-
lence boundary conditions for the mixture. If you are using the dispersed turbulence
model, you will need to specify them for the primary phase. If you are using the
per-phase turbulence model, you will need to specify them for the primary phase
and for each secondary phase.
All other conditions are specified for the mixture.

• For a mass flow inlet, you will need to set the mass flow rate or mass flux for each
individual phase. You will also need to specify the temperature of each phase, since
the energy equations are solved for each phase.

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For mass flow inlet boundary conditions, you can specify the slip velocity between
phases. When you select a mass flow inlet boundary for the secondary phase, two
options will be available for the Slip Velocity Specification Method, as shown in
Figure 23.9.8:
– Velocity Ratio
The value for the phase velocity ratio is the secondary phase to primary phase
velocity ratio. By default, it is 1.0, which means velocities are the same (no
slip). By entering a ratio that is greater than 1.0, you are indicating a larger
secondary phase velocity. Otherwise, you can enter a ratio that is less than
1.0 to indicate a smaller secondary phase velocity.
– Volume Fraction
If you specify the volume fraction at an inlet, FLUENT will calculate the phase
velocities.

i If a secondary phase has zero mass flux (i.e., the Eulerian model is used to
run a single phase case), neither Phase Velocity Ratio nor Volume Fraction
will affect the solution.

Figure 23.9.8: Mass-Flow Inlet Boundary Condition Panel

• For a velocity inlet, you will specify the velocity for the individual phases. If heat
transfer is on, you will also need to set the total temperature for the individual
phases.

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For each secondary phase, you will need to set the volume fraction (as described
above). If the phase is granular, you will also need to set its granular temperature.
If you are using the mixture turbulence model, you will need to specify the turbu-
lence boundary conditions for the mixture. If you are using the dispersed turbulence
model, you will need to specify them for the primary phase. If you are using the
per-phase turbulence model, you will need to specify them for the primary phase
and for each secondary phase.
All other conditions are specified for the mixture.

• For an axis, outflow, periodic, solid, or symmetry zone, all conditions are specified
for the mixture. There are no conditions to be set for the individual phases.

• For a wall zone, shear conditions are specified for the individual phases. All other
conditions are specified for the mixture, including thermal boundary conditions, if
heat transfer is on.

• For a fluid zone, all source terms and fixed values are specified for the individual
phases, unless you are using the mixture turbulence model or the dispersed tur-
bulence model. If you are using the mixture turbulence model, source terms and
fixed values for turbulence are specified instead for the mixture. If you are using
the dispersed turbulence model, they are specified only for the primary phase.
If the fluid zone is not porous, all other conditions are specified for the mixture.
If the fluid zone is porous, you will enable the Porous Zone option in the Fluid panel
for the mixture. The porosity inputs (if relevant) are also specified for the mixture.
The resistance coefficients and direction vectors, however, are specified separately
for each phase. See Section 7.19.6: User Inputs for Porous Media for details about
these inputs. All other conditions are specified for the mixture.

See Chapter 7: Boundary Conditions for details about the relevant conditions for each
type of boundary. Note that the pressure far-field, fan, porous jump, radiator, and mass
flow inlet boundaries are not available with the Eulerian model.

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Table 23.9.3: Phase-Specific and Mixture Conditions for the Eulerian Model
(for Laminar Flow)
Type Primary Phase Secondary Phase Mixture
exhaust fan; (tot. temperature) volume fraction; all others
outlet vent; gran. temperature
pressure outlet (tot. temperature)
inlet vent; coord. system; coord. system; dir. spec.
intake fan; flow direction flow direction; method;
pressure inlet (tot. temperature) volume fraction; all others
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
velocity inlet velocity velocity; all others
(tot. temperature) volume fraction;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
axis; nothing nothing all others
outflow;
periodic;
solid;
symmetry
wall shear condition shear condition all others
pressure not available not available not available
far-field;
fan;
porous jump;
radiator;
mass flow inlet
fluid all source terms; all source terms; porous zone;
all fixed values; all fixed values; porosity;
other porous inputs other porous inputs all others

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Table 23.9.4: Phase-Specific and Mixture Conditions for the Eulerian Model
(with the Mixture Turbulence Model)
Type Primary Phase Secondary Phase Mixture
exhaust fan; (tot. temperature) volume fraction; all others
outlet vent; gran. temperature
pressure outlet (tot. temperature)
inlet vent; coord. system; coord. system; dir. spec.
intake fan; flow direction flow direction; method;
pressure inlet (tot. temperature) volume fraction; all others
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
velocity inlet velocity velocity; all others
(tot. temperature) volume fraction;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
axis; nothing nothing all others
outflow;
periodic;
solid;
symmetry
wall shear condition shear condition all others
pressure not available not available not available
far-field;
fan;
porous jump;
radiator;
mass flow inlet
fluid other source terms; other source terms; source terms for
other fixed values; other fixed values; turbulence;
other porous inputs other porous inputs fixed values for
turbulence;
porous zone;
porosity;
all others

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Table 23.9.5: Phase-Specific and Mixture Conditions for the Eulerian Model
(with the Dispersed Turbulence Model)
Type Primary Phase Secondary Phase Mixture
exhaust fan; turb. parameters volume fraction; all others
outlet vent; (tot. temperature) gran. temperature
pressure outlet (tot. temperature)
inlet vent; coord. system; coord. system; dir. spec.
intake fan; flow direction; flow direction; method;
pressure inlet turb. parameters; volume fraction; all others
(tot. temperature) gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
velocity inlet velocity; velocity; all others
turb. parameters volume fraction;
(tot. temperature) gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
axis; nothing nothing all others
outflow;
periodic;
solid;
symmetry
wall shear condition shear condition all others
pressure not available not available not available
far-field;
fan;
porous jump;
radiator;
mass flow inlet
fluid momentum, mass, momentum and mass porous zone;
turb. sources; sources; porosity;
momentum, mass, momentum and mass all others
turb. fixed values; fixed values;
other porous inputs other porous inputs

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Table 23.9.6: Phase-Specific and Mixture Conditions for the Eulerian Model
(with the Per-Phase Turbulence Model)
Type Primary Phase Secondary Phase Mixture
exhaust fan; turb. parameters volume fraction; all others
outlet vent; (tot. temperature) turb. parameters;
pressure outlet gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
inlet vent; coord. system; coord. system; dir. spec.
intake fan; flow direction; flow direction; method;
pressure inlet turb. parameters volume fraction; all others
(tot. temperature) turb. parameters;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
velocity inlet velocity; velocity; all others
turb. parameters volume fraction;
(tot. temperature) turb. parameters;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
axis; nothing nothing all others
outflow;
periodic;
solid;
symmetry
wall shear condition shear condition all others
pressure not available not available not available
far-field;
fan;
porous jump;
radiator;
mass flow inlet
fluid momentum, mass, momentum, mass, porous zone;
turb. sources; turb. sources; porosity;
momentum, mass, momentum, mass, all others
turb. fixed values; turb. fixed values;
other porous inputs other porous inputs

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Steps for Setting Boundary Conditions

The steps you need to perform for each boundary are as follows:

1. Select the boundary in the Zone list in the Boundary Conditions panel.

2. Set the conditions for the mixture at this boundary, if necessary. (See above for
information about which conditions need to be set for the mixture.)
(a) In the Phase drop-down list, select mixture.
(b) If the current Type for this zone is correct, click Set... to open the corresponding
panel (e.g., the Pressure Inlet panel); otherwise, choose the correct zone type
in the Type list, confirm the change (when prompted), and the corresponding
panel will open automatically.
(c) In the corresponding panel for the zone type you have selected (e.g., the Pres-
sure Inlet panel, shown in Figure 23.9.9), specify the mixture boundary condi-
tions.

Figure 23.9.9: The Pressure Inlet Panel for a Mixture

Note that only those conditions that apply to all phases, as described above,
will appear in this panel.

i For a VOF calculation, if you enabled the Wall Adhesion option in the
Phase Interaction panel, you can specify the contact angle at the wall for
each pair of phases as a constant (as shown in Figure 23.9.10) or a UDF
(see the UDF manual for more information).
The contact angle (θw in Figure 23.3.3) is the angle between the wall and the
tangent to the interface at the wall, measured inside the phase listed in the
left column under Wall Adhesion in the Momentum tab of the Wall panel. For

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example, if you are setting the contact angle between the oil and air phases in
the Wall panel shown in Figure 23.9.10, θw is measured inside the oil phase.

Figure 23.9.10: The Wall Panel for a Mixture in a VOF Calculation with
Wall Adhesion

The default value for all pairs is 90 degrees, which is equivalent to no wall
adhesion effects (i.e., the interface is normal to the adjacent wall). A contact
angle of 45◦ , for example, corresponds to water creeping up the side of a
container, as is common with water in a glass.
(d) Click OK when you are done setting the mixture boundary conditions.

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3. Set the conditions for each phase at this boundary, if necessary. (See above for
information about which conditions need to be set for the individual phases.)
(a) In the Phase drop-down list, select the phase (e.g., water).

i Note that, when you select one of the individual phases (rather than the
mixture), only one type of zone appears in the Type list. It is not possible
to assign phase-specific zone types at a given boundary; the zone type is
specified for the mixture, and it applies to all of the individual phases.
(b) Click Set... to open the panel for this phase’s conditions (e.g., the Pressure
Inlet panel, shown in Figure 23.9.11).

Figure 23.9.11: The Pressure Inlet Panel for a Phase

(c) Specify the conditions for the phase. Note that only those conditions that
apply to the individual phase, as described above, will appear in this panel.
(d) Click OK when you are done setting the phase-specific boundary conditions.

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Steps for Copying Boundary Conditions

The steps for copying boundary conditions for a multiphase flow are slightly different
from those described in Section 7.1.5: Copying Boundary Conditions for a single-phase
flow. The modified steps are listed below:

1. In the Boundary Conditions panel, click the Copy... button. This will open the Copy
BCs panel.

2. In the From Zone list, select the zone that has the conditions you want to copy.

3. In the To Zones list, select the zone or zones to which you want to copy the condi-
tions.

4. In the Phase drop-down list, select the phase for which you want to copy the
conditions (either mixture or one of the individual phases).

i Note that copying the boundary conditions for one phase does not auto-
matically result in the boundary conditions for the other phases and the
mixture being copied as well. You need to copy the conditions for each
phase on each boundary of interest.

5. Click Copy. FLUENT will set all of the selected phase’s (or mixture’s) boundary
conditions on the zones selected in the To Zones list to be the same as that phase’s
conditions on the zone selected in the From Zone list. (You cannot copy a subset
of the conditions, such as only the thermal conditions.)

See Section 7.1.5: Copying Boundary Conditions for additional information about copying
boundary conditions, including limitations.

23.10 Setting Up the VOF Model

23.10.1 Choosing a VOF Formulation
To specify the VOF formulation to be used, select the appropriate VOF Scheme under
VOF Parameters in the Multiphase Model panel.
The VOF formulations that are available in FLUENT are the Explicit and Implicit schemes.

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Explicit Schemes
• Time-dependent with the explicit interpolation scheme: Since the donor-acceptor
scheme is available only for quadrilateral and hexahedral meshes, it cannot be used
for a hybrid mesh containing twisted hexahedral cells. For such cases, you should
use the time-dependent explicit scheme. This formulation can also be used for
other cases in which the geometric reconstruction scheme does not give satisfactory
results, or the flow calculation becomes unstable. Note that the CICSAM scheme or
the modified HRIC scheme can be computationally inexpensive when compared to
the geometric reconstruction scheme and improves the robustness and stability of
the calculations. The Volume Fraction discretizations, Modified HRIC and CICSAM,
are available in the Solution Controls panel when the explicit VOF scheme is selected.
Note that FLUENT will automatically turn on the unsteady formulation with first-
order discretization for time in the Solver panel.

• Time-dependent with the geometric reconstruction interpolation scheme: This for-

mulation should be used whenever you are interested in the time-accurate transient
behavior of the VOF solution.
To use this formulation, make sure Explicit is selected as the VOF Scheme in the
Multiphase panel, then select Geo-Reconstruct as the Volume Fraction Discretization
scheme in the Solution Controls panel.

• Time-dependent with the donor-acceptor interpolation scheme: This formulation

should be used instead of the time-dependent formulation with the geometric re-
construction scheme if your mesh contains highly twisted hexahedral cells. For such
cases, the donor-acceptor scheme may provide more accurate results.
The Donor-Acceptor scheme is used when Explicit is selected as the VOF Scheme
in the Multiphase panel. Initially, this formulation is not available in the GUI. To
make it available, use the following text command:
solve −→ set −→expert
You will be asked a series of questions, one of which is

Allow selection of all applicable discretization schemes? [no]

If your response is yes, then many more discretization schemes will be available
for your selection. You can now use this formulation by selecting Donor-Acceptor
as the Volume Fraction Discretization in the Solution Controls panel.

• The CICSAM scheme gives interface sharpness of the same level as the geometric
reconstruction scheme and is particularly suitable for flows with high viscosity ratios
between the phases.

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To use this formulation, select Explicit as the VOF Scheme in the Multiphase panel,
then select CICSAM as the Volume Fraction Discretization in the Solution Controls
panel.
While the explicit time-dependent formulation is less computationally expensive
than the geometric reconstruction scheme, the interface between phases will not be
as sharp as that predicted with the geometric reconstruction scheme. To reduce this
diffusivity, it is recommended that you use the second-order discretization scheme
for the volume fraction equations. In addition, you may want to consider turning
the geometric reconstruction scheme back on after calculating a solution with the
implicit scheme, in order to obtain a sharper interface.

i For the geometric reconstruction and donor-acceptor schemes, if you are

using a conformal grid (i.e., if the grid node locations are identical at the
boundaries where two subdomains meet), you must ensure that there are
no two-sided (zero-thickness) walls within the domain. If there are, you
will need to slit them, as described in Section 6.8.6: Slitting Face Zones.

i The issues discussed above for the explicit time-dependent formulation

also apply to the implicit steady-state and time-dependent formulations,
described below. You should take the precautions described above to im-
prove the sharpness of the interface.

Implicit Schemes
• Time-dependent with the implicit interpolation scheme: This formulation can be
used if you are looking for a steady-state solution and you are not interested in the
intermediate transient flow behavior, but the final steady-state solution is dependent
on the initial flow conditions and/or you do not have a distinct inflow boundary
for each phase.
To use this formulation, select Implicit as the VOF Scheme, and enable an Unsteady
calculation in the Solver panel (opened with the Define/Models/Solver... menu
item).
• Steady-state with the implicit interpolation scheme: This formulation can be used if
you are looking for a steady-state solution, you are not interested in the intermediate
transient flow behavior, and the final steady-state solution is not affected by the
initial flow conditions and there is a distinct inflow boundary for each phase. Note
that the implicit modified HRIC scheme can be used as a robust alternative to the
explicit geometric reconstruction scheme.
To use this formulation, select Implicit as the VOF Scheme in the Multiphase panel,
then select Modified HRIC as the Volume Fraction Discretization in the Solution Con-
trols panel.

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Examples

To help you determine the best formulation to use for your problem, examples that use
different formulations are listed below:

• jet breakup
Use the explicit scheme (time-dependent with the geometric reconstruction scheme
or the donor-acceptor) if problems occur with the geometric reconstruction scheme.

• shape of the liquid interface in a centrifuge

Use the time-dependent with the implicit interpolation scheme.

• flow around a ship’s hull

Use the steady-state with the implicit interpolation scheme.

23.10.2 Modeling Open Channel Flows

Using the VOF formulation, open channel flows can be modeled in FLUENT. To start
using the open channel flow boundary condition, perform the following:

1. Turn on gravity.
(a) Open the Operating Conditions panel.
Define −→Operating Conditions...
(b) Turn on Gravity and set the gravitational acceleration fields.

2. Enable the volume of fluid model.

(a) Open the Multiphase Model panel.
Define −→ Models −→Multiphase...
(b) Under Model, turn on Volume of Fluid.
(c) Under VOF Scheme, select either Implicit, Explicit.

3. Under VOF Parameters, select Open Channel Flow.

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In order to set specific parameters for a particular boundary for open channel flows,
turn on the Open Channel Flow option in the corresponding boundary condition panel.
Table 23.10.1 summarizes the types of boundaries available to the open channel flow
boundary condition, and the additional parameters needed to model open channel flow.
For more information on setting boundary condition parameters, see Chapter 7: Boundary
Conditions.

Table 23.10.1: Open Channel Boundary Parameters for the VOF Model

Boundary Type Parameter

pressure inlet Inlet Group ID;
Secondary Phase for Inlet;
Flow Specification Method;
Free Surface Level, Bottom Level;
Velocity Magnitude
pressure outlet Outlet Group ID;
Pressure Specification Method;
Free Surface Level; Bottom Level
mass flow inlet Inlet Group ID;
Secondary Phase for Inlet;
Free Surface Level;
Bottom Level
outflow Flow Rate Weighting

Defining Inlet Groups

Open channel systems involve the flowing fluid (the secondary phase) and the fluid above
it (the primary phase).
If both phases enter through the separate inlets (e.g., inlet-phase2 and inlet-phase1),
these two inlets form an inlet group. This inlet group is recognized by the parameter
Inlet Group ID, which will be same for both the inlets that make up the inlet group. On
the other hand, if both the phases enter through the same inlet (e.g., inlet-combined),
then the inlet itself represents the inlet group.

i In three-phase flows, only one secondary phase is allowed to pass through

one inlet group.

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Defining Outlet Groups

Outlet-groups can be defined in the same manner as the inlet groups.

i In three-phase flows, the outlet should represent the outlet group, i.e.,
separate outlets for each phase are not recommended in three-phase flows.

Setting the Inlet Group

For pressure inlets and mass flow inlets, the Inlet Group ID is used to identify the different
inlets that are part of the same inlet group. For instance, when both phases enter through
the same inlet (single face zone), then those phases are part of one inlet group and you
would set the Inlet Group ID to 1 for that inlet (or inlet group).
In the case where the same inlet group has separate inlets (different face zones) for each
phase, then the Inlet Group ID will be the same for each inlet of that group.
When specifying the inlet group, use the following guidelines:

• Since the Inlet Group ID is used to identify the inlets of the same inlet group, general
information such as Free Surface Level, Bottom Level, or the mass flow rate for each
phase should be the same for each inlet of the same inlet group.

• You should specify a different Inlet Group ID for each distinct inlet group.
For example, consider the case of two inlet groups for a particular problem. The
first inlet group consists of water and air entering through the same inlet (a single
face zone). In this case, you would specify an inlet group ID of 1 for that inlet (or
inlet group). The second inlet group consists of oil and air entering through the
same inlet group, but each uses a different inlet (oil-inlet and air-inlet) for
each phase. In this case, you would specify the same Inlet Group ID of 2 for both of
the inlets that belong to the inlet group.

Setting the Outlet Group

For pressure outlet boundaries, the Outlet Group ID is used to identify the different outlets
that are part of the same outlet group. For instance, when both phases enter through
the same outlet (single face zone), then those phases are part of one outlet group and
you would set the Outlet Group ID to 1 for that outlet (or outlet group).
In the case where the same outlet group has separate outlets (different face zones) for
each phase, then the Outlet Group ID will be the same for each outlet of that group.

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When specifying the outlet group, use the following guidelines:

• Since the Outlet Group ID is used to identify the outlets of the same outlet group,
general information such as Free Surface Level or Bottom Level should be the same
for each outlet of the same outlet group.

• You should specify a different Outlet Group ID for each distinct outlet group.
For example, consider the case of two outlet groups for a particular problem. The
first inlet group consists of water and air exiting from the same outlet (a single face
zone). In this case, you would specify an outlet number of 1 for that outlet (or
outlet group). The second outlet group consists of oil and air exiting through the
same outlet group, but each uses a different outlet (oil-outlet and air-outlet)
for each phase. In this case, you would specify the same Outlet Group ID of 2 for
both of the outlets that belong to the outlet group.

i For three-phase flows, when all the phases are leaving through the same
outlet, the outlet should consist only of a single face zone.

Determining the Free Surface Level

For the appropriate boundary, you need to specify the Free Surface Level value. This pa-
rameter is available for all relevant boundaries, including pressure outlet, mass flow inlet,
and pressure inlet. The Free Surface Level, is represented by ylocal in Equation 23.3-25.

ylocal = −(−
→
a · ĝ) (23.10-1)

where −→
a is the position vector of any point on the free surface, and ĝ is the unit vector
in the direction of the force of gravity. Here we assume a horizontal free surface that is
normal to the direction of gravity.
We can simply calculate the free surface level in two steps:

1. Determine the absolute value of height from the free surface to the origin in the
direction of gravity.

2. Apply the correct sign based on whether the free surface level is above or below
the origin.

If the liquid’s free surface level lies above the origin, then the Free Surface Level is positive
(see Figure 23.10.1). Likewise, if the liquid’s free surface level lies below the origin, then
the Free Surface Level is negative.

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Determining the Bottom Level

For the appropriate boundary, you need to specify the Bottom Level value. This parameter
is available for all relevant boundaries, including pressure outlet, mass flow inlet, and
pressure inlet. The Bottom Level, is represented by a relation similar to Equation 23.3-25.

→
−
ybottom = −( b · ĝ) (23.10-2)
→
−
where b is the position vector of any point on the bottom of the channel, and ĝ is the
unit vector of gravity. Here we assume a horizontal free surface that is normal to the
direction of gravity.
We can simply calculate the bottom level in two steps:

1. Determine the absolute value of depth from the bottom level to the origin in the
direction of gravity.

2. Apply the correct sign based on whether the bottom level is above or below the
origin.

If the channel’s bottom lies above the origin, then the Bottom Level is positive (see
Figure 23.10.1). Likewise, if the channel’s bottom lies below the origin, then the Bottom
Level is negative.

Free Surface Level (positive)

Bottom Level (positive)

Reference Level
Origin

Figure 23.10.1: Determining the Free Surface Level and the Bottom Level

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Specifying the Total Height

The total height, along with the velocity, is used as an option for describing the flow.
The total height is given as

V2
ytot = ylocal + (23.10-3)
2g

where V is the velocity magnitude and g is the gravity magnitude.

Determining the Velocity Magnitude

Pressure inlet boundaries require the Velocity Magnitude for calculating the dynamic
pressure at the boundary. This is to be specified as the magnitude of the upstream inlet
velocity in the flow.

Determining the Secondary Phase for the Inlet

For pressure inlets and mass flow inlets, the Secondary Phase for Inlet field is significant
in cases of three-phase flows.

i Note that only one secondary phase is allowed to pass through one inlet
group.
Consider a problem involving a three-phase flow consisting of air as the primary phase,
and oil and water as the secondary phases. Consider also that there are two inlet groups:

• water and air

• oil and air

For the former inlet group, you would choose water as the secondary phase. For the
latter inlet group, you would choose oil as the secondary phase.

Choosing the Pressure Specification Method

For a pressure outlet boundary, the outlet pressure can be specified in one of two ways:

• by prescribing the local height (i.e., a hydrostatic pressure profile)

• by specifying the constant pressure

i This option is not available in the case of three-phase flows since the pres-
sure on the boundary is taken from the neighboring cell.

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Limitations
The following list summarizes some issues and limitations associated with the open chan-
nel boundary condition.

• The conservation of the Bernoulli integral does not provide the conservation of
mass flow rate for the pressure boundary. In the case of a coarser mesh, there can
be a significant difference in mass flow rate from the actual mass flow rate. For
finer meshes, the mass flow rate comes closer to the actual value. So, for problems
having constant mass flow rate, the mass flow rate boundary condition is a better
option. The pressure boundary should be selected when steady and nonoscillating
drag is the main objective.

• Specifying the top boundary as the pressure outlet can sometimes lead to a diver-
gent solution. This may be due to the corner singularity at the pressure boundary
in the air region or due to the inability to specify local flow direction correctly if
the air enters through the top locally.

• Only the heavier phase should be selected as the secondary phase.

• In the case of three-phase flows, only one secondary phase is allowed to enter
through one inlet group (i.e., the mixed inflow of different secondary phases is not
allowed).

Recommendations for Setting Up an Open Channel Flow Problem

The following list represents a list of recommendations for solving problems using the
open channel flow boundary condition:

• In the cases where the inlet group has a different inlet for each phase of fluid, then
the parameter values (such as Free Surface Level, Bottom Level, and Mass Flow Rate)
for each inlet should correspond to all other inlets that belong to the inlet group.

• The solution begins with an estimated pressure profile at the outlet boundary.
In general, you can start the solution by assuming that the level of liquid at the
outlet corresponds to the level of liquid at the inlet. The convergence and solution
time is very dependent on the initial conditions. When the flow is completely
subcritical (upstream and downstream), in marine applications for instance, the
above approach is recommended.
If the final conditions of the flow can be predicted by other means, the solution
time can be significantly reduced by using the proper boundary condition.

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• The initialization procedure is very critical in the open channel analysis.

If you are interested in the final steady state solution, then perform the following
initialization procedure:
1. Initialize the domain by setting the volume fraction of the secondary phase to
0, and providing the inlet velocity.
2. Patch the domain using a volume fraction value of the secondary phase to 1,
up to the Free Surface Level specified at the inlet.
3. Patch the inlet velocity again in the full domain.
If the Free Surface Level values are different at the inlet and outlet, then patching
some regions with inlet Free Surface Level values and some regions with outlet Free
Surface Level values could be useful for some problems.
The same steps for initialization are also recommended for unsteady flows, but now
the initial conditions are dependent on the user.

• For the initial stability of the solution, a smaller time step is recommended. You
can increase the time step once the solution becomes more stable.

23.10.3 Defining the Phases for the VOF Model

Instructions for specifying the necessary information for the primary and secondary
phases and their interaction in a VOF calculation are provided below.

i In general, you can specify the primary and secondary phases whichever
way you prefer. It is a good idea, especially in more complicated problems,
to consider how your choice will affect the ease of problem setup. For
example, if you are planning to patch an initial volume fraction of 1 for
one phase in a portion of the domain, it may be more convenient to make
that phase a secondary phase. Also, if one of the phases is a compressible
ideal gas, it is recommended that you specify it as the primary phase to
improve solution stability.

i Recall that only one of the phases can be a compressible ideal gas. Be sure
that you do not select a compressible ideal gas material (i.e., a material
that uses the compressible ideal gas law for density) for more than one of
the phases. See Sections 23.10.5 and 23.11.3 for details.

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Defining the Primary Phase

To define the primary phase in a VOF calculation, perform the following steps:

1. Select phase-1 in the Phase list.

2. Click Set... to open the Primary Phase panel (Figure 23.10.2).

Figure 23.10.2: The Primary Phase Panel

3. In the Primary Phase panel, enter a Name for the phase.

4. Specify which material the phase contains by choosing the appropriate material in
the Phase Material drop-down list.

5. Define the material properties for the Phase Material.

(a) Click Edit..., and the Material panel will open.
(b) In the Material panel, check the properties, and modify them if necessary. (See
Chapter 8: Physical Properties for general information about setting material
properties, Section 23.10.5: Modeling Compressible Flows for specific informa-
tion related to compressible VOF calculations, and Section 23.10.6: Modeling
Solidification/Melting for specific information related to melting/solidification
VOF calculations.)

i If you make changes to the properties, remember to click Change before

closing the Material panel.
6. Click OK in the Primary Phase panel.

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Defining a Secondary Phase

To define a secondary phase in a VOF calculation, perform the following steps:

1. Select the phase (e.g., phase-2) in the Phase list.

2. Click Set... to open the Secondary Phase panel (Figure 23.10.3).

Figure 23.10.3: The Secondary Phase Panel for the VOF Model

3. In the Secondary Phase panel, enter a Name for the phase.

4. Specify which material the phase contains by choosing the appropriate material in
the Phase Material drop-down list.

5. Define the material properties for the Phase Material, following the procedure out-
lined above for setting the material properties for the primary phase.

6. Click OK in the Secondary Phase panel.

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Including Surface Tension and Wall Adhesion Effects

As discussed in Section 23.3.8: When Surface Tension Effects Are Important, the impor-
tance of surface tension effects depends on the value of the capillary number, Ca (defined
by Equation 23.3-16), or the Weber number, We (defined by Equation 23.3-17). Surface
tension effects can be neglected if Ca  1 or We  1.

i Note that the calculation of surface tension effects will be more accurate
if you use a quadrilateral or hexahedral mesh in the area(s) of the compu-
tational domain where surface tension is significant. If you cannot use a
quadrilateral or hexahedral mesh for the entire domain, then you should
use a hybrid mesh, with quadrilaterals or hexahedra in the affected areas.
FLUENT also offers an option to use VOF gradients at the nodes for cur-
vature calculations on meshes when more accuracy is desired. For more
information, see Section 23.3.8: Surface Tension and Wall Adhesion.
If you want to include the effects of surface tension along the interface between one or
more pairs of phases, as described in Section 23.3.8: Surface Tension and Wall Adhesion,
click Interaction... to open the Phase Interaction panel (Figure 23.10.4).

Figure 23.10.4: The Phase Interaction Panel for the VOF Model (Surface Ten-
sion Tab)

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Perform the following steps to include surface tension (and, if appropriate, wall adhesion)
effects along the interface between one or more pairs of phases:

1. Click the Surface Tension tab.

2. If you want to include wall adhesion, turn on the Wall Adhesion option. When Wall
Adhesion is enabled, you will need to specify the contact angle at each wall as a
boundary condition (as described in Section 23.9.8: Defining Multiphase Boundary
Conditions).

3. For each pair of phases between which you want to include the effects of surface
tension, specify a constant surface tension coefficient. Alternatively you can spec-
ify a temperature dependent, polynomial, piece-wise polynomial, piecewise linear,
or a user-defined surface tension coefficient. See Section 23.3.8: Surface Tension
and Wall Adhesion for more information on surface tension, and the separate UDF
Manual for more information on user-defined functions. All surface tension coeffi-
cients are equal to 0 by default, representing no surface tension effects along the
interface between the two phases.

i For calculations involving surface tension, it is recommended that you also

turn on the Implicit Body Force treatment for the Body Force Formulation
in the Multiphase Model panel. This treatment improves solution conver-
gence by accounting for the partial equilibrium of the pressure gradient and
surface tension forces in the momentum equations. See Section 23.9.4: In-
cluding Body Forces for details.

23.10.4 Setting Time-Dependent Parameters for the VOF Model

If you are using the time-dependent VOF formulation in FLUENT, an explicit solution
for the volume fraction is obtained either once each time step or once each iteration,
depending upon your inputs to the model. You also have control over the time step used
for the volume fraction calculation.
To compute a time-dependent VOF solution, you will need to enable the Unsteady option
in the Solver panel (and choose the appropriate Unsteady Formulation, as discussed in
Section 25.17.1: User Inputs for Time-Dependent Problems). If you choose the Explicit
scheme, FLUENT will turn on the first-order unsteady formulation for you automatically,
so you need not visit the Solver panel yourself.
Define −→ Models −→Solver...

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There are two inputs for the time-dependent calculation for the VOF model:

• By default, FLUENT will solve the volume fraction equation(s) once for each time
step. This means that the convective flux coefficients appearing in the other trans-
port equations will not be completely updated each iteration, since the volume
fraction fields will not change from iteration to iteration.
If you want FLUENT to solve the volume fraction equation(s) at every iteration
within a time step, use the text command:
define −→ models −→ multiphase −→
and select vof as the model. When prompted to solve vof every iteration?,
enter yes. When FLUENT solves these equations every iteration, the convective flux
coefficients in the other transport equations will be updated based on the updated
volume fractions at each iteration. This choice is the less stable of the two, and
requires more computational effort per time step than the default choice.

i If you are using sliding meshes, or dynamic meshes with layering and/or
remeshing, using the solve vof every iteration? option will yield
more accurate results, although at a greater computational cost.
• When FLUENT performs a time-dependent VOF calculation, the time step used
for the volume fraction calculation will not be the same as the time step used for
the rest of the transport equations. FLUENT will refine the time step for VOF
automatically, based on your input for the maximum Courant Number allowed near
the free surface. The Courant number is a dimensionless number that compares
the time step in a calculation to the characteristic time of transit of a fluid element
across a control volume:

∆t
(23.10-4)
∆xcell /vfluid
In the region near the fluid interface, FLUENT divides the volume of each cell by
the sum of the outgoing fluxes. The resulting time represents the time it would
take for the fluid to empty out of the cell. The smallest such time is used as
the characteristic time of transit for a fluid element across a control volume, as
described above. Based upon this time and your input for the maximum allowed
Courant Number in the Multiphase Models panel, a time step is computed for use
in the VOF calculation. For example, if the maximum allowed Courant number
is 0.25 (the default), the time step will be chosen to be at most one-fourth the
minimum transit time for any cell near the interface.
Note that these inputs are not required when the implicit scheme is used.

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23.10.5 Modeling Compressible Flows

If you are using the VOF model for a compressible flow, note the following:

• Only one of the phases can be defined as a compressible ideal gas (i.e., you can
select the ideal gas law for the density of only one phase’s material). There is no
limitation on using compressible liquids using user-defined functions.

• When using the VOF model, for stability reasons, it is better (although not re-
quired) if the primary phase is a compressible ideal gas.

• If you specify the total pressure at a boundary (e.g., for a pressure inlet or intake
fan) the specified value for temperature at that boundary will be used as total
temperature for the compressible phase, and as static temperature for the other
phases (which are incompressible).

• For each mass flow inlet, you will need to specify mass flow or mass flux for each
individual phase.

i Note that if you read a case file that was set up in a version of FLUENT
previous to 6.1, you will need to redefine the conditions at the mass flow
inlets. See Section 23.9.8: Defining Multiphase Boundary Conditions for
more information on defining conditions for a mass flow inlet in VOF mul-
tiphase calculations.

See Section 9.6: Compressible Flows for more information about compressible flows.

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23.10.6 Modeling Solidification/Melting

If you are including melting or solidification in your VOF calculation, note the following:

• It is possible to model melting or solidification in a single phase or in multiple

phases.

• For phases that are not melting or solidifying, you must set the latent heat (L),
liquidus temperature (Tliquidus ), and solidus temperature (Tsolidus ) to zero.

See Chapter 24: Modeling Solidification and Melting for more information about melting
and solidification.

23.11 Setting Up the Mixture Model

23.11.1 Defining the Phases for the Mixture Model
Instructions for specifying the necessary information for the primary and secondary
phases and their interaction for a mixture model calculation are provided below.

i Recall that only one of the phases can be a compressible ideal gas. Be sure
that you do not select a compressible ideal gas material (i.e., a material
that uses the compressible ideal gas law for density) for more than one of
the phases. See Section 23.11.3: Modeling Compressible Flows for details.

Defining the Primary Phase

The procedure for defining the primary phase in a mixture model calculation is the same
as for a VOF calculation. See Section 23.10.3: Defining the Primary Phase for details.

Defining a Nongranular Secondary Phase

To define a nongranular (i.e., liquid or vapor) secondary phase in a mixture multiphase
calculation, perform the following steps:

1. Select the phase (e.g., phase-2) in the Phase list.

2. Click Set... to open the Secondary Phase panel (Figure 23.11.1).

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Figure 23.11.1: The Secondary Phase Panel for the Mixture Model

3. In the Secondary Phase panel, enter a Name for the phase.

4. Specify which material the phase contains by choosing the appropriate material in
the Phase Material drop-down list.

5. Define the material properties for the Phase Material, following the same pro-
cedure you used to set the material properties for the primary phase (see Sec-
tion 23.10.3: Defining the Primary Phase). For a particulate phase (which must
be placed in the fluid materials category, as mentioned in Section 23.9: Steps for
Using a Multiphase Model), you need to specify only the density; you can ignore
the values for the other properties, since they will not be used.

6. In the Secondary Phase panel, specify the Diameter of the bubbles, droplets, or
particles of this phase (dp in Equation 23.4-12). You can specify a constant value,
or use a user-defined function. See the separate UDF Manual for details about
user-defined functions. Note that when you are using the mixture model without
slip velocity, this input is not necessary, and it will not be available to you.

7. Click OK in the Secondary Phase panel.

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Defining a Granular Secondary Phase

To define a granular (i.e., particulate) secondary phase in a mixture model multiphase
calculation, perform the following steps:

1. Select the phase (e.g., phase-2) in the Phase list.

2. Click Set... to open the Secondary Phase panel (Figure 23.11.2).

Figure 23.11.2: The Secondary Phase Panel for a Granular Phase Using the
Mixture Model

3. In the Secondary Phase panel, enter a Name for the phase.

4. Specify which material the phase contains by choosing the appropriate material in
the Phase Material drop-down list.

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5. Define the material properties for the Phase Material, following the same pro-
cedure you used to set the material properties for the primary phase (see Sec-
tion 23.10.3: Defining the Primary Phase). For a granular phase (which must be
placed in the fluid materials category, as mentioned in Section 23.9: Steps for Us-
ing a Multiphase Model), you need to specify only the density; you can ignore the
values for the other properties, since they will not be used.

i Note that all properties for granular flows can utilize user-defined functions
(UDFs).
See the separate UDF Manual for details about user-defined functions.

6. Turn on the Granular option.

7. In the Secondary Phase panel, specify the following properties of the particles of
this phase:
Diameter specifies the diameter of the particles. You can select constant in the
drop-down list and specify a constant value, or select user-defined to use a user-
defined function. See the separate UDF Manual for details about user-defined
functions.
Granular Viscosity specifies the kinetic part of the granular viscosity of the par-
ticles (µs,kin in Equation 23.4-18). You can select constant (the default) in the
drop-down list and specify a constant value, select syamlal-obrien to compute
the value using Equation 23.4-20, select gidaspow to compute the value using
Equation 23.4-21, or select user-defined to use a user-defined function.
Granular Temperature specifies temperature for the solids phase and is propor-
tional to the kinetic energy of the random motion of the particles. Choose
either the algebraic, the constant, or user-defined option.
Solids Pressure specifies the pressure gradient term, ∇ps , in the granular-phase
momentum equation. Choose either the lun-et-al, the syamlal-obrien, the ma-
ahmadi, or the user-defined option.
Radial Distribution specifies a correction factor that modifies the probability of
collisions between grains when the solid granular phase becomes dense. Choose
either the lun-et-al, the syamlal-obrien, the ma-ahmadi, the arastoopour, or a
user-defined option.
Elasticity Modulus is defined as
∂Ps
G= (23.11-1)
∂αs
with G ≥ 0.
Choose either the derived or user-defined options.

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Packing Limit specifies the maximum volume fraction for the granular phase
(αs,max ). For monodispersed spheres, the packing limit is about 0.63, which is
the default value in FLUENT. In polydispersed cases, however, smaller spheres
can fill the small gaps between larger spheres, so you may need to increase the
maximum packing limit.

8. Click OK in the Secondary Phase panel.

Defining Drag Between Phases

For mixture multiphase flows with slip velocity, you can specify the drag function to be
used in the calculation. The functions available here are a subset of those discussed in
Section 23.12.2: Defining the Phases for the Eulerian Model. See Section 23.4.5: Relative
(Slip) Velocity and the Drift Velocity for more information.
To specify drag laws, click Interaction... to open the Phase Interaction panel (Figure 23.11.3),
and then click the Drag tab.

Figure 23.11.3: The Phase Interaction Panel for the Mixture Model (Drag
Tab)

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Defining the Slip Velocity

If you are solving for slip velocities during the mixture calculation, and you want to
modify the slip velocity definition, click Interaction... to open the Phase Interaction panel
(Figure 23.11.4), and then click the Slip tab.

Figure 23.11.4: The Phase Interaction Panel for the Mixture Model (Slip Tab)

Under Slip Velocity, you can specify the slip velocity function for each secondary phase
with respect to the primary phase by choosing the appropriate item in the adjacent
drop-down list.

• Select maninnen-et-al (the default) to use the algebraic slip method of Manninen et
al. [230], described in Section 23.4.5: Relative (Slip) Velocity and the Drift Velocity.

• Select none if the secondary phase has the same velocity as the primary phase (i.e.,
no slip velocity).

• Select user-defined to use a user-defined function for the slip velocity. See the
separate UDF Manual for details.

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23.11.2 Including Cavitation Effects

For mixture model calculations, it is possible to include the effects of cavitation, using
FLUENT’s cavitation model described in Section 23.7.4: Cavitation Models. To enable the
cavitation model, turn on the Cavitation option in the Mass tab of the Phase Interaction
panel.

Figure 23.11.5: The Phase Interaction Panel for Mass Transfer with Cavita-
tion Enabled

When you are using FLUENT’s cavitation model, you will specify three parameters to be
used in the calculation of mass transfer due to cavitation. Under Cavitation Parameters
in the Phase Interaction panel, set the Vaporization Pressure (psat in Equation 23.7-15),
the Surface Tension Coefficient , and the Non-Condensable Gas Mass Fraction . The default
value of psat is 2540 Pa, the vaporization pressure for water at ambient temperature.
Note that psat and the surface tension are properties of the liquid, depending mainly on
temperature. Non-Condensable Gas Mass Fraction is the mass fraction of dissolved gases,
which depends on the purity of the liquid.

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When multiple species are included in one or more secondary phases, or the heat transfer
due to phase change needs to be taken into account, the mass transfer mechanism must
be defined before turning on the Cavitation option. This is defined in the same way as
described Section 23.9.7: Including Mass Transfer Effects. It may be noted, however,
that for cavitation problems, at least two mass transfer mechanisms are defined:

• mass transfer from liquid to vapor.

• mass transfer from vapor to liquid.

In the Phase Interaction panel (Figure 23.11.6), you should choose the constant-rate op-
tion in the Mechanism drop-down list and leave the value as 0 for both mass transfer
mechanisms before turning on the Cavitation option.

Figure 23.11.6: The Phase Interaction Panel for Mass Transfer with Cavita-
tion Disabled

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23.11.3 Modeling Compressible Flows

If you are using the mixture model for a compressible flow, note the following:

• Only one of the phases can be defined as a compressible ideal gas (i.e., you can
select the ideal gas law for the density of only one phase’s material). There is no
limitation on using compressible liquids using user-defined functions.

• If you specify the total pressure at a boundary (e.g., for a pressure inlet or intake
fan) the specified value for temperature at that boundary will be used as total
temperature for the compressible phase, and as static temperature for the other
phases (which are incompressible).

• For each mass flow inlet, you will need to specify mass flow or mass flux for each
individual phase.

i Note that if you read a case file that was set up in a version of FLUENT
previous to 6.1, you will need to redefine the conditions at the mass flow
inlets. See Section 23.9.8: Defining Multiphase Boundary Conditions for
more information on defining conditions for a mass flow inlet in mixture
multiphase calculations.

See Section 9.6: Compressible Flows for more information about compressible flows.

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23.12 Setting Up the Eulerian Model

23.12.1 Additional Guidelines for Eulerian Multiphase Simulations
Once you have determined that the Eulerian multiphase model is appropriate for your
problem (as described in Section 23.2: Choosing a General Multiphase Model), you should
consider the computational effort required to solve your multiphase problem. The re-
quired computational effort depends strongly on the number of transport equations be-
ing solved and the degree of coupling. For the Eulerian multiphase model, which has a
large number of highly coupled transport equations, computational expense will be high.
Before setting up your problem, try to reduce the problem statement to the simplest
form possible.
Instead of trying to solve your multiphase flow in all of its complexity on your first
solution attempt, you can start with simple approximations and work your way up to
the final form of the problem definition. Some suggestions for simplifying a multiphase
flow problem are listed below:

• Use a hexahedral or quadrilateral mesh (instead of a tetrahedral or triangular

mesh).

• Reduce the number of phases.

You may find that even a very simple approximation will provide you with useful infor-
mation about your problem.
See Section 23.14.4: Eulerian Model for more solution strategies for Eulerian multiphase
calculations.

23.12.2 Defining the Phases for the Eulerian Model

Instructions for specifying the necessary information for the primary and secondary
phases and their interaction for an Eulerian multiphase calculation are provided below.

Defining the Primary Phase

The procedure for defining the primary phase in an Eulerian multiphase calculation is
the same as for a VOF calculation. See Section 23.10.3: Defining the Primary Phase for
details.

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Defining a Nongranular Secondary Phase

To define a nongranular (i.e., liquid or vapor) secondary phase in an Eulerian multiphase
calculation, perform the following steps:

1. Select the phase (e.g., phase-2) in the Phase list.

2. Click Set... to open the Secondary Phase panel (Figure 23.12.1).

Figure 23.12.1: The Secondary Phase Panel for a Nongranular Phase

3. In the Secondary Phase panel, enter a Name for the phase.

4. Specify which material the phase contains by choosing the appropriate material in
the Phase Material drop-down list.
5. Define the material properties for the Phase Material, following the same pro-
cedure you used to set the material properties for the primary phase (see Sec-
tion 23.10.3: Defining the Primary Phase).
6. In the Secondary Phase panel, specify the Diameter of the bubbles or droplets of
this phase. You can specify a constant value, or use a user-defined function. See
the separate UDF Manual for details about user-defined functions.
7. Click OK in the Secondary Phase panel.

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Defining a Granular Secondary Phase

To define a granular (i.e., particulate) secondary phase in an Eulerian multiphase calcu-
lation, perform the following steps:

1. Select the phase (e.g., phase-2) in the Phase list.

2. Click Set... to open the Secondary Phase panel (Figure 23.12.2).

Figure 23.12.2: The Secondary Phase Panel for a Granular Phase

3. In the Secondary Phase panel, enter a Name for the phase.

4. Specify which material the phase contains by choosing the appropriate material in
the Phase Material drop-down list.

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5. Define the material properties for the Phase Material, following the same pro-
cedure you used to set the material properties for the primary phase (see Sec-
tion 23.10.3: Defining the Primary Phase). For a granular phase (which must be
placed in the fluid materials category, as mentioned in Section 23.9: Steps for Us-
ing a Multiphase Model), you need to specify only the density; you can ignore the
values for the other properties, since they will not be used.

i Note that all properties for granular flows can utilize user-defined functions
(UDFs).
See the separate UDF Manual for details about user-defined functions.
6. Turn on the Granular option.
7. (optional) Turn on the Packed Bed option if you want to freeze the velocity field for
the granular phase. Note that when you select the packed bed option for a phase,
you should also use the fixed velocity option with a value of zero for all velocity
components for all interior cell zones for that phase.
8. Specify the Granular Temperature Model. Choose either the default Phase Prop-
erty option or the Partial Differential Equation option. See Section 23.5.8: Granular
Temperature for details.
9. In the Secondary Phase panel, specify the following properties of the particles of
this phase:
Diameter specifies the diameter of the particles. You can select constant in the
drop-down list and specify a constant value, or select user-defined to use a user-
defined function. See the separate UDF Manual for details about user-defined
functions.
Granular Viscosity specifies the kinetic part of the granular viscosity of the par-
ticles (µs,kin in Equation 23.5-62). You can select constant (the default) in the
drop-down list and specify a constant value, select syamlal-obrien to compute
the value using Equation 23.5-64, select gidaspow to compute the value using
Equation 23.5-65, or select user-defined to use a user-defined function.
Granular Bulk Viscosity specifies the solids bulk viscosity (λq in Equation 23.5-6).
You can select constant (the default) in the drop-down list and specify a con-
stant value, select lun-et-al to compute the value using Equation 23.5-66, or
select user-defined to use a user-defined function.
Frictional Viscosity specifies a shear viscosity based on the viscous-plastic flow
(µs,fr in Equation 23.5-62). By default, the frictional viscosity is neglected,
as indicated by the default selection of none in the drop-down list. If you
want to include the frictional viscosity, you can select constant and specify a
constant value, select schaeffer to compute the value using Equation 23.5-67,
select johnson-et-al to compute the value using Equation 23.5-72, or select
user-defined to use a user-defined function.

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Angle of Internal Friction specifies a constant value for the angle φ used in Scha-
effer’s expression for frictional viscosity (Equation 23.5-67). This parameter
is relevant only if you have selected schaeffer or user-defined for the Frictional
Viscosity.
Frictional Pressure specifies the pressure gradient term, ∇Pf riction , in the granular-
phase momentum equation. Choose none to exclude frictional pressure from
your calculation, johnson-et-al to apply Equation 23.5-72, syamlal-obrien to ap-
ply Equation 23.5-30, based-ktgf, where the frictional pressure is defined by the
kinetic theory [81]. The solids pressure tends to a large value near the packing
limit, depending on the model selected for the radial distribution function.
You must hook a user-defined function when selecting the user-defined option.
See the separate UDF manual for information on hooking a UDF.
Frictional Modulus is defined as
∂Pf riction
G= (23.12-1)
∂αf riction

with G ≥ 0, which is the derived option. You can also specify a user-defined
function for the frictional modulus.
Friction Packing Limit specifies the maximum volume fraction for the granular
phase (αs,max ). For monodispersed spheres, the packing limit is about 0.63,
which is the default value in FLUENT. In polydispersed cases, however, smaller
spheres can fill the small gaps between larger spheres, so you may need to
increase the maximum packing limit.
Granular Conductivity specifies the solids granular conductivity (kΘs in
Equation 23.5-75). You can select syamlal-obrien to compute the value using
Equation 23.5-76, select gidaspow to compute the value using Equation 23.5-77,
or select user-defined to use a user-defined function. Note, however, that FLU-
ENT currently uses an algebraic relation for the granular temperature. This
has been obtained by neglecting convection and diffusion in the transport
equation, Equation 23.5-75 [364].
Granular Temperature specifies temperature for the solids phase and is propor-
tional to the kinetic energy of the random motion of the particles. Choose
either the algebraic, the constant, or user-defined option.
Solids Pressure specifies the pressure gradient term, ∇ps , in the granular-phase
momentum equation. Choose either the lun-et-al, the syamlal-obrien, the ma-
ahmadi, none, or a user-defined option.
Radial Distribution specifies a correction factor that modifies the probability of
collisions between grains when the solid granular phase becomes dense. Choose
either the lun-et-al, the syamlal-obrien, the ma-ahmadi, the arastoopour, or a
user-defined option.

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Elasticity Modulus is defined as

∂Ps
G= (23.12-2)
∂αs
with G ≥ 0.
Packing Limit specifies the maximum volume fraction for the granular phase
(αs,max ). For monodispersed spheres, the packing limit is about 0.63, which is
the default value in FLUENT. In polydispersed cases, however, smaller spheres
can fill the small gaps between larger spheres, so you may need to increase the
maximum packing limit.

10. Click OK in the Secondary Phase panel.

Defining the Interaction Between Phases

For both granular and nongranular flows, you will need to specify the drag function to
be used in the calculation of the momentum exchange coefficients. For granular flows,
you will also need to specify the restitution coefficient(s) for particle collisions. It is also
possible to include an optional lift force and/or virtual mass force (described below) for
both granular and nongranular flows.
To specify these parameters, click Interaction... to open the Phase Interaction panel (Fig-
ure 23.12.3).

Figure 23.12.3: The Phase Interaction Panel for the Eulerian Model

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Specifying the Drag Function

FLUENT allows you to specify a drag function for each pair of phases. Perform the
following steps:

1. Click the Drag tab to display the Drag Function inputs.

2. For each pair of phases, select the appropriate drag function from the corresponding
drop-down list.
• Select schiller-naumann to use the fluid-fluid drag function described by Equa-
tion 23.5-18. The Schiller and Naumann model is the default method, and it
is acceptable for general use in all fluid-fluid multiphase calculations.
• Select morsi-alexander to use the fluid-fluid drag function described by Equa-
tion 23.5-22. The Morsi and Alexander model is the most complete, adjusting
the function definition frequently over a large range of Reynolds numbers, but
calculations with this model may be less stable than with the other models.
• Select symmetric to use the fluid-fluid drag function described by
Equation 23.5-27. The symmetric model is recommended for flows in which
the secondary (dispersed) phase in one region of the domain becomes the
primary (continuous) phase in another. For example, if air is injected into the
bottom of a container filled halfway with water, the air is the dispersed phase
in the bottom half of the container; in the top half of the container, the air is
the continuous phase.
• Select wen-yu to use the fluid-solid drag function described by Equation 23.5-39.
The Wen and Yu model is applicable for dilute phase flows, in which the total
secondary phase volume fraction is significantly lower than that of the primary
phase.
• Select gidaspow to use the fluid-solid drag function described by
Equation 23.5-41. The Gidaspow model is recommended for dense fluidized
beds.
• Select syamlal-obrien to use the fluid-solid drag function described by Equa-
tion 23.5-31. The Syamlal-O’Brien model is recommended for use in conjunc-
tion with the Syamlal-O’Brien model for granular viscosity.
• Select syamlal-obrien-symmetric to use the solid-solid drag function described
by Equation 23.5-43. The symmetric Syamlal-O’Brien model is appropriate
for a pair of solid phases.
• Select constant to specify a constant value for the drag function, and then
specify the value in the text field.

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• Select user-defined to use a user-defined function for the drag function (see the
separate UDF Manual for details).
• If you want to temporarily ignore the interaction between two phases, select
none.

Specifying the Restitution Coefficients (Granular Flow Only)

For granular flows, you need to specify the coefficients of restitution for collisions between
particles (els in Equation 23.5-43 and ess in Equation 23.5-44). In addition to specifying
the restitution coefficient for collisions between each pair of granular phases, you will also
specify the restitution coefficient for collisions between particles of the same phase.
Perform the following steps:

1. Click the Collisions tab to display the Restitution Coefficient inputs.

2. For each pair of phases, specify a constant restitution coefficient. All restitution
coefficients are equal to 0.9 by default.

Including the Lift Force

For both granular and nongranular flows, it is possible to include the effect of lift forces
(F~lift in Equation 23.5-8) on the secondary phase particles, droplets, or bubbles. These
lift forces act on a particle, droplet, or bubble mainly due to velocity gradients in the
primary-phase flow field. In most cases, the lift force is insignificant compared to the
drag force, so there is no reason to include it. If the lift force is significant (e.g., if the
phases separate quickly), you may want to include this effect.

i Note that the lift force will be more significant for larger particles, but the
FLUENT model assumes that the particle diameter is much smaller than the
interparticle spacing. Thus, the inclusion of lift forces is not appropriate
for closely packed particles or for very small particles.

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To include the effect of lift forces, perform the following steps:

1. Click the Lift tab to display the Lift Coefficient inputs.

2. For each pair of phases, select the appropriate specification method from the cor-
responding drop-down list. Note that, since the lift forces for a particle, droplet, or
bubble are due mainly to velocity gradients in the primary-phase flow field, you will
not specify lift coefficients for pairs consisting of two secondary phases; lift coeffi-
cients are specified only for pairs consisting of a secondary phase and the primary
phase.
• Select none (the default) to ignore the effect of lift forces.
• Select constant to specify a constant lift coefficient, and then specify the value
in the text field.
• Select user-defined to use a user-defined function for the lift coefficient (see the
separate UDF Manual for details).

Including the Virtual Mass Force

For both granular and nongranular flows, it is possible to include the “virtual mass force”
(F~vm in Equation 23.5-9) that is present when a secondary phase accelerates relative to the
primary phase. The virtual mass effect is significant when the secondary phase density
is much smaller than the primary phase density (e.g., for a transient bubble column).
To include the effect of the virtual mass force, turn on the Virtual Mass option in the
Phase Interaction panel. The virtual mass effect will be included for all secondary phases;
it is not possible to enable it just for a particular phase.

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23.12.3 Modeling Turbulence

If you are using the Eulerian model to solve a turbulent flow, you will need to choose
one of turbulence models described in Section 23.5.10: Turbulence Models in the Viscous
Model panel (Figure 23.12.4).

Figure 23.12.4: The Viscous Model Panel for an Eulerian Multiphase Calcu-
lation

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 23.12 Setting Up the Eulerian Model

The procedure is as follows:

1. Select either k-epsilon or Reynolds Stress under Model.

2. Select the desired k-epsilon Model or RSM Multiphase Model and any other related
parameters, as described for single-phase calculations in Section 12.12: Steps in
Using a Turbulence Model.

3. Under k-epsilon Multiphase Model or RSM Multiphase Model, indicate the desired
multiphase turbulence model (see Section 23.5.10: Turbulence Models for details
about each):
• Select Mixture to use the mixture turbulence model. This is the default model.
• Select Dispersed to use the dispersed turbulence model. This model is ap-
plicable when there is clearly one primary continuous phase and the rest are
dispersed dilute secondary phases.
• Select Per Phase to use a k- turbulence model for each phase. This model is
appropriate when the turbulence transfer among the phases plays a dominant
role.

Including Source Terms

By default, the interphase momentum, k, and  sources are not included in the calcula-
tion. If you want to include any of these source terms, you can enable them using the
multiphase-options command in the define/models/viscous/multiphase-turbulence/
text menu. Note that the inclusion of these terms can slow down convergence noticeably.
If you are looking for additional accuracy, you may want to compute a solution first
without these sources, and then continue the calculation with these terms included. In
most cases these terms can be neglected.

Customizing the k- Multiphase Turbulent Viscosity

If you are using the k- multiphase turbulence model, a user-defined function can be
used to customize the turbulent viscosity for each phase. This option will enable you to
modify µt in the k- model. For more information, see the separate UDF Manual.
In the Viscous Model panel, under User-Defined Functions, select the appropriate user-
defined function in the Turbulent Viscosity drop-down list.

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23.12.4 Including Heat Transfer Effects

To define heat transfer in a multiphase Eulerian simulation, you will need to visit the
Phase Interaction panel, after you have turned on the energy equation in the Energy panel.
Define −→Phases...

1. Click the Interaction... button to open the Phase Interaction panel (e.g., Fig-
ure 23.12.5).

Figure 23.12.5: The Phase Interaction Panel for Heat Transfer

2. Click on the Heat tab in the Phase Interaction panel.

3. Select the desired correlation for the Heat Transfer Coefficient. Note the following
regarding the available choices:
gunn is frequently used for Eulerian multiphase simulations involving a granular
phase.
ranz-marshall is frequently used for Eulerian multiphase simulations not involv-
ing a granular phase.
none allows you to ignore the effects of heat transfer between the two phases
user-defined allows you to implement a correlation reflecting a model of your
choice, through a user-defined function.

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4. Set the appropriate thermal boundary conditions. You will specify the thermal
boundary conditions for each individual phase on most boundaries, and for the
mixture on some boundaries. See Chapter 7: Boundary Conditions for more in-
formation on boundary conditions, and Section 23.9.8: Eulerian Model for more
information on specifying boundary conditions for a Eulerian multiphase calcula-
tion.

See Section 23.5.9: Description of Heat Transfer for more information on heat transfer in
the framework of a Eulerian multiphase simulation.

23.12.5 Modeling Compressible Flows

You can model compressible multiphase flows, and can use it in conjunction with the
energy multiphase equations and available multiphase turbulence models. When using
the Eulerian multiphase model for a compressible flow, note the following:

• While you can specify both compressible gas phases and compressible liquid phases,
you can only define one of the phases as a compressible ideal gas (i.e., you can select
the ideal-gas for the density in the Materials panel of only one phase’s material).
There is no limitation on using compressible liquids using user-defined functions.

• You can define only one compressible fluid phase.

• For each mass flow inlet, you will need to specify mass flow or mass flux for each
individual phase.

• If you specify the total pressure at a boundary (e.g., for a pressure inlet or intake
fan), FLUENT will use the specified value for temperature at that boundary as
total temperature for the compressible phase, and as static temperature for the
other phases (which are incompressible).

i Note that if you read a case file that was set up in a version of FLUENT
previous to 6.1, you will need to redefine the conditions at the mass flow
inlets. See Section 23.9.8: Defining Multiphase Boundary Conditions for
more information on defining conditions for a mass flow inlet in Eulerian
multiphase calculations.

See Section 9.6: Compressible Flows for more information about compressible flows.

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23.13 Setting Up the Wet Steam Model

Once you have enabled either of the density-based solvers in FLUENT, you can activate the
wet steam model (see Section 23.6: Wet Steam Model Theory) by opening the Multiphase
panel and selecting the Wet Steam option.
Define −→ Models −→Multiphase...

Figure 23.13.1: The Multiphase Model Panel with the Wet Steam Model Ac-
tivated

This section includes information about using your own property functions and data with
the wet steam model. Solution settings and strategies for the wet steam model can be
found in Section 23.14.5: Wet Steam Model. Postprocessing variables are described in
Section 23.15.1: Model-Specific Variables.

23.13.1 Using User-Defined Thermodynamic Wet Steam Properties

FLUENT allows you to use your own property functions and data with the wet steam
model. This is achieved with user-defined wet steam property functions (UDWSPF).
These user-defined functions are written in the C programming language and there is a
certain programming format that must be used so that you can build a successful library
that can be loaded into the FLUENT code.

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 23.13 Setting Up the Wet Steam Model

The following is the procedure for using the user-defined wet steam property functions
(UDWSPF):

1. Define the wet steam equation of state and all related thermodynamic and transport
property equations.
2. Create a C source code file that conforms to the format defined in this section.
3. Start FLUENT and set up your case file in the usual way.
4. Turn on the wet steam model.
5. Compile your UDWSPF C functions and build a shared library file using the text
user interface.
define −→ models −→ multiphase −→
wet-steam −→compile-user-defined-wetsteam-functions
6. Load your newly created UDWSPF library using the text user interface.
define −→ models −→ multiphase −→
wet-steam −→load-unload-user-defined-wetsteam-library
7. Run your calculation.

i Note that the UDWSPF can only be used when the wet steam model is
activated. Therefore, the UDWSPF are available for use with the density-
based solver only.

23.13.2 Writing the User-Defined Wet Steam Property Functions (UDWSPF)

Creating a UDWSPF C function library is reasonably straightforward:

• The code must contain the udf.h file inclusion directive at the beginning of the
source code. This allows the definitions for DEFINE macros and other FLUENT
functions to be accessible during the compilation process.
• The code must include at least one of the UDF’s DEFINE functions
(i.e. DEFINE ON DEMAND) to be able to use the compiled UDFs utility.
• Any values that are passed to the solver by the UDWSPF or returned by the solver
to the UDWSPF are assumed to be in SI units.
• You must use the principle set of user-defined wet steam property functions in
your UDWSPF library, as described in the list that follows. These functions are
the mechanism by which your thermodynamic property data is transferred to the
FLUENT solver.

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The following lists the user-defined wet steam property function names and arguments,
as well as a short description of their functions. Function inputs from the FLUENT solver
consist of one or more of the following variables: T = temperature (K), P = pressure
(P a), and ρ = vapor-phase density (kg/m3 ).

• void wetst init(Domain *domain)

This will be called when you load the UDWSPF. You use it to initialize wet steam
model constants or your own model constants. It returns nothing.

• real wetst satP(real T)

This is the saturated pressure function, which takes on temperature in K and
returns saturation pressure in Pa.

• real wetst satT(real P, real T)

This is the saturated temperature function, which takes on pressure in Pa and a
starting guess temperature in K and returns saturation temperature in K.

• real wetst eosP(real rho, real T)

This is the equation of state, which takes on vapor density in kg/m3 and Temper-
ature in K and returns pressure in Pa.

• real wetst eosRHO(real P, real T)

This is the equation of state, which takes on pressure in Pa and temperature in K
and returns vapor density in kg/m3 .

• real wetst cpv(real T, real rho)

This is the vapor specific heat at constant pressure, which takes on temperature
in K and vapor density in kg/m3 and returns specific heat at constant pressure in
J/kg/K.

• real wetst cvv(real T, real rho)

This is the vapor specific heat at constant volume, which takes on temperature
in K and vapor density in kg/m3 and returns specific heat at constant volume in
J/kg/K.

• real wetst hv(real T,real rho)

This is the vapor specific enthalpy, which takes on temperature in K and vapor
density in kg/m3 and returns specific enthalpy in J/Kg.

• real wetst sv(real T, real rho)

This is the vapor specific entropy, which takes on temperature in K and vapor
density in kg/m3 and returns specific entropy in J/Kg/K.

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 23.13 Setting Up the Wet Steam Model

• real wetst muv(real T, real rho)

This is the vapor dynamic viscosity, which takes on temperature in K and vapor
density in kg/m3 and returns viscosity in kg/m/s.

• real wetst ktv(real T, real rho)

This is the vapor thermal conductivity, which takes on temperature in K and vapor
density in kg/m3 and returns thermal conductivity in W/m/K.

• real wetst rhol(real T)

This is the saturated liquid density, which takes on temperature in K and returns
liquid density in kg/m3 .

• real wetst cpl(real T)

This is the saturated liquid specific heat at constant pressure, which takes on tem-
perature in K and returns liquid specific heat in J/kg/K.

• real wetst mul(real T)

This is the liquid dynamic viscosity, which takes on Temperature in K and returns
dynamic viscosity in kg/m/s.

• real wetst ktl(real T)

This is the liquid thermal conductivity, which takes on temperature in K and returns
thermal conductivity in W/m/K.

• real wetst surft(real T)

This is the liquid surface tension, which takes on Temperature in K and returns
surface tension N/m.

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At the end of the code you must define a structure of type WS Functions whose mem-
bers are pointers to the principle functions listed previously. The structure is of type
WS Functions and its name is WetSteamFunctionList.

UDF_EXPORT WS_Functions WetSteamFunctionList =

{
wetst_init, /*initialization function*/
wetst_satP, /*Saturation pressure*/
wetst_satT, /*Saturation temperature*/
wetst_eosP, /*equation of state*/
wetst_eosRHO, /*equation of state*/
wetst_hv, /*vapor enthalpy*/
wetst_sv, /*vapor entropy*/
wetst_cpv, /*vapor isobaric specific heat*/
wetst_cvv, /*vapor isochoric specific heat*/
wetst_muv, /*vapor dynamic viscosity*/
wetst_ktv, /*vapor thermal conductivity*/
wetst_rhol, /*sat. liquid density*/
wetst_cpl, /*sat. liquid specific heat*/
wetst_mul, /*sat. liquid viscosity*/
wetst_ktl, /*sat. liquid thermal conductivity*/
wetst_surft /*liquid surface tension*/
};

23.13.3 Compiling Your UDWSPF and Building a Shared Library File

This section presents the steps you will need to follow to compile your UDWSPF C code
and build a shared library file. This process requires the use of a C compiler. Most UNIX
operating systems provide a C compiler as a standard feature. If you are using a PC,
you will need to ensure that a C ++ compiler is installed before you can proceed (e.g.,
Microsoft Visual C ++, v6.0 or higher).

i To use the UDWSPF you will need to first build the UDWSPF library
by compiling your UDWSPF C code and then loading the library into the
FLUENT code.
The UDWSPF shared library is built in the same way that the FLUENT executable itself
is built. Internally, a script called Makefile is used to invoke the system C compiler
to build an object code library that contains the native machine language translation of
your higher-level C source code. This shared library is then loaded into FLUENT (either
at runtime or automatically when a case file is read) by a process called dynamic loading.
The object libraries are specific to the computer architecture being used, as well as to the
particular version of the FLUENT executable being run. The libraries must, therefore,

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 23.13 Setting Up the Wet Steam Model

be rebuilt any time FLUENT is upgraded, when the computer’s operating system level
changes, or when the job is run on a different type of computer.
The general procedure for compiling UDWSPF C code is as follows:

• Place the UDWSPF C code in your working directory (i.e., where your case file
resides).

• Launch FLUENT.

• Read your case file into FLUENT.

• You can now compile your UDWSPF C code and build a shared library file using
the commands provided in the text command interface (TUI):
– Select the define/models/multiphase/wet-steam menu item
define −→ models −→ multiphase −→wet-steam
– Select the compile-user-defined-wetsteam-functions option.
– Enter the compiled UDWSPF library name.
The name given here is the name of the directory where the shared library
(e.g., libudf) will reside. For example, if you hit <Enter> then a directory
should exist with the name libudf, and this directory will contain library file
called libudf. If, however, you type a new library name such as mywetsteam,
then a directory called mywetsteam will be created and it will contain the
library libudf.
– Continue on with the procedure when prompted.
– Enter the C source file names.

i Ideally you should place all of your functions into a single file. However,
you can split them into separate files if desired.
– Enter the header file names, if applicable. If you do not have an extra header
file, then press <Enter> when prompted.
FLUENT will then start compiling the UDWSPF C code and put it in the
appropriate architecture directory.

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23.13.4 Loading the UDWSPF Shared Library File

To load the UDWSPF library, perform the following steps:

• Go to the define/models/multiphase/wet-steam menu item in the text user

interface.
define −→ models −→ multiphase −→wet-steam

• Select the load-unload-user-defined-wetsteam-library option and follow the

procedure when prompted.
If the loading of the UDWSPF library is successful, you will see a message similar
to the following:

Opening user-defined wet steam library "libudf"...

Library "libudf/lnx86/2d/libudf.so" opened

Setting material properties to Wet-Steam...

Initializing user defined material properties...

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 23.13 Setting Up the Wet Steam Model

23.13.5 UDWSPF Example

This section describe a simple UDWSPF. You can use this example as a the basis for your
own UDWSPF code. For approximate calculations at low pressure, the simple ideal-gas
equation of state and constant isobaric specific heat is assumed and used. The properties
at the saturated liquid line and the saturated vapor line used in this example are similar
to the one used by FLUENT.

/**********************************************************************/
/* User Defined Wet Steam Properties:
EOS : Ideal Gas Eq.
Vapor Sat. Line : W.C.Reynolds tables (1979)
Liquid Sat. Line: E. Eckert & R. Drake book (1972)

Use ideal-gas EOS with Steam properties

to model wet steam condensation in low pressure nozzle

Author: L. Zori
Date : Jan. 29 2004
*/
/**********************************************************************/
#include "udf.h"
#include "stdio.h"
#include "ctype.h"
#include "stdarg.h"

/*Global Constants for this model*/

real ws_TPP = 338.150 ;
real ws_aaa = 0.01 ;
real cpg = 1882.0 ;/* Cp-vapor at low-pressure region*/

DEFINE_ON_DEMAND(I_do_nothing)
{
/* This is a dummy function to allow us to use */
/* the Compiled UDFs utility */
}

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void
wetst_init(Domain *domain)
{
/*
You must initialize these material property constants..
they will be used in the wet steam model in fluent
*/
ws_Tc = 647.286 ;/*Critical Temp. */
ws_Pc = 22089000.00 ;/*Critical Pressure */
mw_f = 18.016 ;/*fluid droplet molecular weight (water) */
Rgas_v = 461.50 ;/*vapor Gas Const*/
}

real
wetst_satP(real T)
{
real psat ;

real SUM=0.0;
real pratio;
real F ;
real a1 = -7.41924200 ;
real a2 = 2.97210000E-01 ;
real a3 = -1.15528600E-01 ;
real a4 = 8.68563500E-03 ;
real a5 = 1.09409899E-03 ;
real a6 = -4.39993000E-03 ;
real a7 = 2.52065800E-03 ;
real a8 = -5.21868400E-04 ;

if (T > ws_Tc) T = ws_Tc ;

F = ws_aaa*(T - ws_TPP) ;
SUM = a1 + F*(a2+ F*(a3+ F*(a4+ F*(a5+ F*(a6+ F*(a7+ F*a8)))))) ;

pratio = (ws_Tc/T - 1.0)*SUM;

psat = ws_Pc *exp(pratio) ;

return psat; /*Pa */

}

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 23.13 Setting Up the Wet Steam Model

real
wetst_satT(real P, real T)
{
real tsat ;

real dT, dTA,dTM,dP,p1,p2,dPdT;

int i ;
for (i=0; i<25; ++i)
{
if (T > ws_Tc) T = ws_Tc-0.5;

p1= wetst_satP(T) ;
p2= wetst_satP(T+0.1) ;
dPdT = (p2-p1)/0.1 ;

dP = P - p1 ;

dT = dP/dPdT ;

dTA = fabs(dT);
dTM = 0.1*T ;
if (dTA > dTM) dT=dT*dTM/dTA ;
T = T + dT;
if (fabs(dT) < TEMP_eps*T) break;
}
tsat = T;

return tsat; /*K */

}

real
wetst_eosP(real rho, real T)
{
real P ;

P = rho* Rgas_v * T ;

return P; /*Pa */
}

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real
wetst_eosRHO(real P, real T)
{
real rho ;

rho = P/(Rgas_v * T) ;

return rho; /*kg/m3 */

}

real
wetst_cpv(real T, real rho)
{
real cp;

cp = cpg ;

return cp; /* (J/Kg/K) */

}

real
wetst_cvv(real T, real rho)
{
real cv;

cv = wetst_cpv(T,rho) - Rgas_v ;

return cv; /* (J/Kg/K) */

}

real
wetst_hv(real T,real rho)
{
real h;

h = T* wetst_cpv(T,rho) ;

return h; /* (J/Kg) */
}

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 23.13 Setting Up the Wet Steam Model

real
wetst_sv(real T, real rho)
{
real s ;

real TDatum=288.15;
real PDatum=1.01325e5;

s=wetst_cpv(T,rho)*log(T/TDatum)+
Rgas_v*log(PDatum/(Rgas_v*T*rho));

return s; /* (J/Kg/K) */
}

real
wetst_muv(real T, real rho)
{
real muv ;

muv=1.7894e-05 ;

return muv; /* (Kg/m/s) */

}

real
wetst_ktv(real T, real rho)
{
real ktv ;

ktv=0.0242 ;

return ktv; /* W/m/K */

}

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real
wetst_rhol(real T)
{
real rhol;

real SUM = 0.0 ;

int ii ;
int i ;
real rhoc = 317.0 ;
real D[8] ;

D[0] = 3.6711257 ;
D[1] = -2.8512396E+01 ;
D[2] = 2.2265240E+02 ;
D[3] = -8.8243852E+02 ;
D[4] = 2.0002765E+03 ;
D[5] = -2.6122557E+03 ;
D[6] = 1.8297674E+03 ;
D[7] = -5.3350520E+02 ;
if (T > ws_Tc) T = ws_Tc ;
for(ii=0;ii < 8;++ii)
{
i = ii+1 ;
SUM += D[ii] * pow((1.0 - T/ws_Tc), i/3.0) ;
}
rhol = rhoc*(1.0+SUM);

return rhol; /* (Kg/m3) */

}

real
wetst_cpl(real T)
{
real cpl;

real a1= -36571.6 ;

real a2= 555.217 ;
real a3= -2.96724 ;
real a4= 0.00778551;
real a5= -1.00561e-05;
real a6= 5.14336E-09;

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 23.13 Setting Up the Wet Steam Model

if (T > ws_Tc) T = ws_Tc ;

cpl = a1 + T*(a2+ T*(a3+ T*(a4+ T*(a5+ T*a6)))) ;

return cpl; /* (J/Kg/K) */

}

real
wetst_mul(real T)
{
real mul ;

real a1= 0.530784;

real a2= -0.00729561;
real a3= 4.16604E-05 ;
real a4= -1.26258E-07;
real a5= 2.13969E-10;
real a6= -1.92145E-13;
real a7= 7.14092E-17;

if (T > ws_Tc) T = ws_Tc ;

mul = a1 + T*(a2+ T*(a3+ T*(a4+ T*(a5+ T*(a6+ T*a7))))) ;

return mul; /* (Kg/m/s) */

}

real
wetst_ktl(real T)
{
real ktl ;

real a1= -1.17633;

real a2= 0.00791645;
real a3= 1.48603E-05;
real a4= -1.31689E-07;
real a5= 2.47590E-10;
real a6= -1.55638E-13;

if (T > ws_Tc) T = ws_Tc ;

ktl = a1 + T*(a2+ T*(a3+ T*(a4+ T*(a5+ T*a6)))) ;

return ktl; /* W/m/K */

}

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real
wetst_surft(real T)
{
real sigma ;

real Tr ;
real a1= 82.27 ;
real a2= 75.612 ;
real a3= -256.889 ;
real a4= 95.928 ;

if (T > ws_Tc) T = ws_Tc ;

Tr = T/ws_Tc ;
sigma = 0.001*(a1 + Tr*(a2+ Tr*(a3+ Tr*a4))) ;

return sigma ;/* N/m */

}

/* do not change the order of the function list */

UDF_EXPORT WS_Functions WetSteamFunctionList =
{
wetst_init, /*initialization function*/
wetst_satP, /*Saturation pressure*/
wetst_satT, /*Saturation temperature*/
wetst_eosP, /*equation of state*/
wetst_eosRHO, /*equation of state*/
wetst_hv, /*vapor enthalpy*/
wetst_sv, /*vapor entropy*/
wetst_cpv, /*vapor isobaric specific heat*/
wetst_cvv, /*vapor isochoric specific heat*/
wetst_muv, /*vapor dynamic viscosity*/
wetst_ktv, /*vapor thermal conductivity*/
wetst_rhol, /*sat. liquid density*/
wetst_cpl, /*sat. liquid specific heat*/
wetst_mul, /*sat. liquid viscosity*/
wetst_ktl, /*sat. liquid thermal conductivity*/
wetst_surft /*liquid surface tension*/
};
/**********************************************************************/

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 23.14 Solution Strategies for Multiphase Modeling

23.14 Solution Strategies for Multiphase Modeling

23.14.1 Setting Initial Volume Fractions
Once you have initialized the flow (as described in Section 25.14: Initializing the Solution),
you can define the initial distribution of the phases. For a transient simulation, this dis-
tribution will serve as the initial condition at t = 0; for a steady-state simulation, setting
an initial distribution can provide added stability in the early stages of the calculation.
You can patch an initial volume fraction for each secondary phase using the Patch panel.
Solve −→ Initialize −→Patch...
If the region in which you want to patch the volume fraction is defined as a separate
cell zone, you can simply patch the value there. Otherwise, you can create a cell “reg-
ister” that contains the appropriate cells and patch the value in the register. See Sec-
tion 25.14.2: Patching Values in Selected Cells for details.
Solution strategies for the VOF, mixture, and Eulerian models are provided in Sec-
tions 23.14.2, 23.14.3, and 23.14.4, respectively.

23.14.2 VOF Model

Several recommendations for improving the accuracy and convergence of the VOF solu-
tion are presented here.

Setting the Reference Pressure Location

The site of the reference pressure can be moved to a location that will result in less round-
off in the pressure calculation. By default, the reference pressure location is the center
of the cell at or closest to the point (0,0,0). You can move this location by specifying a
new Reference Pressure Location in the Operating Conditions panel.
Define −→Operating Conditions...
The position that you choose should be in a region that will always contain the least
dense of the fluids (e.g., the gas phase, if you have a gas phase and one or more liquid
phases). This is because variations in the static pressure are larger in a more dense
fluid than in a less dense fluid, given the same velocity distribution. If the zero of the
relative pressure field is in a region where the pressure variations are small, less round-off
will occur than if the variations occur in a field of large nonzero values. Thus in systems
containing air and water, for example, it is important that the reference pressure location
be in the portion of the domain filled with air rather than that filled with water.

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Pressure Interpolation Scheme

For all VOF calculations, you should use the body-force-weighted pressure interpolation
scheme or the PRESTO! scheme.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

Discretization Scheme Selection for the Implicit and Explicit Formulations

When the implicit scheme is used, the available options for Volume Fraction Discretization
are

• First Order Upwind

• Second Order upwind

• Modified HRIC

• QUICK

When the explicit scheme is used, the available options for Volume Fraction Discretization
are

• Geo-Reconstruct

• CICSAM

• Modified HRIC

• QUICK

When using the explicit scheme, First Order Upwind, Second Order upwind, and Donor-
Acceptor can be made available under Volume Fraction Discretization by using the following
text command:
solve −→ set −→expert
You will be asked a series of questions, one of which is

Allow selection of all applicable discretization schemes? [no]

to which you will respond yes.

i You are encouraged to use the CICSAM scheme, as it gives a sharper

interface than the modified HRIC scheme.

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 23.14 Solution Strategies for Multiphase Modeling

i In VOF modeling, using a high-order discretization scheme for the momen-

tum transport equations may reduce the stability of the solution compared
to cases using first-order discretization. In such situations, it is recom-
mended to use a low-order variant of Rhie-Chow face flux interpolation,
which can be turned on using the text command:
solve −→ set −→numerics
When asked to disable high order Rhie-Chow flux?[no], enter yes.

Pressure-Velocity Coupling and Under-Relaxation for the Time-dependent

Formulations
Another change that you should make to the solver settings is in the pressure-velocity
coupling scheme and under-relaxation factors that you use. The PISO scheme is recom-
mended for transient calculations in general. Using PISO allows for increased values on
all under-relaxation factors, without a loss of solution stability. You can generally in-
crease the under-relaxation factors for all variables to 1 and expect stability and a rapid
rate of convergence (in the form of few iterations required per time step). For calculations
on tetrahedral or triangular meshes, an under-relaxation factor of 0.7–0.8 for pressure is
recommended for improved stability with the PISO scheme.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
As with any FLUENT simulation, the under-relaxation factors will need to be decreased
if the solution exhibits unstable, divergent behavior with the under-relaxation factors set
to 1. Reducing the time step is another way to improve the stability.

Under-Relaxation for the Steady-State Formulation

If you are using the steady-state implicit VOF scheme, the under-relaxation factors for
all variables should be set to values between 0.2 and 0.5 for improved stability.

23.14.3 Mixture Model

Setting the Under-Relaxation Factor for the Slip Velocity
You should begin the mixture calculation with a low under-relaxation factor for the slip
velocity. A value of 0.2 or less is recommended. If the solution shows good convergence
behavior, you can increase this value gradually.

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Calculating an Initial Solution

For some cases (e.g., cyclone separation), you may be able to obtain a solution more
quickly if you compute an initial solution without solving the volume fraction and slip
velocity equations. Once you have set up the mixture model, you can temporarily disable
these equations and compute an initial solution.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
In the Solution Controls panel, deselect Volume Fraction and Slip Velocity in the Equations
list. You can then compute the initial flow field. Once a converged flow field is obtained,
turn the Volume Fraction and Slip Velocity equations back on again, and compute the
mixture solution.

23.14.4 Eulerian Model

Calculating an Initial Solution
To improve convergence behavior, you may want to compute an initial solution before
solving the complete Eulerian multiphase model. There are three methods you can use
to obtain an initial solution for an Eulerian multiphase calculation:

• Set up and solve the problem using the mixture model (with slip velocities) instead
of the Eulerian model. You can then enable the Eulerian model, complete the
setup, and continue the calculation using the mixture-model solution as a starting
point.

• Set up the Eulerian multiphase calculation as usual, but compute the flow for only
the primary phase. To do this, deselect Volume Fraction in the Equations list in the
Solution Controls panel. Once you have obtained an initial solution for the primary
phase, turn the volume fraction equations back on and continue the calculation for
all phases.

• Use the mass flow inlet boundary condition to initialize the flow conditions. It is
recommended that you set the value of the volume fraction close to the value of
the volume fraction at the inlet.

i You should not try to use a single-phase solution obtained without the
mixture or Eulerian model as a starting point for an Eulerian multiphase
calculation. Doing so will not improve convergence, and may make it even
more difficult for the flow to converge.

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 23.14 Solution Strategies for Multiphase Modeling

Temporarily Ignoring Lift and Virtual Mass Forces

If you are planning to include the effects of lift and/or virtual mass forces in a steady-state
Eulerian multiphase simulation, you can often reduce stability problems that sometimes
occur in the early stages of the calculation by temporarily ignoring the action of the lift
and the virtual mass forces. Once the solution without these forces starts to converge,
you can interrupt the calculation, define these forces appropriately, and continue the
calculation.

Using W-Cycle Multigrid

For problems involving a packed-bed granular phase with very small particle sizes (on
the order of 10 µm), convergence can be obtained by using the W-cycle multigrid for the
pressure. Under Fixed Cycle Parameters in the Multigrid Controls panel, you may need to
use higher values for Pre-Sweeps, Post-Sweeps, and Max Cycles. When you are choosing
the values for these parameters, you should also increase the Verbosity to 1 in order to
monitor the AMG performance; i.e., to make sure that the pressure equation is solved to
a desired level of convergence within the AMG solver during each global iteration. See
Section 23.12.2: Defining the Phases for the Eulerian Model for more information about
granular phases, and Sections 25.6.2 and 25.22.3 for details about multigrid cycles.

23.14.5 Wet Steam Model

Boundary Conditions, Initialization, and Patching
When you use the wet steam model (described in Section 23.6: Wet Steam Model Theory
and Section 23.13: Setting Up the Wet Steam Model), the following two field variables
will show up in the inflow, outflow boundary panels, and in the Solution Initialization and
Patch panels.

• Liquid Mass Fraction (or the wetness factor)

In general, for dry steam entering flow boundaries the wetness factor is zero.

• Log10(Droplets Per Unit Volume)

In general this value is set to zero, indicating zero droplets entering the domain.

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Modeling Multiphase Flows

Solution Limits for the Wet Steam Model

When you activate the wet steam model for the first time, a message is displayed indicat-
ing that the Minimum Static Temperature should be adjusted to 273 K since the accuracy
of the built-in steam data is not guaranteed below a value of 273 K. If you use your own
steam property functions, you can adjust this limit to whatever is permissible for your
data.
To adjust the temperature limits, go to the Solution Limits panel.
Solve −→ Controls −→Limits...
The default maximum wetness factor or liquid mass fraction (β) is set to 0.1. In general,
during the convergence process, it is common that this limit will be reached, but even-
tually the wetness factor will drop below the value of 0.1. However, in cases where the
limit must be adjusted, you can do so using the text user interface.
define −→ models −→ multiphase −→ wet-steam −→ set −→
max-liquid-mass-fraction

i Note that the maximum wetness factor should not be set beyond 0.2 since
the present model assumes a low wetness factor. When the wetness factor is
greater than 0.1, the solution tends to be less stable due to the large source
terms in the transport equations. Thus, the maximum wetness factor has
been set to a default value of 0.1, which corresponds to the fact that most
nozzle and turbine flows will have a wetness factor less that 0.1.

Solution Strategies for the Wet Steam Model

If you face convergence difficulties while solving wet steam flow, try to initially lower
the CFL value and use first-order discretization schemes for the solution. If you are still
unable to obtain a converged solution, then try the following solver settings:

1. Lower the under-relaxation factor for the wet steam equation below the current set
value. The under-relaxation factor can be found in the Solution Controls panel.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
2. Solve for an initial solution with no condensation. Once you have obtained a proper
initial solution, turn on the condensation.
To turn condensation on or off, go to the Solution Controls panel.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
In the Solution Controls panel, deselect Wet Steam in the Equations list. When
doing so, you are preventing condensation from taking place while still computing
the flow based on steam properties. Once a converged flow field is obtained, turn
the Wet Steam equation back on again and compute the mixture solution.

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 23.15 Postprocessing for Multiphase Modeling

23.15 Postprocessing for Multiphase Modeling

Each of the three general multiphase models provides a number of additional field func-
tions that you can plot or report. You can also report flow rates for individual phases
for all three models, and display velocity vectors for the individual phases in a mixture
or Eulerian calculation.
Information about these postprocessing topics is provided in the following subsections:

• Section 23.15.1: Model-Specific Variables

• Section 23.15.2: Displaying Velocity Vectors

• Section 23.15.3: Reporting Fluxes

• Section 23.15.4: Reporting Forces on Walls

• Section 23.15.5: Reporting Flow Rates

23.15.1 Model-Specific Variables

When you use one of the general multiphase models, some additional field functions
will be available for postprocessing, as listed in this section. Most field functions that
are available in single phase calculations will be available for either the mixture or each
individual phase, as appropriate for the general multiphase model and specific options
that you are using. See Chapter 30: Field Function Definitions for a complete list of field
functions and their definitions. Chapters 28 and 29 explain how to generate graphics
displays and reports of data.

VOF Model
For VOF calculations you can generate graphical plots or alphanumeric reports of the
following additional item:

• Volume fraction (in the Phases... category)

This item is available for each phase.

The variables that are not phase specific are available (e.g., variables in the Pressure... and
Velocity... categories) represent mixture quantities. Thermal quantities will be available
only for calculations that include the energy equation.

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Mixture Model
For calculations with the mixture model, you can generate graphical plots or alphanu-
meric reports of the following additional items:

• Diameter (in the Properties... category)

This item is available only for secondary phases.

• Volume fraction (in the Phases... category)

This item is available for each phase.

The variables that are not phase specific are available (e.g., variables in the Pressure...
category) represent mixture quantities. Thermal quantities will be available only for
calculations that include the energy equation.

Eulerian Model
For Eulerian multiphase calculations you can generate graphical plots or alphanumeric
reports of the following additional items:

• Diameter (in the Properties... category)

This item is available only for secondary phases.

• Granular Conductivity (in the Properties... category)

This item is available only for granular phases.

• Granular Pressure (in the Granular Pressure... category)

This item is available only for granular phases.

• Granular Temperature (in the Granular Temperature... category)

This item is available only for granular phases.

• Volume fraction (in the Phases... category)

This item is available for each phase.

The availability of turbulence quantities will depend on which multiphase turbulence

model you used in the calculation. Thermal quantities will be available (on a per-phase
basis) only for calculations that include the energy equation.

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 23.15 Postprocessing for Multiphase Modeling

Multiphase Species Transport

For calculations using species transport with either of the multiphase models, you can
generate graphical plots or alphanumeric reports of the following additional items:

• Mass Fraction of species-n (in the Species... category)

This item is available for each species.

• Mole Fraction of species-n (in the Species... category)

This item is available for each species.

• Molar Concentration of species-n (in the Species... category)

This item is available for each species.

• Lam. Diff Coeff of species-n (in the Species... category)

This item is available for each species.

• Eff. Diff. Coeff. of species-n (in the Species... category)

This item is available for each species.

• Enthalpy of species-n (in the Species... category)

This item is available for each species.

• Relative Humidity (in the Species... category).

• Turbulent Rate of Reaction-n (in the Reactions... category)

This item is available for each species.

• Rate of Reaction (in the Reactions... category).

• Mass Transfer Rate n (in the Phase Interaction... category)

This item is available for each mass transfer mechanism that you defined.

Thermal quantities will be available only for calculations that include the energy equation.

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Wet Steam Model

FLUENT provides a wide range of postprocessing information related to the wet steam
model.
The wet steam related items can be found in Wet Steam.... category of the variable
selection drop-down list that appears in the postprocessing panels.

• Liquid Mass Fraction

• Liquid Mass Generation Rate

• Log10(Droplets Per Unit Volume)

• Log10(Droplets Nucleation Rate)

• Steam Density (Gas-Phase)

• Liquid Density (Liquid-Phase)

• Mixture Density

• Saturation Ratio

• Saturation Pressure

• Saturation Temperature

• Subcooled Vapor Temperature

• Droplet Surface Tension

• Droplet Critical Radius (microns)

• Droplet Average Radius (microns)

• Droplet Growth Rate (microns/s)

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 23.15 Postprocessing for Multiphase Modeling

23.15.2 Displaying Velocity Vectors

For mixture and Eulerian calculations, it is possible to display velocity vectors for the
individual phases using the Vectors panel.
Display −→Vectors...
To display the velocity of a particular phase, select Velocity in the Vectors Of drop-
down list, and then select the desired phase in the Phase drop-down list. You can also
choose Relative Velocity to display the phase velocity relative to a moving reference frame.
To display the mixture velocity ~vm (relevant for mixture model calculations only), select
Velocity (or Relative Velocity for the mixture velocity relative to a moving reference frame),
and mixture as the Phase. Note that you can color vectors by values of any available
variable, for any phase you defined. To do so, make the appropriate selections in the
Color by and following Phase drop-down lists.

23.15.3 Reporting Fluxes

When you use the Flux Reports panel to compute fluxes through boundaries, you will be
able to specify whether the report is for the mixture or for an individual phase.
Report −→Fluxes...
Select mixture in the Phase drop-down list at the bottom of the panel to report fluxes for
the mixture, or select the name of a phase to report fluxes just for that phase.

23.15.4 Reporting Forces on Walls

For Eulerian calculations, when you use the Force Reports panel to compute forces or
moments on wall boundaries, you will be able to specify the individual phase for which
you want to compute the forces.
Report −→Forces...
Select the name of the desired phase in the Phase drop-down list on the left side of the
panel.

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23.15.5 Reporting Flow Rates

You can obtain a report of mass flow rate for each phase (and the mixture) through each
flow boundary using the report/mass-flow text command:
report −→mass-flow
When you specify the phase of interest (the mixture or an individual phase), FLUENT
will list each zone, followed by the mass flow rate through that zone for the specified
phase. An example is shown below.

/report> mf
(mixture water air)
domain id/name [mixture] air
zone 10 (spiral-press-outlet): -1.2330244
zone 3 (pressure-outlet): -9.7560663
zone 11 (spiral-vel-inlet): 0.6150589
zone 8 (spiral-wall): 0
zone 1 (walls): 0
zone 4 (velocity-inlet): 4.9132133

net mass-flow: -5.4608185

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Chapter 24. Modeling Solidification and Melting

This chapter describes how you can model solidification and melting in FLUENT. Infor-
mation is organized into the following sections:

• Section 24.1: Overview and Limitations of the Solidification/Melting Model

• Section 24.2: Theory for the Solidification/Melting Model

• Section 24.3: Using the Solidification/Melting Model

24.1 Overview and Limitations of the Solidification/Melting Model

24.1.1 Overview
FLUENT can be used to solve fluid flow problems involving solidification and/or melting
taking place at one temperature (e.g., in pure metals) or over a range of temperatures
(e.g., in binary alloys). Instead of tracking the liquid-solid front explicitly, FLUENT uses
an enthalpy-porosity formulation. The liquid-solid mushy zone is treated as a porous
zone with porosity equal to the liquid fraction, and appropriate momentum sink terms
are added to the momentum equations to account for the pressure drop caused by the
presence of solid material. Sinks are also added to the turbulence equations to account
for reduced porosity in the solid regions.
FLUENT provides the following capabilities for modeling solidification and melting:

• calculation of liquid-solid solidification/melting in pure metals as well as in binary

alloys

• modeling of continuous casting processes (i.e., “pulling” of solid material out of the
domain)

• modeling of the thermal contact resistance between solidified material and walls
(e.g., due to the presence of an air gap)

• modeling of species transport with solidification/melting

• postprocessing of quantities related to solidification/melting (i.e., liquid fraction

and pull velocities)

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Modeling Solidification and Melting

These modeling capabilities allow FLUENT to simulate a wide range of solidification/melting

problems, including melting, freezing, crystal growth, and continuous casting. The
physical equations used for these calculations are described in Section 24.2: Theory for
the Solidification/Melting Model, and instructions for setting up and solving a solidi-
fication/melting problem are provided in Section 24.3: Using the Solidification/Melting
Model.

24.1.2 Limitations
As mentioned in Section 24.1.1: Overview, the formulation in FLUENT can be used to
model the solidification/melting of pure materials, as well as alloys. The liquid fraction
versus temperature relationship used in FLUENT is the lever rule; i.e., a linear relationship
(Equation 24.2-3). Other relationships are possible [361], but are not currently available
in FLUENT.
The following limitations apply to the solidification/melting model in FLUENT:

• The solidification/melting model can be used only with the pressure-based solver;
it is not available with the density-based solvers.
• The solidification/melting model cannot be used for compressible flows.
• Of the general multiphase models (VOF, mixture, and Eulerian), only the VOF
model can be used with the solidification/melting model.
• With the exception of species diffusivities, you cannot specify material properties
separately for the solid and liquid materials.
• When using the solidification/melting model in conjunction with modeling species
transport with reactions, there is no mechanism to restrict the reactions to only
the liquid region; i.e., the reactions are solved everywhere.

24.2 Theory for the Solidification/Melting Model

An enthalpy-porosity technique [383, 384, 385] is used in FLUENT for modeling the solid-
ification/melting process. In this technique, the melt interface is not tracked explicitly.
Instead, a quantity called the liquid fraction, which indicates the fraction of the cell vol-
ume that is in liquid form, is associated with each cell in the domain. The liquid fraction
is computed at each iteration, based on an enthalpy balance.
The mushy zone is a region in which the liquid fraction lies between 0 and 1. The mushy
zone is modeled as a “pseudo” porous medium in which the porosity decreases from 1 to
0 as the material solidifies. When the material has fully solidified in a cell, the porosity
becomes zero and hence the velocities also drop to zero.
In this section, an overview of the solidification/melting theory is given. Refer to Voller
and Prakash [385] for details on the enthalpy-porosity method.

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 24.2 Theory for the Solidification/Melting Model

24.2.1 Energy Equation

The enthalpy of the material is computed as the sum of the sensible enthalpy, h, and the
latent heat, ∆H:

H = h + ∆H (24.2-1)

where

Z T
h = href + cp dT (24.2-2)
Tref

and href = reference enthalpy

Tref = reference temperature
cp = specific heat at constant pressure
The liquid fraction, β, can be defined as

β = 0 if T < Tsolidus
β = 1 if T > Tliquidus
T − Tsolidus
β= if Tsolidus < T < Tliquidus (24.2-3)
Tliquidus − Tsolidus

Equation 24.2-3 is referred to as the lever rule.

The latent heat content can now be written in terms of the latent heat of the material,
L:

∆H = βL (24.2-4)

The latent heat content can vary between zero (for a solid) and L (for a liquid).
In the case of multicomponent solidification with species segregation; i.e., solidification
or melting with species transport, the solidus and liquidus temperatures are computed
instead of specified (Equations 24.2-5 and 24.2-6).

X
Tsolidus = Tmelt + Ki m i Y i (24.2-5)
solutes
X
Tliquidus = Tmelt + m i Yi (24.2-6)
solutes

where Ki is the partition coefficient of solute i, which is the ratio of the concentration
in solid to that in liquid at the interface, Yi is the mass fraction of solute i, and mi is

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Modeling Solidification and Melting

the slope of the liquidus surface with respect to Yi . It is assumed that the last species
material of the mixture is the solvent and that the other species are the solutes.
For solidification/melting problems, the energy equation is written as

∂
(ρH) + ∇ · (ρ~v H) = ∇ · (k∇T ) + S (24.2-7)
∂t

where H = enthalpy (see Equation 24.2-1)

ρ = density
~v = fluid velocity
S = source term
The solution for temperature is essentially an iteration between the energy equation
(Equation 24.2-7) and the liquid fraction equation (Equation 24.2-3). Directly using
Equation 24.2-3 to update the liquid fraction usually results in poor convergence of the
energy equation. In FLUENT, the method suggested by Voller and Swaminathan [386] is
used to update the liquid fraction. For pure metals, where Tsolidus and Tliquidus are equal,
a method based on specific heat, given by Voller and Prakash [385], is used instead.

24.2.2 Momentum Equations

The enthalpy-porosity technique treats the mushy region (partially solidified region) as a
porous medium. The porosity in each cell is set equal to the liquid fraction in that cell.
In fully solidified regions, the porosity is equal to zero, which extinguishes the velocities
in these regions. The momentum sink due to the reduced porosity in the mushy zone
takes the following form:

(1 − β)2
S= Amush (~v − ~vp ) (24.2-8)
(β 3 + )

where β is the liquid volume fraction,  is a small number (0.001) to prevent division by
zero, Amush is the mushy zone constant, and ~vp is the solid velocity due to the pulling of
solidified material out of the domain (also referred to as the pull velocity).
The mushy zone constant measures the amplitude of the damping; the higher this value,
the steeper the transition of the velocity of the material to zero as it solidifies. Very large
values may cause the solution to oscillate.
The pull velocity is included to account for the movement of the solidified material as
it is continuously withdrawn from the domain in continuous casting processes. The
presence of this term in Equation 24.2-8 allows newly solidified material to move at the
pull velocity. If solidified material is not being pulled from the domain, ~vp = 0. More
details about the pull velocity are provided in Section 24.2.5: Pull Velocity for Continuous
Casting.

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 24.2 Theory for the Solidification/Melting Model

24.2.3 Turbulence Equations

Sinks are added to all of the turbulence equations in the mushy and solidified zones to
account for the presence of solid matter. The sink term is very similar to the momentum
sink term (Equation 24.2-8):

(1 − β)2
S= Amush φ (24.2-9)
(β 3 + )

where φ represents the turbulence quantity being solved (k, , ω, etc.), and the mushy
zone constant, Amush , is the same as the one used in Equation 24.2-8.

24.2.4 Species Equations

In the case of solidification/melting with species transport, the following species equation
is solved:

∂
(ρYi ) + ∇ · (ρ [β~vliq Yi,liq + (1 − β)~vp Yi,sol ]) = −∇ · J~i + Ri (24.2-10)
∂t

where J~i is given by

J~i = −ρ[βDi,m,liq ∇Yi,liq + (1 − β)Di,m,sol ∇Yi,sol ] (24.2-11)

Here Yi is the average species mass fraction in a cell:

Yi = βYi,liq + (1 − β)Yi,sol (24.2-12)

Yi,liq and Yi,sol are related by the partition coefficient Ki :

Yi,sol = Ki Yi,liq (24.2-13)

~vliq is the velocity of the liquid and ~vp is the solid (pull) velocity. ~vp is set to zero if pull
velocities are not included in the solution. The liquid velocity can be found from the
average velocity (as determined by the flow equation) as

(~v − ~vp (1 − β))

~vliq = (24.2-14)
β

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Modeling Solidification and Melting

24.2.5 Pull Velocity for Continuous Casting

In continuous casting processes, the solidified matter is usually continuously pulled out
from the computational domain, as shown in Figure 24.2.1. Consequently, the solid
material will have a finite velocity that needs to be accounted for in the enthalpy-porosity
technique.

mushy zone solidified shell

vp

liquid pool wall

Figure 24.2.1: “Pulling” a Solid in Continuous Casting

As mentioned in Section 24.2.2: Momentum Equations, the enthalpy-porosity approach

treats the solid-liquid mushy zone as a porous medium with porosity equal to the liquid
fraction. A suitable sink term is added in the momentum equation to account for the
pressure drop due to the porous structure of the mushy zone. For continuous casting
applications, the relative velocity between the molten liquid and the solid is used in the
momentum sink term (Equation 24.2-8) rather than the absolute velocity of the liquid.
The exact computation of the pull velocity for the solid material is dependent on the
Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of the solid and the forces acting on it. FLUENT
uses a Laplacian equation to approximate the pull velocities in the solid region based on
the velocities at the boundaries of the solidified region:

∇2~vp = 0 (24.2-15)

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 24.2 Theory for the Solidification/Melting Model

FLUENT uses the following boundary conditions when computing the pull velocities:

• At a velocity inlet, a stationary wall, or a moving wall, the specified velocity is

used.

• At all other boundaries (including the liquid-solid interface between the liquid and
solidified material), a zero-gradient velocity is used.

The pull velocities are computed only in the solid region.

Note that FLUENT can also use a specified constant value or custom field function for
the pull velocity, instead of computing it. See Section 24.3.2: Procedures for Modeling
Continuous Casting for details.

24.2.6 Contact Resistance at Walls

FLUENT’s solidification/melting model can account for the presence of an air gap between
the walls and the solidified material, using an additional heat transfer resistance between
walls and cells with liquid fraction less than 1. This contact resistance is accounted for
by modifying the conductivity of the fluid near the wall. Thus, the wall heat flux, as
shown in Figure 24.2.2, is written as

(T − Tw )
q= (24.2-16)
(l/k + Rc (1 − β))

where T , Tw , and l are defined in Figure 24.2.2, k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid,
β is the liquid volume fraction, and Rc is the contact resistance, which has the same units
as the inverse of the heat transfer coefficient.

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Modeling Solidification and Melting

wall
near-wall cell

Tw T
●

Tw T
● ● ●
Rc l/k
Figure 24.2.2: Circuit for Contact Resistance

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 24.3 Using the Solidification/Melting Model

24.3 Using the Solidification/Melting Model

24.3.1 Setup Procedure
The procedure for setting up a solidification/melting problem is described below. (Note
that this procedure includes only those steps necessary for the solidification/melting
model itself; you will need to set up other models, boundary conditions, etc. as usual.)

1. To activate the solidification/melting model, turn on the Solidification/Melting op-

tion in the Solidification and Melting panel (Figure 24.3.1).
Define −→ Models −→Solidification & Melting...

Figure 24.3.1: The Solidification and Melting Panel

FLUENT will automatically enable the energy equation, so you do not have to visit
the Energy panel before turning on the solidification/melting model.

2. Under Parameters, specify the value of the Mushy Zone Constant (Amush in Equa-
tion 24.2-8).
Values between 104 and 107 are recommended for most computations. The higher
the value of the Mushy Zone Constant, the steeper the damping curve becomes, and
the faster the velocity drops to zero as the material solidifies. Very large values
may cause the solution to oscillate as control volumes alternately solidify and melt
with minor perturbations in liquid volume fraction.

3. If you want to include the pull velocity in your simulation (as described in Sec-
tions 24.2.2 and 24.2.5), turn on the Include Pull Velocities option under Parameters.

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Modeling Solidification and Melting

4. If you are including pull velocities and you want FLUENT to compute them (using
Equation 24.2-15) based on the specified velocity boundary conditions, as described
in Section 24.2.5: Pull Velocity for Continuous Casting, turn on the Compute Pull
Velocities option and specify the number of Flow Iterations Per Pull Velocity Iteration.

i It is not necessary to have FLUENT compute the pull velocities. See Sec-
tion 24.3.2: Procedures for Modeling Continuous Casting for information
about other approaches.
The default value of 1 for the Flow Iterations Per Pull Velocity Iteration indicates
that the pull velocity equations will be solved after each iteration of the solver. If
you increase this value, the pull velocity equations will be solved less frequently.
You may want to increase the number of Flow Iterations Per Pull Velocity Iteration if
the liquid fraction equation is almost converged (i.e., the position of the liquid-solid
interface is not changing very much). This will speed up the calculation, although
the residuals may jump when the pull velocities are updated.
5. In the Materials panel, specify the Melting Heat (L in Equation 24.2-3), Solidus Tem-
perature (Tsolidus in Equation 24.2-3), and Liquidus Temperature (Tliquidus in Equa-
tion 24.2-3) for the material being used in your model.
Define −→Materials...
If you are solving for species transport, you will also have to specify the Melting
Temperature of pure solvent (Tmelt in Equations 24.2-5 and 24.2-6). The solvent is
the last species material of the mixture material. For each solute, you will have
to specify the slope of the liquidus surface (Slope of Liquidus Line) with respect to
the concentration of the solute (mi in Equations 24.2-5 and 24.2-6), the Partition
Coefficient (Ki ), and the rate of Diffusion in Solid. It is not necessary to specify mi
and Ki for the solvent.
6. Set the boundary conditions.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...
In addition to the usual boundary conditions, consider the following:
• If you want to account for the presence of an air gap between a wall and an
adjacent solidified region (as described in Section 24.2.6: Contact Resistance
at Walls), specify a nonzero value, a profile, or a user-defined function for
Contact Resistance (Rc in Equation 24.2-16) under Thermal Conditions in the
Wall panel.
• If you want to specify the gradient of the surface tension with respect to the
temperature at a wall boundary, you can use the Marangoni Stress option for
the wall Shear Condition. See Section 7.13.1: Marangoni Stress for details.
• If you want FLUENT to compute the pull velocities during the calculation,
note how your specified velocity conditions are used in this calculation (see
Section 24.2.5: Pull Velocity for Continuous Casting).

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 24.3 Using the Solidification/Melting Model

Section 24.3.2: Procedures for Modeling Continuous Casting contains additional informa-
tion about modeling continuous casting. See Sections 24.3.3 and 24.3.4 for information
about solving a solidification/melting model and postprocessing the results.

24.3.2 Procedures for Modeling Continuous Casting

As described in Sections 24.2.2 and 24.2.5, you can include the pull velocities in your so-
lidification/melting calculation to model continuous casting. There are three approaches
to modeling continuous casting in FLUENT:

• Specify constant or variable pull velocities.

To use this approach (the default), do not turn on the Compute Pull Velocities
option.
If you use this approach, you will need to patch constant values or custom field
functions for the pull velocities, after you initialize the solution.
Solve −→ Initialize −→Patch...
See Section 25.14.2: Patching Values in Selected Cells for details about patching
values. Note that it is acceptable to patch values for the pull velocities in the entire
domain, because the patched values will be used only if the liquid fraction, β, is
less than 1.

• Have FLUENT compute the pull velocities (using Equation 24.2-15) during the
calculation, based on the specified velocity boundary conditions.
To use this approach, turn on the Compute Pull Velocities option. This method
is computationally expensive, and is recommended only if the pull velocities are
strongly dependent on the location of the liquid-solid interface.
If you have FLUENT compute the pull velocities, then there are no additional inputs
or setup procedures beyond those presented in Section 24.3.1: Setup Procedure.

• Have FLUENT compute the pull velocities just once, and then use those values for
the remainder of the calculation.
To use this approach, perform one iteration with FLUENT computing the pull
velocities, and then turn off the Compute Pull Velocities option and continue the
calculation. For the remainder of the calculation, FLUENT will use the values
computed for the pull velocities at the first iteration.

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Modeling Solidification and Melting

24.3.3 Solution Procedure

Before solving the coupled fluid flow and heat transfer problem, you may want to patch
an initial temperature or solve the steady conduction problem as an initial condition.
The coupled problem can then be solved as either steady or unsteady. Because of the
nonlinear nature of these problems, however, in most cases an unsteady solution approach
is preferred.
You can specify the under-relaxation factor applied to the liquid fraction equation in the
Solution Controls panel.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
Specify the desired value in the Liquid Fraction Update field under Under-Relaxation Fac-
tors. This sets the value of αβ in the following equation for updating the liquid fraction
from one iteration (n) to the next (n + 1):

βn+1 = βn + αβ ∆β (24.3-1)

where ∆β is the predicted change in liquid fraction.

In many cases, there is no need to change the default value of αβ . If, however, there
are convergence difficulties, reducing the value may improve the solution convergence.
Convergence difficulties can be expected in steady-state calculations, continuous casting
simulations, simulations involving multicomponent solidification, and simulations where
a large value of the mushy zone constant is used.

24.3.4 Postprocessing
For solidification/melting calculations, you can generate graphical plots or alphanumeric
reports of the following items, which are all available in the Solidification/Melting... cat-
egory of the variable selection drop-down list that appears in postprocessing panels:

• Liquid Fraction
• Contact Resistivity
• X, Y, Z, Axial, Radial, or Swirl Pull Velocity

The first two items are available for all solidification/melting simulations, and the others
will appear only if you are including pull velocities (either computed or specified) in
the simulation. See Chapter 30: Field Function Definitions for a complete list of field
functions and their definitions. Chapters 28 and 29 explain how to generate graphics
displays and reports of data.
Figure 24.3.2 shows filled contours of liquid fraction for a continuous crystal growth
simulation.

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 24.3 Using the Solidification/Melting Model

1.00e+00

9.00e-01

8.00e-01

7.00e-01

6.00e-01

5.00e-01

4.00e-01

3.00e-01

2.00e-01

1.00e-01

0.00e+00

Contours of Liquid Fraction

Figure 24.3.2: Liquid Fraction Contours for Continuous Crystal Growth

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Modeling Solidification and Melting

24-14
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Chapter 25. Using the Solver

This chapter describes the FLUENT solver and how to use it. Details about the solver
algorithms used by FLUENT are provided in Sections 25.1–25.6. Section 25.7: How to
Use the Solver provides an overview of how to use the solver, and the remaining sections
provide detailed instructions.

• Section 25.1: Overview of Flow Solvers

• Section 25.2: General Scalar Transport Equation: Discretization and Solution

• Section 25.3: Discretization

• Section 25.4: Pressure-Based Solver

• Section 25.5: Density-Based Solver

• Section 25.6: Multigrid Method

• Section 25.7: How to Use the Solver

• Section 25.8: Choosing the Discretization Scheme

• Section 25.9: Pressure-Based Solver Settings

• Section 25.10: Density-Based Solver Settings

• Section 25.11: Setting Algebraic Multigrid Parameters

• Section 25.12: Setting Solution Limits

• Section 25.13: Setting Multi-Stage Time-Stepping Parameters

• Section 25.14: Initializing the Solution

• Section 25.15: Using Full Multigrid (FMG) Initialization

• Section 25.16: Performing Steady-State Calculations

• Section 25.17: Performing Time-Dependent Calculations

• Section 25.18: Monitoring Solution Convergence

• Section 25.19: Executing Commands During the Calculation

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Using the Solver

• Section 25.20: Additional Options in the Solver Menu

• Section 25.21: Checking Your Case Setup

• Section 25.22: Convergence and Stability

25.1 Overview of Flow Solvers

FLUENT allows you to choose one of the two numerical methods:

• pressure-based solver

• density-based solver

Historically speaking, the pressure-based approach was developed for low-speed incom-
pressible flows, while the density-based approach was mainly used for high-speed com-
pressible flows. However, recently both methods have been extended and reformulated to
solve and operate for a wide range of flow conditions beyond their traditional or original
intent.
In both methods the velocity field is obtained from the momentum equations. In the
density-based approach, the continuity equation is used to obtain the density field while
the pressure field is determined from the equation of state.
On the other hand, in the pressure-based approach, the pressure field is extracted by
solving a pressure or pressure correction equation which is obtained by manipulating
continuity and momentum equations.
Using either method, FLUENT will solve the governing integral equations for the con-
servation of mass and momentum, and (when appropriate) for energy and other scalars
such as turbulence and chemical species. In both cases a control-volume-based technique
is used that consists of:

• Division of the domain into discrete control volumes using a computational grid.

• Integration of the governing equations on the individual control volumes to con-

struct algebraic equations for the discrete dependent variables (“unknowns”) such
as velocities, pressure, temperature, and conserved scalars.

• Linearization of the discretized equations and solution of the resultant linear equa-
tion system to yield updated values of the dependent variables.

The two numerical methods employ a similar discretization process (finite-volume), but
the approach used to linearize and solve the discretized equations is different.
The general solution methods are described in Sections 25.1.1 and 25.1.2.

25-2
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 25.1 Overview of Flow Solvers

25.1.1 Pressure-Based Solver

The pressure-based solver employs an algorithm which belongs to a general class of meth-
ods called the projection method [58]. In the projection method, wherein the constraint
of mass conservation (continuity) of the velocity field is achieved by solving a pressure
(or pressure correction) equation. The pressure equation is derived from the continuity
and the momentum equations in such a way that the velocity field, corrected by the pres-
sure, satisfies the continuity. Since the governing equations are nonlinear and coupled to
one another, the solution process involves iterations wherein the entire set of governing
equations is solved repeatedly until the solution converges.
Two pressure-based solver algorithms are available in FLUENT. A segregated algorithm,
and a coupled algorithm. These two approaches are discussed in the sections below.

The Pressure-Based Segregated Algorithm

The pressure-based solver uses a solution algorithm where the governing equations are
solved sequentially (i.e., segregated from one another). Because the governing equations
are non-linear and coupled, the solution loop must be carried out iteratively in order to
obtain a converged numerical solution.
In the segregated algorithm, the individual governing equations for the solution variables
(e.g., u, v, w, p, T , k, , etc.) are solved one after another . Each governing equation,
while being solved, is “decoupled” or “segregated” from other equations, hence its name.
The segregated algorithm is memory-efficient, since the discretized equations need only
be stored in the memory one at a time. However, the solution convergence is relatively
slow, inasmuch as the equations are solved in a decoupled manner.
With the segregated algorithm, each iteration consists of the steps illustrated in Fig-
ure 25.1.1 and outlined below:

1. Update fluid properties (e,g, density, viscosity, specific heat) including turbulent
viscosity (diffusivity) based on the current solution.

2. Solve the momentum equations, one after another, using the recently updated val-
ues of pressure and face mass fluxes.

3. Solve the pressure correction equation using the recently obtained velocity field and
the mass-flux.

4. Correct face mass fluxes, pressure, and the velocity field using the pressure correc-
tion obtained from Step 3.

5. Solve the equations for additional scalars, if any, such as turbulent quantities,
energy, species, and radiation intensity using the current values of the solution
variables.

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Using the Solver

6. Update the source terms arising from the interactions among different phases (e.g.,
source term for the carrier phase due to discrete particles).

7. Check for the convergence of the equations.

These steps are continued until the convergence criteria are met.
Pressure−Based Segregated Algorithm Pressure−Based Coupled Algorithm

Update properties Update properties

Solve sequentially:
Uvel Vvel Wvel
Solve simultaneously:
system of momentum
and pressure−based
continuity equations
Solve pressure−correction
(continuity) equation

Update mass flux,

Update mass flux
pressure, and velocity

Solve energy, species, Solve energy, species,

turbulence, and other turbulence, and other
scalar equations scalar equations

No Yes Stop No Yes Stop

Converged? Converged?

Figure 25.1.1: Overview of the Pressure-Based Solution Methods

25-4
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 25.1 Overview of Flow Solvers

The Pressure-Based Coupled Algorithm

Unlike the segregated algorithm described above, the pressure-based coupled algorithm
solves a coupled system of equations comprising the momentum equations and the pressure-
based continuity equation. Thus, in the coupled algorithm, Steps 2 and 3 in the segre-
gated solution algorithm are replaced by a single step in which the coupled system of
equations are solved. The remaining equations are solved in a decoupled fashion as in
the segregated algorithm.
Since the momentum and continuity equations are solved in a closely coupled manner,
the rate of solution convergence significantly improves when compared to the segregated
algorithm. However, the memory requirement increases by 1.5 – 2 times that of the segre-
gated algorithm since the discrete system of all momentum and pressure-based continuity
equations needs to be stored in the memory when solving for the velocity and pressure
fields (rather than just a single equation, as is the case with the segregated algorithm).

25.1.2 Density-Based Solver

The density-based solver solves the governing equations of continuity, momentum, and
(where appropriate) energy and species transport simultaneously (i.e., coupled together).
Governing equations for additional scalars will be solved afterward and sequentially (i.e.,
segregated from one another and from the coupled set) using the procedure described in
Section 25.2: General Scalar Transport Equation: Discretization and Solution. Because
the governing equations are non-linear (and coupled), several iterations of the solution
loop must be performed before a converged solution is obtained. Each iteration consists
of the steps illustrated in Figure 25.1.2 and outlined below:

1. Update the fluid properties based on the current solution. (If the calculation has
just begun, the fluid properties will be updated based on the initialized solution.)

2. Solve the continuity, momentum, and (where appropriate) energy and species equa-
tions simultaneously.

3. Where appropriate, solve equations for scalars such as turbulence and radiation
using the previously updated values of the other variables.

4. When interphase coupling is to be included, update the source terms in the appro-
priate continuous phase equations with a discrete phase trajectory calculation.

5. Check for convergence of the equation set.

These steps are continued until the convergence criteria are met.

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Using the Solver

Update properties

Solve continuity, momentum, energy, and

species equations simultaneously

Solve turbulence and other scalar equations

No Yes
Converged? Stop

Figure 25.1.2: Overview of the Density-Based Solution Method

In the density-based solution method you can solve the coupled system of equations (con-
tinuity, momentum, energy and species equations if available) using, either the coupled-
explicit formulation or the coupled-implicit formulation. The main distinction between
the density-based explicit and implicit formulations is described next.
In the density-based solution methods the discrete, non-linear governing equations are
linearized to produce a system of equations for the dependent variables in every compu-
tational cell. The resultant linear system is then solved to yield an updated flow-field
solution.
The manner in which the governing equations are linearized may take an “implicit” or
“explicit” form with respect to the dependent variable (or set of variables) of interest.
By implicit or explicit we mean the following:

• implicit: For a given variable, the unknown value in each cell is computed using
a relation that includes both existing and unknown values from neighboring cells.
Therefore each unknown will appear in more than one equation in the system, and
these equations must be solved simultaneously to give the unknown quantities.

• explicit: For a given variable, the unknown value in each cell is computed using a
relation that includes only existing values. Therefore each unknown will appear in
only one equation in the system and the equations for the unknown value in each
cell can be solved one at a time to give the unknown quantities.

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 25.1 Overview of Flow Solvers

In the density-based solution method you have a choice of using either an implicit or ex-
plicit linearization of the governing equations. This choice applies only to the coupled set
of governing equations. Transport equations for additional scalars are solved segregated
from the coupled set (such as turbulence, radiation, etc.). The transport equations are
linearized and solved implicitly using the method described in section Section 25.2: Gen-
eral Scalar Transport Equation: Discretization and Solution. Regardless of whether you
choose the implicit or explicit methods, the solution procedure shown in Figure 25.1.2 is
followed.
If you choose the implicit option of the density-based solver, each equation in the coupled
set of governing equations is linearized implicitly with respect to all dependent variables
in the set. This will result in a system of linear equations with N equations for each cell
in the domain, where N is the number of coupled equations in the set. Because there are
N equations per cell, this is sometimes called a “block” system of equations.
A point implicit linear equation solver (Incomplete Lower Upper (ILU) factorization
scheme or a symmetric block Gauss-Seidel) is used in conjunction with an algebraic
multigrid (AMG) method to solve the resultant block system of equations for all N
dependent variables in each cell. For example, linearization of the coupled continuity, x-,
y-, z-momentum, and energy equation set will produce a system of equations in which
p, u, v, w, and T are the unknowns. Simultaneous solution of this equation system
(using the block AMG solver) yields at once updated pressure, u-, v-, w-velocity, and
temperature fields.
In summary, the coupled implicit approach solves for all variables (p, u, v, w, T ) in all
cells at the same time.
If you choose the explicit option of the density-based solver, each equation in the coupled
set of governing equations is linearized explicitly. As in the implicit option, this too will
result in a system of equations with N equations for each cell in the domain and likewise,
all dependent variables in the set will be updated at once. However, this system of
equations is explicit in the unknown dependent variables. For example, the x-momentum
equation is written such that the updated x velocity is a function of existing values of
the field variables. Because of this, a linear equation solver is not needed. Instead,
the solution is updated using a multi-stage (Runge-Kutta) solver. Here you have the
additional option of employing a full approximation storage (FAS) multigrid scheme to
accelerate the multi-stage solver.
In summary, the density-based explicit approach solves for all variables (p, u, v, w, T )
one cell at a time.
Note that the FAS multigrid is an optional component of the explicit approach, while
the AMG is a required element in both the pressure-based and density-based implicit
approaches.

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Using the Solver

25.2 General Scalar Transport Equation: Discretization and Solution

FLUENT uses a control-volume-based technique to convert a general scalar transport
equation to an algebraic equation that can be solved numerically. This control volume
technique consists of integrating the transport equation about each control volume, yield-
ing a discrete equation that expresses the conservation law on a control-volume basis.
Discretization of the governing equations can be illustrated most easily by considering the
unsteady conservation equation for transport of a scalar quantity φ. This is demonstrated
by the following equation written in integral form for an arbitrary control volume V as
follows:

Z
∂ρφ I I
~ = Γφ ∇φ · dA
Z
~ + Sφ dV
dV + ρφ ~v · dA (25.2-1)
V ∂t V

where
ρ = density
~v = velocity vector (= u ı̂ + v ̂ in 2D)
~
A = surface area vector
Γφ = diffusion coefficient for φ
∇φ = gradient of φ (= ∂φ/∂x) ı̂ + (∂φ/∂y) ̂ in 2D)
Sφ = source of φ per unit volume
Equation 25.2-1 is applied to each control volume, or cell, in the computational domain.
The two-dimensional, triangular cell shown in Figure 25.2.1 is an example of such a
control volume. Discretization of Equation 25.2-1 on a given cell yields

NX NX
∂ρφ faces
~f =
faces
~ f + Sφ V
V + ρf ~vf φf · A Γφ ∇φf · A (25.2-2)
∂t f f

where
Nfaces = number of faces enclosing cell
φf = value of φ convected through face f
~f
ρf ~vf · A = mass flux through the face
~f
A = area of face f , |A| (= |Ax ı̂ + Ay ̂| in 2D)
∇φf = gradient of φ at face f
V = cell volume
Where ∂ρφ
∂t
V is defined in Section 25.3.2: Temporal Discretization. The equations solved
by FLUENT take the same general form as the one given above and apply readily to
multi-dimensional, unstructured meshes composed of arbitrary polyhedra.

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 25.2 General Scalar Transport Equation: Discretization and Solution

Af
f
r1
r0 c1

c0

Figure 25.2.1: Control Volume Used to Illustrate Discretization of a Scalar

Transport Equation

25.2.1 Solving the Linear System

The discretized scalar transport equation (Equation 25.2-2) contains the unknown scalar
variable φ at the cell center as well as the unknown values in surrounding neighbor cells.
This equation will, in general, be non-linear with respect to these variables. A linearized
form of Equation 25.2-2 can be written as

X
aP φ = anb φnb + b (25.2-3)
nb

where the subscript nb refers to neighbor cells, and aP and anb are the linearized coeffi-
cients for φ and φnb .
The number of neighbors for each cell depends on the grid topology, but will typically
equal the number of faces enclosing the cell (boundary cells being the exception).
Similar equations can be written for each cell in the grid. This results in a set of algebraic
equations with a sparse coefficient matrix. For scalar equations, FLUENT solves this linear
system using a point implicit (Gauss-Seidel) linear equation solver in conjunction with
an algebraic multigrid (AMG) method which is described in Section 25.6.3: Algebraic
Multigrid (AMG).

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Using the Solver

25.3 Discretization
25.3.1 Spatial Discretization
By default, FLUENT stores discrete values of the scalar φ at the cell centers (c0 and c1 in
Figure 25.2.1). However, face values φf are required for the convection terms in Equa-
tion 25.2-2 and must be interpolated from the cell center values. This is accomplished
using an upwind scheme.
Upwinding means that the face value φf is derived from quantities in the cell upstream, or
“upwind,” relative to the direction of the normal velocity vn in Equation 25.2-2. FLUENT
allows you to choose from several upwind schemes: first-order upwind, second-order
upwind, power law, and QUICK. These schemes are described in Sections 25.3.1–25.3.1.
The diffusion terms in Equation 25.2-2 are central-differenced and are always second-
order accurate.

First-Order Upwind Scheme

When first-order accuracy is desired, quantities at cell faces are determined by assuming
that the cell-center values of any field variable represent a cell-average value and hold
throughout the entire cell; the face quantities are identical to the cell quantities. Thus
when first-order upwinding is selected, the face value φf is set equal to the cell-center
value of φ in the upstream cell.

i First-order upwind is available in the pressure-based and density-based

solvers.

Power-Law Scheme
The power-law discretization scheme interpolates the face value of a variable, φ, using
the exact solution to a one-dimensional convection-diffusion equation

∂ ∂ ∂φ
(ρuφ) = Γ (25.3-1)
∂x ∂x ∂x
where Γ and ρu are constant across the interval ∂x. Equation 25.3-1 can be integrated
to yield the following solution describing how φ varies with x:

φ(x) − φ0 exp(Pe Lx ) − 1
= (25.3-2)
φL − φ0 exp(Pe) − 1

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 25.3 Discretization

where
φ0 = φ|x=0
φL = φ|x=L
and Pe is the Peclet number:

ρuL
Pe = (25.3-3)
Γ
The variation of φ(x) between x = 0 and x = L is depicted in Figure 25.3.1 for a range
of values of the Peclet number. Figure 25.3.1 shows that for large Pe, the value of φ at
x = L/2 is approximately equal to the upstream value. This implies that when the flow
is dominated by convection, interpolation can be accomplished by simply letting the face
value of a variable be set equal to its “upwind” or upstream value. This is the standard
first-order scheme for FLUENT.
φL

Pe < -1

Pe = -1

φ Pe= 0

Pe = 1

Pe > 1
φ0

0 L
X

Figure 25.3.1: Variation of a Variable φ Between x = 0 and x = L (Equa-

tion 25.3-1)

If the power-law scheme is selected, FLUENT uses Equation 25.3-2 in an equivalent “power
law” format [277], as its interpolation scheme.
As discussed in Section 25.3.1: First-Order Upwind Scheme, Figure 25.3.1 shows that for
large Pe, the value of φ at x = L/2 is approximately equal to the upstream value. When
Pe=0 (no flow, or pure diffusion), Figure 25.3.1 shows that φ may be interpolated using

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Using the Solver

a simple linear average between the values at x = 0 and x = L. When the Peclet number
has an intermediate value, the interpolated value for φ at x = L/2 must be derived by
applying the “power law” equivalent of Equation 25.3-2.

i The power-law scheme is available in the pressure-based solver and when

solving additional scalar equations in the density-based solver.

Second-Order Upwind Scheme

When second-order accuracy is desired, quantities at cell faces are computed using a
multidimensional linear reconstruction approach [21]. In this approach, higher-order
accuracy is achieved at cell faces through a Taylor series expansion of the cell-centered
solution about the cell centroid. Thus when second-order upwinding is selected, the face
value φf is computed using the following expression:

φf,SOU = φ + ∇φ · ~r (25.3-4)

where φ and ∇φ are the cell-centered value and its gradient in the upstream cell, and
~r is the displacement vector from the upstream cell centroid to the face centroid. This
formulation requires the determination of the gradient ∇φ in each cell, as discussed in
Section 25.3.3: Evaluation of Gradients and Derivatives. Finally, the gradient ∇φ is
limited so that no new maxima or minima are introduced.

i Second-order upwind is available in the pressure-based and density-based

solvers.

Central-Differencing Scheme
A second-order-accurate central-differencing discretization scheme is available for the mo-
mentum equations when you are using the LES turbulence model. This scheme provides
improved accuracy for LES calculations.
The central-differencing scheme calculates the face value for a variable (φf ) as follows:

1 1
φf,CD = (φ0 + φ1 ) + (∇φ0 · ~r0 + ∇φ1 · ~r1 ) (25.3-5)
2 2
where the indices 0 and 1 refer to the cells that share face f , ∇φr,0 and ∇φr,1 are the
reconstructed gradients at cells 0 and 1, respectively, and ~r is the vector directed from
the cell centroid toward the face centroid.
It is well known that central-differencing schemes can produce unbounded solutions and
non-physical wiggles, which can lead to stability problems for the numerical procedure.

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 25.3 Discretization

These stability problems can often be avoided if a deferred approach is used for the
central-differencing scheme. In this approach, the face value is calculated as follows:

φf = φf,UP + (φf,CD − φf,UP ) (25.3-6)

| {z } | {z }
implicit part explicit part

where UP stands for upwind. As indicated, the upwind part is treated implicitly while
the difference between the central-difference and upwind values is treated explicitly. Pro-
vided that the numerical solution converges, this approach leads to pure second-order
differencing.

i The central differencing scheme is available only in the pressure-based

solver.

Bounded Central Differencing Scheme

The central differencing scheme described in Section 25.3.1: Central-Differencing Scheme
is an ideal choice for LES in view of its meritoriously low numerical diffusion. However,
it often leads to unphysical oscillations in the solution fields. In LES, the situation
is exacerbated by usually very low subgrid-scale turbulent diffusivity. The bounded
central differencing scheme is essentially based on the normalized variable diagram (NVD)
approach [201] together with convection boundedness criterion (CBC). The bounded
central differencing scheme is a composite NVD-scheme that consists of a pure central
differencing, a blended scheme of the central differencing and the second-order upwind
scheme, and the first-order upwind scheme. It should be noted that the first-order scheme
is used only when the CBC is violated.

i The bounded central differencing scheme is the default convection scheme

for LES. When you select LES, the convection discretization schemes for
all transport equations are automatically switched to the bounded central
differencing scheme.

i The bounded central differencing scheme is available only in the pressure-

based solver.

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Using the Solver

QUICK Scheme
For quadrilateral and hexahedral meshes, where unique upstream and downstream faces
and cells can be identified, FLUENT also provides the QUICK scheme for computing a
higher-order value of the convected variable φ at a face. QUICK-type schemes [202] are
based on a weighted average of second-order-upwind and central interpolations of the
variable. For the face e in Figure 25.3.2, if the flow is from left to right, such a value can
be written as

Sd Sc Su + 2Sc Sc
   
φe = θ φP + φE + (1 − θ) φP − φW (25.3-7)
S c + Sd S c + Sd Su + S c Su + S c

Su Sc Sd

W ∆x w P ∆x e E

w e

Figure 25.3.2: One-Dimensional Control Volume

θ = 1 in the above equation results in a central second-order interpolation while θ = 0

yields a second-order upwind value. The traditional QUICK scheme is obtained by setting
θ = 1/8. The implementation in FLUENT uses a variable, solution-dependent value of θ,
chosen so as to avoid introducing new solution extrema.
The QUICK scheme will typically be more accurate on structured grids aligned with the
flow direction. Note that FLUENT allows the use of the QUICK scheme for unstructured
or hybrid grids as well; in such cases the usual second-order upwind discretization scheme
(described in Section 25.3.1: Second-Order Upwind Scheme) will be used at the faces of
non-hexahedral (or non-quadrilateral, in 2D) cells. The second-order upwind scheme will
also be used at partition boundaries when the parallel solver is used.

i The QUICK scheme is available in the pressure-based solver and when

solving additional scalar equations in the density-based solver.

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 25.3 Discretization

Third-Order MUSCL Scheme

This third-order convection scheme was conceived from the original MUSCL (Monotone
Upstream-Centered Schemes for Conservation Laws) [378] by blending a central differ-
encing scheme and second-order upwind scheme as

φf = θφf,CD + (1 − θ)φf,SOU (25.3-8)

where φf,CD is defined in Equation 25.3-5, and φf,SOU is computed using the second-order
upwind scheme as described in Section 25.3.1: Second-Order Upwind Scheme.
Unlike the QUICK scheme which is applicable to structured hex meshes only, the MUSCL
scheme is applicable to arbitrary meshes. Compared to the second-order upwind scheme,
the third-order MUSCL has a potential to improve spatial accuracy for all types of meshes
by reducing numerical diffusion, most significantly for complex three-dimensional flows,
and it is available for all transport equations.

i The third-order MUSCL currently implemented in FLUENT does not con-

tain any flux-limiter. As a result, it can produce undershoot and overshoot
when the flow-field under consideration has discontinuities such as shock
waves.

i The MUSCL scheme is available in the pressure-based and density-based

solvers.

Modified HRIC Scheme

For simulations using the VOF multiphase model, upwind schemes are generally unsuit-
able for interface tracking because of their overly diffusive nature. Central differencing
schemes, while generally able to retain the sharpness of the interface, are unbounded and
often give unphysical results. In order to overcome these deficiencies, FLUENT uses a
modified version of the High Resolution Interface Capturing (HRIC) scheme. The mod-
ified HRIC scheme is a composite NVD scheme that consists of a non-linear blend of
upwind and downwind differencing [257].
First, the normalized cell value of volume fraction, φ˜c , is computed and is used to find
the normalized face value, φ̃f , as follows:

φD − φU
φ˜c = (25.3-9)
φA − φU

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Using the Solver

φf

φU φD φA

Figure 25.3.3: Cell Representation for Modified HRIC Scheme

where A is the acceptor cell, D is the donor cell, and U is the upwind cell, and


˜ φ˜c < 0 or φ˜c > 1
 φc

φ̃f = 2φ˜c 0 ≤ φ˜c ≤ 0.5 (25.3-10)
0.5 ≤ φ˜c ≤ 1

1


Here, if the upwind cell is not available (e.g., unstructured mesh), an extrapolated value
is used for φU . Directly using this value of φ̃f causes wrinkles in the interface, if the flow
is parallel to the interface. So, FLUENT switches to ULTIMATE QUICKEST scheme
(the one-dimensional bounded version of the QUICK scheme [201]) based on the angle
between the face normal and interface normal:

 φ˜c φ˜c < 0 or φ˜c > 1
φUf˜Q =   ˜
 (25.3-11)
M IN φ̃f , 6φc8+3 0.5 ≤ φ˜c ≤ 1

This leads to a corrected version of the face volume fraction, φ̃∗f :

√ √
φ̃∗f = φ̃f cos θ + (1 − cos θ)φUf˜Q (25.3-12)

where

∇φ · ~d
cos θ = (25.3-13)
|∇φ||~d|

and ~d is a vector connecting cell centers adjacent to the face f .

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 25.3 Discretization

The face volume fraction is now obtained from the normalized value computed above as
follows:

φf = φ̃∗f (φA − φU ) + φU (25.3-14)

The modified HRIC scheme provides improved accuracy for VOF calculations when com-
pared to QUICK and second-order schemes, and is less computationally expensive than
the Geo-Reconstruct scheme.

25.3.2 Temporal Discretization

For transient simulations, the governing equations must be discretized in both space
and time. The spatial discretization for the time-dependent equations is identical to
the steady-state case. Temporal discretization involves the integration of every term in
the differential equations over a time step ∆t. The integration of the transient terms is
straightforward, as shown below.
A generic expression for the time evolution of a variable φ is given by
∂φ
= F (φ) (25.3-15)
∂t

where the function F incorporates any spatial discretization. If the time derivative is
discretized using backward differences, the first-order accurate temporal discretization is
given by

φn+1 − φn
= F (φ) (25.3-16)
∆t
and the second-order discretization is given by

3φn+1 − 4φn + φn−1

= F (φ) (25.3-17)
2∆t
where
φ = a scalar quantity
n + 1 = value at the next time level, t + ∆t
n = value at the current time level, t
n − 1 = value at the previous time level, t − ∆t
Once the time derivative has been discretized, a choice remains for evaluating F (φ): in
particular, which time level values of φ should be used in evaluating F ?

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Using the Solver

Implicit Time Integration

One method is to evaluate F (φ) at the future time level:

φn+1 − φn
= F (φn+1 ) (25.3-18)
∆t

This is referred to as “implicit” integration since φn+1 in a given cell is related to φn+1
in neighboring cells through F (φn+1 ):

φn+1 = φn + ∆tF (φn+1 ) (25.3-19)

This implicit equation can be solved iteratively at each time level before moving to the
next time step.
The advantage of the fully implicit scheme is that it is unconditionally stable with respect
to time step size.

Explicit Time Integration

A second method is available when the density-based explicit solver is used. This method
evaluates F (φ) at the current time level:

φn+1 − φn
= F (φn ) (25.3-20)
∆t

and is referred to as “explicit” integration since φn+1 can be expressed explicitly in terms
of the existing solution values, φn :

φn+1 = φn + ∆tF (φn ) (25.3-21)

Here, the time step ∆t is restricted to the stability limit of the underlying solver (i.e.,
a time step is limited by the Courant-Friedrich-Lewy condition). In order to be time-
accurate, all cells in the domain must use the same time step. For stability, this time
step must be the minimum of all the local time steps in the domain. This method is also
referred to as “global time stepping”.

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 25.3 Discretization

The use of explicit time stepping is fairly restrictive. It is used primarily to capture the
transient behavior of moving waves, such as shocks, because it is more accurate and less
expensive than the implicit time stepping methods in such cases. You cannot use explicit
time stepping in the following cases:

• Calculations with the pressure-based solver or density-based implicit formulation.

The explicit time stepping formulation is available only with the density-based
explicit formulation. FLUENT uses the multi-stage Runge-Kutta explicit time in-
tegration, as detailed in Sections 25.5.4 and 25.5.5

• Incompressible flow. Explicit time stepping cannot be used to compute time-

accurate incompressible flows (i.e., gas laws other than ideal gas). Incompressible
solutions must be iterated to convergence within each time step.

• Convergence acceleration. FAS multigrid and residual smoothing cannot be used

with explicit time stepping because they destroy the time accuracy of the underlying
solver.

25.3.3 Evaluation of Gradients and Derivatives

Gradients are needed not only for constructing values of a scalar at the cell faces, but
also for computing secondary diffusion terms and velocity derivatives. The gradient ∇φ
of a given variable φ is used to discretize the convection and diffusion terms in the
flow conservation equations. The gradients are computed in FLUENT according to the
following methods:

• Green-Gauss Cell-Based

• Green-Gauss Node-Based

• Least Squares Cell-Based

Green-Gauss Theorem
When the Green-Gauss theorem is used to compute the gradient of the scalar φ at the
cell center c0, the following discrete form is written as

1X ~f
(∇φ)c0 = φ A (25.3-22)
V f f

where φf is the value of φ at the cell face centroid, computed as shown in the sections
below. The summation is over all the faces enclosing the cell.

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Using the Solver

Green-Gauss Cell-Based Gradient Evaluation

By default, the face value, φf , in Equation 25.3-22 is taken from the arithmetic average
of the values at the neighboring cell centers, i.e.,

φc0 + φc1
φf = (25.3-23)
2
To use this option, select Green-Gauss Cell-Based under Gradient Option in the Solver
panel.

Green-Gauss Node-Based Gradient Evaluation

Alternatively, φf can be computed by the arithmetic average of the nodal values on the
face.

Nf
1 X
φf = φ (25.3-24)
Nf n n

where Nf is the number of nodes on the face.

The nodal values, φn in Equation 25.3-24, are constructed from the weighted average
of the cell values surrounding the nodes, following the approach originally proposed by
Holmes and Connel[146] and Rauch et al.[298]. This scheme reconstructs exact values of a
linear function at a node from surrounding cell-centered values on arbitrary unstructured
meshes by solving a constrained minimization problem, preserving a second-order spatial
accuracy.
The node-based averaging scheme is known to be more accurate than the default cell-
based scheme for unstructured meshes, most notably for triangular and tetrahedral
meshes.

i The node-based gradient method is not available with polyhedral meshes.

To use this option, select Green-Gauss Node-Based under Gradient Option in the Solver
panel.

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 25.3 Discretization

Least Squares Cell-Based Gradient Evaluation

In this method the solution is assumed to vary linearly. In Figure 25.3.4, the change in
cell values between cell c0 and ci along the vector δri from the centroid of cell c0 to cell
ci, can be expressed as

(∇φ)c0 · ∆ri = (φci − φc0 ) (25.3-25)

co
ci

r
i

Figure 25.3.4: Cell Centroid Evaluation

If we write similar equations for each cell surrounding the cell c0, we obtain the following
system written in compact form:

[J](∇φ)c0 = ∆φ (25.3-26)

Where [J] is the coefficient matrix which is purely a function of geometry.

The objective here is to determine the cell gradient (∇φ0 = φx î+φy ĵ+φz k̂) by solving
the minimization problem for the system of the non-square coefficient matrix in a least-
squares sense.
The above linear-system of equation is over-determined and can be solved by decomposing
the coefficient matrix using Gram-Schmidt process [11]. This decomposition yields a
matrix of weights for each cell. Thus for our cell-centered scheme this means that the
three components of the weights (W x i0 , W y i0 , W z i0 ) are produced for each of the faces of
cell c0.

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Using the Solver

Therefore, the gradient at the cell center can then be computed by multiplying the weight
factors by the difference vector ∆φ = (φc1 − φc0 ),

n
W x i0 · (φci − φc0 )
X
(φx )c0 = (25.3-27)
i=1
n
W y i0 · (φci − φc0 )
X
(φy )c0 = (25.3-28)
i=1
n
W z i0 · (φci − φc0 )
X
(φz )c0 = (25.3-29)
i=1

When a flow solution is solved on polyhedral meshes the cell-based least squares gradients
are recommended for use over the default cell-based gradients, particularly if a more
accurate flow solution is required. Although, the cell-based least squares gradients are
available for use with triangular and tetrahedral meshes and their accuracy is comparable
to node-based gradients, it is best if the node-based gradients are used on these meshes
since they are known to be more stable.
To use this option, go to the Solver panel and select Least Squares Cell Based under
Gradient Option.

25.4 Pressure-Based Solver

In this section, special practices related to the discretization of the momentum and con-
tinuity equations and their solution by means of the pressure-based solver are addressed.
These practices are most easily described by considering the steady-state continuity and
momentum equations in integral form:
I
~=0
ρ ~v · dA (25.4-1)

I I I Z
~=−
ρ~v ~v · dA ~+
pI · dA ~+
τ · dA F~ dV (25.4-2)
V

where I is the identity matrix, τ is the stress tensor, and F~ is the force vector.

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 25.4 Pressure-Based Solver

25.4.1 Discretization of the Momentum Equation

The discretization scheme described in Section 25.3: Discretization for a scalar trans-
port equation is also used to discretize the momentum equations. For example, the
x-momentum equation can be obtained by setting φ = u:

X X
aP u = anb unb + pf A · ı̂ + S (25.4-3)
nb

If the pressure field and face mass fluxes are known, Equation 25.4-3 can be solved in the
manner outlined in Section 25.3: Discretization, and a velocity field obtained. However,
the pressure field and face mass fluxes are not known a priori and must be obtained as a
part of the solution. There are important issues with respect to the storage of pressure
and the discretization of the pressure gradient term; these are addressed next.
FLUENT uses a co-located scheme, whereby pressure and velocity are both stored at cell
centers. However, Equation 25.4-3 requires the value of the pressure at the face between
cells c0 and c1, shown in Figure 25.2.1. Therefore, an interpolation scheme is required
to compute the face values of pressure from the cell values.

Pressure Interpolation Schemes

The default scheme in FLUENT interpolates the pressure values at the faces using mo-
mentum equation coefficients [304]:

Pc0 Pc1
ap,c0
+ ap,c1
Pf = 1 1 (25.4-4)
ap,c0
+ ap,c1

This procedure works well as long as the pressure variation between cell centers is smooth.
When there are jumps or large gradients in the momentum source terms between con-
trol volumes, the pressure profile has a high gradient at the cell face, and cannot be
interpolated using this scheme. If this scheme is used, the discrepancy shows up in
overshoots/undershoots of cell velocity.
Flows for which the standard pressure interpolation scheme will have trouble include
flows with large body forces, such as in strongly swirling flows, in high-Rayleigh-number
natural convection and the like. In such cases, it is necessary to pack the mesh in regions
of high gradient to resolve the pressure variation adequately.
Another source of error is that FLUENT assumes that the normal pressure gradient at
the wall is zero. This is valid for boundary layers, but not in the presence of body forces
or curvature. Again, the failure to correctly account for the wall pressure gradient is
manifested in velocity vectors pointing in/out of walls.

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Using the Solver

Several alternate methods are available for cases in which the standard pressure interpo-
lation scheme is not valid:

• The linear scheme computes the face pressure as the average of the pressure values
in the adjacent cells.

• The second-order scheme reconstructs the face pressure in the manner used for
second-order accurate convection terms (see Section 25.3.1). This scheme may
provide some improvement over the standard and linear schemes, but it may have
some trouble if it is used at the start of a calculation and/or with a bad mesh.
The second-order scheme is not applicable for flows with discontinuous pressure
gradients imposed by the presence of a porous medium in the domain or the use of
the VOF or mixture model for multiphase flow.

• The body-force-weighted scheme computes the face pressure by assuming that the
normal gradient of the difference between pressure and body forces is constant.
This works well if the body forces are known a priori in the momentum equations
(e.g., buoyancy and axisymmetric swirl calculations).

i When a case contains porous media, the body-force-weighted scheme is

applied only for non-porous faces, where the scheme takes into account the
discontinuity of explicit body forces (e.g., gravity, swirl, Coriolis) and the
discontinuity of pressure gradients for flows with rapidly changing densities
(e.g., natural convection, VOF). All interior and exterior porous faces are
treated with a special scheme that preserves the continuity of the normal
velocity across cell faces in spite of the discontinuity of the resistance.

• The PRESTO! (PREssure STaggering Option) scheme uses the discrete continuity
balance for a “staggered” control volume about the face to compute the “staggered”
(i.e., face) pressure. This procedure is similar in spirit to the staggered-grid schemes
used with structured meshes [277]. Note that for triangular, tetrahedral, hybrid,
and polyhedral meshes, comparable accuracy is obtained using a similar algorithm.
The PRESTO! scheme is available for all meshes.

See Section 25.8.3: Choosing the Pressure Interpolation Scheme for recommendations on
when to use these alternate schemes.

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 25.4 Pressure-Based Solver

25.4.2 Discretization of the Continuity Equation

Equation 25.4-1 may be integrated over the control volume in Figure 25.2.1 to yield the
following discrete equation

NX
faces

J f Af = 0 (25.4-5)
f

where Jf is the mass flux through face f , ρvn .

In order to proceed further, it is necessary to relate the face values of velocity, ~vn , to the
stored values of velocity at the cell centers. Linear interpolation of cell-centered velocities
to the face results in unphysical checker-boarding of pressure. FLUENT uses a procedure
similar to that outlined by Rhie and Chow [304] to prevent checkerboarding. The face
value of velocity is not averaged linearly; instead, momentum-weighted averaging, using
weighting factors based on the aP coefficient from equation 25.4-3, is performed. Using
this procedure, the face flux, Jf , may be written as

ap,c0 vn,c0 + ap,c1 vn,c1

J f = ρf +df ((pc0 +(∇p)c0 · r~0 )−(pc1 +(∇p)c1 · r~1 )) = Jˆf +df (pc0 −pc1 )
ap,c0 + ap,c1
(25.4-6)
where pc0 , pc1 and vn,c0 , vn,c1 are the pressures and normal velocities, respectively, within
the two cells on either side of the face, and Jˆf contains the influence of velocities in these
cells (see Figure 25.2.1). The term df is a function of āP , the average of the momentum
equation aP coefficients for the cells on either side of face f .

Density Interpolation Schemes

For incompressible flows, FLUENT uses arithmetic averaging for density. For compress-
ible flow calculations (i.e., calculations that use the ideal gas law for density), FLUENT
applies upwind interpolation of density at cell faces. Several interpolation schemes are
available for the density upwinding at cell faces: first-order upwind (default), second-
order-upwind, QUICK, MUSCL, and when applicable, central differencing and bounded
central differencing.
The first-order upwind scheme (based on [172]) sets the density at the cell face to be the
upstream cell-center value. This scheme provides stability for the discretization of the
pressure-correction equation, and gives good results for most classes of flows. The first-
order scheme is the default scheme for compressible flows. Although this scheme provides
the best stability for compressible flow calculations, it gives very diffusive representations
of shocks.
The second-order upwind scheme provides stability for supersonic flows and captures
shocks better than the first-order upwind scheme. The QUICK scheme for density is

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Using the Solver

similar to the QUICK scheme used for other variables. See Section 25.3.1: QUICK
Scheme for details.

i In the case of multiphase flows, the selected density scheme is applied to

the compressible phase and arithmetic averaging is used for incompressible
phases.

i For stability reasons, it is recommended that you achieve a one-dimensional

solution with a first order scheme and then switch to a higher order scheme
for compressible flow calculations.
See Section 25.8.4: Choosing the Density Interpolation Scheme for recommendations on
choosing an appropriate density interpolation scheme for your compressible flow.

25.4.3 Pressure-Velocity Coupling

Pressure-velocity coupling is achieved by using Equation 25.4-6 to derive an additional
condition for pressure by reformatting the continuity equation (Equation 25.4-5). The
pressure-based solver allows you to solve your flow problem in either a segregated or
coupled manner. FLUENT provides the option to choose among five pressure-velocity
coupling algorithms: SIMPLE, SIMPLEC, PISO, Coupled, and (for unsteady flows us-
ing the non-iterative time advancement scheme (NITA)) Fractional Step (FSM). All
the aforementioned schemes, except the “coupled” scheme, are based on the predictor-
corrector approach. See Section 25.9.1: Choosing the Pressure-Velocity Coupling Method
for instructions on how to select these algorithms.
Note that SIMPLE, SIMPLEC, PISO, and Fractional Step use the pressure-based segregated
algorithm, while Coupled uses the pressure-based coupled solver.

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 25.4 Pressure-Based Solver

Segregated Algorithms
SIMPLE

The SIMPLE algorithm uses a relationship between velocity and pressure corrections to
enforce mass conservation and to obtain the pressure field.
If the momentum equation is solved with a guessed pressure field p∗ , the resulting face
flux, Jf∗ , computed from Equation 25.4-6

Jf∗ = Jˆf∗ + df (p∗c0 − p∗c1 ) (25.4-7)

does not satisfy the continuity equation. Consequently, a correction Jf0 is added to the
face flux Jf∗ so that the corrected face flux, Jf

Jf = Jf∗ + Jf0 (25.4-8)

satisfies the continuity equation. The SIMPLE algorithm postulates that Jf0 be written
as

Jf0 = df (p0c0 − p0c1 ) (25.4-9)

where p0 is the cell pressure correction.

The SIMPLE algorithm substitutes the flux correction equations (Equations 25.4-8 and
25.4-9) into the discrete continuity equation (Equation 25.4-5) to obtain a discrete equa-
tion for the pressure correction p0 in the cell:

aP p 0 = anb p0nb + b
X
(25.4-10)
nb

where the source term b is the net flow rate into the cell:

NX
faces

b= Jf∗ Af (25.4-11)
f

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Using the Solver

The pressure-correction equation (Equation 25.4-10) may be solved using the algebraic
multigrid (AMG) method described in Section 25.6.3: Algebraic Multigrid (AMG). Once
a solution is obtained, the cell pressure and the face flux are corrected using

p = p∗ + αp p0 (25.4-12)

Jf = Jf∗ + df (p0c0 − p0c1 ) (25.4-13)

Here αp is the under-relaxation factor for pressure (see Section 25.4.4: Under-Relaxation
of Variables for information about under-relaxation). The corrected face flux, Jf , satisfies
the discrete continuity equation identically during each iteration.

SIMPLEC

A number of variants of the basic SIMPLE algorithm are available in the literature. In ad-
dition to SIMPLE, FLUENT offers the SIMPLEC (SIMPLE-Consistent) algorithm [379].
SIMPLE is the default, but many problems will benefit from the use of SIMPLEC, as
described in Section 25.9.1: SIMPLE vs. SIMPLEC.
The SIMPLEC procedure is similar to the SIMPLE procedure outlined above. The only
difference lies in the expression used for the face flux correction, Jf0 . As in SIMPLE, the
correction equation may be written as

Jf = Jf∗ + df (p0c0 − p0c1 ) (25.4-14)

However, the coefficient df is redefined as a function of (aP − nb anb ). The use of this
P

modified correction equation has been shown to accelerate convergence in problems where
pressure-velocity coupling is the main deterrent to obtaining a solution.

Skewness Correction

For meshes with some degree of skewness, the approximate relationship between the
correction of mass flux at the cell face and the difference of the pressure corrections at
the adjacent cells is very rough. Since the components of the pressure-correction gradient
along the cell faces are not known in advance, an iterative process similar to the PISO
neighbor correction described below is desirable. After the initial solution of the pressure-
correction equation, the pressure-correction gradient is recalculated and used to update
the mass flux corrections. This process, which is referred to as “skewness correction”,
significantly reduces convergence difficulties associated with highly distorted meshes. The
SIMPLEC skewness correction allows FLUENT to obtain a solution on a highly skewed
mesh in approximately the same number of iterations as required for a more orthogonal
mesh.

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 25.4 Pressure-Based Solver

PISO

The Pressure-Implicit with Splitting of Operators (PISO) pressure-velocity coupling

scheme, part of the SIMPLE family of algorithms, is based on the higher degree of the
approximate relation between the corrections for pressure and velocity. One of the limita-
tions of the SIMPLE and SIMPLEC algorithms is that new velocities and corresponding
fluxes do not satisfy the momentum balance after the pressure-correction equation is
solved. As a result, the calculation must be repeated until the balance is satisfied. To
improve the efficiency of this calculation, the PISO algorithm performs two additional
corrections: neighbor correction and skewness correction.

Neighbor Correction

The main idea of the PISO algorithm is to move the repeated calculations required
by SIMPLE and SIMPLEC inside the solution stage of the pressure-correction equa-
tion [155]. After one or more additional PISO loops, the corrected velocities satisfy the
continuity and momentum equations more closely. This iterative process is called a mo-
mentum correction or “neighbor correction”. The PISO algorithm takes a little more
CPU time per solver iteration, but it can dramatically decrease the number of iterations
required for convergence, especially for transient problems.

Skewness Correction

For meshes with some degree of skewness, the approximate relationship between the
correction of mass flux at the cell face and the difference of the pressure corrections at
the adjacent cells is very rough. Since the components of the pressure-correction gradient
along the cell faces are not known in advance, an iterative process similar to the PISO
neighbor correction described above is desirable [104]. After the initial solution of the
pressure-correction equation, the pressure-correction gradient is recalculated and used
to update the mass flux corrections. This process, which is referred to as “skewness
correction”, significantly reduces convergence difficulties associated with highly distorted
meshes. The PISO skewness correction allows FLUENT to obtain a solution on a highly
skewed mesh in approximately the same number of iterations as required for a more
orthogonal mesh.

Skewness - Neighbor Coupling

For meshes with a high degree of skewness, the simultaneous coupling of the neighbor
and skewness corrections at the same pressure correction equation source may cause
divergence or a lack of robustness. An alternate, although more expensive, method for
handling the neighbor and skewness corrections inside the PISO algorithm is to apply
one or more iterations of skewness correction for each separate iteration of neighbor
correction. For each individual iteration of the classical PISO algorithm from [155], this
technique allows a more accurate adjustment of the face mass flux correction according
to the normal pressure correction gradient.

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Using the Solver

Fractional-Step Method (FSM)

In the FSM, the momentum equations are decoupled from the continuity equation us-
ing a mathematical technique called operator-splitting or approximate factorization. The
resulting solution algorithm is similar to the segregated solution algorithms described ear-
lier. The formalism used in the approximate factorization allows you to control the order
of splitting error. Because of this, the FSM is adopted in FLUENT as a velocity-coupling
scheme in a non-iterative time-advancement (NITA) algorithm (Section 25.4.5: Non-
Iterative Time-Advancement Scheme).

Coupled Algorithm
As previously mentioned, the pressure-based solver allows you to solve your flow prob-
lem in either a segregated or coupled manner. Using the coupled approach offers some
advantages over the non-coupled or segregated approach. The coupled scheme obtains
a robust and efficient single phase implementation for steady-state flows, with superior
performance compared to the segregated solution schemes. This pressure-based coupled
algorithm offers an alternative to the density-based and pressure-based segregated al-
gorithm with SIMPLE-type pressure-velocity coupling. For transient flows, using the
coupled algorithm is necessary when the quality of the mesh is poor, or if large time
steps are used.
The pressure-based segregated algorithm solves the momentum equation and pressure
correction equations separately. This semi-implicit solution method results in slow con-
vergence.
The coupled algorithm solves the momentum and pressure-based continuity equations
together. The full implicit coupling is achieved through an implicit discretization of
pressure gradient terms in the momentum equations, and an implicit discretization of
the face mass flux, including the Rhie-Chow pressure dissipation terms.
In the momentum equations (25.4-3), the pressure gradient for component k is of the
form

au k p p j
X X
p f Ak = − (25.4-15)
f j

Where auk p is the coefficient derived from the Gauss divergence theorem and coefficients
of the pressure interpolation schemes (Equation 25.4-4). Finally, for any ith cell, the
discretized form of the momentum equation for component uk is defined as

aij uk uk ukj + aij uk p pj = bi uk

X X
(25.4-16)
j j

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 25.4 Pressure-Based Solver

In the continuity equation, Equation 25.4-5, the balance of fluxes is replaced using the
flux expression in Equation 25.4-6, resulting in the discretized form

aij puk ukj + aij pp pj = bi p

XX X
(25.4-17)
k j j

As a result, the overall system of equations (25.4-16 and 25.4-17), after being transformed
to the δ-form, is presented as

~j = B
~i
X
[A]ij X (25.4-18)
j

where the influence of a cell i on a cell j has the form

app apu apv apw

 
ij ij ij ij
 aup
ij auu
ij auv
ij auw
ij

Aij =  (25.4-19)
 
avp avu avv avw

 ij ij ij ij 
awp
ij awu
ij awv
ij aww
ij

and the unknown and residual vectors have the form

0
 
pi
0
ui
 
~j = 
X  0

 (25.4-20)

 vi 

0
wi

−rip
 

~i = 
 −riu 
B (25.4-21)

−riv
 
 
−riw

Note that Equation 25.4-18 is solved using the coupled AMG, which is detailed in Sec-
tion 25.6.3: The Coupled and Scalar AMG Solvers.

Limitations

The pressure-based coupled algorithm is not compatible with

• The Eulerian multiphase model

• The non-iterative time advancement solver (NITA)
• Periodic mass-flow boundary conditions
• The fixed velocity option

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Using the Solver

25.4.4 Steady-State Iterative Algorithm

If you are performing a steady-state calculation, the governing equations for the pressure-
based solver do not contain time-dependent terms. For steady-state flows,
Section 25.3: Discretization describes control-volume-based discretization of the steady-
state transport equation (see Equation 25.2-1).

Under-Relaxation of Variables
The under-relaxation of variables is used in all cases for some material properties, in the
NITA solver for solution variables, and in the pressure-based coupled algorithm where
this explicit under-relaxation is used for momentum and pressure.
Because of the nonlinearity of the equation set being solved by FLUENT, it is necessary
to control the change of φ. This is typically achieved by under-relaxation of variables
(also referred to as explicit relaxation), which reduces the change of φ produced during
each iteration. In a simple form, the new value of the variable φ within a cell depends
upon the old value, φold , the computed change in φ, ∆φ, and the under-relaxation factor,
α, as follows:

φ = φold + α∆φ (25.4-22)

Under-Relaxation of Equations
The under-relaxation of equations, also known as implicit relaxation, is used in the
pressure-based solver to stabilize the convergence behavior of the outer nonlinear itera-
tions by introducing selective amounts of φ in the system of discretized equations. This
is equivalent to the location-specific time step.

ap φ X 1−α
= anb φnb + b + ap φold (25.4-23)
α nb α

The CFL number is a solution parameter in the pressure-based coupled algorithm and
can be written in terms of α:

1−α 1
= (25.4-24)
α CF L

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 25.4 Pressure-Based Solver

25.4.5 Time-Advancement Algorithm

For time-dependent flows, the discretized form of the generic transport equations is of
the following form:

Z
∂ρφ I
~
I
~
Z
dV + ρφ ~v · dA = Γφ ∇φ · dA + Sφ dV (25.4-25)
V ∂t V

where
∂ρφ
∂t
= conservative form of transient derivative of transported variable φ
ρ = density
~v = velocity vector (= u ı̂ + v ̂ in 2D)
~
A = surface area vector
Γφ = diffusion coefficient for φ
∇φ = gradient of φ (= ∂φ/∂x) ı̂ + (∂φ/∂y) ̂ in 2D)
Sφ = source of φ per unit volume
The temporal discretization of the transient derivative in the Equation 25.4-25 is de-
scribed in Section 25.3.2: Temporal Discretization, including first-order and second-order
schemes in time. The pressure-based solver in FLUENT uses an implicit discretization of
the transport equation (Equation 25.4-25). As a standard default approach, all convec-
tive, diffusive, and source terms are evaluated from the fields for time level n+1.

Z
∂ρφ I
~
I
n+1 ~
Z
n+1 n+1 n+1
dV + ρ φ ~v · dA = Γφ ∇φn+1
· dA + Sφ n+1 dV (25.4-26)
V ∂t V

In the pressure-based solver, the overall time-discretization error is determined by both

the choice of temporal discretization (e.g., first-order, second-order) and the manner
in which the solutions are advanced to the next time step (time-advancement scheme).
Temporal discretization introduces the corresponding truncation error; O(∆t), O [(∆t)2 ],
for first-order and second-order, respectively. The segregated solution process by which
the equations are solved one by one introduces splitting error. There are two approaches
to the time-advancement scheme depending on how you want to control the splitting
error.

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Using the Solver

Iterative Time-Advancement Scheme

In the iterative scheme, all the equations are solved iteratively, for a given time-step, until
the convergence criteria are met. Thus, advancing the solutions by one time-step nor-
mally requires a number of outer iterations as shown in Figure 25.1.1 and Figure 25.4.1.
With this iterative scheme, non-linearity of the individual equations and inter-equation
couplings are fully accounted for, eliminating the splitting error. The iterative scheme is
the default in FLUENT.

t = t + n∆ t

Solve Momentum Equations

Solve Pressure Correction Outer

Iterations

Correct Velocity
Pressure Flux

Solve Scalars (T, κ , ε , etc.)

Converged? no

yes
Next Time Step
n += 1

Figure 25.4.1: Overview of the Iterative Time Advancement Solution Method

For the Segregate Solver

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 25.4 Pressure-Based Solver

The Frozen Flux Formulation

The standard fully-implicit discretization of the convective part of Equation 25.4-26 pro-
duces non-linear terms in the resulting equations. In addition, solving these equations
generally requires numerous iterations per time step. As an alternative, FLUENT pro-
vides an optional way to discretize the convective part of Equation 25.4-25 using the
mass flux at the cell faces from the previous time level n.
I I
~=
ρφ ~v · dA ~
ρn φn+1 ~v n · dA (25.4-27)

The solution still has the same order of accuracy but the non-linear character of the
discretized transport equation is essentially reduced and the convergence within each
time step is improved.
To use this feature, turn on the Frozen Flux Formulation option in the Solver panel.

i This option is only available for single-phase transient problems that use
the segregated iterative solver and do not use a moving/deforming mesh
model.

Non-Iterative Time-Advancement Scheme

The iterative time-advancement scheme requires a considerable amount of computational
effort due to a large number of outer iterations performed for each time-step. The idea
underlying the non-iterative time-advancement (NITA) scheme is that, in order to pre-
serve overall time accuracy, you do not really need to reduce the splitting error to zero,
but only have to make it the same order as the truncation error. The NITA scheme, as
seen in Figure 25.4.2, thus does not need the outer iterations, performing only a single
outer iteration per time-step, which significantly speeds up transient simulations. How-
ever, the NITA scheme still allows for an inner iteration to solve the individual set of
equations.
FLUENT offers two versions of NITA schemes; the non-iterative fractional step method
(FSM) ([13], [91], [156], and [157]) and the non-iterative PISO method [154]. Both NITA
schemes are available for first-order and second-order time integration.

i In general, the NITA solver is not recommended for highly viscous fluid
flow.

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 25-35
Using the Solver

t = t + n∆ t

Solve U, V, and W Equations

Inner
Iterations

Converged? No

Yes

Solve Pressure Correction

Inner
Correct Velocity Iterations
Pressure Flux

Converged? No

Yes

Solve κ and ε
Inner
Iterations

Converged? No

Yes

Solve Other Scalars

Next Time Step

n = n+1

Figure 25.4.2: Overview of the Non-Iterative Time Advancement Solution

Method

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 25.5 Density-Based Solver

25.5 Density-Based Solver

The density-based solver in FLUENT solves the governing equations of continuity, mo-
mentum, and (where appropriate) energy and species transport simultaneously as a set,
or vector, of equations. Governing equations for additional scalars will be solved sequen-
tially (i.e., segregated from one another and from the coupled set), in a manner described
in Section 25.2: General Scalar Transport Equation: Discretization and Solution. Two
algorithms are available for solving the coupled set of equations, the coupled-explicit
formulation and the coupled-implicit formulation.

25.5.1 Governing Equations in Vector Form

The system of governing equations for a single-component fluid, written to describe the
mean flow properties, is cast in integral Cartesian form for an arbitrary control volume
V with differential surface area dA as follows:

∂ Z I Z
W dV + [F − G] · dA = H dV (25.5-1)
∂t V V

where the vectors W, F, and G are defined as

ρv
     



ρ 











0 


ρu ρvu + pî τxi

 
 
 
 
 


 
  
  

W = ρv  , F = ρvv + pĵ  , G = τyi 



ρw 






ρvw + p k̂







τzi 



ρE 
    τ v + q

ρvE + pv
  
ij j

and the vector H contains source terms such as body forces and energy sources.
Here ρ, v, E, and p are the density, velocity, total energy per unit mass, and pressure of
the fluid, respectively. τ is the viscous stress tensor, and q is the heat flux.
Total energy E is related to the total enthalpy H by

E = H − p/ρ (25.5-2)

where

H = h + |v|2 /2 (25.5-3)

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Using the Solver

The Navier-Stokes equations as expressed in Equation 25.5-1 become (numerically) very

stiff at low Mach number due to the disparity between the fluid velocity v and the acoustic
speed c (speed of sound). This is also true for incompressible flows, regardless of the fluid
velocity, because acoustic waves travel infinitely fast in an incompressible fluid (speed of
sound is infinite). The numerical stiffness of the equations under these conditions results
in poor convergence rates. This difficulty is overcome in FLUENT’s density-based solver
by employing a technique called (time-derivative) preconditioning [396].

25.5.2 Preconditioning
Time-derivative preconditioning modifies the time-derivative term in Equation 25.5-1 by
pre-multiplying it with a preconditioning matrix. This has the effect of re-scaling the
acoustic speed (eigenvalue) of the system of equations being solved in order to alleviate
the numerical stiffness encountered in low Mach numbers and incompressible flow.
Derivation of the preconditioning matrix begins by transforming the dependent variable
in Equation 25.5-1 from conserved quantities W to primitive variables Q using the chain-
rule as follows:

∂W ∂ Z I Z
Q dV + [F − G] · dA = H dV (25.5-4)
∂Q ∂t V V

where Q is the vector {p, u, v, w, T }T and the Jacobian ∂W/∂Q is given by

 
ρp 0 0 0 ρT
ρp u ρ 0 0 ρT u
 
∂W 
 

= ρp v 0 ρ 0 ρT v  (25.5-5)
∂Q  

 ρp w 0 0 ρ ρT w 

ρp H − δ ρu ρv ρw ρT H + ρCp

where
 
∂ρ  ∂ρ 
ρp =  , ρT = 
∂p T ∂T p

and δ = 1 for an ideal gas and δ = 0 for an incompressible fluid.

The choice of primitive variables Q as dependent variables is desirable for several reasons.
First, it is a natural choice when solving incompressible flows. Second, when we use
second-order accuracy we need to reconstruct Q rather than W in order to obtain more
accurate velocity and temperature gradients in viscous fluxes, and pressure gradients in
inviscid fluxes. And finally, the choice of pressure as a dependent variable allows the
propagation of acoustic waves in the system to be singled out [381].

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 25.5 Density-Based Solver

We precondition the system by replacing the Jacobian matrix ∂W/∂Q (Equation 25.5-5)
with the preconditioning matrix Γ so that the preconditioned system in conservation form
becomes

∂ Z I Z
Γ Q dV + [F − G] · dA = H dV (25.5-6)
∂t V V

where
 
Θ 0 0 0 ρT
Θu ρ 0 0 ρT u
 
 
 
Γ=
 Θv 0 ρ 0 ρT u 
 (25.5-7)

 Θw 0 0 ρ ρT u 

ΘH − δ ρu ρv ρw ρT H + ρCp

The parameter Θ is given by

!
1 ρT
Θ= 2
− (25.5-8)
Ur ρCp

The reference velocity Ur appearing in Equation 25.5-8 is chosen locally such that the
eigenvalues of the system remain well conditioned with respect to the convective and
diffusive time scales [396].
The resultant eigenvalues of the preconditioned system (Equation 25.5-6) are given by

u, u, u, u0 + c0 , u0 − c0 (25.5-9)

where

u = v · n̂
u0 = u (1 − α)
q
c0 = α2 u2 + Ur2
 
α = 1 − βUr2 /2
!
ρT
β = ρp +
ρCp

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Using the Solver

For an ideal gas, β = (γRT )−1 = 1/c2 . Thus, when Ur = c (at sonic speeds and above),
α = 0 and the eigenvalues of the preconditioned system take their traditional form, u ± c.
At low speed, however, as Ur → 0, α → 1/2 and all eigenvalues become of the same order
as u. For constant-density flows, β = 0 and α = 1/2 regardless of the values of Ur . As
long as the reference velocity is of the same order as the local velocity, all eigenvalues
remain of the order u. Thus, the eigenvalues of the preconditioned system remain well
conditioned at all speeds.
Note that the non-preconditioned Navier-Stokes equations are recovered exactly from
Equation 25.5-6 by setting 1/Ur2 to ρp , the derivative of density with respect to pressure.
In this case Γ reduces exactly to the Jacobian ∂W/∂Q.
Although Equation 25.5-6 is conservative in the steady state, it is not, in a strict sense,
conservative for time-dependent flows. This is not a problem, however, since the pre-
conditioning has already destroyed the time accuracy of the equations and we will not
employ them in this form for unsteady calculations.
For unsteady calculations, an unsteady preconditioning is available when the dual-time
stepping method is used (Section 25.5.5: Implicit Time Stepping (Dual-Time formulation)).
The unsteady preconditioning enhances the solution accuracy by improving the scaling
of the artificial dissipation and maximizes the efficiency by optimizing the number of
sub-iterations required at each physical time step [276]. For low Mach number flows
in particular, for both low frequency problems (large time steps) and high frequency
problems (small time step), significant savings in computational time are possible when
compared with the non-preconditioned case.
The unsteady preconditioning adapts the level of preconditioning based on the user speci-
fied time-step and on the local advective and acoustic time scales of the flow. For acoustic
problems, the physical time-step size is small as it is based on the acoustic CFL number.
In this case the preconditioning parameter Ur2 will approach c2 , which in effect will turn
off the low-Mach preconditioning almost completely. For advection dominated problems,
like the transport of turbulent vortical structures, etc., the physical time-step is large as
it is based on the particle CFL number. The corresponding unsteady preconditioning
parameter Ur2 will then approach u2 , which corresponds to the steady preconditioning
choice. For intermediate physical time-step sizes, the unsteady preconditioning parameter
will be adapted to provide optimum convergence efficiency of the pseudo-time iterations
and accurate scaling of the artificial dissipation terms, regardless of the choice of the
physical time step.

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 25.5 Density-Based Solver

25.5.3 Convective Fluxes

Roe Flux-Difference Splitting Scheme
The inviscid flux vector F appearing in Equation 25.5-6 is evaluated by a standard
upwind, flux-difference splitting [308]. This approach acknowledges that the flux vector
F contains characteristic information propagating through the domain with speed and
direction according to the eigenvalues of the system. By splitting F into parts, where
each part contains information traveling in a particular direction (i.e., characteristic
information), and upwind differencing the split fluxes in a manner consistent with their
corresponding eigenvalues, we obtain the following expression for the discrete flux at each
face:

1 1
F= (FR + FL ) − Γ |Â| δQ (25.5-10)
2 2
Here δQ is the spatial difference QR − QL . The fluxes FR = F (QR ) and FL = F (QL )
are computed using the (reconstructed) solution vectors QR and QL on the “right” and
“left” side of the face. The matrix |Â| is defined by

|Â| = M |Λ| M −1 (25.5-11)

where Λ is the diagonal matrix of eigenvalues and M is the modal matrix that diagonalizes
Γ−1 A, where A is the inviscid flux Jacobian ∂F/∂Q.
For the non-preconditioned system (and an ideal gas) Equation 25.5-10 reduces to Roe’s
flux-difference splitting [308] when Roe-averaged values are used to evaluate Γ |Â|. At
present, arithmetic averaging of states QR and QL is used.
In its current form, Equation 25.5-10 can be viewed as a second-order central difference
plus an added matrix dissipation. The added matrix dissipation term is not only respon-
sible for producing an upwinding of the convected variables, and of pressure and flux
velocity in supersonic flow, but it also provides the pressure-velocity coupling required
for stability and efficient convergence of low-speed and incompressible flows.

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Using the Solver

AUSM+ Scheme
An alternative way to compute the flux vector F appearing in Equation 25.5-6 is by us-
ing a flux-vector splitting scheme [57]. The scheme, called Advection Upstream Splitting
Method (AUSM), was first introduced by Liou and Steffen in 1993 [215]. The AUSM
scheme first computes a cell interface Mach number based on the characteristic speeds
from the neighboring cells. The interface Mach number is then used to determine the
upwind extrapolation for the convection part of the inviscid fluxes. A separate Mach
number splitting is used for the pressure terms. Generalized Mach number based con-
vection and pressure splitting functions were proposed by Liou [214] and the new scheme
was termed AUSM+. The AUSM+ scheme has several desirable properties:

1. Provides exact resolution of contact and shock discontinuities

2. Preserves positivity of scalar quantities
3. Free of oscillations at stationary and moving shocks

The AUSM+ scheme avoids using an explicit artificial dissipation, by proposing a nu-
merical flux of the form:

F = mf φ + pi (25.5-12)

Here mf is the mass flux through the interface, which is computed using the fourth order
polynomial functions of the left and right side (of the interface) Mach numbers.
FLUENT utilizes an all-speed version of the AUSM+ scheme based on the low-Mach
preconditioning.

Low Diffusion Roe Flux Difference Splitting Scheme

In order to reduce dissipation in LES calculations, FLUENT uses a modified version of
the Roe Flux Difference Splitting scheme, called the Low Diffusion Roe Flux Difference
Splitting scheme. The scheme includes low Mach number preconditioning, in which the
artificial dissipation term has been reduced [46] through the use of a hybrid scheme that
combines a central scheme and a second-order upwind scheme (Roe’s Flux Difference
scheme).

i The low diffusion discretization must be used only for subsonic flows. For
high Mach number flows, you should switch to the second-order upwind
scheme.

i The low diffusion discretization is only available with the implicit-time

formulation (dual-time-stepping). When running LES with the explicit
time formulation, you will need to use the second-order upwind scheme.

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 25.5 Density-Based Solver

25.5.4 Steady-State Flow Solution Methods

The coupled set of governing equations (Equation 25.5-6) in FLUENT is discretized in time
for both steady and unsteady calculations. In the steady case, it is assumed that time
marching proceeds until a steady-state solution is reached. Temporal discretization of
the coupled equations is accomplished by either an implicit or an explicit time-marching
algorithm. These two algorithms are described below.

Explicit Formulation
In the explicit scheme a multi-stage, time-stepping algorithm [161] is used to discretize
the time derivative in Equation 25.5-6. The solution is advanced from iteration n to
iteration n + 1 with an m-stage Runge-Kutta scheme, given by

Q0 = Qn
∆Qi = −αi ∆tΓ−1 Ri−1
Qn+1 = Qm

where ∆Qi ≡ Qi − Qn and i = 1, 2, . . . , m is the stage counter for the m-stage scheme.
αi is the multi-stage coefficient for the ith stage. The residual Ri is computed from the
intermediate solution Qi and, for Equation 25.5-6, is given by

NX
faces  
Ri = F(Qi ) − G(Qi ) · A − V H (25.5-13)

The time step ∆t is computed from the CFL (Courant-Friedrichs-Lewy) condition

2CFL · V
∆t = P max (25.5-14)
f λf Af

where V is the cell volume, Af is the face cell, and λf max is the maximum of the local
eigenvalues defined by Equation 25.5-9.
For steady-state solutions, convergence acceleration of the explicit formulation can be
achieved with the use of local time stepping, residual smoothing, and full-approximation
storage multigrid.
Local time stepping is a method by which the solution at each control volume is advanced
in time with respect to the cell time step, defined by the local stability limit of the time-
stepping scheme.
Residual smoothing, on the other hand, increases the bound of stability limits of the
time-stepping scheme and hence allows for the use of a larger CFL value to achieve fast
convergence (Section 25.5.4: Implicit Residual Smoothing).

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Using the Solver

The convergence rate of the explicit scheme can be accelerated through use of the
full-approximation storage (FAS) multigrid method described in Section 25.6.4: Full-
Approximation Storage (FAS) Multigrid.
By default, FLUENT uses a 3-stage Runge-Kutta scheme based on the work by Lynn [225]
for steady-state flows that use the density-based explicit solver.

Implicit Residual Smoothing

The maximum time step can be further increased by increasing the support of the scheme
through implicit averaging of the residuals with their neighbors. The residuals are filtered
through a Laplacian smoothing operator:

X
R̄i = Ri +  (R̄j − R̄i ) (25.5-15)

This equation can be solved with the following Jacobi iteration:

Ri +  R̄jm−1
P
R̄im = P (25.5-16)
1+ 1

Two Jacobi iterations are usually sufficient to allow doubling the time step with a value
of  = 0.5.

Implicit Formulation
In the implicit scheme, an Euler implicit discretization in time of the governing equations
(Equation 25.5-6) is combined with a Newton-type linearization of the fluxes to produce
the following linearized system in delta form [394]:
 
NX
faces
D + Sj,k  ∆Qn+1 = −Rn (25.5-17)
j

The center and off-diagonal coefficient matrices, D and Sj,k are given by

NX
V faces

D = Γ+ Sj,i (25.5-18)
∆t j
!
∂Fj ∂Gj
Sj,k = − Aj (25.5-19)
∂Qk ∂Qk

and the residual vector Rn and time step ∆t are defined as in Equation 25.5-13 and
Equation 25.5-14, respectively.

25-44
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 25.5 Density-Based Solver

Equation 25.5-17 is solved using either Incomplete Lower Upper factorization (ILU) by
default or asymmetric point Gauss-Seidel algorithm, in conjunction with an algebraic
multigrid (AMG) method (see Section 25.6.3: Algebraic Multigrid (AMG)) adapted for
coupled sets of equations.

25.5.5 Unsteady Flows Solution Methods

For time-accurate calculations, explicit and implicit time-stepping schemes are available.
(The time-implicit approach is also referred to as “dual time stepping”.)

Explicit Time Stepping

The explicit time stepping approach, is available only for the explicit scheme described
above. The time step is determined by the CFL condition. To maintain time accuracy
of the solution the explicit time stepping employs the same time step in each cell of the
domain (this is also known as global-time step), and with preconditioning disabled. By
default, FLUENT uses a 4-stage Runge-Kutta scheme for unsteady flows.

Implicit Time Stepping (Dual-Time formulation)

The implicit-time stepping method (also known as dual-time formulation) is available in
the density-based explicit and implicit formulation.
When performing unsteady simulations with implicit-time stepping (dual-time stepping),
FLUENT uses a low Mach number time-derivative unsteady preconditioner to provide
accurate results both for pure convective processes (e.g., simulating unsteady turbulence)
and for acoustic processes (e.g., simulating wave propagation) [376, 276].
Here we introduce a preconditioned pseudo-time-derivative term into Equation 25.5-1 as
follows:

∂ Z ∂ Z I Z
W dV + Γ Q dV + [F − G] · dA = H dV (25.5-20)
∂t V ∂τ V V

where t denotes physical-time and τ is a pseudo-time used in the time-marching proce-

dure. Note that as τ → ∞, the second term on the left side of Equation 25.5-20 vanishes
and Equation 25.5-1 is recovered.
The time-dependent term in Equation 25.5-20 is discretized in an implicit fashion by
means of either a first- or second-order accurate, backward difference in time.

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 25-45
Using the Solver

The dual-time formulation is written in semi-discrete form as follows:

" #
Γ 0 ∂W k+1 1 I
+ ∆Q + [F − G] · dA
∆τ ∆t ∂Q V
1  
=H − 0 Wk − 1 Wn + 2 Wn−1
∆t

where {0 = 1 = 1/2, 2 = 0} gives first-order time accuracy, and {0 = 3/2, 1 = 2, 2 =
1/2} gives second-order. k is the inner iteration counter and n represents any given
physical-time level.
The pseudo-time-derivative is driven to zero at each physical time level by a series of
inner iterations using either the implicit or explicit time-marching algorithm.
Throughout the (inner) iterations in pseudo-time, Wn and Wn−1 are held constant and
Wk is computed from Qk . As τ → ∞, the solution at the next physical time level Wn+1
is given by W(Qk ).
Note that the physical time step ∆t is limited only by the level of desired temporal
accuracy. The pseudo-time-step ∆τ is determined by the CFL condition of the (implicit
or explicit) time-marching scheme.
Table 25.5.1 summarizes all operation modes for the density-based solver from the itera-
tive scheme in steady-state calculations to time-marching schemes for transient calcula-
tions.

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 25.5 Density-Based Solver

Table 25.5.1: Summary of the Density-Based Solver

Solution Density-Based Solver - Density-Based Solver -

Method Explicit Formulation Implicit Formulation
– 3-stages Runge-Kutta –
– local time step – local time step
Steady-State – time-derivative – time-derivative
preconditioning preconditioning
– FAS
– 4-stages Runge-Kutta N/A
Unsteady - – global time step
Explicit Time – no time-derivative
Stepping preconditioning
– No FAS
– dual-time formulation – dual-time formulation
Unsteady - – Physical time: first order – Physical time: first order
Implicit Time Euler backward Euler backward
Stepping – preconditioned – preconditioned
(dual-time pseudo-time derivative pseudo-time derivative
formulation) – inner iteration: explicit – inner iteration: implicit
First Order pseudo-time marching, pseudo-time marching
3-stage Runge-Kutta
– dual-time formulation – dual-time formulation
Unsteady - – Physical time: second – Physical time: second
Implicit Time order Euler backward order Euler backward
Stepping – preconditioned – preconditioned
(dual-time pseudo-time derivative pseudo-time derivative
formulation) – inner iteration: explicit – inner iteration: implicit
Second Order pseudo-time marching, pseudo-time marching
3-stage Runge-Kutta

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Using the Solver

25.6 Multigrid Method

The FLUENT solver contains two forms of multigrid: algebraic (AMG) and
full-approximation storage (FAS). AMG is an essential component of both the pressure-
based and density-based implicit solvers, while FAS is an important, but optional, com-
ponent of the density-based explicit solver. (Note that when the density-based explicit
solver is used, AMG will also be used, since the scalar equations (e.g., turbulence) are
solved using the approach described in Section 25.2: General Scalar Transport Equation:
Discretization and Solution.)
This section describes the mathematical basis of the multigrid approach. Common as-
pects of AMG and FAS are presented first, followed by separate sections that provide
details unique to each method. Information about user inputs and controls for the multi-
grid solver is provided in Sections 25.22.3 and 25.11.2.

25.6.1 Approach
FLUENT uses a multigrid scheme to accelerate the convergence of the solver by computing
corrections on a series of coarse grid levels. The use of this multigrid scheme can greatly
reduce the number of iterations and the CPU time required to obtain a converged solution,
particularly when your model contains a large number of control volumes.

The Need for Multigrid

Implicit solution of the linearized equations on unstructured meshes is complicated by the
fact that there is no equivalent of the line-iterative methods that are commonly used on
structured grids. Since direct matrix inversion is out of the question for realistic problems
and “whole-field” solvers that rely on conjugate-gradient (CG) methods have robustness
problems associated with them, the methods of choice are point implicit solvers like
Gauss-Seidel and ILU. Although the Gauss-Seidel and ILU schemes rapidly remove local
(high-frequency) errors in the solution, global (low-frequency) errors are reduced at a rate
inversely related to the grid size. Thus, for a large number of nodes, the solver “stalls”
and the residual reduction rate becomes prohibitively low.
The multi-stage scheme used in the density-based explicit solver can efficiently remove
local (high-frequency) errors as well. That is, the effect of the solution in one cell is
communicated to adjacent cells relatively quickly. However, the scheme is less effective
at reducing global (low-frequency) errors—errors which exist over a large number of
control volumes. Thus, global corrections to the solution across a large number of control
volumes occur slowly, over many iterations. This implies that performance of the multi-
stage scheme will deteriorate as the number of control volumes increases.

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 25.6 Multigrid Method

Multigrid techniques allow global error to be addressed by using a sequence of successively

coarser meshes. This method is based upon the principle that global (low-frequency)
error existing on a fine mesh can be represented on a coarse mesh where it again becomes
accessible as local (high-frequency) error: because there are fewer coarse cells overall,
the global corrections can be communicated more quickly between adjacent cells. Since
computations can be performed at an exponentially decaying expense in both CPU time
and memory storage on coarser meshes, there is the potential for very efficient elimination
of global error. The fine-grid relaxation scheme or “smoother”, in this case either the
point-implicit linear solvers (Section 25.6.3: The Coupled and Scalar AMG Solvers) or
the explicit multi-stage scheme, is not required to be particularly effective at reducing
global error and can be tuned for efficient reduction of local error.

The Basic Concept in Multigrid

Consider the set of discretized linear (or linearized) equations given by

A φe + b = 0 (25.6-1)

where φe is the exact solution. Before the solution has converged there will be a defect
d associated with the approximate solution φ:

Aφ + b = d (25.6-2)

We seek a correction ψ to φ such that the exact solution is given by

φe = φ + ψ (25.6-3)

Substituting Equation 25.6-3 into Equation 25.6-1 gives

A (φ + ψ) + b = 0 (25.6-4)
A ψ + (A φ + b) = 0 (25.6-5)

Now using Equations 25.6-2 and 25.6-5 we obtain

Aψ + d = 0 (25.6-6)

which is an equation for the correction in terms of the original fine level operator A and
the defect d. Assuming the local (high-frequency) errors have been sufficiently damped
by the relaxation scheme on the fine level, the correction ψ will be smooth and therefore
more effectively solved on the next coarser level.

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Using the Solver

Restriction and Prolongation

Solving for corrections on the coarse level requires transferring the defect down from
the fine level (restriction), computing corrections, and then transferring the corrections
back up from the coarse level (prolongation). We can write the equations for coarse level
corrections ψ H as

AH ψ H + R d = 0 (25.6-7)

where AH is the coarse level operator and R the restriction operator responsible for
transferring the fine level defect down to the coarse level. Solution of Equation 25.6-7 is
followed by an update of the fine level solution given by

φnew = φ + P ψ H (25.6-8)

where P is the prolongation operator used to transfer the coarse level corrections up to
the fine level.

Unstructured Multigrid
The primary difficulty with using multigrid on unstructured grids is the creation and use
of the coarse grid hierarchy. On a structured grid, the coarse grids can be formed simply
by removing every other grid line from the fine grids and the prolongation and restriction
operators are simple to formulate (e.g., injection and bilinear interpolation).
The difficulties of applying multigrid on unstructured grids are overcome in a separate
fashion by each of the two multigrid methods used in FLUENT. While the basic principles
discussed so far and the cycling strategy described in Section 25.6.2: Multigrid Cycles
are the same, the techniques for construction of restriction, prolongation, and coarse
grid operators are different, as discussed in Section 25.6.3: Algebraic Multigrid (AMG)
and Section 25.6.4: Full-Approximation Storage (FAS) Multigrid for the AMG and FAS
methods, respectively.

25.6.2 Multigrid Cycles

A multigrid cycle can be defined as a recursive procedure that is applied at each grid
level as it moves through the grid hierarchy. Four types of multigrid cycles are available
in FLUENT: the V, W, F, and flexible (“flex”) cycles. The V and W cycles are available
in both AMG and FAS, while the F and flexible cycles are restricted to the AMG method
only. (The W and flexible AMG cycles are not available for solving the coupled equation
set due to the amount of computation required.)

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 25.6 Multigrid Method

The V and W Cycles

Figures 25.6.1 and 25.6.2 show the V and W multigrid cycles (defined below). In each
figure, the multigrid cycle is represented by a square, and then expanded recursively to
show the individual steps that are performed within the cycle. The individual steps are
represented by a circle, one or more squares, and a triangle, connected by lines: circle-
square-triangle for a V cycle, or circle-square-square-triangle for a W cycle. The squares
in this group expand again, into circle-square-triangle or circle-square-square-triangle,
and so on. You may want to follow along in the figures as you read the steps below.
For the V and W cycles, the traversal of the hierarchy is governed by three parameters,
β1 , β2 , and β3 , as follows:

1. First, iterations are performed on the current grid level to reduce the high-frequency
components of the error (local error). For AMG, one iteration consists of one for-
ward and one backward Gauss-Seidel sweep. For FAS, one iteration consists of one
pass of the multi-stage scheme (described in Section 25.5.4: Explicit Formulation).
These iterations are referred to as pre-relaxation sweeps because they are performed
before moving to the next coarser grid level. The number of pre-relaxation sweeps
is specified by β1 .
In Figures 25.6.1 and 25.6.2 this step is represented by a circle and marks the start
of a multigrid cycle. The high-wave-number components of error should be reduced
until the remaining error is expressible on the next coarser mesh without significant
aliasing.
If this is the coarsest grid level, then the multigrid cycle on this level is complete. (In
Figures 25.6.1 and 25.6.2 there are 3 coarse grid levels, so the square representing
the multigrid cycle on level 3 is equivalent to a circle, as shown in the final diagram
in each figure.)

i In the AMG method, the default value of β1 is zero (i.e., no pre-relaxation

sweeps are performed).
2. Next, the problem is “restricted” to the next coarser grid level using Equation 25.6-7.
In Figures 25.6.1 and 25.6.2, the restriction from a finer grid level to a coarser grid
level is designated by a downward-sloping line.

3. The error on the coarse grid is reduced by performing a specified number (β2 ) of
multigrid cycles (represented in Figures 25.6.1 and 25.6.2 as squares). Commonly,
for fixed multigrid strategies β2 is either 1 or 2, corresponding to V-cycle and W-
cycle multigrid, respectively.

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Using the Solver

grid
level multigrid cycle

0 pre-relaxation sweeps

post-relaxation sweeps and/or

0 Laplacian smoothings

0
1
2

0
1
2
3

0
1
2
3

Figure 25.6.1: V-Cycle Multigrid

grid
level multigrid cycle

0 pre-relaxation sweeps

post-relaxation sweeps and/or

0 Laplacian smoothings

0
1
2

0
1
2
3

0
1
2
3

Figure 25.6.2: W-Cycle Multigrid

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 25.6 Multigrid Method

4. Next, the cumulative correction computed on the coarse grid is “interpolated”

back to the fine grid using Equation 25.6-8 and added to the fine grid solution. In
the FAS method, the corrections are additionally smoothed during this step using
the Laplacian smoothing operator discussed in Section 25.5.4: Implicit Residual
Smoothing.
In Figures 25.6.1 and 25.6.2 the prolongation is represented by an upward-sloping
line.
The high-frequency error now present at the fine grid level is due to the prolongation
procedure used to transfer the correction.

5. In the final step, iterations are performed on the fine grid to remove the high-
frequency error introduced on the coarse grid by the multigrid cycles. These iter-
ations are referred to as post-relaxation sweeps because they are performed after
returning from the next coarser grid level. The number of post-relaxation sweeps
is specified by β3 .
In Figures 25.6.1 and 25.6.2, this relaxation procedure is represented by a single
triangle.
For AMG, the default value of β3 is 1.

i Note, however, that if you are using AMG with V-cycle to solve an en-
ergy equation with a solid conduction model presented with anisotropic
or very high conductivity coefficient, there is a possibility of divergence
with a default post-relaxation sweep of 1. In such cases you should in-
crease the post-relaxation sweep (e.g., to 2) in the AMG section for bet-
ter convergence, or change the cycle type to F-cycle or W-cycle, with an
under-relaxation factor set to 1. This is especially effective when calcu-
lating pure heat conduction or conjugate heat transfer. Any instability
observed when using the F-cycle or W-cycle can be remedied by increasing
the pre-relaxation sweep count to 1. Although the default value of 0 is
optimal for most cases, increasing the pre-relaxation sweep value to 1 or 2
can improve convergence.
Since the default value for β1 is 0 (i.e., pre-relaxation sweeps are not performed),this
procedure is roughly equivalent to using the solution from the coarse level as the
initial guess for the solution at the fine level.
For FAS, the default value of β3 is zero (i.e., post-relaxation sweeps are not per-
formed); post-relaxation sweeps are never performed at the end of the cycle for
the finest grid level, regardless of the value of β3 . This is because for FAS, post-
relaxation sweeps at the fine level are equivalent to pre-relaxation sweeps during
the next cycle.

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Using the Solver

25.6.3 Algebraic Multigrid (AMG)

This algorithm is referred to as an “algebraic” multigrid scheme because, as we shall
see, the coarse level equations are generated without the use of any geometry or re-
discretization on the coarse levels; a feature that makes AMG particularly attractive
for use on unstructured meshes. The advantage being that no coarse grids have to be
constructed or stored, and no fluxes or source terms need to be evaluated on the coarse
levels. This approach is in contrast with FAS (sometimes called “geometric”) multigrid
in which a hierarchy of meshes is required and the discretized equations are evaluated on
every level. In theory, the advantage of FAS over AMG is that the former should perform
better for non-linear problems since non-linearities in the system are carried down to
the coarse levels through the re-discretization; when using AMG, once the system is
linearized, non-linearities are not “felt” by the solver until the fine level operator is next
updated.

AMG Restriction and Prolongation Operators

The restriction and prolongation operators used here are based on the additive correction
(AC) strategy described for structured grids by Hutchinson and Raithby [151]. Inter-level
transfer is accomplished by piecewise constant interpolation and prolongation. The defect
in any coarse level cell is given by the sum of those from the fine level cells it contains,
while fine level corrections are obtained by injection of coarse level values. In this manner
the prolongation operator is given by the transpose of the restriction operator

P = RT (25.6-9)

The restriction operator is defined by a coarsening or “grouping” of fine level cells into
coarse level ones. In this process each fine level cell is grouped with one or more of
its “strongest” neighbors, with a preference given to currently ungrouped neighbors.
The algorithm attempts to collect cells into groups of fixed size, typically two or four,
but any number can be specified. In the context of grouping, strongest refers to the
neighbor j of the current cell i for which the coefficient Aij is largest. For sets of coupled
equations Aij is a block matrix and the measure of its magnitude is simply taken to be
the magnitude of its first element. In addition, the set of coupled equations for a given
cell are treated together and not divided amongst different coarse cells. This results in
the same coarsening for each equation in the system.

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 25.6 Multigrid Method

AMG Coarse Level Operator

The coarse level operator AH is constructed using a Galerkin approach. Here we re-
quire that the defect associated with the corrected fine level solution must vanish when
transferred back to the coarse level. Therefore we may write

R dnew = 0 (25.6-10)

Upon substituting Equations 25.6-2 and 25.6-8 for dnew and φnew we have

R [A φnew + b] = 0
h   i
R A φ + P ψH + b = 0 (25.6-11)

Now rearranging and using Equation 25.6-2 once again gives

R A P ψ H + R (A φ + b) = 0
R A P ψH + R d = 0 (25.6-12)

Comparison of Equation 25.6-12 with Equation 25.6-7 leads to the following expression
for the coarse level operator:

AH = R A P (25.6-13)

The construction of coarse level operators thus reduces to a summation of diagonal and
corresponding off-diagonal blocks for all fine level cells within a group to form the diagonal
block of that group’s coarse cell.

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Using the Solver

The F Cycle
The multigrid F cycle is essentially a combination of the V and W cycles described in
Section 25.6.2: The V and W Cycles.
Recall that the multigrid cycle is a recursive procedure. The procedure is expanded to
the next coarsest grid level by performing a single multigrid cycle on the current level.
Referring to Figures 25.6.1 and 25.6.2, this means replacing the square on the current
level (representing a single cycle) with the procedure shown for the 0-1 level cycle (the
second diagram in each figure). We see that a V cycle consists of:

pre sweep → restrict → V cycle → prolongate → post sweep

and a W cycle:

pre sweep → restrict → W cycle → W cycle → prolongate → post sweep

An F cycle is formed by a W cycle followed by a V cycle:

pre sweep → restrict → W cycle → V cycle → prolongate → post sweep

As expected, the F cycle requires more computation than the V cycle, but less than the
W cycle. However, its convergence properties turn out to be better than the V cycle and
roughly equivalent to the W cycle. The F cycle is the default AMG cycle type for the
coupled equation set.

The Flexible Cycle

For the flexible cycle, the calculation and use of coarse grid corrections is controlled in
the multigrid procedure by the logic illustrated in Figure 25.6.3. This logic ensures that
coarser grid calculations are invoked when the rate of residual reduction on the current
grid level is too slow. In addition, the multigrid controls dictate when the iterative
solution of the correction on the current coarse grid level is sufficiently converged and
should thus be applied to the solution on the next finer grid. These two decisions are
controlled by the parameters α and β shown in Figure 25.6.3, as described in detail
below. Note that the logic of the multigrid procedure is such that grid levels may be
visited repeatedly during a single global iteration on an equation. For a set of 4 multigrid
levels, referred to as 0, 1, 2, and 3, the flex-cycle multigrid procedure for solving a given
transport equation might consist of visiting grid levels as 0-1-2-3-2-3-2-1-0-1-2-1-0, for
example.
The main difference between the flexible cycle and the V and W cycles is that the
satisfaction of the residual reduction tolerance and termination criterion determine when
and how often each level is visited in the flexible cycle, whereas in the V and W cycles
the traversal pattern is explicitly defined.

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 25.6 Multigrid Method

level

R0
0
Solve for φ on level 0 (fine) grid return R 0i< α R 00 or
relaxation i > i max,fine
0 0
R i> β R i-1 1 1
R i< α R 0 or
i > i max,coarse

Solve for φ′ on level 1 grid

1 1
R i> β R i-1 2 2
R i< α R 0 or
i > i max,coarse

Solve for φ′ on level 2 grid

2 2
R i> β R i-1 3 3
R i< α R 0 or
i > i max,coarse

etc.

Figure 25.6.3: Logic Controlling the Flex Multigrid Cycle

The Residual Reduction Rate Criteria

The multigrid procedure invokes calculations on the next coarser grid level when the
error reduction rate on the current level is insufficient, as defined by

Ri > βRi−1 (25.6-14)

Here Ri is the absolute sum of residuals (defect) computed on the current grid level after
the ith relaxation on this level. The above equation states that if the residual present in
the iterative solution after i relaxations is greater than some fraction, β (between 0 and
1), of the residual present after the (i − 1)th relaxation, the next coarser grid level should
be visited. Thus β is referred to as the residual reduction tolerance, and determines when
to “give up” on the iterative solution at the current grid level and move to solving the
correction equations on the next coarser grid. The value of β controls the frequency with
which coarser grid levels are visited. The default value is 0.7. A larger value will result
in less frequent visits, and a smaller value will result in more frequent visits.

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Using the Solver

The Termination Criteria

Provided that the residual reduction rate is sufficiently rapid, the correction equations
will be converged on the current grid level and the result applied to the solution field on
the next finer grid level.
The correction equations on the current grid level are considered sufficiently converged
when the error in the correction solution is reduced to some fraction, α (between 0 and
1), of the original error on this grid level:

Ri < αR0 (25.6-15)

Here, Ri is the residual on the current grid level after the ith iteration on this level,
and R0 is the residual that was initially obtained on this grid level at the current global
iteration. The parameter α, referred to as the termination criterion, has a default value
of 0.1. Note that the above equation is also used to terminate calculations on the lowest
(finest) grid level during the multigrid procedure. Thus, relaxations are continued on each
grid level (including the finest grid level) until the criterion of this equation is obeyed
(or until a maximum number of relaxations has been completed, in the case that the
specified criterion is never achieved).

The Coupled and Scalar AMG Solvers

The scalar AMG solver is used for the solution of linear systems obtained from the
discretization of the individual transport equations.

aij xj = bi (25.6-16)

where the above equation contains scalar variables.

The coupled AMG solver is used to solve linear transport equations using implicit dis-
cretization from coupled systems such as flow variables for the density-based solver,
pressure-velocity variables for the coupled pressure-based schemes and inter-phase cou-
pled individual equations for Eulerian multiphase flows.

~j = B
[A]ij X ~i (25.6-17)

where the influence of a cell i on a cell j has the form

a11 a12 ... a1N

 
ij ij ij
 a21
ij . . 
Aij =  (25.6-18)
 
: . .

 
aNij
1
aNij
N

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 25.6 Multigrid Method

and the unknown and source vectors have the form

x1j
 

~j = 
 . 
X (25.6-19)

.
 
 
xNj

b1i
 

~i = 
 . 
B (25.6-20)

.
 
 
bNi

The above resultant system of equations is solved in FLUENT using either the Gauss-
Seidel smoother or the Incomplete Lower Upper decomposition (ILU) smoother. If a
scalar system of equations is to be solved then the point-method (Gauss-Seidel or ILU)
smoother is used, while for a coupled system of equations the block-method (Gauss-Seidel
or ILU) smoother is used.

Gauss-Seidel

The Gauss-Seidel method is a technique for solving a linear system of equations one at
a time and in sequence. It uses the previously computed results as soon as they become
available. It performs two sweeps on the unknowns in forward and backward directions.
Both point or block method Gauss-Seidel smoothers are available in FLUENT to solve
for either the scalar AMG system of equations or the coupled AMG system of equations.
The Gauss-Seidel procedure can be illustrated using the scalar system, Equation 25.6-16.
The forward sweep can be written as:

xi k+1/2 = (bi − aij xj k+1/2 − aij xj k )/aii

X X
(25.6-21)
j<i j>i

(i = 1, ..., N )

where N is the number of unknowns. The forward sweep is followed by a backward sweep
which can be written as:

xi k+1 = (bi − aij xj k+1/2 − aij xj k+1 )/aii

X X
(25.6-22)
j<i j>i

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Using the Solver

Following from Equations 25.6-21 and 25.6-22, symmetric Gauss-Seidel can be expressed
in matrix form as a two-step recursive solution of the system

(DA + LA )DA −1 (DA + UA )(xk+1 − xk ) = b − Axk (25.6-23)

where DA , LA , and UA represent diagonal, lower tridiagonal, and upper tridiagonal parts
of matrix A, respectively.
Symmetric Gauss-Seidel has a somewhat limited rate of smoothing of residuals between
levels of AMG, unless the coarsening factor is set to 2.

Incomplete Lower Upper (ILU)

A more effective AMG smoother is based on the ILU decomposition technique. In general,
any iterational method can be represented as

M (xk+1 − xk ) = b − Axk (25.6-24)

where matrix M is some approximation of the original matrix A from

Ax = b (25.6-25)

M should be close to A and the calculation of M −1 should have a low operation count.
We consider M as an incomplete lower upper factorization of the matrix A such that

M = LU = (D + LA )D−1 (D + UA ) (25.6-26)

where LA and UA are the lower tridiagonal and upper tridiagonal parts of matrix A. The
diagonal matrix D is calculated in a special way to satisfy the following condition for
diagonal DM of matrix M:

DM = DA (25.6-27)

In this case, the ith element of the diagonal of D will be calculated using

X aij aji
dii = aii − ( ) (25.6-28)
j<1 djj

The calculation of the new solution xk+1 is then performed in two symmetric recursive
sweeps, similar to Gauss-Seidel sweeps. Diagonal elements dii of the ILU decomposition
are calculated during the construction of levels and stored in the memory. ILU smoother
is slightly more expensive compared to Gauss-Seidel, but has better smoothing properties,

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 25.6 Multigrid Method

especially for block-coupled systems solved by coupled AMG. In this case, coarsening of
levels can be more aggressive using coarsening factors between 8 and 12 for 3D problems
compared to 2 for Gauss-Seidel.

i When solving the coupled systems, shorter solution times and more robust
performance can be obtained by using the default ILU smoother, rather
than the Gauss-Seidel smoother, which is the default for scalar systems.
ILU is recommended whenever the coupled AMG solver is used.

25.6.4 Full-Approximation Storage (FAS) Multigrid

FLUENT’s approach to forming the multigrid grid hierarchy for FAS is simply to coalesce
groups of cells on the finer grid to form coarse grid cells. Coarse grid cells are created
by agglomerating the cells surrounding a node, as shown in Figure 25.6.4. Depending on
the grid topology, this can result in cells with irregular shapes and variable numbers of
faces. The grid levels are, however, simple to construct and are embedded, resulting in
simple prolongation and relaxation operators.

Figure 25.6.4: Node Agglomeration to Form Coarse Grid Cells

It is interesting to note that although the coarse grid cells look very irregular, the dis-
cretization cannot “see” the jaggedness in the cell faces. The discretization uses only the
area projections of the cell faces and therefore each group of “jagged” cell faces separat-
ing two irregularly-shaped cells is equivalent to a single straight line (in 2D) connecting
the endpoints of the jagged segment. (In 3D, the area projections form an irregular, but
continuous, geometrical shape.) This optimization decreases the memory requirement
and the computation time.

FAS Restriction and Prolongation Operators

FAS requires restriction of both the fine grid solution φ and its residual (defect) d. The
restriction operator R used to transfer the solution to the next coarser grid level is formed
using a full-approximation scheme [41]. That is, the solution for a coarse cell is obtained

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Using the Solver

by taking the volume average of the solution values in the embedded fine grid cells.
Residuals for the coarse grid cell are obtained by summing the residuals in the embedded
fine grid cells.
The prolongation operator P used to transfer corrections up to the fine level is constructed
to simply set the fine grid correction to the associated coarse grid value.
The coarse grid corrections ψ H , which are brought up from the coarse level and applied to
the fine level solution, are computed from the difference between the solution calculated
on the coarse level φH and the initial solution restricted down to the coarse level Rφ.
Thus correction of the fine level solution becomes

 
φnew = φ + P φH − Rφ (25.6-29)

FAS Coarse Level Operator

The FAS coarse grid operator AH is simply that which results from a re-discretization
of the governing equations on the coarse level mesh. Since the discretized equations
presented in Sections 25.3 and 25.5 place no restrictions on the number of faces that
make up a cell, there is no problem in performing this re-discretization on the coarse
grids composed of irregularly shaped cells.
There is some loss of accuracy when the finite-volume scheme is used on the irregular
coarse grid cells, but the accuracy of the multigrid solution is determined solely by the
finest grid and is therefore not affected by the coarse grid discretization.
In order to preserve accuracy of the fine grid solution, the coarse level equations are
modified to include source terms [160] which insure that corrections computed on the
coarse grid φH will be zero if the residuals on the fine grid dh are zero as well. Thus, the
coarse grid equations are formulated as

AH φH + dH = dH (Rφ) − Rdh (25.6-30)

Here dH is the coarse grid residual computed from the current coarse grid solution φH ,
and dH (Rφ) is the coarse grid residual computed from the restricted fine level solution
Rφ. Initially, these two terms will be the same (because initially we have φH = Rφ) and
cancel from the equation, leaving

AH φH = −Rdh (25.6-31)

So there will be no coarse level correction when the fine grid residual dh is zero.

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 25.7 How to Use the Solver

25.7 How to Use the Solver

25.7.1 Overview
In FLUENT, two solver technologies are available:

• pressure-based

• density-based

Both solvers can be used for a broad range of flows, but in some cases one formulation may
perform better (i.e., yield a solution more quickly or resolve certain flow features better)
than the other. The pressure-based and density-based approaches differ in the way that
the continuity, momentum, and (where appropriate) energy and species equations are
solved, as described in Section 25.1: Overview of Flow Solvers.
The pressure-based solver traditionally has been used for incompressible and mildly com-
pressible flows. The density-based approach, on the other hand, was originally designed
for high-speed compressible flows. Both approaches are now applicable to a broad range
of flows (from incompressible to highly compressible), but the origins of the density-
based formulation may give it an accuracy (i.e. shock resolution) advantage over the
pressure-based solver for high-speed compressible flows.
Two formulations exist under the density-based solver: implicit and explicit. The density-
based explicit and implicit formulations solve the equations for additional scalars (e.g.,
turbulence or radiation quantities) sequentially. The implicit and explicit density-based
formulations differ in the way that they linearize the coupled equations.
See Section 25.1: Overview of Flow Solvers for more details about the solver formulations.
Due to broader stability characteristics of the implicit formulation, a converged steady-
state solution can be obtained much faster using the implicit formulation rather than the
explicit formulation. However, the implicit formulation requires more memory than the
explicit formulation.
Two algorithms also exist under the pressure-based solver in FLUENT: a segregated al-
gorithm and a coupled algorithm. In the segregated algorithm the governing equations
are solved sequentially, segregated from one another, while in the coupled algorithm the
momentum equations and the pressure-based continuity equation are solved in a cou-
pled manner. In general, the coupled algorithm significantly improves the convergence
speed over the segregated algorithm, however, the memory requirement for the coupled
algorithm is more than the segregated algorithm.

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Using the Solver

When selecting a solver and an algorithm you must consider the following issues:

• The model availability for a given solver.

• Solver performance for the given flow conditions.

• The size of the mesh under consideration and the available memory on your ma-
chine. This issue could be an important factor in deciding whether to use an
explicit or implicit formulation when the density-based solver is selected, or to use
a segregated or coupled algorithm when the pressure-based solver is selected.

The following two lists highlight the model availability for each solver:

i Note that the pressure-based solver provides several physical models or

features that are not available with the density-based solver:

• Cavitation model

• Volume-of-fluid (VOF) model

• Multiphase mixture model

• Eulerian multiphase model

• Non-premixed combustion model

• Premixed combustion model

• Partially premixed combustion model

• Composition PDF transport model

• Soot model

• Rosseland radiation model

• Melting/solidification model

• Shell conduction model

• Floating operating pressure

• Fixed variable option

• Physical velocity formulation for porous media

• Specified mass flow rate for streamwise periodic flow

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 25.7 How to Use the Solver

The following features are available with the density-based solver, but not with the
pressure-based solver:

• Real gas models (User-defined and NIST)

• Non-reflecting boundary conditions

• Wet steam multiphase model

User Inputs for Solver Selection

To choose one of the solver formulations, you will use the Solver panel (Figure 25.7.1).
Define −→ Models −→Solver...

Figure 25.7.1: The Solver Panel

To use the pressure-based solver, retain the default selection of Pressure Based under
Solver.
To use the density-based implicit formulation, select Density Based under Solver and
Implicit (the default) under Formulation.
To use the density-based explicit formulation, select Density Based under Solver and
Explicit under Formulation.

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Using the Solver

After you have defined your model and specified which solver you want to use, you are
ready to run the solver. The following steps outline a general procedure you can follow:

1. Choose the discretization scheme and, for the pressure-based solver, the pressure
interpolation scheme (see Section 25.8: Choosing the Discretization Scheme).

2. (pressure-based solver only) Select the pressure-velocity coupling method (see Sec-
tion 25.9.1: Choosing the Pressure-Velocity Coupling Method).

3. (pressure-based solver only) Select the porous media velocity method (see
Section 7.19: Porous Media Conditions).

4. Select how you want the derivatives to be evaluated by choosing a gradient option
(see Section 25.3.3: Evaluation of Gradients and Derivatives).

5. Set the under-relaxation factors (see Section 25.9.2: Setting Under-Relaxation Factors).

6. (density-based explicit formulation only) Turn on FAS multigrid (see Section 25.10.3: Turn-
ing On FAS Multigrid).

7. Make any additional modifications to the solver settings that are suggested in the
chapters or sections that describe the models you are using.

8. Initialize the solution (see Section 25.14: Initializing the Solution).

9. Enable the appropriate solution monitors (see Section 25.18: Monitoring Solution
Convergence).

10. Start calculating (see Section 25.16: Performing Steady-State Calculations for steady-
state calculations, or Section 25.17: Performing Time-Dependent Calculations for
time-dependent calculations).

11. If you have convergence trouble, try one of the methods discussed in
Section 25.22: Convergence and Stability.

The default settings for the first three items listed above are suitable for most problems
and need not be changed. The following sections outline how these and other solution
parameters can be changed, and when you may wish to change them.

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 25.8 Choosing the Discretization Scheme

25.8 Choosing the Discretization Scheme

FLUENT allows you to choose the discretization scheme for the convection terms of each
governing equation. (Second-order accuracy is automatically used for the viscous terms.)
When the pressure-based solver is used, all equations are, by default, solved using the
first-order upwind discretization for convection. When the density-based solver is used,
the flow equations are solved using the second-order scheme by default, and the other
equations use the first-order scheme by default. See Section 25.3: Discretization for a
complete description of the discretization schemes available in FLUENT.
In addition, when you use the pressure-based solver, you can specify the pressure inter-
polation scheme. See Section 25.4.1: Pressure Interpolation Schemes for a description of
the pressure interpolation schemes available in FLUENT.

25.8.1 First-Order Accuracy vs. Second-Order Accuracy

When the flow is aligned with the grid (e.g., laminar flow in a rectangular duct modeled
with a quadrilateral or hexahedral grid) the first-order upwind discretization may be
acceptable. When the flow is not aligned with the grid (i.e., when it crosses the grid
lines obliquely), however, first-order convective discretization increases the numerical
discretization error (numerical diffusion). For triangular and tetrahedral grids, since the
flow is never aligned with the grid, you will generally obtain more accurate results by
using the second-order discretization. For quad/hex grids, you will also obtain better
results using the second-order discretization, especially for complex flows.
In summary, while the first-order discretization generally yields better convergence than
the second-order scheme, it generally will yield less accurate results, especially on tri/tet
grids. See Section 25.22: Convergence and Stability for information about controlling
convergence.
For most cases, you will be able to use the second-order scheme from the start of the
calculation. In some cases, however, you may need to start with the first-order scheme
and then switch to the second-order scheme after a few iterations. For example, if you are
running a high-Mach-number flow calculation that has an initial solution much different
than the expected final solution, you will usually need to perform a few iterations with the
first-order scheme and then turn on the second-order scheme and continue the calculation
to convergence. Alternatively, full multigrid initialization is also available for some flow
cases which allow you to proceed with the second-order scheme from the start.
For a simple flow that is aligned with the grid (e.g., laminar flow in a rectangular duct
modeled with a quadrilateral or hexahedral grid), the numerical diffusion will be naturally
low, so you can generally use the first-order scheme instead of the second-order scheme
without any significant loss of accuracy.
Finally, if you run into convergence difficulties with the second-order scheme, you should
try the first-order scheme instead.

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Using the Solver

25.8.2 Other Discretization Schemes

The QUICK and third-order MUSCL discretization schemes may provide better accuracy
than the second-order scheme for rotating or swirling flows. The QUICK scheme is
applicable to quadrilateral or hexahedral meshes, while the MUSCL scheme is used on
all types of meshes. In general, however, the second-order scheme is sufficient and the
QUICK scheme will not provide significant improvements in accuracy.

i If QUICK is used for hybrid meshes, it will be invoked only for quadrilateral
and hexahedral cells. Second-order discretization will be applied to all
other cells.
A power law scheme is also available, but it will generally yield the same accuracy as the
first-order scheme.
The bounded central differencing and central differencing schemes are available only when
you are using the LES and DES turbulence models, and the central differencing scheme
should be used only when the mesh spacing is fine enough so that the magnitude of the
local Peclet number (Equation 25.3-3) is less than 1.
A modified HRIC scheme (Section 25.3.1: Modified HRIC Scheme) is also available for
VOF simulations using either the implicit or explicit formulation.

25.8.3 Choosing the Pressure Interpolation Scheme

As discussed in Section 25.4.1: Pressure Interpolation Schemes, a number of pressure
interpolation schemes are available when the pressure-based solver is used in FLUENT.
For most cases the “standard” scheme is acceptable, but some types of models may
benefit from one of the other schemes:

• For problems involving large body forces, the body-force-weighted scheme is rec-
ommended.
• For flows with high swirl numbers, high-Rayleigh-number natural convection, high-
speed rotating flows, flows involving porous media, and flows in strongly curved
domains, use the PRESTO! scheme.
• For compressible flows, the second-order scheme is recommended.
• Use the second-order scheme for improved accuracy when one of the other schemes
is not applicable.

i The second-order scheme cannot be used with porous media or porous

jump.

i Only PRESTO! and body-force-weighted schemes are available for the VOF
and mixture multiphase models.

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 25.8 Choosing the Discretization Scheme

Note that you will not specify the pressure interpolation scheme if you are using the
Eulerian multiphase model. FLUENT will use the solution method described in Sec-
tion 23.5.11: Solution Method in FLUENT for Eulerian multiphase calculations.

25.8.4 Choosing the Density Interpolation Scheme

As discussed in Section 25.4.2: Density Interpolation Schemes, four density interpolation
schemes are available when the pressure-based solver is used to solve a single-phase
compressible flow.
The first-order upwind scheme (the default) provides stability for the discretization of
the pressure-correction equation, and gives good results for most classes of flows. If
you are calculating a compressible flow with shocks, the first-order upwind scheme may
tend to smooth the shocks; you should use the second-order-upwind or QUICK scheme for
such flows. For compressible flows with shocks, using the QUICK scheme for all variables,
including density, is highly recommended for quadrilateral, hexahedral, or hybrid meshes.
The third-order MUSCL scheme is applicable to arbitrary meshes and has the potential
to improve spatial accuracy for all types of meshes by reducing numerical diffusion.

i In the case of multiphase flows, the selected density scheme is applied to

the compressible phase and arithmetic averaging is used for incompressible
phases.

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Using the Solver

25.8.5 User Inputs

You can specify the discretization scheme and, for the pressure-based solver, the pressure
interpolation scheme in the Solution Controls panel (Figure 25.8.1).
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

Figure 25.8.1: The Solution Controls Panel for the Pressure-Based Segregated
Algorithm

For each scalar equation listed under Discretization (Momentum, Energy, Turbulence Ki-
netic Energy, etc. for the pressure-based solver or Turbulence Kinetic Energy, Turbulence
Dissipation Rate, etc. for the density-based solver) you can choose First Order Upwind,
Second Order Upwind, Power Law, QUICK, Third-Order MUSCL, or (if you are using the
LES turbulence model) Bounded Central Differencing (the default) or Central Differencing
in the adjacent drop-down list. For the density-based solver, you can choose either First
Order Upwind, Second Order Upwind, or Third-Order MUSCL for the Flow equations (which
include momentum and energy). Note that the panel shown in Figure 25.8.1 is for the
pressure-based solver.

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 25.9 Pressure-Based Solver Settings

If you are using the pressure-based solver, select the pressure interpolation scheme under
Discretization in the drop-down list next to Pressure. You can choose Standard, Linear,
Second Order, Body Force Weighted, or PRESTO!.

i The low order modification of PRESTO! can be invoked by disabling the

high order terms for the PRESTO! scheme. This is done using the following
text command:
solve −→ set −→numerics
When asked disable high order terms for PRESTO! pressure
scheme?, enter yes.
This modification can be used to stabilize the solution process when the
pressure-based coupled algorithm is used and when the original PRESTO!
scheme fails to converge.
If you are using the pressure-based solver and your flow is compressible (i.e., you are
using the ideal gas law for density), select the density interpolation scheme under Dis-
cretization in the drop-down list next to Density. You can choose First Order Upwind,
Second Order Upwind, QUICK or Third-Order MUSCL. (Note that Density will not appear
for incompressible or multiphase flows.)
If you enable the VOF model while using the pressure-based solver, the volume fraction
interpolation schemes that are available are Geo-Reconstruct, CICSAM, Modified HRIC,
and QUICK.
If you change the settings for Discretization, but you then want to return to FLUENT’s
default settings, you can click the Default button. FLUENT will change the settings to
the defaults and the Default button will become the Reset button. To get your settings
back again, you can click the Reset button.

25.9 Pressure-Based Solver Settings

25.9.1 Choosing the Pressure-Velocity Coupling Method
FLUENT provides four segregated types of algorithms: SIMPLE, SIMPLEC, PISO, and
(for time-dependant flows using the Non-Iterative Time Advancement option (NITA)) Frac-
tional Step (FSM). These schemes are referred to as the pressure-based segregated algo-
rithm. Steady-state calculations will generally use SIMPLE or SIMPLEC, while PISO is
recommended for transient calculations. PISO may also be useful for steady-state and
transient calculations on highly skewed meshes. In FLUENT, using the Coupled algo-
rithm enables full pressure-velocity coupling, hence it is referred to as the pressure-based
coupled algorithm.

i Pressure-velocity coupling is relevant only for the pressure-based solver;

you will not specify it for the density-based solver.

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Using the Solver

SIMPLE vs. SIMPLEC

In FLUENT, both the standard SIMPLE algorithm and the SIMPLEC (SIMPLE-Consistent)
algorithm are available. SIMPLE is the default, but many problems will benefit from us-
ing SIMPLEC, particularly because of the increased under-relaxation that can be applied,
as described below.
For relatively uncomplicated problems (laminar flows with no additional models acti-
vated) in which convergence is limited by the pressure-velocity coupling, you can often
obtain a converged solution more quickly using SIMPLEC. With SIMPLEC, the pressure-
correction under-relaxation factor is generally set to 1.0, which aids in convergence speed-
up. In some problems, however, increasing the pressure-correction under-relaxation to 1.0
can lead to instability due to high grid skewness. For such cases, you will need to use one
or more skewness correction schemes, use a slightly more conservative under-relaxation
value (up to 0.7), or use the SIMPLE algorithm. For complicated flows involving turbu-
lence and/or additional physical models, SIMPLEC will improve convergence only if it
is being limited by the pressure-velocity coupling. Often it will be one of the additional
modeling parameters that limits convergence; in this case, SIMPLE and SIMPLEC will
give similar convergence rates.

PISO
The PISO algorithm (see Section 25.4.3: PISO) with neighbor correction is highly recom-
mended for all transient flow calculations, especially when you want to use a large time
step. (For problems that use the LES turbulence model, which usually requires small
time steps, using PISO may result in increased computational expense, so SIMPLE or
SIMPLEC should be considered instead.) PISO can maintain a stable calculation with
a larger time step and an under-relaxation factor of 1.0 for both momentum and pres-
sure. For steady-state problems, PISO with neighbor correction does not provide any
noticeable advantage over SIMPLE or SIMPLEC with optimal under-relaxation factors.
PISO with skewness correction is recommended for both steady-state and transient cal-
culations on meshes with a high degree of distortion.
When you use PISO neighbor correction, under-relaxation factors of 1.0 or near 1.0
are recommended for all equations. If you use just the PISO skewness correction for
highly-distorted meshes (without neighbor correction), set the under-relaxation factors
for momentum and pressure so that they sum to 1 (e.g., 0.3 for pressure and 0.7 for mo-
mentum). If you use both PISO methods, follow the under-relaxation recommendations
for PISO neighbor correction, above.
For most problems, it is not necessary to disable the default coupling between neighbor
and skewness corrections. For highly distorted meshes, however, disabling the default
coupling between neighbor and skewness corrections is recommended.

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 25.9 Pressure-Based Solver Settings

Fractional Step Method

The Fractional Step method (FSM), described in Section 25.4.3: Fractional-Step Method
(FSM), is available when you choose to use the NITA scheme (i.e., the Non-Iterative Time
Advancement option in the Solver panel). With the NITA scheme, the FSM is slightly
less computationally expensive compared to the PISO algorithm. Whether you select
FSM or PISO depends on the application. For some problems (e.g., simulations that use
VOF), FSM could be less stable than PISO.
In most cases, the default values for the solution controls are enough to set a robust
convergence of the internal pressure correction sub-iterations due to skewness. Only very
complex problems (e.g., moving deforming meshes, sliding interfaces, the VOF model)
could require a reduction of relaxation for pressure up to a value of 0.7 or 0.8.

Coupled
Selecting Coupled from the Pressure-Velocity Coupling drop-down list indicates that you
are using the pressure-based coupled algorithm, described in Section 25.4.3: Coupled
Algorithm. This solver offers some advantages over the pressure-based segregated algo-
rithm. The pressure-based coupled algorithm obtains a more robust and efficient single
phase implementation for steady-state flows. It is not available for cases using the Eule-
rian multiphase, NITA, and periodic mass-flow boundary conditions.

User Inputs
You can specify the pressure-velocity coupling method in the Solution Controls panel
(Figure 25.8.1).
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
Choose SIMPLE, SIMPLEC, PISO, Fractional Step, or Coupled in the Pressure-Velocity
Coupling drop-down list.
If you choose PISO, the panel will expand to show the additional parameters for pressure-
velocity coupling. By default, the number of iterations for Skewness Correction and Neigh-
bor Correction are set to 1. If you want to use only Skewness Correction, then set the
number of iterations for Neighbor Correction to 0. Likewise, if you want to use only
Neighbor Correction, then set the number of iterations for Skewness Correction to 0. For
most problems, you do not need to change the default iteration values. By default, the
Skewness-Neighbor Coupling option is enabled to allow for a more economical but a less
robust variation of the PISO algorithm.
If you choose SIMPLEC under Pressure-Velocity Coupling, you must also set the Skewness
Correction, whose default value is 0.

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Using the Solver

If you choose Coupled, you will have to specify the Courant number, which is set at 200 by
default. You will also specify the Explicit Relaxation Factors for Momentum and Pressure,
which are set at 0.75 by default. For more information about these options, refer to
Sections 25.4.3 and 25.4.4.
If high-order momentum discretization is used, you may need to decrease the explicit
relaxation to 0.5. For cases with very skewed meshes, the run can be stabilized by further
reduction of the explicit relaxation factor to 0.25. If FLUENT immediately diverges in
the AMG solver, then the CFL number is too high and should be reduced. Reducing the
CFL number below 10 is not recommended since it would be better to use the segregated
algorithm for the pressure-velocity coupling.
In most transient cases, the CFL number should be set to 107 with an explicit relaxation
of 1.0.

25.9.2 Setting Under-Relaxation Factors

As discussed in Section 25.4.4: Under-Relaxation of Equations, the pressure-based solver
uses under-relaxation of equations to control the update of computed variables at each
iteration. This means that all equations solved using the pressure-based solver, including
the non-coupled equations solved by the density-based solver (turbulence and other scalars,
as discussed in Section 25.1.2: Density-Based Solver), will have under-relaxation factors
associated with them.
In FLUENT, the default under-relaxation parameters for all variables are set to values
that are near optimal for the largest possible number of cases. These values are suitable
for many problems, but for some particularly nonlinear problems (e.g., some turbulent
flows or high-Rayleigh-number natural-convection problems) it is prudent to reduce the
under-relaxation factors initially.
It is good practice to begin a calculation using the default under-relaxation factors. If
the residuals continue to increase after the first 4 or 5 iterations, you should reduce the
under-relaxation factors.
Occasionally, you may make changes in the under-relaxation factors and resume your
calculation, only to find that the residuals begin to increase. This often results from
increasing the under-relaxation factors too much. A cautious approach is to save a data
file before making any changes to the under-relaxation factors, and to give the solution
algorithm a few iterations to adjust to the new parameters. Typically, an increase in
the under-relaxation factors brings about a slight increase in the residuals, but these
increases usually disappear as the solution progresses. If the residuals jump by a few
orders of magnitude, you should consider halting the calculation and returning to the
last good data file saved.

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 25.9 Pressure-Based Solver Settings

Note that viscosity and density are under-relaxed from iteration to iteration. Also, if the
enthalpy equation is solved directly instead of the temperature equation (i.e., for non-
premixed combustion calculations), the update of temperature based on enthalpy will
be under-relaxed. To see the default under-relaxation factors, you can click the Default
button in the Solution Controls panel.
For most flows, the default under-relaxation factors do not usually require modification.
If unstable or divergent behavior is observed, however, you need to reduce the under-
relaxation factors for pressure, momentum, k, and  from their default values to about
0.2, 0.5, 0.5, and 0.5. (It is usually not necessary to reduce the pressure under-relaxation
for SIMPLEC.) In problems where density is strongly coupled with temperature, as in
very-high-Rayleigh-number natural- or mixed-convection flows, it is wise to also under-
relax the temperature equation and/or density (i.e., use an under-relaxation factor less
than 1.0). Conversely, when temperature is not coupled with the momentum equations
(or when it is weakly coupled), as in flows with constant density, the under-relaxation
factor for temperature can be set to 1.0.
For other scalar equations (e.g., swirl, species, mixture fraction and variance) the default
under-relaxation may be too aggressive for some problems, especially at the start of the
calculation. You may wish to reduce the factors to 0.8 to facilitate convergence.

User Inputs
You can modify the under-relaxation factors in the Solution Controls panel (Figure 25.8.1).

Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

You can set the under-relaxation factor for each equation in the field next to its name
under Under-Relaxation Factors.

i If you are using the pressure-based solver, all equations will have an
associated under-relaxation factor (Section 25.4.4: Under-Relaxation of
Equations). If you are using the density-based solver, only those equations
that are solved sequentially (see Section 25.1.2: Density-Based Solver) will
have under-relaxation factors.
If you change under-relaxation factors, but you then want to return to FLUENT’s default
settings, you can click the Default button. FLUENT will change the factors to the default
values and the Default button will become the Reset button. To get your settings back
again, you can click the Reset button.
Note that with optimal settings, the convergence of the coupled pressure-velocity algo-
rithm will be limited by the segregated solution of other scalar equations, e.g., turbulence.
For optimum solver performance, you will need to increase the relaxation factors for these
equations to a value greater than the default values.

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Using the Solver

25.9.3 Setting Solution Controls for the Non-Iterative Solver

You can use the non-iterative solver (see Section 25.4.5: Time-Advancement Algorithm)
for transient problems in order to increase the speed and efficiency of the calculations.
The settings for the non-iterative solver should provide control over the maximum number
of sub-iterations for each individual equation. The criteria for convergence include the
Correction Tolerance (defined by the overall accuracy), Residual Tolerance (controlling the
solution of the linear equations), and the individual Relaxation Factor. The default control
settings are optimally designed in order to get a second-order accurate solution.
To use FLUENT’s non-iterative transient solver in order to boost the efficiency of transient
simulations:

1. Open the Solver panel.

Define −→ Models −→Solver...

2. Enable Non-Iterative Time-Advancement under Transient Controls.

3. Open the Solution Controls panel.

Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

4. Under Pressure-Velocity Coupling, you can choose either the Fractional Step or PISO
scheme. Under Non-Iterative Solver Controls, you will see parameters that control
the sub-iterations for individual equations (see below). When you select the PISO
scheme, you can set the value for the Neighbor Correction. Skewness correction is
performed automatically.

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 25.9 Pressure-Based Solver Settings

User Inputs
You can modify the non-iterative solution controls in the Solution Controls panel (Fig-
ure 25.9.1).
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

Figure 25.9.1: The Solution Controls Panel for the Pressure-Based Segregated
Non-Iterative Solver

Under Non-Iterative Solver Controls, there are several parameters that control the sub-
iterations for the individual equations.
The sub-iterations for an equation stop when the total number of sub-iterations exceeds
the value specified for Max. Corrections, regardless of whether or not the convergence
criteria (described below) are met.
The sub-iterations for an equation end when the ratio of the residuals at the current
sub-iteration and the first sub-iteration is less than the value specified in the Correction
Tolerance field. You can monitor the details of the sub-iteration convergence by looking
at the AMG solver performance (i.e., setting the Verbosity field in the Multigrid Controls
panel to 1). Be sure to pay attention to the residuals for the current sub-iteration (i.e.,
the residual for the 0-th AMG cycle at the current sub-iteration) and the initial residual
of the time step (i.e., the residual for the 0-th AMG cycle of the first sub-iteration).
The ratio of these two residuals is what is controlled by the Correction Tolerance field.

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Using the Solver

These two residuals are also the residuals plotted when using the Residual Monitor panel
and reported in the FLUENT console at the end of a time step. Note that the residuals
reported at the end of a time step can be scaled or unscaled, depending on the settings
in the Residual Monitor panel. The residuals reported when monitoring the AMG solver
performance are always unscaled.
For each interim sub-iteration, the AMG cycles continue until the usual AMG termination
criteria (0.1 by default, and set in the Multigrid Controls panel) are met. However, for the
last sub-iteration (i.e., either when the maximum number of sub-iterations are reached or
when the correction tolerance is satisfied), the AMG cycles continue until the ratio of the
residual at the current cycle to the initial residual (the residual for the 0-th AMG cycle
of the first sub-iteration of the time step) drops below the value specified for Residual
Tolerance. You may want to adjust the Residual Tolerance, depending on the time step
selected. The default Residual Tolerance should be well suited for moderate time steps
(i.e., for cell CFL numbers of 1 to 10). Note that you can display the cell CFL numbers
for unsteady problems by selecting Cell Courant Number in the Velocity... category of all
postprocessing panels. For very small time steps (cell CFL <<1), the diagonal dominance
of the system is very high and the convergence should be driven further by reducing the
Residual Tolerance value. For larger time steps (cell CFL >>1), it may be possible that
the residual tolerance cannot be reached due to round-off errors, and unless the Residual
Tolerance value is increased, AMG cycles can be wasted. Again, this can be monitored
by monitoring the AMG solver performance.
The Relaxation Factor field defines the explicit relaxation (Section 25.4.4: Under-Relaxation
of Variables) of variables between sub-iterations. The relaxation factors can be used to
prevent the solution from diverging. They should be left at their default values of 1,
unless divergence is detected. If the solution diverges, you should first try to stabilize
the solution by lowering the relaxation factors for pressure to 0.7–0.8, and by reducing
the time step.
The following is a list of models that are compatible with the non-iterative solver:

• Inviscid flow (excluding ideal gas)

• Laminar flow

• All models of turbulence (including LES and DES)

• Heat transfer

• Non-reacting species transport

• General compressible flows (most subsonic and some transonic applications)

• VOF multiphase model (most applications)

• Phase change (solidification and melting)

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 25.9 Pressure-Based Solver Settings

The following is a list of models that are compatible with the non-iterative solver, but
may result in some instabilities and inaccuracies for certain flow conditions:

• MDM

• Non-Newtonian fluids

• General compressible flows (aerospace supersonic applications)

• Floating operating pressure

• Reacting species and any type of combustion including PDF

The following is a list of models that are not compatible with the non-iterative solver:

• Eulerian multiphase (all non-VOF models)

• Radiation models

• DPM, spark, and crevice models

• UDS transport

• Porous jump

i The PRESTO! pressure interpolation scheme, when compared to using

the iterative time-advancement, is less stable when using the non-iterative
time-advancement solver. As a consequence, smaller time steps may be
required.

i As mentioned above, the default control settings are optimally designed

to obtain a second-order solution. In order to save CPU time, in cases
where transient accuracy is not a main concern (i.e., first-order integration
in time and space), or when NITA is used to converge toward a steady
state solution, you may want to set the Max. Corrections value to 1 in the
Solution Controls panel for all transport equations except pressure.

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Using the Solver

25.10 Density-Based Solver Settings

25.10.1 Changing the Courant Number
For FLUENT’s density-based solver, the main control over the time-stepping scheme is
the Courant number (CFL). The time step is proportional to the CFL, as defined in
Equation 25.5-14.
Linear stability theory determines a range of permissible values for the CFL (i.e., the
range of values for which a given numerical scheme will remain stable). When you
specify a permissible CFL value, FLUENT will compute an appropriate time step using
Equation 25.5-14. In general, taking larger time steps leads to faster convergence, so it
is advantageous to set the CFL as large as possible (within the permissible range).
The stability limits of the density-based implicit and explicit formulations are significantly
different. The explicit formulation has a more limited range and requires lower CFL
settings than does the density-based implicit formulation. Appropriate choices of CFL
for the two formulations are discussed below.

Courant Numbers for the Density-Based Explicit Formulation

Linear stability analysis shows that the maximum allowable CFL for the multi-stage
scheme used in the density-based explicit formulation will depend on the number of
stages used and how often the dissipation and viscous terms are updated (see Sec-
tion 25.13: Changing the Multi-Stage Scheme). But in general, you can assume that
the multi-stage scheme is stable for Courant numbers up to 2.5. This stability limit is
often lower in practice because of nonlinearities in the governing equations.
The default CFL for the density-based explicit formulation is 1.0, but you may be able
to increase it for some 2D problems. You should generally not use a value higher than
2.0.
If your solution is diverging, i.e., if residuals are rising very rapidly, and your problem
is properly set up and initialized, this is usually a good sign that the Courant number
needs to be lowered. Depending on the severity of the startup conditions, you may need
to decrease the CFL to a value as low as 0.1 to 0.5 to get started. Once the startup
transients are reduced you can start increasing the Courant number again.

Courant Numbers for the Density-Based Implicit Formulation

Linear stability theory shows that the density-based implicit formulation is uncondition-
ally stable. However, as with the explicit formulation, nonlinearities in the governing
equations will often limit stability.
The default CFL for the density-based implicit formulation is 5.0. It is often possible to
increase the CFL to 10, 20, 100, or even higher, depending on the complexity of your

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 25.10 Density-Based Solver Settings

problem. You may find that a lower CFL is required during startup (when changes in
the solution are highly nonlinear), but it can be increased as the solution progresses.
The coupled AMG solver has the capability to detect divergence of the multigrid cycles
within a given iteration. If this happens, it will automatically reduce the CFL and
perform the iteration again, and a message will be printed to the screen. Five attempts
are made to complete the iteration successfully. Upon successful completion of the current
iteration the CFL is returned to its original value and the iteration procedure proceeds
as required.

User Inputs
The Courant number is set in the Solution Controls panel (Figure 25.10.1).
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

Figure 25.10.1: The Solution Controls Panel for the Density-Based Explicit
Formulation

Enter the value for Courant Number under Solver Parameters. (Note that the panel shown
in Figure 25.10.1 is for the density-based explicit formulation.)

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Using the Solver

When you select the density-based explicit formulation in the Solver panel, FLUENT will
automatically set the Courant Number to 1; when you select the density-based implicit
formulation, the Courant Number will be changed to 5 automatically.

25.10.2 Convective Flux Types

Three convective flux types exist when using the density-based solver:

• Roe flux-difference splitting (Roe-FDS)

• Advection Upstream Splitting Method (AUSM)
• Low diffusion Roe flux-difference splitting (Low Diffusion Roe-FDS)

Roe-FDS splits the fluxes in a manor that is consistent with their corresponding flux
method eigenvalues. It is the default and is recommended for most cases.
AUSM provides exact resolution of contact and shock discontinuities and it is less sus-
ceptible to Carbuncle phenomena.
Low diffusion Roe-FDS is used when the LES viscous model is enabled. It reduces the
dissipation in LES calculations and is used only for subsonic flows.

User Inputs
The convective fluxes are selected from the Flux Type drop-down list under Solver Param-
eters in the Solution Controls panel (Figure 25.10.1).
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
Select Roe-FDS, AUSM, or if the LES viscous model is enabled, Low Diffusion Roe-FDS.

25.10.3 Turning On FAS Multigrid

As discussed in Section 25.6: Multigrid Method, FAS multigrid is an optional component
of the density-based explicit formulation, while AMG multigrid is always on, by default
for the density-based implicit formulation. Since nearly all coupled explicit calculations
will benefit from the use of the FAS multigrid convergence accelerator, you should gener-
ally set a non-zero number of coarse grid levels before beginning the calculation. For most
problems, this will be the only FAS multigrid parameter you will need to set. Should
you encounter convergence difficulties, consider applying one of the methods discussed
in Section 25.11.2: Setting FAS Multigrid Parameters.

i Note that you cannot use FAS multigrid with explicit time stepping (de-
scribed in Section 25.3.2: Temporal Discretization) because the coarse grid
corrections will destroy the time accuracy of the fine grid solution.

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 25.10 Density-Based Solver Settings

Setting Coarse Grid Levels

As discussed in Section 25.6.4: Full-Approximation Storage (FAS) Multigrid, FAS multi-
grid solves on successively coarser grids and then transfers corrections to the solution
back up to the original fine grid, thus increasing the propagation speed of the solution
and speeding convergence. The most basic way you can control the multigrid solver is
by specifying the number of coarse grid levels to be used.
As explained in Section 25.6.4: Full-Approximation Storage (FAS) Multigrid, the coarse
grid levels are formed by agglomerating a group of adjacent “fine” cells into a single
“coarse” cell. The optimal number of grid levels is therefore problem-dependent. For
most problems, you can start out with 4 or 5 levels. For large 3D problems, you may
want to add more levels (although memory restrictions may prevent you from using
more levels, since each coarse grid level requires additional memory). If you believe that
multigrid is causing convergence trouble, you can decrease the number of levels.
If FLUENT reaches a coarse grid with one cell before creating as many levels as you
requested, it will simply stop there. That is, if you request 5 levels, and level 4 has only
1 cell, FLUENT will create only 4 levels, since levels 4 and 5 would be the same.
To specify the number of grid levels you want, set the number of Multigrid Levels in the
Solution Controls panel (Figure 25.10.1) under Solver Parameters.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
You can also set the Max Coarse Levels under FAS Multigrid Controls in the Multigrid
Controls panel.
Solve −→ Controls −→Multigrid...
Changing the number of coarse grid levels in one panel will automatically update the
number shown in the other.
Coarse grid levels are created when you first begin iterating. If you want to check how
many cells are in each level, request one iteration and then use the Grid/Info/Size menu
item (described in Section 6.6.1: Grid Size) to list the size of each grid level. If you are
satisfied, you can continue the calculation; if not, you can change the number of coarse
grid levels and check again.
For most problems, you will not need to modify any additional multigrid parameters
once you have settled on an appropriate number of coarse grid levels. You can simply
continue your calculation until convergence.

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Using the Solver

Using Residual Smoothing to Increase the Courant Number

In the density-based explicit formulation, implicit residual smoothing (or averaging) is a
technique that can be used to reduce the time step restriction of the solver, thereby al-
lowing the Courant number to be increased. The implicit smoothing is implemented with
an iterative Jacobi method, as described in Section 25.5.4: Implicit Residual Smoothing.
You can control residual smoothing in the Solution Controls panel.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
By default, the number of Iterations for Residual Smoothing is set to zero, indicating that
residual smoothing is disabled. If you increase the Iterations counter to 1 or more, you
can enter the Smoothing Factor. A smoothing factor of 0.5 with 2 passes of the Jacobi
smoother is usually adequate to allow the Courant number to be doubled.

25.11 Setting Algebraic Multigrid Parameters

As mentioned earlier, in most cases the multigrid solver will not require any special
attention from you. If, however, you have convergence difficulties or you want to minimize
the overall solution time by using more aggressive settings, you can monitor the multigrid
solver and modify the parameters to improve its performance. (The instructions below
assume that you have already begun calculations, since there is no need to monitor the
solver if you do not fit into one of the two categories above.)
To determine whether your convergence difficulties can be alleviated by modifying the
multigrid settings, you will check if the requested residual reduction is obtained on each
grid level. To minimize solution time, you will check to see if switching to a more powerful
cycle will result in overall reduction of work by the solver.
By default, the flexible cycle is used for all equations except pressure correction, which
uses a V cycle. Typically, for a flexible cycle only a few (5–10) relaxations will be per-
formed at the finest level and no coarse levels will be visited. In some cases one or
two coarse levels may be visited. If the maximum number of fine level relaxations is
not sufficient, you may want to increase the maximum number (as described in Sec-
tion 25.11.1: Flexible Cycle Parameters) or switch to a V cycle (as described in Sec-
tion 25.11: Specifying the Multigrid Cycle Type).
In the pressure-based segregated algorithm, the pressure correction uses a V cycle by
default. If the maximum number of cycles (30 by default) is not sufficient, you can switch
to a W cycle (using the Multigrid Controls panel, as described in Section 25.11: Specifying
the Multigrid Cycle Type). Note that for the parallel solver, efficiency may deteriorate
with a W cycle. If you are using the parallel solver, you can try increasing the maximum
number of cycles by increasing the value of Max Cycles in the Multigrid Controls panel
under Fixed Cycle Parameters.

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 25.11 Setting Algebraic Multigrid Parameters

In the pressure-based coupled algorithm and the density-based implicit formulation, there
is no pressure correction. Instead, there is a flow correction, which by default uses the
F cycle. The density-based explicit formulation uses the V cycle as the default flow
correction.
Solve −→ Controls −→Multigrid...

Specifying the Multigrid Cycle Type

By default, the V cycle is used for the pressure equation in the pressure-based segregated
algorithm and the flexible cycle is used for all other equations. In the pressure-based
coupled algorithm and the density-based implicit formulation, the F cycle is default for
the flow correction. The V cycle is default for the flow correction in the density-based
explicit formulation. (See Section 25.6.2: Multigrid Cycles for a description of these
cycles.) To change the cycle type for an equation, you will use the top portion of the
Multigrid Controls panel (Figure 25.11.1).
For each equation, you can choose Flexible, V-Cycle, W-Cycle, or F-Cycle in the adjacent
drop-down list.

Setting the Termination and Residual Reduction Parameters

When you use the flexible cycle for an equation, you can control the multigrid perfor-
mance by modifying the Termination and/or Restriction criteria for that equation at the
top of the Multigrid Controls panel (Figure 25.11.1).
Solve −→ Controls −→Multigrid...
The Restriction criterion is the residual reduction tolerance, β in Equation 25.6-14. This
parameter dictates when a coarser grid level must be visited (due to insufficient improve-
ment in the solution on the current level). With a larger value of β, coarse levels will
be visited less often (and vice versa). The Termination criterion, α in Equation 25.6-15,
governs when the solver should return to a finer grid level (i.e., when the residuals have
improved sufficiently on the current level).
For the V, W, or F cycle, the Termination criterion determines whether or not another
cycle should be performed on the finest (original) level. If the current residual on the
finest level does not satisfy Equation 25.6-15, and the maximum number of cycles has
not been performed, FLUENT will perform another multigrid cycle. (The Restriction
parameter is not used by the V, W, and F cycles.)

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Using the Solver

Setting the AMG Method and the Stabilization Parameters

You can use the Multigrid Controls panel (Figure 25.11.1) to choose between two AMG
solvers: aggregative or selective. The aggregative AMG (AAMG) is the default solver
that was used in previous versions of FLUENT. The selective AMG (SAMG) solver is
available only for scalar equations, and is not available in parallel FLUENT. These two
solvers differ in the way the grids are coarsened and in their interpolation method.
The AAMG solver [394] builds coarse levels by grouping fine level cells to make coarse
level cells, and uses piecewise constant interpolation. The SAMG solver [358] builds
coarse levels by selecting some of the fine level cells for solution on the coarse level, and
tries to approximate the use of linear interpolation.
Due to its use of more accurate interpolation, SAMG has a better convergence rate than
AAMG but has a more expensive setup phase. For this reason, AAMG is usually faster
if you are only converging one order of magnitude, while SAMG is faster if using a tight
multigrid convergence tolerance. SAMG is a good choice for multiphase granular flow
problems where a tight convergence tolerance on the pressure equation can be used to
avoid volume imbalance errors in the volume fraction equations.
SAMG has advantages in solving problems with strongly varying (anisotropic) diffusive
coefficients, which occurs in problems with porous media, conduction with anisotropic
thermal conductivities, and multiphase problems. In some cases, using SAMG allows up
to a 20% reduction in the number of external iterations for unsteady water-air turbulent
flow in bubble columns, and allows increasing the VOF under-relaxation factor in phase
separators from 0.2 (when used with AAMG) to 1.
The Multigrid Controls panel (Figure 25.11.1) also allows you to choose a stabilization
method. If desired, you can choose the bi-conjugate gradient stabilized method [20]
(BCGSTAB) option in order to improve the convergence of the linear solver. BCGSTAB
can be preconditioned by any of the AMG solvers and provides stabilization for them.
FLUENT usually builds diagonally dominant matrices for the linear solver. However, this
is not always possible. A linear system with highly dominant off-diagonal coefficients
may occur during discretization of complex physical models such as multiphase cavita-
tion. Using the BCGSTAB option in such cases can be helpful. In addition, the AMG
convergence in parallel can be improved using the BCGSTAB option with AMG.

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 25.11 Setting Algebraic Multigrid Parameters

25.11.1 Additional Algebraic Multigrid Parameters

There are several additional parameters that control the algebraic multigrid solver, but
there will usually be no need to modify them. These additional scalar and coupled
parameters are all contained in the Multigrid Controls panel (Figure 25.11.1).
Solve −→ Controls −→Multigrid...

i When using the density-based explicit formulation or the pressure-

based solver with any of the segregated algorithms, described in Sec-
tion 25.4.3: Pressure-Velocity Coupling and Section 25.9.1: Choosing the
Pressure-Velocity Coupling Method, only Scalar Parameters are set in the
Multigrid Controls panel. If you use the density-based implicit or the
pressure-based coupled algorithm, described in Section 25.4.3: Coupled
Algorithm, then you can set the Coupled Parameters.

Fixed Cycle Parameters

For the fixed (V, W, and F) multigrid cycles, you can control the number of pre- and
post-relaxations (β1 and β3 in Section 25.6.2: Multigrid Cycles). Pre-Sweeps sets the
number of relaxations to perform before moving to a coarser level. Post-Sweeps sets
the number to be performed after coarser level corrections have been applied. Normally,
under Scalar Parameters, one post-relaxation is performed and no pre-relaxations are done
(i.e., β3 = 1 and β1 = 0), but in rare cases, you may need to increase the value of β1 to
1 or 2. Under Coupled Parameters, three post-relaxations are performed by default with
no pre-relaxations.

i If you are using AMG with V-cycle to solve an energy equation with a solid
conduction model presented with anisotropic or very high conductivity
coefficient, there is a possibility of divergence with a default post-relaxation
sweep of 1. In such cases you should increase the post-relaxation sweep (to
say 2) in the AMG section for better convergence when using the pressure-
based segregated algorithms.

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Using the Solver

Coarsening Parameters
For all multigrid cycle types, you can control the maximum number of coarse levels (Max
Coarse Levels under Scalar or Coupled Parameters) that will be built by the multigrid
solver.
Sets of coarser simultaneous equations are built until the maximum number of levels has
been created, or the coarsest level has only 3 equations. Each level has about half as
many unknowns as the previous level, so coarsening until there are only a few cells left
will require about as much total coarse-level coefficient storage as was required on the
fine mesh. Reducing the maximum coarse levels will reduce the memory requirements,
but may require more iterations to achieve a converged solution. Setting Max Coarse
Levels to 0 turns off the algebraic multigrid solver.
Another coarsening parameter you can control is the increase in coarseness on successive
levels. The Coarsen by parameter specifies the number of fine grid cells that will be
grouped together to create a coarse grid cell. The algorithm groups each cell with its
closest neighbor, then groups the cell and its closest neighbor with the neighbor’s closest
neighbor, continuing until the desired coarsening is achieved. Typical values for the scalar
parameters are in the range from 2 to 10, with the default value of 2 for the Gauss-Seidel
smoother giving the best performance, but also the greatest memory use. For coupled
parameters, a default value of 4 (for 2D) and 8 (for 3D) for the ILU smoother give the
best performance. You should not adjust this parameter unless you need to reduce the
memory required to run a problem.

i Depending on the smoother type, Gauss-Seidel or ILU, the Coarsen by and

Post-Sweeps settings should be changed as follows when selecting the non-
default smoother type:

ILU : Post-Sweeps = 3 and Coarsen by = 8

Gauss-Seidel : Post-Sweeps = 1 and Coarsen by = 2

Smoother Types
Two smoother types are available for scalar and coupled parameters. Gauss-Seidel is the
simplest smoother type and is recommended when using the pressure-based segregated
algorithm. ILU is more CPU intensive, but has better smoothing properties for block-
coupled systems such as the pressure-based coupled solver and the density-based implicit
formulation. In other words, the default scalar Smoother Type is Gauss-Seidel, while the
coupled Smoother Type is ILU. For more information about the two smoother types, refer
to Section 25.6.3: The Coupled and Scalar AMG Solvers.

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 25.11 Setting Algebraic Multigrid Parameters

Flexible Cycle Parameters

To change the maximum number of relaxations, increase or decrease the value of Max
Fine Relaxations or Max Coarse Relaxations in the Multigrid Controls panel (Figure 25.11.1)
under Flexible Cycle Parameters.
Solve −→ Controls −→Multigrid...

Figure 25.11.1: The Multigrid Controls Panel

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Using the Solver

Setting the Verbosity

The steps for monitoring the solver are as follows:

1. Set multigrid Verbosity to 1 or 2 in the Multigrid Controls panel.

Solve −→ Controls −→Multigrid...
2. Request a single iteration using the Iterate panel.
Solve −→Iterate...

If you set the verbosity to 2, the information printed in the FLUENT console for each
equation will include the following:

• equation name
• equation tolerance (computed by the solver using a normalization of the source
vector)
• residual value after each fixed multigrid cycle or fine relaxation for the flexible cycle
• number of equations in each multigrid level, with the zeroth level being the original
(finest-level) system of equations

Note that the residual printed at cycle or relaxation 0 is the initial residual before any
multigrid cycles are performed.
When verbosity is set to 1, only the equation name, tolerance, and residuals are printed.
A portion of a sample printout is shown below:

pressure correction equation:

tol. 1.2668e-05
0 2.5336e+00
1 4.9778e-01
2 2.5863e-01
3 1.9387e-01

multigrid levels:
0 918
1 426
2 205
3 97
4 45
5 21
6 10
7 4

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 25.11 Setting Algebraic Multigrid Parameters

Returning to the Default Multigrid Parameters

If you change the multigrid parameters, but you then want to return to FLUENT’s default
settings, you can click the Default button in the Multigrid Controls panel. FLUENT will
change all settings to the defaults, and the Default button will become the Reset button.
To get your settings back again, you can click the Reset button.

25.11.2 Setting FAS Multigrid Parameters

For most calculations, you will not need to modify any FAS multigrid parameters once
you have set the number of coarse grid levels. If, however, you encounter convergence
difficulties, you may consider the following suggested procedures.

i Recall that FAS multigrid is used only by the density-based explicit for-
mulation.

Combating Convergence Trouble

Some problems may approach convergence steadily at first, but then the residuals will
level off and the solution will “get stuck.” In some cases (e.g., long thin ducts), this
convergence trouble may be due to multigrid’s slow propagation of pressure information
through the domain. In such cases, you should turn off multigrid by setting Multigrid
Levels to 0 in the Solution Controls panel (under Solver Parameters).
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

“Industrial-Strength” FAS Multigrid

In some cases, you may find that your problem is converging, but at an extremely slow
rate. Such problems can often benefit from a more aggressive form of multigrid, which
will speed up the propagation of the solution corrections. For such problems, you can
try the “industrial-strength” multigrid settings.

i These settings are very aggressive and assume that the solution information
passed through the multigrid levels is somewhat accurate. For this reason,
you should only attempt the procedure described here after you have per-
formed enough iterations that the solution is off to a good start. Using
“industrial-strength” multigrid too early in the calculation process—when
the solution is far from correct—will not help convergence and may cause
the calculation to become unstable, as very incorrect values are propagated
quickly to the original grid. Note also that while these multigrid settings
will usually reduce the total number of iterations required to reach conver-
gence, they will greatly increase the computation time for each multigrid
cycle. Thus the solver will be performing fewer but longer iterations.

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Using the Solver

The strategy employed is as follows:

• Increase the number of iterations performed on each grid level before proceeding
to a coarser level
• Increase the number of iterations performed on each grid level after returning from
a coarser level
• Allow full correction transfer from one level to the next finer level, instead of trans-
ferring reduced values of the corrections
• Do not smooth the interpolated corrections when they are transferred from a coarser
grid to a finer grid

You can set all of the parameters for this strategy under FAS Multigrid Controls in the
Multigrid Controls panel (Figure 25.11.2) and then continue the calculation.
Solve −→ Controls −→Multigrid...
Increasing the number of iterations performed on each grid level before proceeding to a
coarser level (the value of β1 described in Section 25.6.2: Multigrid Cycles) will improve
the solution passed from each finer grid level to the next coarser grid level. Try increas-
ing the value of Pre-Sweeps (under FAS Multigrid Controls, not under Algebraic Multigrid
Controls) to 10.
Increasing the number of iterations performed on each level after returning from a coarser
level will improve the corrections passed from each coarser grid level to the next finer grid
level. Errors introduced on the coarser grid levels can therefore be reduced before they
are passed further up the grid hierarchy to the original grid. Try increasing the value of
Post-Sweeps (under FAS Multigrid Controls, not under Algebraic Multigrid Controls) to 10.
By default, the full values of the multigrid corrections are not transferred from a coarser
grid to a finer grid; only 60% of the value is transferred. This prevents large errors
from transferring quickly up to the original grid and causing the calculation to become
unstable. It also prevents a “good” solution from propagating quickly to the original grid.
However, by increasing the Correction Reduction to 1, you can transfer the full values from
coarser to finer grid levels, speeding the propagation of the solution and, usually, the
convergence as well. The Species Correction Reduction sets the factor by which to reduce
the magnitude of the species corrections to stabilize the multigrid calculation. This item
appears only when species transport is being modeled.
When the corrections on a coarse grid are passed back to the next finer grid level, the
values are, by default, interpolated and then smoothed. Disabling the smoothing so that
the actual value in a coarse grid cell is assigned to the fine grid cells that comprise it can
also aid convergence. To disable smoothing, set the Correction Smoothing to 0. Large
discontinuities between cells will be smoothed out implicitly as a result of the additional
Post-Sweeps performed.

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 25.11 Setting Algebraic Multigrid Parameters

Figure 25.11.2: The Multigrid Controls Panel

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Using the Solver

The Courant Number Reduction (at the bottom of the Multigrid Controls panel) sets the
factor by which to reduce the Courant number for coarse grid levels (i.e., every level
except the finest). Some reduction of time step (such as the default 0.9) is typically
required because the stability limit cannot be determined as precisely on the irregularly
shaped coarser grid cells.

25.12 Setting Solution Limits

In order to keep the solution stable under extreme conditions, FLUENT provides limits
that keep the solution within an acceptable range. You can control these limits with the
Solution Limits panel (Figure 25.12.1).
Solve −→ Controls −→Limits...

Figure 25.12.1: The Solution Limits Panel

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 25.12 Setting Solution Limits

FLUENT applies limiting values for pressure, static temperature, and turbulence quanti-
ties. The purpose of these limits is to keep the absolute pressure or the static temperature
from becoming 0, negative, or excessively large during the calculation, and to keep the
turbulence quantities from becoming excessive. FLUENT also puts a limit on the rate of
reduction of static temperature to prevent it from becoming 0 or negative.

i Typically, you will not need to change the default solution limits. If pres-
sure, temperature, or turbulence quantities are being reset to the limiting
value repeatedly (as indicated by the appropriate warning messages in
the console), you should check the dimensions, boundary conditions, and
properties to be sure that the problem is set up correctly and try to de-
termine why the variable in question is getting so close to zero or so large.
You can use the “marking” feature (used to mark cells for adaption) to
identify which cells have a value equal to the limit. (Use the Iso-Value
Adaption panel, as described in Section 26.6: Isovalue Adaption.) In very
rare cases, you may need to change the solution limits, but only do so if
you are sure that you understand the reason for the solver’s unusual be-
havior. (For example, you may know that the temperature in your domain
will exceed 5000 K. Be sure that any temperature-dependent properties are
appropriately defined for high temperatures if you increase the maximum
temperature limit.)

i For an ideal gas, the absolute pressure and static temperature solution
limits are set as described in this section. However, there are no static
temperature and absolute pressure solution limits for incompressible flow.

Limiting the Values of Solution Variables

The limiting minimum and maximum values for absolute pressure are shown in the
Minimum and Maximum Absolute Pressure fields. If the FLUENT calculation predicts a
value less than the Minimum Absolute Pressure or greater than the Maximum Absolute
Pressure, the corresponding limiting value will be used instead. Similarly, the Minimum
and Maximum Temperature are limiting values for energy calculations.
The Maximum Turb. Viscosity Ratio and the Minimum Turb. Kinetic Energy are limiting
values for turbulent calculations. If the calculation predicts a k value less than the
Minimum Turb. Kinetic Energy, the limiting value will be used instead. For the viscosity
ratio limit, FLUENT uses the limiting maximum value of turbulent viscosity (Cµ k 2 /) in
the flow field relative to the laminar viscosity. If the ratio calculated by FLUENT exceeds
the limiting value, the ratio is set to the limiting value by limiting  to the necessary
value.

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Using the Solver

Adjusting the Positivity Rate Limit

In FLUENT’s density-based solver, the rate of reduction of temperature is controlled by
the Positivity Rate Limit. The default value of 0.2, for example, means that temperature is
not allowed to decrease by more than 20% of its previous value from one iteration to the
next. If the temperature change exceeds this limit, the time step in that cell is reduced
to bring the change back into range and a “time step reduced” warning is printed. (This
reduced time step will be used for the solution of all variables in the cell, not just for
temperature.) Rapid reduction of temperature is an indication that the temperature
may become negative. Repeated “time step reduced” warnings should alert you that
something is wrong in your problem setup. (If the warning messages stop appearing, the
calculation may have “recovered” from the time-step reduction.)

i For high-speed flow, if your solution is diverging particularly for the energy
equation, then lowering this limit to 0.05 or 0.02 might help in overcoming
divergence.

Resetting Solution Limits

If you change and save the value of one of the solution limits, but you then want to
return to the default limits set by FLUENT, you can reopen the Solution Limits panel and
click the Default button. FLUENT will change the values to the defaults and the Default
button will become the Reset button. To get your values back again, you can click the
Reset button.

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 25.13 Setting Multi-Stage Time-Stepping Parameters

25.13 Setting Multi-Stage Time-Stepping Parameters

The most common parameter you will change to control the multi-stage time-stepping
scheme is the Courant number. Instructions for modifying the Courant number are
presented in Section 25.10.1: Changing the Courant Number. The Multi-Stage Parameters
panel is accessible when using the density-based explicit formulation.

Changing the Multi-Stage Scheme

It is possible to make several changes to the multi-stage time-stepping scheme itself. You
can change the number of stages and set a new multi-stage coefficient for each stage.
You can also control whether or not dissipation and viscous stresses are updated at each
stage. These changes are made in the Multi-Stage Parameters panel (Figure 25.13.1).
Solve −→ Controls −→Multi-Stage...

Figure 25.13.1: The Multi-Stage Parameters Panel

i You should not attempt to make changes to FLUENT’s multi-stage scheme

unless you are very familiar with multi-stage schemes and are interested in
trying a different scheme found in the literature.

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Using the Solver

Changing the Coefficients and Number of Stages

By default, the FLUENT multi-stage scheme uses 3 stages for steady-state solutions with
coefficients of 0.2075, 0.5915, and 1.0, and 4 stages for unsteady solutions with coefficients
of 0.25, 0.3333, 0.5, and 1.0. You can decrease or increase the number of stages using
the arrow buttons for Number of Stages in the Multi-Stage Parameters panel. (If you
want to increase the number of stages beyond five, you will need to use the text-interface
command solve/set/multi-stage.) For each stage, you can modify the Coefficient.
Coefficients must be greater than 0 and less than 1. The final stage should always have
a coefficient of 1.

Controlling Updates to Dissipation and Viscous Stresses

For each stage, you can indicate whether or not artificial dissipation and viscous stresses
are evaluated. If a Dissipation box is selected for a particular stage, artificial dissipation
will be updated on that stage. If not selected, artificial dissipation will remain “frozen”
at the value of the previous stage. If a Viscous box is selected for a particular stage,
viscous stresses will be updated on that stage. If not selected, viscous stresses will
remain “frozen” at the value of the previous stage. Viscous stresses should always be
computed on the first stage, and successive evaluations will increase the “robustness” of
the solution process, but will also increase the expense (i.e., increase the CPU time per
iteration). For steady problems, the final solution is independent of the stages on which
viscous stresses are updated.

Resetting the Multi-Stage Parameters

If you change the multi-stage parameters, but you then want to return to the default
scheme set by FLUENT, you can click the Default button in the Multi-Stage Parameters
panel. FLUENT will change the values to the defaults and the Default button will become
the Reset button. To get your values back again, you can click the Reset button.

25.14 Initializing the Solution

Before starting your CFD simulation, you must provide FLUENT with an initial “guess”
for the solution flow field. In many cases, you must take extra care to provide an initial
solution that will allow the desired final solution to be attained. A real-life supersonic
wind tunnel, for example, will not “start” if the back pressure is simply lowered to
its operating value; the flow will choke at the tunnel throat and will not transition to
supersonic. The same holds true for a numerical simulation: the flow must be initialized
to a supersonic flow or it will simply choke and remain subsonic.

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 25.14 Initializing the Solution

There are two methods for initializing the solution:

• Initialize the entire flow field (in all cells).

• Patch values or functions for selected flow variables in selected cell zones or “regis-
ters” of cells. (Registers are created with the same functions that are used to mark
cells for adaption.)

i Before patching initial values in selected cells, you must first initialize the
entire flow field. You can then patch the new values over the initialized
values for selected variables.

25.14.1 Initializing the Entire Flow Field

Before you start your calculations or patch initial values for selected variables in selected
cells (Section 25.14.2: Patching Values in Selected Cells) you must initialize the flow field
in the entire domain. The Solution Initialization panel (Figure 25.14.1) allows you to set
initial values for the flow variables and initialize the solution using these values.
Solve −→ Initialize −→Initialize...

Figure 25.14.1: The Solution Initialization Panel

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Using the Solver

You can compute the values from information in a specified zone, enter them manually,
or have the solver compute average values based on all zones. You can also indicate
whether the specified values for velocities are absolute or relative to the velocity in each
cell zone. The steps for initialization are as follows:

1. Set the initial values:

• To initialize the flow field using the values set for a particular zone, select
the zone name in the Compute From drop-down list. All values under the
Initial Values heading will automatically be computed and updated based on
the conditions defined at the selected zone.
• To initialize the flow field using computed average values, select all-zones in the
Compute From drop-down list. FLUENT will compute and update the Initial
Values based on the conditions defined at all boundary zones.
• If you wish to change one or more of the values, you can enter new values
manually in the fields next to the appropriate variables. If you prefer to enter
all values manually, you can do so without selecting a zone in the Compute
From list.

2. If your problem involves moving reference frames or sliding meshes, indicate

whether the initial velocities are absolute velocities or velocities relative to the mo-
tion of each cell zone by selecting Absolute or Relative to Cell Zone under Reference
Frame. (If no zone motion occurs in the problem, the two options are equivalent.)
The default reference frame for velocity initialization in FLUENT is relative. If the
solution in most of your domain is rotating, using the relative option may be better
than using the absolute option.

3. Once you are satisfied with the Initial Values displayed in the panel, you can click
the Init button to initialize the flow field. If solution data already exist (i.e., if
you have already performed some calculations or initialized the solution), you must
confirm that it is OK to overwrite those data.

Saving and Resetting Initial Values

When you initialize the solution by clicking on Init, the initial values will also be saved;
should you need to reinitialize the solution later, you will find the correct values in the
panel when you reopen it. If you wish to define initial values now, but you are not
yet ready to initialize the solution, you can follow the instructions above for setting the
values and then click Apply instead of Init. This will save the currently displayed values
without initializing the solution. You can return to the panel later on and perform the
initialization.
If you accidentally select the wrong zone from the Compute From list or manually set a
value incorrectly, you can use the Reset button to reset all fields to their “saved” values.

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 25.14 Initializing the Solution

Values are saved each time the panel is opened, before Compute From is executed, and
after Init or Apply is executed.

25.14.2 Patching Values in Selected Cells

Once you have initialized (or calculated) the entire flow field, you may patch different
values for particular variables into different cells. If you have multiple fluid zones, for
example, you may want to patch a different temperature in each one. You can also choose
to patch a custom field function (defined using the Custom Field Function Calculator panel)
instead of a constant value. If you are patching velocities, you can indicate whether the
specified values are absolute velocities or velocities relative to the cell zone’s velocity. All
patching operations are performed with the Patch panel (Figure 25.14.2).
Solve −→ Initialize −→Patch...

Figure 25.14.2: The Patch Panel

1. Select the variable to be patched in the Variable list.

2. In the Zones to Patch and/or Registers to Patch lists, choose the zone(s) and/or
register(s) for which you want to patch a value for the selected variable.

i When shell conduction is enabled, the names of the Zones to Patch will
appear as shell:wall-name. The wall-name is the name of the wall on which
a shell conduction zone has been created.
3. If you wish to patch a constant value, simply enter that value in the Value field. If
you want to patch a previously-defined field function, enable the Use Field Function
option and select the appropriate function in the Field Function list.

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Using the Solver

4. If you selected a velocity in the Variable list, and your problem involves moving
reference frames or sliding meshes, indicate whether the patched velocities are ab-
solute velocities or velocities relative to the motion of each cell zone by selecting
Absolute or Relative to Cell Zone under Reference Frame. (If no zone motion occurs
in the problem, the two options are equivalent.) The default reference frame for
velocity patching in FLUENT is relative. If the solution in most of your domain is
rotating, using the relative option may be better than using the absolute option.

5. Click the Patch button to update the flow-field data. (Note that patching will have
no effect on the iteration or time-step count.)

Using Registers
The ability to patch values in cell registers gives you the flexibility to patch different
values within a single cell zone. For example, you may want to patch a certain value
for temperature only in fluid cells with a particular range of concentrations for one
species. You can create a cell register (basically a list of cells) using the functions that
are used to mark cells for adaption. These functions allow you to mark cells based on
physical location, cell volume, gradient or isovalue of a particular variable, and other
parameters. See Chapter 26: Adapting the Grid for information about marking cells for
adaption. Section 26.11.1: Manipulating Adaption Registers provides information about
manipulating different registers to create new ones. Once you have created a register,
you can patch values in it as described above.

Using Field Functions

By defining your own field function using the Custom Field Function Calculator panel, you
can patch a non-constant value in selected cells. For example, you may want to patch
varying species mass fractions throughout a fluid region. To use this feature, simply create
the function as described in Section 30.5: Custom Field Functions, and then perform the
function-patching operation in the Patch panel, as described above.

Using Patching Later in the Solution Process

Since patching affects only the variables for which you choose to change the value, leaving
the rest of the flow field intact, you can use it later in the solution process without losing
calculated data. (Initialization, on the other hand, resets all data to the initial values.)
For example, you might want to start a combustion calculation from a cold-flow solution.
You can simply read in (or calculate) the cold-flow data, patch a high temperature in
the appropriate cells, and continue the calculation.
Patching can also be useful when you are solving a problem using a step-by-step tech-
nique, as described in Section 25.22.2: Step-by-Step Solution Processes.

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 25.15 Using Full Multigrid (FMG) Initialization

25.15 Using Full Multigrid (FMG) Initialization

For many complex flow problems such as those found in rotating machinery, or flows in
expanding or spiral ducts, flow convergence can be accelerated if a better initial solution
is used at the start of the calculation. The Full Multigrid initialization (FMG initializa-
tion) can provide this initial and approximate solution at a minimum cost to the overall
computational expense.

25.15.1 Overview of FMG Initialization

FMG initialization utilizes the FLUENT FAS Multigrid technology (see Section 25.6.4: Full-
Approximation Storage (FAS) Multigrid) to obtain the initial solution. Starting from a
uniform solution (after performing standard initialization), the FMG initialization proce-
dure constructs the desirable number of geometric grid levels using the procedure outlined
in Section 25.6.4: Full-Approximation Storage (FAS) Multigrid. To begin the process,
the initial solution is restricted all the way down to the coarsest level. The FAS multigrid
cycle is then applied until a given order of residual reduction is obtained or the maxi-
mum number of cycles is reached. The solution is then interpolated one grid level up
and the FAS multigrid cycle is applied again between the current level all the way down
to the coarsest level. This process will repeat until the finest level is reached. The FMG
initialization iteration is illustrated in Figure 25.15.1.
Grid Level 1 multistage sweep on
fine mesh
Fine 0

Coarse 3

n cycles in n cycles in level 2 n cycles in level 1

level 3

Figure 25.15.1: The FMG Initialization

Since FMG initialization does most of the work on coarse levels, this initialization proce-
dure is computationally inexpensive and, for large problems, a good initial solution can
be obtained in a fraction of the time spent to converge on a final solution. Note that
FMG initialization can be used with the pressure-based and density-based solvers.

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Using the Solver

When FMG initialization is started, the algorithm will perform the following steps:

1. Records the current solver selection and all current solver parameters.

2. Switches from the selected solver to the density-based explicit formulation.

3. Performs one FMG iteration using the FMG parameters given in the text command
interface (see below).

4. Switches back to the initially selected solver and resets all solver parameters back
to the original solver settings.

In the FMG iteration, the inviscid Euler equations are solved using first order-discretization
to obtain the approximate solution. If species are present, then the FMG initialization
will solve the species equations. However, turbulence equations or any other transport
scalars are not solved in the FMG initialization.

Limitations of FMG Initialization

• FMG initialization is not available for unsteady flows.

i If an initial solution is needed for an unsteady calculation, then you must

first switch to the steady state solver, perform FMG initialization and other
necessary iterations to get an initial solution, and then perform unsteady
calculations.
• FMG will not initialize turbulence or other transport equations field variables.

i If your are solving for turbulent flow, then you can still use FMG initial-
ization, however the FMG will not initialize the turbulence field variables.
For this reason, a good initial guess of the turbulence field quantities are
important for achieving fast convergence after the FMG initialization has
been performed.
• FMG should not be used with multiphase flow.

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 25.15 Using Full Multigrid (FMG) Initialization

25.15.2 Steps in Using FMG Initialization

You can access the FMG initialization procedure using the text user interface (TUI)
once the standard flow initialization is performed (see Section 25.6.4: Full-Approximation
Storage (FAS) Multigrid) or if valid flow data is available (i.e., through reading a data
file).
To customize the FMG initialization, type the following command:
solve −→ initialize −→set-fmg-initialization
You will be asked to enter:

• The number of multigrid levels for the FMG iteration (the default is 5).

i For small cases (100, 000 cells or less), it is recommended that you lower
the number of multigrid levels to 3 or 4.

• For each level of multigrid, you will be asked to enter the residual reduction (the
default value is 0.001), and the number of cycles per level (the defaults at each level
are 10, 10, 50, 100, 500, and 500). In general, you should perform more iterations
on coarse levels than fine levels. Level 0 is the finest level, which represents the
original mesh.

• FMG iteration Courant-number (the default is 0.75). This will be the CFL value
that the FAS multigrid will use for the FMG initialization.

• Enabling verbose mode (the default is no). By enabling this option, you will be
able to monitor the convergence at each level.

i If you do not customize the FMG settings, then the default values will be
used.

To perform the FMG initialization, type the following command:

solve −→ initialize −→fmg-initialization
When you are prompted to Enable FMG initialization? [no], type yes.
When verbose mode is selected and the FMG initialization is being executed, FLUENT
will first output the multigrid level information followed by convergence history for the
FAS multigrid cycle on each level. The normalized residual value is printed after ten
FAS cycles or when the number of FAS cycles is reached. The output will indicate when
convergence is reached on each level and when the solution is being interpolated to the
next level.

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Using the Solver

25.15.3 Convergence Strategies for FMG Initialization

When setting the FMG initialization parameters, you should consider performing more
iterations on the coarse levels than on the fine levels. However, keep in mind that the
purpose of FMG initialization is to obtain a good initial solution at a low cost. You should
try to avoid unreasonable convergence tolerance that will make the FMG initialization
expensive.
Turn on the verbose mode to help you determine if the flow is converging as expected
during the FMG iterations. If the solution is not converging to the desired tolerance,
consider increasing the number of FAS multigrid cycles at each level. If the solution
is diverging during the FAS cycles, then consider lowering the FMG iteration Courant
number since the default value is probably too aggressive and is likely causing the solution
to diverge.
For turbulent flows, it is very important to first perform standard initialization with
proper and realistic values of the turbulence variables (e.g. k and ). This can be done
by computing the average values based on the conditions defined at the inflow boundary
or at all boundary zones. Then, you can proceed with FMG initialization. Unrealistic
initialization of turbulence variables may cause convergence difficulties during the first
few iterations on the fine mesh, thereby nullifying the benefit of FMG initialization.

25.16 Performing Steady-State Calculations

For steady-state calculations, you will request the start of the solution process using the
Iterate panel (Figure 25.16.1).
Solve −→Iterate...

Figure 25.16.1: The Iterate Panel

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 25.16 Performing Steady-State Calculations

In this panel, you will supply the number of additional iterations to be performed in the
Number of Iterations field. (For unsteady calculation inputs, see Section 25.17.1: User
Inputs for Time-Dependent Problems.) If no calculations have been performed yet, FLU-
ENT will begin calculations starting at iteration 1, using the initial solution. If you are
starting from current solution data, FLUENT will begin at the last iteration performed,
using the current solution data as its starting point.
By default, FLUENT will update the convergence monitors (described in Section 25.18: Mon-
itoring Solution Convergence) after each iteration. If you increase the Reporting Interval
from the default of 1 you can get reports less frequently. For example, if you set the
Reporting Interval to 2, the monitors will print or plot reports at every other iteration.
Note that the Reporting Interval also specifies how often FLUENT should check if the
solution is converged. For example, if your solution converges after 40 iterations, but
your Reporting Interval is set to 50, FLUENT will continue the calculation for an extra 10
iterations before checking for (and finding) convergence.
When you click the Iterate button, FLUENT will begin to calculate. During iteration, a
Working dialog box is displayed. Clicking on the Cancel button or typing <Control-C> in
the FLUENT console will interrupt the iteration, as soon as it is safe to stop. (See below
for more details.)

Updating UDF Profiles

If you have used a user-defined function (UDF) to define any boundary conditions, prop-
erties, etc., you can control the frequency with which the function is updated by modifying
the value of the UDF Profile Update Interval. If UDF Profile Update Interval is set to n,
the function will be updated after every n iterations.
By default, the UDF Profile Update Interval is set to 1. You might want to increase this
value if your profile computation is expensive. See the separate UDF Manual for details
about creating and using UDFs.

Interrupting Iterations
As mentioned above, you can interrupt the calculation by clicking on the Cancel button
in the Working dialog box that appears while the solver is calculating. In addition, on
most, but not all, computer systems you will be able to interrupt calculations using a
control sequence, usually <Control-C>. This allows you to stop the calculation process
before proceeding with the remainder of the requested iterations.

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Using the Solver

Resetting Data
After you have performed some iterations, if you decide to start over again from the first
iteration (e.g., after making some changes to the problem setup), you can reinitialize the
solution using the Solution Initialization panel, as described in Section 25.14.1: Initializing
the Entire Flow Field.

25.17 Performing Time-Dependent Calculations

FLUENT can solve the conservation equations in a time-dependent manner, to simulate
a wide variety of time-dependent phenomena, such as

• vortex shedding and other time-periodic phenomena

• compressible filling and emptying problems

• transient heat conduction

• transient chemical mixing and reactions

Figures 25.17.1 and 25.17.2 illustrate the time-dependent vortex shedding flow pattern
in the wake of a cylinder.
Activating time dependence is sometimes useful when attempting to solve steady-state
problems which tend toward instability (e.g., natural convection problems in which the
Rayleigh number is close to the transition region). It is possible in many cases to reach
a steady-state solution by integrating the time-dependent equations.
See Section 25.3.2: Temporal Discretization for details about temporal discretization.

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 25.17 Performing Time-Dependent Calculations

1.92e+01

1.76e+01

1.60e+01

1.44e+01

1.28e+01

1.12e+01

9.60e+00

8.00e+00

6.40e+00

4.80e+00

3.20e+00

1.60e+00

0.00e+00

Contours of Stream Function (kg/s) (Time=3.6600e+01)

Figure 25.17.1: Time-Dependent Calculation of Vortex Shedding (t=3.66

sec)

1.92e+01

1.76e+01

1.60e+01

1.44e+01

1.28e+01

1.12e+01

9.60e+00

8.00e+00

6.40e+00

4.80e+00

3.20e+00

1.60e+00

0.00e+00

Contours of Stream Function (kg/s) (Time=4.1600e+01)

Figure 25.17.2: Time-Dependent Calculation of Vortex Shedding (t=41.6

sec)

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Using the Solver

25.17.1 User Inputs for Time-Dependent Problems

To solve a time-dependent problem, you will follow the procedure outlined below:

1. Enable the Unsteady option in the Solver panel (Figure 25.17.3), and specify the
desired Unsteady Formulation.
Define −→ Models −→Solver...

Figure 25.17.3: The Solver Panel for an Unsteady Calculation

The 1st-Order Implicit formulation is sufficient for most problems. If you need im-
proved accuracy, you can use the 2nd-Order Implicit formulation instead. The Ex-
plicit formulation (available only if the density-based explicit formulation is selected
under Solver and Formulation at the top of the panel) is used primarily to capture the
transient behavior of moving waves, such as shocks. See Section 25.3.2: Temporal
Discretization for details.
You can also use the Non-iterative Time Advancement option, under Transient Con-
trols, when using the pressure-based segregated algorithm for your time dependent
flow calculations (see Section 25.4.5: Time-Advancement Algorithm).

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 25.17 Performing Time-Dependent Calculations

When using the pressure-based solver, you can also select Frozen Flux Formula-
tion under Transient Controls in your time dependent flow calculations (see Sec-
tion 25.4.4: Steady-State Iterative Algorithm). Note that this option is only avail-
able for single-phase transient problems that use the pressure-based solver and do
not use a moving/deforming mesh model.

2. Define all relevant models and boundary conditions. Note that any boundary con-
ditions specified using user-defined functions can be made to vary in time. See the
separate UDF Manual for details.

3. If you are using the pressure-based solver, choose PISO as the Pressure-Velocity
Coupling scheme under Discretization in the Solution Controls panel.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
In general, to increase the speed of the calculations, you will need to modify the
PISO Parameters from their default values. See Section 25.9.1: PISO for more
information about the optimal use of the PISO algorithm.

i If you are using the LES turbulence model with small time steps, the
PISO scheme may be too computationally expensive. It is therefore rec-
ommended that you use SIMPLE or SIMPLEC instead of PISO.

i It is best to use the Coupled pressure-velocity coupling scheme if you are

using large time steps to solve your transient flow, or you have a poor
quality mesh.

4. (optional) If you are using the explicit unsteady formulation or if you are using the
adaptive time stepping method (described below and in Section 25.17.2: Adaptive
Time Stepping) it is recommended that you enable the printing of the current time
(for the explicit unsteady formulation) or the current time step size (for the adaptive
time stepping method) at each iteration, using the Statistic Monitors panel.
Solve −→ Monitors −→Statistic...
Select time (for the current time) or delta time (for the current time step size) in
the Statistics list and turn on the Print option. When FLUENT prints the residuals
to the console at each iteration, it will include a column with the current time or
the current time step size.

5. (optional) Use the Force Monitors panel or the Surface Monitors panel to monitor
(and/or save to a file) time-varying force coefficient values or the average, mass
average, integral, or flux of a field variable or function on a surface as it changes
with time. See Section 25.18: Monitoring Solution Convergence for details.

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Using the Solver

6. Set the initial conditions (at time t = 0) using the Solution Initialization panel.
Solve −→ Initialize −→Initialize...
You can also read in a steady-state data file to set the initial conditions.
File −→ Read −→Data...

7. Use the automatic saving feature to specify the file name and frequency with which
case and data files should be saved during the solution process.
File −→ Write −→Autosave...
See Section 4.3.4: Automatic Saving of Case and Data Files for details about the
use of this feature.
You may also want to request automatic execution of other commands using the
Execute Commands panel. See Section 25.19: Executing Commands During the
Calculation for details.

8. (optional) If you want to create a graphical animation of the solution over time, you
can use the Solution Animation panel to set up the graphical displays that you want
to use in the animation. See Section 25.20.1: Animating the Solution for details.

9. (optional) If you want FLUENT to gather data for time statistics (i.e., time-averaged
and root-mean-square values for solution variables) during the calculation, follow
these steps:
(a) Turn on the Data Sampling for Time Statistics option in the Iterate panel.
Solve −→Iterate...
Enabling this option will allow you to display and report both the mean and
the root-mean-square (RMS) values, as described in Section 25.17.4: Postpro-
cessing for Time-Dependent Problems.

i Note that gathering data for time statistics is not meaningful inside a
moving cell zone (i.e., a sliding zone in a sliding mesh problem).
(b) Initialize the flow statistics.
Solve −→ Initialize −→Reset Statistics
Note that you can also use this menu item to reset the flow statistics after you
have gathered some data for time statistics. If you perform, say, 10 time steps
with the Data Sampling for Time Statistics option enabled, check the results,
and then continue the calculation for 10 more time steps, the time statistics
will include the data gathered in the first 10 time steps unless you reinitialize
the flow statistics.

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 25.17 Performing Time-Dependent Calculations

10. Specify time-dependent solution parameters and start the calculation as described
below for the implicit and explicit unsteady formulations:
• If you have chosen the 1st-Order or 2nd-Order Implicit formulation, the proce-
dure is as follows:
(a) Set the time-dependent solution parameters in the Iterate panel (Fig-
ure 25.17.4).
Solve −→Iterate...

Figure 25.17.4: The Iterate Panel for Implicit Unsteady Calculations

Solution parameters for the implicit unsteady formulations are as follows:

– Max Iterations per Time Step: When FLUENT solves the time-dependent
equations using the implicit formulation, an iteration is necessary at
each time step. This parameter sets a maximum for the number of
iterations per time step. If the convergence criteria are met before
this number of iterations is performed, the solution will advance to
the next time step.
– Time Step Size: The time step size is the magnitude of ∆t. Since the
FLUENT formulation is fully implicit, there is no stability criterion
that needs to be met in determining ∆t. However, to model transient

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Using the Solver

phenomena properly, it is necessary to set ∆t at least one order of

magnitude smaller than the smallest time constant in the system being
modeled. A good way to judge the choice of ∆t is to observe the
number of iterations FLUENT needs to converge at each time step.
The ideal number of iterations per time step is 5–10. If FLUENT
needs substantially more, the time step is too large. If FLUENT needs
only a few iterations per time step, ∆t may be increased. Frequently
a time-dependent problem has a very fast “startup” transient that
decays rapidly. Therefore, it is often wise to choose a conservatively
small ∆t for the first 5–10 time steps. ∆t may then be gradually
increased as the calculation proceeds.
For time-periodic calculations, you should choose the time step based
on the time scale of the periodicity. For a rotor/stator model, for
example, you might want 20 time steps between each blade passing.
For vortex shedding, you might want 20 steps per period.
To determine a proper choice of ∆t, you can plot contours of the
Courant number within the domain. To do so, select Velocity... and
Cell Courant Number from the Contours of drop-down lists in the Con-
tours panel. For a stable, efficient calculation, the Courant number
should not exceed a value of 20–40 in most sensitive transient regions
of the domain.
By default, the size of the time step is fixed (as indicated by the selection
of Fixed under Time Stepping Method). To have FLUENT modify the size
of the time step as the calculation proceeds, select Adaptive and specify the
parameters under Adaptive Time Stepping in the expanded Iterate panel.
See Section 25.17.2: Adaptive Time Stepping for details.
With the Adaptive time stepping method (Figure 25.17.5), the value you
specify for the Time Step Size will be the initial size of the time step. As
the calculation proceeds, the Time Step Size shown in the Iterate panel
will be the size of the current time step (see Section 25.17.2: Adaptive
Time Stepping).
For transient VOF calculations, the inputs that are used in the Variable
time stepping method (Figure 25.17.6) are in many ways the same as for
the adaptive time stepping method, with the exception of specifying a
global Courant number (see Section 25.17.3: Variable Time Stepping).
(b) Specify the desired Number of Time Steps in the Iterate panel and click
Iterate.
As it calculates a solution, FLUENT will print the current time at the end
of each time step.

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 25.17 Performing Time-Dependent Calculations

• If you have chosen the Explicit unsteady formulation, you will follow a different
procedure:
(a) Use the default settings for the Solver Parameters in the Solution Controls
panel.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
If you have modified the Solver Parameters, you can click the Default button
to retrieve the default settings.
(b) Specify the desired Number of Iterations and click Iterate.
Solve −→Iterate...
Remember that when the explicit unsteady formulation is used, each iter-
ation is a time step. When FLUENT prints the residuals to the console, it
will include a column with the current time (if you requested this in step
4, above).

11. Save the final data file (and case file, if you have modified it) so that you can
continue the unsteady calculation later, if desired.
File −→ Write −→Data...

Additional Inputs
The procedures for setting the reporting interval, updating UDF profiles, interrupting
iterations, and resetting data are the same as those for steady-state calculations. See
Section 25.16: Performing Steady-State Calculations for details.

i If you are using a user-defined function in your time-dependent calculation,

note that, in addition to being updated after every n iterations (where n
is the value of the UDF Profile Update Interval), the function will also be
updated at the first iteration of each time step.

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Using the Solver

25.17.2 Adaptive Time Stepping

As mentioned in Section 25.17.1: User Inputs for Time-Dependent Problems, it is possible
to have the size of the time step change as the calculation proceeds, rather than specifying
a fixed size for the entire calculation. This section provides a brief description of the
algorithm that FLUENT uses to compute the time step size, as well as an explanation of
each of the parameters that you can set to control the adaptive time stepping.

i Adaptive time stepping is available only with the pressure-based and

density-based implicit formulations; it cannot be used with the density-
based explicit formulation. In addition, it cannot be used with the discrete
phase model, second-order time integration, Euler-Euler multiphase mod-
els (Section 23.2.1: Approaches to Multiphase Modeling), or user-defined
scalars (Section 9.3: User-Defined Scalar (UDS) Transport Equations).

The Adaptive Time Stepping Algorithm

The automatic determination of the time step size is based on the estimation of the
truncation error associated with the time integration scheme. If the truncation error is
smaller than a specified tolerance, the size of the time step is increased; if the truncation
error is greater, the time step size is decreased.
An estimation of the truncation error can be obtained by using a predictor-corrector type
of algorithm [129] in association with the time integration scheme. At each time step, a
predicted solution can be obtained using a computationally inexpensive explicit method
(forward Euler for the first-order unsteady formulation, Adams-Bashford for the second-
order unsteady formulation). This predicted solution is used as an initial condition for the
time step, and the correction is computed using the non-linear iterations associated with
the implicit (pressure-based or density-based) formulation. The norm of the difference
between the predicted and corrected solutions is used as a measure of the truncation
error. By comparing the truncation error with the desired level of accuracy (i.e., the
truncation error tolerance), FLUENT is able to adjust the time step size by increasing it
or decreasing it.

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Specifying Parameters for Adaptive Time Stepping

The parameters that control the adaptive time stepping appear in the Iterate panel, as
described in Section 25.17.1: User Inputs for Time-Dependent Problems.

Figure 25.17.5: The Iterate Panel for Implicit Unsteady Calculations and
Adaptive Time Stepping

These parameters are as follows:

Truncation Error Tolerance specifies the threshold value to which the computed trun-
cation error is compared. Increasing this value will lead to an increase in the size
of the time step and a reduction in the accuracy of the solution. Decreasing it
will lead to a reduction in the size of the time step and an increase in the solution
accuracy, although the calculation will require more computational time. For most
cases, the default value of 0.01 is acceptable.

Ending Time specifies an ending time for the calculation. Since the ending time cannot
be determined by multiplying the number of time steps by a fixed time step size,
you need to specify it explicitly.

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Using the Solver

Minimum/Maximum Time Step Size specify the upper and lower limits for the size of
the time step. If the time step becomes very small, the computational expense may
be too high; if the time step becomes very large, the solution accuracy may not be
acceptable to you. You can set the limits that are appropriate for your simulation.

Minimum/Maximum Step Change Factor limit the degree to which the time step size
can change at each time step. Limiting the change results in a smoother calculation
of the time step size, especially when high-frequency noise is present in the solution.
If the time step change factor, f , is computed as the ratio between the specified
truncation error tolerance and the computed truncation error, the size of time step
∆tn is computed as follows:
• If 1 < f < fmax , ∆tn is increased to meet the desired tolerance.
• If 1 < fmax < f , ∆tn is increased, but its maximum possible value is fmax ∆tn−1 .
• If fmin < f < 1, ∆tn is unchanged.
• If f < fmin < 1, ∆tn is decreased.

Number of Fixed Time Steps specifies the number of fixed-size time steps that should
be performed before the size of the time step starts to change. The size of the fixed
time step is the value specified for Time Step Size in the Iterate panel.
It is a good idea to perform a few fixed-size time steps before switching to the
adaptive time stepping. Sometimes spurious discretization errors can be associated
with an impulsive start in time. These errors are dissipated during the first few
time steps, but they can adversely affect the adaptive time stepping and result in
extremely small time steps at the beginning of the calculation.

i When the solution tends to exhibit incomplete convergence, rather than

increasing the time step size or keeping the same time step size in the next
step, FLUENT reduces the time step size by at least half for the next time
step (making sure that the time step size does not go below the specified
minimum time step size.

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Specifying a User-Defined Time Stepping Method

If you want to use your own adaptive time stepping method, instead of the method
described above, you can create a user-defined function for your method and select it
in the User-Defined Time Step drop-down list. The other inputs under Adaptive Time
Stepping will not be used when you select a user-defined function.
See the separate UDF Manual for details about creating and using user-defined functions.

25.17.3 Variable Time Stepping

For VOF calculations (using the Explicit scheme), FLUENT allows you to use variable
time stepping in order to automatically change the time-step when an interface is moving
through dense cells or if the interface velocity is high.
Variable time stepping is available for all the explicit schemes of VOF, which includes the
donor-acceptor scheme as well. Variable time stepping is not available for the implicit
scheme of VOF.

The Variable Time Stepping Algorithm

The global time-step ∆tglobal is changed in the following manner:

CF Lglobal
∆tglobal = P outgoingf luxes (25.17-1)
max( volume
)

outgoingf luxes
P
where the ratio volume
is calculated for each cell. FLUENT takes the maximum
of this ratio to calculate the global time step.

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Using the Solver

Specifying Parameters for Variable Time Stepping

For transient VOF calculations, when the Variable option is chosen in the Iterate panel
(Figure 25.17.6), FLUENT presents additional parameters. With the exception of the
Global Courant Number field, all parameters are the same as for adaptive time stepping
(see Section 25.17.2: Adaptive Time Stepping). The default value for the Global Courant
Number is 2.

Figure 25.17.6: The Iterate Panel for Implicit Unsteady Calculations and
Variable Time Stepping

The variable time step is based on the maximum Courant number near the VOF interface.
To calculate that Courant number, FLUENT uses a flux-based definition where, in the
region near the fluid interface, FLUENT divides the volume of each cell by the sum of
the outgoing fluxes. The resulting time represents the time it would take for the fluid to
empty out of the cell. The smallest such time is used as the characteristic time of transit
for a fluid element across a control volume.

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25.17.4 Postprocessing for Time-Dependent Problems

The postprocessing of time-dependent data is similar to that for steady-state data, with
all graphical and alphanumeric commands available. You can read a data file that was
saved at any point in the calculation (by you or with the autosave option) to restore the
data at any of the time levels that were saved.
File −→ Read −→Data...
FLUENT will label any subsequent graphical or alphanumeric output with the time value
of the current data set.
If you save data from the force or surface monitors to files (see step 5 in Section 25.17.1: User
Inputs for Time-Dependent Problems), you can read these files back in and plot them
to see a time history of the monitored quantity. Figure 25.17.7 shows a sample plot
generated in this way.

-5.00e+00

-5.10e+00

-5.20e+00

-5.30e+00

-5.40e+00

Cl -5.50e+00

-5.60e+00

-5.70e+00

-5.80e+00

-5.90e+00

-6.00e+00
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11
Y

X Time
Z

Cl

Figure 25.17.7: Lift Coefficient Plot for a Time-Periodic Solution

If you enabled the Data Sampling for Time Statistics option in the Iterate panel, FLUENT
will compute the time average (mean) of the instantaneous values and root-mean-squares
of the fluctuating values sampled during the calculation. The mean and root-mean-
square (RMS) values for all solution variables will be available in the Unsteady Statistics...
category of the variable selection drop-down list that appears in postprocessing panels.
You can set the Sampling Interval such that Data Sampling for Time Statistics can be
performed at the specified frequency.

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25.18 Monitoring Solution Convergence

During the solution process you can monitor the convergence dynamically by checking
residuals, statistics, force values, surface integrals, and volume integrals. You can print
reports of or display plots of lift, drag, and moment coefficients, surface integrations, and
residuals for the solution variables. For unsteady flows, you can also monitor elapsed
time. Each of these monitoring features is described below.

25.18.1 Monitoring Residuals

At the end of each solver iteration, the residual sum for each of the conserved variables is
computed and stored, thus recording the convergence history. This history is also saved
in the data file. The residual sum is defined below.
On a computer with infinite precision, these residuals will go to zero as the solution
converges. On an actual computer, the residuals decay to some small value (“round-off”)
and then stop changing (“level out”). For single-precision computations (the default for
workstations and most computers), residuals can drop as many as six orders of magnitude
before hitting round-off. Double-precision residuals can drop up to twelve orders of
magnitude. Guidelines for judging convergence can be found in Section 25.22.1: Judging
Convergence.

Definition of Residuals for the Pressure-Based Solver

After discretization, the conservation equation for a general variable φ at a cell P can be
written as

X
aP φP = anb φnb + b (25.18-1)
nb

Here aP is the center coefficient, anb are the influence coefficients for the neighboring
cells, and b is the contribution of the constant part of the source term Sc in S = Sc + SP φ
and of the boundary conditions. In Equation 25.18-1,

X
aP = anb − SP (25.18-2)
nb

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 25.18 Monitoring Solution Convergence

The residual Rφ computed by FLUENT’s pressure-based solver is the imbalance in Equa-

tion 25.18-1 summed over all the computational cells P . This is referred to as the
“unscaled” residual. It may be written as

Rφ =
X X
| anb φnb + b − aP φP | (25.18-3)
cells P nb

In general, it is difficult to judge convergence by examining the residuals defined by

Equation 25.18-3 since no scaling is employed. This is especially true in enclosed flows
such as natural convection in a room where there is no inlet flow rate of φ with which to
compare the residual. FLUENT scales the residual using a scaling factor representative
of the flow rate of φ through the domain. This “scaled” residual is defined as

| anb φnb + b − aP φP |
P P
φ cells P nb
R = (25.18-4)
cells P |aP φP |
P

For the momentum equations the denominator term aP φP is replaced by aP vP , where vP

is the magnitude of the velocity at cell P .
The scaled residual is a more appropriate indicator of convergence for most problems, as
discussed in Section 25.22.1: Judging Convergence. This residual is the default displayed
by FLUENT. Note that this definition of residual is also used by Fluent Inc.’s structured
grid solver FLUENT 4.
For the continuity equation, the unscaled residual for the pressure-based solver is defined
as

Rc =
X
|rate of mass creation in cell P| (25.18-5)
cells P

The pressure-based solver’s scaled residual for the continuity equation is defined as

c
Riteration N
c
(25.18-6)
Riteration 5

The denominator is the largest absolute value of the continuity residual in the first five
iterations.

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Using the Solver

The scaled residuals described above are useful indicators of solution convergence. Guide-
lines for their use are given in Section 25.22.1: Judging Convergence. It is sometimes
useful to determine how much a residual has decreased during calculations as an addi-
tional measure of convergence. For this purpose, FLUENT allows you to normalize the
residual (either scaled or unscaled) by dividing by the maximum residual value after M
iterations, where M is set by you in the Residual Monitors panel in the Iterations field
under Normalization.

φ
φ Riteration N
R̄ = φ (25.18-7)
Riteration M
Normalization in this manner ensures that the initial residuals for all equations are of
O(1) and is sometimes useful in judging overall convergence.
By default, M = 5. You can also specify the normalization factor (the denominator in
Equation 25.18-7) manually in the Residual Monitors panel.

Definition of Residuals for the Density-Based Solver

A residual for the density-based solver is simply the time rate of change of the conserved
variable (W). The RMS residual is the square root of the average of the squares of the
residuals in each cell of the domain:
v
u !2
uX ∂W
R(W) = t
(25.18-8)
∂t

Equation 25.18-8 is the unscaled residual sum reported for all the coupled equations
solved by FLUENT’s density-based solver.

i The residuals for the equations that are solved sequentially by the
density-based solver (turbulence and other scalars, as discussed in Sec-
tion 25.1.2: Density-Based Solver) are the same as those described above
for the pressure-based solver.
In general, it is difficult to judge convergence by examining the residuals defined by
Equation 25.18-8 since no scaling is employed. This is especially true in enclosed flows
such as natural convection in a room where there is no inlet flow rate of φ with which to
compare the residual. FLUENT scales the residual using a scaling factor representative
of the flow rate of φ through the domain. This “scaled” residual is defined as

R(W)iteration N
(25.18-9)
R(W)iteration 5
The denominator is the largest absolute value of the residual in the first five iterations.

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The scaled residuals described above are useful indicators of solution convergence. Guide-
lines for their use are given in Section 25.22.1: Judging Convergence. It is sometimes
useful to determine how much a residual has decreased during calculations as an addi-
tional measure of convergence. For this purpose, FLUENT allows you to normalize the
residual (either scaled or unscaled) by dividing by the maximum residual value after M
iterations, where M is set by you in the Residual Monitors panel in the Iterations field
under Normalization.
Normalization of the residual sum is accomplished by dividing by the maximum residual
value after M iterations, where M is set by you in the Residual Monitors panel in the
Iterations field under Normalization:

R(W)iteration N
R̄(W) = (25.18-10)
R(W)iteration M

Normalization in this manner ensures that the initial residuals for all equations are of
O(1) and is sometimes useful in judging overall convergence.
By default, M = 5, making the normalized residual equivalent to the scaled residual.
You can also specify the normalization factor (the denominator in Equation 25.18-10)
manually in the Residual Monitors panel.

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Using the Solver

Overview of Using the Residual Monitors Panel

All inputs controlling the monitoring of residuals are entered using the Residual Monitors
panel (Figure 25.18.1).
Solve −→ Monitors −→Residual...
or
Plot −→Residuals...

Figure 25.18.1: The Residual Monitors Panel

In general, you will only need to enable residual plotting and modify the convergence
criteria using this panel. Additional controls are available for disabling monitoring of
particular residuals, and modifying normalization and plot parameters.

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 25.18 Monitoring Solution Convergence

Printing and Plotting Residuals

By default, residual values for all relevant variables are printed in the text (console)
window after each iteration. If you wish to disable this printout, turn off Print under
Options. To enable the plotting of residuals after each iteration, turn on Plot under
Options. Residuals will be plotted in the graphics window (with the window ID set in
the Window field) during the calculation.
If you wish to display a plot of the current residual history, simply click the Plot push
button.

Storing Residual History Points

Residual histories for each variable are automatically saved in the data file, regardless of
whether they are being monitored. You can control the number of history points to be
stored by changing the Iterations entry under Storage. By default, up to 1000 points will
be stored. If more than 1000 iterations are performed (i.e., the limit is reached), every
other point will be discarded—leaving 500 history points—and the next 500 points will
be stored. When the total hits 1000 again, every other point will again be discarded,
etc. If you are performing a large number of iterations, you will lose a great deal of
residual history information about the beginning of the calculation. In such cases, you
should increase the Iterations value to a more appropriate value. Of course, the larger
this number is, the more memory you will need, the longer the plotting will take, and
the more disk space you will need to store the data file.

Controlling Normalization
By default, scaling of residuals (see Equations 25.18-4 and 25.18-9) is enabled and the
default convergence criterion is 10−6 for energy and P-1 equations and 10−3 for all other
equations. Residual normalization (i.e., dividing the residuals by the largest value during
the first few iterations) is also available but disabled by default.
Normalization can be used with both scaled and unscaled residuals. Note that if normal-
ization is enabled, the convergence criterion may need to be adjusted appropriately. See
Section 25.22.1: Judging Convergence for information about judging convergence based
on the different types of residual reports. (Both the raw residuals and scaling factors
are stored in the data file, so you can switch between scaled and unscaled residuals.) To
report unscaled residuals, simply turn off the Scale option under Normalization.

i If you switch from scaled to unscaled residuals (or vice versa) and you are
normalizing the residuals (as described below), you must click the Renorm
button to recompute the normalization factors.

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Using the Solver

If you wish to normalize the residuals (see Equation 25.18-7 or 25.18-10), turn on the
Normalize option under Normalization. The Normalization Factor column will be added to
the panel at this time. FLUENT will normalize the printed or plotted residual for each
variable by the value indicated as the Normalization Factor for that variable. The default
Normalization Factor is the maximum residual value after the first 5 iterations. To use
the maximum residual value after a different number of iterations (i.e., specify a different
value for M in Equation 25.18-7 or 25.18-10), you can modify the Iterations entry under
Normalization.
In some cases, the maximum residual may occur sometime after the iteration specified
in the Iterations field. If this should occur, you can click the Renorm button to set the
normalization factors for all variables to the maximum values in the residual histories.
Subsequent plots and printed reports will use the new normalization factor.
You can also specify the normalization factor (the denominator in Equation 25.18-7 or
25.18-10) explicitly. To modify the normalization factor for a particular variable, enter a
new value in the corresponding Normalization Factor field in the Residual Monitors panel.
If you wish to report unnormalized, unscaled residuals (Equation 25.18-3 or 25.18-8),
disable the Normalize and Scale options under Normalization in the Residual Monitors
panel. Note that unnormalized, unscaled residuals are stored in the data file regardless
of whether the reported residuals are normalized or scaled.

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 25.18 Monitoring Solution Convergence

Choosing a Convergence Criterion

The ability to choose certain convergence criteria provides the user with alternative ways
to check convergence when using the iterative transient solver. The various convergence
criteria can be selected in the Residual Monitors panel from the Convergence Criterion
drop-down list.
Solve −→ Monitors −→Residual...

Figure 25.18.2: The Residual Monitors Panel Displaying relative or absolute

Convergence

Four options are available for checking an equation for convergence:

absolute This is the default. For steady-state cases, absolute and none are the only op-
tions available for selection. The residual (scaled and/or normalized) of an equation
at an iteration is compared with a user-specified value. If the residual is less than
the user-specified value, that equation is deemed to have converged for a timestep.

relative The residual of an equation at an iteration of a timestep is compared with the

residual at the start of the timestep. If the ratio of the two residuals is less than a
user-specified value, that equation is deemed to have converged for a timestep.

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relative or absolute If either the absolute convergence criterion or the relative conver-
gence criterion is met, the equation is considered converged.
The Relative Criteria can be set when relative or relative or absolute is selected.

none Convergence checking is disabled.

In many situations, the absolute convergence criterion could be too stringent for transient
flows causing a large number of iterations per timestep. For example, the scaling of
the continuity equation is based on the value of the continuity residual in the first five
iterations. The scaling factor could be low if the initial continuity residual is small and
thus the scaled residual could fail to meet the absolute convergence criterion. With the
relative convergence criterion, convergence is checked by comparing the residual at an
iteration of a timestep with the residual at the beginning of the timestep and hence
this problem is alleviated. The relative or absolute convergence criterion is useful in
situations where the residuals of some of the equations are already very low at the start
of a timestep (for example, when a particular variable has reached steady state), and
the order of magnitude reduction in residuals is not possible. The none option allows
you to disable convergence checking by selecting the option in the Convergence Criterion
drop-down list.

i relative and relative or absolute convergence criteria are available only with
the unsteady pressure-based solver and unsteady density-based solver.
The text command used to access the convergence criterion is
solve −→ monitors −→ residual −→criterion-type
When criterion-type is entered, you will have the following choices:

Criterion Type
0 absolute
1 relative
2 relative or absolute
3 none

For criterion-type 1 or 2, the text command relative-conv-criteria will appear

under the residual text menu, where the various relative-conv-criteria can be set.

i If the NITA solver is enabled, no convergence criteria are available for

selection.

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 25.18 Monitoring Solution Convergence

Modifying Convergence Criteria

Depending on the Convergence Criterion you choose, FLUENT will check for convergence.
If convergence is being monitored, the solution will stop automatically when each variable
meets its specified convergence criterion. Convergence checks can be performed only for
variables for which you are monitoring residuals (i.e., variables for which the Monitor
option is enabled).
You can choose whether or not you want to check the convergence for each variable by
enabling or disabling the Check Convergence option for it in the Residual Monitors panel.
To modify the convergence criterion for a particular variable, enter a new value in the
corresponding convergence criterion field.

Disabling Monitoring
If your problem requires the solution of many equations (e.g., turbulence quantities and
multiple species), a plot that includes all residuals may be difficult to read. In such
cases, you may choose to monitor only a subset of the residuals, perhaps those that
affect convergence the most. You can indicate whether or not you want to monitor
residuals for each variable by enabling or disabling the relevant check box in the Monitor
list of the Residual Monitors panel.

Plot Parameters
If you choose to plot the residual values (either interactively during the solution or using
the Plot button after calculations are complete), there are several display parameters you
can modify.
In the Window field under Plotting, you can specify the ID of the graphics window in
which the plot will be drawn. When FLUENT is iterating, the active graphics window
is temporarily set to this window to update the residual plot, and then returned to its
previous value. Thus, the residual plot can be maintained in a separate window that
does not interfere with other graphical postprocessing.
You can modify the number of residual history points to be displayed in the plot by
changing the Iterations entry under Plotting. If you specify n points, FLUENT will display
the last n history points. Since the y axis is scaled by the minimum and maximum values
of all points in the plot, you can zoom in on the end of the residual history by setting
Iterations to a value smaller than the number of iterations performed. If, for example,
the residuals jumped early in the calculation when you turned on turbulence, that peak
broadens the overall range in residual values, making the smaller fluctuations later on
almost indistinguishable. By setting the value of Iterations so that the plot does not
include that early peak, your y-axis range is better suited to the values that you are
interested in seeing. For more information on residual history points, please refer to the
discussion of storing residual history points, described earlier in this section.

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Using the Solver

You can also modify the attributes of the plot axes and the residual curves. Click the
Axes... or Curves... button to open the Axes panel or Curves panel. See Sections 28.8.8
and 28.8.9 for details.

i Note that entering a value for Iterations under Plotting does not necessarily
mean solved iterations but rather stored (or sampled) data points. Note
also that the frequency of the data storage will diminish towards the start
of the solution as the number of solved iterations increases. Due to this,
whenever the stored iterations is greater than the solved iterations, if you
plot n iterations, you actually see a history that goes back further than n
solved iterations.

Postprocessing Residual Values

If you are having solution convergence difficulties, it is often useful to plot the residual
value fields (e.g., using contour plots) to determine where the high residual values are
located. When you use one of the density-based solver, the residual values for all solution
variables are available in the Residuals... category in the postprocessing panels. (If you
read case and data files into FLUENT, you will need to perform at least one iteration
before the residual values are available for postprocessing.) For the pressure-based solver,
however, only the mass imbalance in each cell is available by default.
If you want to plot residual value fields for a pressure-based solver calculation, you will
need to do the following:

1. Read in the case and data files of interest (if they are not already in the current
session).

2. Use the expert command in the solve/set/ text menu to enable the saving of
residual values.
solve −→ set −→expert
Among other questions, FLUENT will ask if you want to save cell residuals for
postprocessing. Enter yes or y, and keep the default settings for all of the other
questions (by pressing the <RETURN> key).

3. Perform at least one iteration.

The solution variables for which residual values are available will appear in the Residuals...
category in the postprocessing panels. Note that residual values are not available for the
radiative transport equations solved by the discrete ordinates radiation model.

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25.18.2 Monitoring Statistics

If you are solving a fully-developed periodic flow, you may want to monitor the pressure
gradient or the bulk temperature ratio, as discussed in Section 9.4: Periodic Flows.
If you are solving an unsteady flow (especially if you are using the explicit time stepping
option), you may want to monitor the “time” that has elapsed during the calculation.
The physical time of the flow field starts at zero when you initialize the flow. (See Sec-
tion 25.17: Performing Time-Dependent Calculations for details about modeling unsteady
flows.)
If you are using the adaptive time stepping method described in Section 25.17.2: Adaptive
Time Stepping, you may want to monitor the size of the time step, ∆t.
You can use the Statistic Monitors panel (Figure 25.18.3) to print or plot these quantities
during the calculation.
Solve −→ Monitors −→Statistic...

Figure 25.18.3: The Statistic Monitors Panel

The procedure for setting up this monitor is listed below:

1. Indicate the type of report you want by turning on the Print option for a printout
or the Plot option for a plot. You can enable these options simultaneously.

2. Select the appropriate quantity in the Statistics list.

3. If you are plotting the quantities, you can set any of the plotting options discussed
below.

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Plot Parameters
If you choose to plot the statistics, there are several display parameters you can modify.
In the First Window field, you can specify the ID of the graphics window in which the
plot will be drawn (or in which the first plot will be drawn, if you are plotting more than
one quantity.) When FLUENT is iterating, the active graphics window is temporarily set
to this window to update the plot, and then returned to its previous value. Thus, the
statistics plot can be maintained in a separate window that does not interfere with other
graphical postprocessing. Note that additional quantities that you have selected in the
Statistics list will be plotted in windows with incrementally higher IDs.
You can also modify the attributes of the plot axes and curves. Click the Axes... or
Curves... button to open the Axes panel or Curves panel. See Sections 28.8.8 and 28.8.9
for details.

25.18.3 Monitoring Forces and Moments

At the end of each solver iteration, the lift, drag, and/or moment coefficient can be
computed and stored to create a convergence history. You can print and plot this con-
vergence data, and also save it to an external file. The external file is written in the
FLUENT XY plot file format described in Section 28.8.5: XY Plot File Format. Moni-
toring forces can be useful when you are calculating external aerodynamics, for example,
and you are especially interested in the forces. Sometimes the forces converge before the
residuals have dropped three orders of magnitude, so you can save time by stopping the
calculation earlier than you would if you were monitoring only residuals. (You should be
sure to check the mass flow rate and heat transfer rate as well, using the Flux Reports
panel described in Section 29.2: Fluxes Through Boundaries, to ensure that the mass and
energy are being suitably conserved.)

i The force and moment coefficients use the reference values described in
Section 29.10: Reference Values. Specifically, the force coefficients use the
reference area, density, and velocity, and the moment coefficients use the
reference area, density, velocity and length.

i Only the processed force coefficient data is saved. If you decide to change
any of the parameters controlling the force monitoring, such as the reference
values, force vector, moment center, moment axis, or wall zones, you may
see a discontinuity in the data: the previous data is not updated. Usually, if
you have made changes you will want to delete the previous force coefficient
data before continuing to iterate.

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Monitoring Forces in Unsteady Flow Calculations

If you are calculating unsteady flow, the specified force reports will be updated after each
time step, rather than after each iteration. All other features of the force monitor and
the related setup procedures are unchanged.

Overview of Using the Force Monitors Panel

You can use the Force Monitors panel (Figure 25.18.4) to print, plot, and save the con-
vergence history of the drag, lift, and moment coefficients on specified wall zones.
Solve −→ Monitors −→Force...

Figure 25.18.4: The Force Monitors Panel

In this panel you will indicate the types of reports that you want (printouts, plots, or
files), and specify which coefficients and wall zones are of interest. Additional information
will be entered for each coefficient that is monitored. You can also modify the plot
parameters.

i Remember to click Apply after making the desired modifications to the

setup for each coefficient report.

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Specifying the Force Coefficient Report

For each coefficient that you choose to monitor, you will set all appropriate parameters
in the Force Monitors panel and click Apply. You can monitor one, two, or all three of
the coefficients (drag, lift, and moment vector component) while iterating. When you
select the desired coefficient, the current (or default) panel settings are shown for that
coefficient. Clicking the Apply button will save the current panel settings for the selected
coefficient.
The procedure for specifying a force coefficient report is listed below:

1. Indicate the type of report you want (printout, plot, or file), as described below.

2. If you want to monitor the force or moment on individual walls in a single printout,
plot, or file, turn on the Per Zone option. See below for details.

3. Choose the coefficient of interest by selecting Drag, Lift, or Moment in the Coefficient
drop-down list.

4. In the Wall Zones list, select the wall zone(s) on which the selected coefficient is
to be computed. If you are monitoring more than one coefficient, the selected wall
zones are often the same for each coefficient. If you want, however, you can have
each coefficient computed on a different set of zones.

5. Depending on the coefficient selected, do one of the following:

• If you are monitoring the drag or lift coefficient, enter the X, Y, and Z com-
ponents of the Force Vector along which the forces will be computed. The
Force Vector heading will appear only if you have selected Drag or Lift in the
Coefficient drop-down list. By default, drag is computed in the x direction
and lift in the y direction.
• If you are monitoring the moment coefficient, enter the Cartesian coordinates
(X, Y, and Z) of the Moment Center about which moments will be computed.
The Moment Center heading will appear only if you have selected Moment in
the Coefficient drop-down list. The default moment center is (0,0,0). You
will also need to specify which component of the moment vector you wish
to monitor. Presently, you can monitor only one component of the moment
vector at a time. Select X-Axis, Y-Axis, or Z-Axis in the About drop-down
list. (This list is active only if you have selected Moment in the Coefficient
drop-down list.) For two dimensional flows, only the moment vector about
the z-coordinate axis exists.

6. Click Apply and repeat the process for additional coefficients, if desired.

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Printing, Plotting, and Saving Force Coefficient Histories

There are three methods available for reporting the selected force coefficients. To print
the coefficient value(s) in the text (console) window after each iteration, turn on the
Print option under Options in the Force Monitors panel. To plot the coefficient in the
graphics window indicated in Plot Window, turn on the Plot option. If you want to save
the values to a file, turn on the Write option and specify the File Name. You can enable
any combination of these options simultaneously.

i If you choose not to save the force coefficient data in a file, this information
will be lost when you exit the current FLUENT session.
If you wish to display a plot of the current force-coefficient history, simply click the Plot
button.

Plot Parameters

If you choose to plot the force coefficients (either interactively during the solution or using
the Plot button after calculations are complete), there are several display parameters you
can modify.
In the Plot Window field, you can specify the ID of the graphics window in which the plot
for each force coefficient will be drawn. When FLUENT is iterating, the active graphics
window is temporarily set to this window to update the plot, and then returned to its
previous value. Thus, the force-coefficient plots can be maintained in separate windows
that do not interfere with other graphical postprocessing.
You can also modify the attributes of the plot axes and the coefficient curves. The same
attributes apply to all force-monitor plots. Click the Axes... or Curves... button to open
the Axes panel or Curves panel. See Sections 28.8.8 and 28.8.9 for details.

Monitoring Forces and Moments on Individual Walls

By default, FLUENT will compute and monitor the total force or moment for all of the
selected walls combined together. If you have selected multiple walls and you want to
monitor the force or moment on each wall separately, you can turn on the Per Zone option
in the Force Monitors panel. The specified force vector or moment axis will apply to all
selected walls.
If the monitor results are printed to the console (using the Print option), the force or
moment on each wall will be printed in a separate column. If the results are plotted
(using the Plot option), a separate curve for each wall will be drawn in the specified
plot window. If the results are written to a file (using the Write option), the file will
be in a tab-separated column format based on the XY plot file format described in
Section 28.8.5: XY Plot File Format.

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Discarding the Force-Monitoring Data

Should you decide that the data gathered by the force monitor are not useful (e.g., if you
are restarting the calculation or you changed one of the reference values), you can discard
the accumulated data by clicking on the Clear button. The Clear button will delete all
monitoring data for the coefficient selected in the Coefficient drop-down list, including
the associated history file (with the name in the File Name field). When you use the Clear
button, you will need to confirm the data discard in a Question dialog box. Only the
force-monitoring data is removed using this operation; the solution data is not affected.

25.18.4 Monitoring Surface Integrals

At the end of each solver iteration or time step, the average, mass average, integral,
flow rate, or other integral report of a field variable or function can be monitored on
a surface. You can print and plot these convergence data, and also save them in an
external file. The external file is written in the FLUENT XY plot file format described in
Section 28.8.5: XY Plot File Format. The report types available are the same as those
in the Surface Integrals panel, as described in Section 29.5: Surface Integration.
Monitoring surface integrals can be used to check for both iteration convergence and grid
independence. For example, you can monitor the average value of a certain variable on
a surface. When this value stops changing, you can stop iterating. You can then adapt
the grid and reconverge the solution. The solution can be considered grid-independent
when the average value on the surface stops changing between adaptions.

Overview of Defining Surface Monitors

You can use the Surface Monitors panel (Figure 25.18.5) to create surface monitors and
indicate whether and when each one’s history is to be printed, plotted, or saved. The
Define Surface Monitor panel (Figure 25.18.6), opened from the Surface Monitors panel,
allows you to define what each monitor tracks (i.e., the average, integral, flow rate, mass
average, or other integral report of a field variable or function on one or more surfaces).

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Defining Surface Monitors

You will begin the surface monitor definition procedure in the Surface Monitors panel
(Figure 25.18.5).
Solve −→ Monitors −→Surface...

Figure 25.18.5: The Surface Monitors Panel

The procedure is as follows:

1. Increase the Surface Monitors value to the number of surface monitors you wish
to specify. As this value is increased, additional monitor entries in the panel will
become editable. For each monitor, you will perform the following steps.

2. Enter a name for the monitor under the Name heading, and use the Plot, Print, and
Write check buttons to indicate the report(s) you want (plot, printout, or file), as
described below.

3. Indicate the frequency at which you want to plot, print, or write the surface monitor
by entering a number under Every. A default value of 1 will allow you to monitor
at every Iteration or Time Step.

4. Indicate whether you want to update the monitor every Iteration or every Time
Step by selecting the appropriate item in the drop-down list below When. Time
Step is a valid choice only if you are calculating unsteady flow. If you specify every
Iteration, and the Reporting Interval in the Iterate panel is greater than 1, the monitor
will be updated at every reporting interval instead of at each iteration (e.g., for a
reporting interval of 2, the monitor will be updated after every other iteration. If
the reporting interval is 2 and monitor frequency is at Every 3 Iterations, then the

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Using the Solver

monitoring will be done at multiples of six, which is the least common multiple of
the two numbers). If you specify every Time Step, the reporting interval will have
no effect; the monitor will always be updated after the specified number of time
steps.

5. Click the Define... button to open the Define Surface Monitor panel (Figure 25.18.6).
Since this is a modal panel, the solver will not allow you to do anything else until
you perform steps 5–10, below.

Figure 25.18.6: The Define Surface Monitor Panel

6. In the Define Surface Monitor panel, choose the integration method for the sur-
face monitor by selecting Integral, Standard Deviation, Flow Rate, Mass Flow Rate,
Volume Flow Rate, Area-Weighted Average, Mass-Weighted Average, Sum, Facet Av-
erage, Facet Minimum, Facet Maximum, Vertex Average, Vertex Minimum, or Vertex
Maximum in the Report Type drop-down list. These methods are described in Sec-
tion 29.5: Surface Integration.

7. In the Surfaces list, choose the surface or surfaces on which you wish to integrate.

8. Specify the variable or function to be integrated in the Report of drop-down list.

First select the desired category in the upper drop-down list. You can then select
one of the related quantities in the lower list. (See Chapter 30: Field Function
Definitions for an explanation of the variables in the list.)

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9. If you are plotting the data or writing them to a file, specify the parameter to be
used as the x-axis value (the y-axis value corresponds to the monitored data). In
the X Axis drop-down list, select Iteration, Time Step, or Flow Time as the x-axis
function against which monitored data will be plotted or written. Time Step and
Flow Time are valid choices only if you are calculating unsteady flow. If you choose
Time Step, the x axis of the plot will indicate the time step, and if you choose Flow
Time, it will indicate the elapsed time.

10. If you are plotting the monitored data, specify the ID of the graphics window in
which the plot will be drawn in the Plot Window field. When FLUENT is iterat-
ing, the active graphics window is temporarily set to this window to update the
plot, and then returned to its previous value. Thus, each surface-monitor plot can
be maintained in a separate window that does not interfere with other graphical
postprocessing.
In order to have multiple monitors display in a single graphics window, you can
set the Plot Window ID to correspond to the same ID for different monitors. This
is useful when you have multiple monitor displays on the screen, you can set all
monitors to the same display. For example, for three different monitors, you can
set the Plot Window ID to 0 for each of the different monitors in order to display
all three monitors in a single window. The name of the monitors (monitor-1.out,
etc.) will be different, but only the Plot Window ID will remain the same. So that
each monitor has data that is stored in a different file, but the data is displayed in
the same window.

i Note that surface and volume monitors cannot be displayed on the same
window.

i If multiple monitors are plotted in the same window, make sure you set an
axes range that can be applied to all the monitors. This axes range will
be the same for all the monitors in the shared plot window. Otherwise,
the most recently defined monitor, sharing the same window as the other
monitors, will determine the axes range. If the default option of Auto Range
is enabled for all the monitors sharing the same plot window, then the
default value for Minimum will be the minimum value of all the monitors,
and the default Maximum will be the maximum value of all the monitors.
Modifying plot attributes can be achieved by clicking the Curves and the
Axes button. See Sections 28.8.8 and 28.8.9 for details about plot options.
11. If you are writing the monitored data to a file, specify the File Name.

12. Remember to click OK in the Surface Monitors panel after you finish defining all
surface monitors.

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Using the Solver

Printing, Plotting, and Saving Surface Integration Histories

There are three methods available for reporting the selected surface integration. To print
the surface integration in the text (console) window after each iteration, turn on the
Print option in the Surface Monitors panel. To plot the integrated values in the graphics
window indicated in Plot Window (in the Define Surface Monitor panel), turn on the Plot
option in the Surface Monitors panel. If you want to save the values to a file, turn on
the Write option in the Surface Monitors panel and specify the File Name in the Define
Surface Monitor panel. You can enable any combination of these options simultaneously.

i If you choose not to save the surface integration data in a file, this infor-
mation will be lost when you exit the current FLUENT session.

Plot Parameters

You can modify the attributes of the plot axes and curves used for each surface-monitor
plot. Click the Axes... or Curves... button in the Define Surface Monitor panel for the
appropriate monitor to open the Axes panel or Curves panel for that surface-monitor plot.
See Sections 28.8.8 and 28.8.9 for details.

25.18.5 Monitoring Volume Integrals

At the end of each solver iteration or time step, the volume or the sum, volume integral,
volume average, mass integral, or mass average of a field variable or function can be
monitored in one or more cell zones. You can print and plot these convergence data, and
also save them in an external file. The external file is written in the FLUENT XY plot
file format described in Section 28.8.5: XY Plot File Format. The report types available
are the same as those in the Volume Integrals panel, as described in Section 29.6: Volume
Integration.
Monitoring volume integrals can be used to check for both iteration convergence and grid
independence. For example, you can monitor the average value of a certain variable in
a particular cell zone. When this value stops changing, you can stop iterating. You can
then adapt the grid and reconverge the solution. The solution can be considered grid-
independent when the average value in the cell zone stops changing between adaptions.

Overview of Defining Volume Monitors

You can use the Volume Monitors panel (Figure 25.18.7) to create volume monitors and
indicate whether and when each one’s history is to be printed, plotted, or saved. The
Define Volume Monitor panel (Figure 25.18.8), opened from the Volume Monitors panel,
allows you to define what each monitor tracks (i.e., the volume or the sum, integral, or
average of a field variable or function in one or more cell zones).

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Defining Volume Monitors

You will begin the volume monitor definition procedure in the Volume Monitors panel
(Figure 25.18.7).
Solve −→ Monitors −→Volume...

Figure 25.18.7: The Volume Monitors Panel

The procedure is as follows:

1. Increase the Volume Monitors value to the number of volume monitors you wish
to specify. As this value is increased, additional monitor entries in the panel will
become editable. For each monitor, you will perform the following steps.

2. Enter a name for the monitor under the Name heading, and use the Plot, Print, and
Write check buttons to indicate the report(s) you want (plot, printout, or file), as
described below.

3. Indicate the frequency at which you want to plot, print, or write the volume monitor
by entering a number under Every. A default value of 1 will allow you to monitor
at every Iteration or Time Step.

4. Indicate whether you want to update the monitor every Iteration or every Time
Step by selecting the appropriate item in the drop-down list below When. Time
Step is a valid choice only if you are calculating unsteady flow. If you specify every
Iteration, and the Reporting Interval in the Iterate panel is greater than 1, the monitor
will be updated at every reporting interval instead of at each iteration (e.g., for a
reporting interval of 2, the monitor will be updated after every other iteration. If
the reporting interval is 2 and monitor frequency is at Every 3 Iterations, then the

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Using the Solver

monitoring will be done at multiples of six, which is the least common multiple of
the two numbers). If you specify every Time Step, the reporting interval will have
no effect; the monitor will always be updated after the specified number of time
steps.

5. Click the Define... button to open the Define Volume Monitor panel (Figure 25.18.8).
Since this is a modal panel, the solver will not allow you to do anything else until
you perform steps 6–11, below.

Figure 25.18.8: The Define Volume Monitor Panel

6. In the Define Volume Monitor panel, choose the integration method for the volume
monitor by selecting Volume, Sum, Max, Min, Volume Integral, Volume-Average,
Mass Integral, or Mass-Average in the Report Type drop-down list. These methods
are described in Section 29.6: Volume Integration.

7. In the Cell Zones list, choose the cell zone(s) on which you wish to integrate.

8. Specify the variable or function to be integrated in the Field Variable drop-down

list. First select the desired category in the upper drop-down list. You can then
select one of the related quantities in the lower list. (See Chapter 30: Field Function
Definitions for an explanation of the variables in the list.)

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9. If you are plotting the data or writing them to a file, specify the parameter to be
used as the x-axis value (the y-axis value corresponds to the monitored data). In
the X Axis drop-down list, select Iteration, Time Step, or Flow Time as the x-axis
function against which monitored data will be plotted or written. Time Step and
Flow Time are valid choices only if you are calculating unsteady flow. If you choose
Time Step, the x axis of the plot will indicate the time step, and if you choose Flow
Time, it will indicate the elapsed time.

10. If you are plotting the monitored data, specify the ID of the graphics window in
which the plot will be drawn in the Plot Window field. When FLUENT is iterat-
ing, the active graphics window is temporarily set to this window to update the
plot, and then returned to its previous value. Thus, each volume-monitor plot can
be maintained in a separate window that does not interfere with other graphical
postprocessing.

11. If you are writing the monitored data to a file, specify the File Name.

12. Remember to click OK in the Volume Monitors panel after you finish defining all
volume monitors.

Printing, Plotting, and Saving Volume Integration Histories

There are three methods available for reporting the selected volume integration. To print
the volume integration in the text (console) window after each iteration, turn on the Print
option in the Volume Monitors panel. To plot the integrated values in the graphics window
indicated in Plot Window (in the Define Volume Monitor panel), turn on the Plot option
in the Volume Monitors panel. If you want to save the values to a file, turn on the Write
option in the Volume Monitors panel and specify the File Name in the Define Volume
Monitor panel. You can enable any combination of these options simultaneously.

i If you choose not to save the volume integration data in a file, this infor-
mation will be lost when you exit the current FLUENT session.

Plot Parameters

You can modify the attributes of the plot axes and curves used for each volume-monitor
plot. Click the Axes... or Curves... button in the Define Volume Monitor panel for the
appropriate monitor to open the Axes panel or Curves panel for that volume-monitor plot.
See Sections 28.8.8 and 28.8.9 for details.

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25.19 Executing Commands During the Calculation

As described in Sections 25.18 and 25.20.1, respectively, you can report and monitor
various quantities (e.g., residuals, force coefficients) and create animations of the solution
while the solver is performing calculations. FLUENT also includes a feature that allows
you to define your own command(s) to be executed during the calculation at specified
intervals. For example, you can ask FLUENT to export data to a third-party package
such as FIELDVIEW after every time step. You will specify a series of text commands or
use the GUI to define the steps to be performed.

i If you want to save case or data files at intervals during the calcu-
lation, you must use the Autosave Case/Data panel (opened with the
File/Write/Autosave... menu item). See Section 4.3.4: Automatic Saving of
Case and Data Files for details.

25.19.1 Specifying the Commands to be Executed

You will indicate the command(s) that you want the solver to execute at specified intervals
during the calculation using the Execute Commands panel (Figure 25.19.1).
Solve −→Execute Commands...

Figure 25.19.1: The Execute Commands Panel

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The procedure is as follows:

1. Increase the Defined Commands value to the number of commands you wish to
specify. As this value is increased, additional command entries will become editable.
For each command, you will perform the following steps.

2. Turn on the On check button next to the command if you want it to be executed
during the calculation. You may define multiple commands and choose to use only
a subset of them by turning off the check button for those that you do not wish to
use.

3. Enter a name for the command under the Name heading.

4. Indicate how often you want the command to be executed by setting the interval
under Every and selecting Iteration or Time Step in the drop-down list below When.
(Time Step is a valid choice only if you are calculating unsteady flow.) For example,
to execute the command every 10 iterations, you would enter 10 under Every and
select Iteration under When.

i If you specify an interval in iterations, be sure to keep the Reporting Interval

in the Iterate panel at its default value of 1.
5. Define the command by entering a series of text commands in the Command field,
or by entering the name of a command macro you have defined (or will define) as
described in Section 25.19.2: Defining Macros.

i If the command to be executed involves saving a file, see Sec-

tion 25.19.3: Saving Files During the Calculation for important informa-
tion.

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25.19.2 Defining Macros

Macros that you define for automatic execution during the calculation can also be used
interactively by you during the problem setup or postprocessing. For example, if you
define a macro that performs a certain type of adaption after each iteration, you can also
use the macro to perform this adaption interactively.
Definition of a macro is accomplished as follows:

1. In the Execute Commands panel, click the Define Macro... button to open the Define
Macro panel (Figure 25.19.2). Since this is a “modal” panel, the solver will not allow
you to do anything else until you perform step 2, below.

Figure 25.19.2: The Define Macro Panel

2. In the Define Macro panel, specify a Name for the macro (e.g., adapt1) and click
OK. (The Define Macro... button in the Execute Commands panel will become the
End Macro button.)

3. Perform the steps that you want the macro to perform. For example, if you want
the macro to perform gradient adaption, open the Gradient Adaption panel, specify
the appropriate adaption function and parameters, and click Adapt to perform the
adaption.

i If the command to be executed involves saving a file, see Sec-

tion 25.19.3: Saving Files During the Calculation for important informa-
tion.

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 25.20 Additional Options in the Solver Menu

4. When you have completed the steps you wish the macro to perform, click the End
Macro button in the Execute Commands panel.

As noted above, once you have defined a macro for execution during the calculation,
you can use it at any time. If you defined the macro called adapt1 to adapt based on
pressure gradient, you can simply type adapt1 in the console (text) window to perform
this adaption. This macro is independent of any text menus, so you need not move to
a different text menu to use it. Macros can be saved to and read from files. To save all
macros that are currently defined, use the file/write-macros text command. To read
all the macros in a macro file, use the file/read-macros text command.

i A macro, like a journal file, is a simple record/playback function. It will

therefore know nothing about the state in which it was recorded or the
state in which it is being played back. You must be careful not to change
directories while defining a macro. Also, you must be careful that all
surfaces, variables, etc. that are used by the macro have been properly
defined when you (or FLUENT) invoke the macro.

25.19.3 Saving Files During the Calculation

If the command to be executed during the calculation involves saving a file, you must
include a special character in the file name when you enter it in the Select File dialog box
so that the solver will know to assign a new name to each file it saves. You can number
the files by iteration number or by time step. (These special characters for numbering
files are also useful when you are saving window dumps for use in animations, as described
in Section 4.14.1: Window Dumps (UNIX Systems Only).) See Section 4.1.7: Automatic
Numbering of Files for details about these special characters for filenames.

i If you want to save case or data files at intervals during the calcu-
lation, you must use the Autosave Case/Data panel (opened with the
File/Write/Autosave... menu item). See Section 4.3.4: Automatic Saving of
Case and Data Files for details.

25.20 Additional Options in the Solver Menu

25.20.1 Animating the Solution
During the calculation, you can have FLUENT create an animation of contours, vectors,
XY plots, monitor plots (residual, statistic, force, surface, or volume), or the mesh (useful
primarily for moving mesh simulations). Before you begin the calculation, you will specify
and display the variables and types of plots you want to animate, and how often you want
plots to be saved. At the specified intervals, FLUENT will display the requested plots,
and store each one. When the calculation is complete, you can play back the animation

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sequence, modify the view (for grid, contour, and vector plots), if desired, and save the
animation to a series of hardcopy files or an MPEG file
Instructions for defining a solution animation sequence are provided in
Section 25.20.1: Defining an Animation Sequence. Sections 25.20.1 and 25.20.1 de-
scribe how to play back and save the animation sequences you have created, and Sec-
tion 25.20.1: Reading an Animation Sequence describes how to read a previously-saved
animation sequence into FLUENT.

Defining an Animation Sequence

You can use the Solution Animation panel (Figure 25.20.1) to create an animation sequence
and indicate how often each frame of the sequence should be created. The Animation
Sequence panel (Figure 25.20.2), opened from the Solution Animation panel, allows you
to define what each sequence displays (e.g., contours or vectors of a particular variable),
where it is displayed, and how each frame is stored.
You will begin the animation sequence definition in the Solution Animation panel (Fig-
ure 25.20.1).
Solve −→ Animate −→Define...

Figure 25.20.1: The Solution Animation Panel

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 25.20 Additional Options in the Solver Menu

The procedure is as follows:

1. Increase the Animation Sequences value to the number of animation sequences you
wish to specify. As this value is increased, additional sequence entries in the panel
will become editable. For each sequence, you will perform the following steps.

2. Enter a name for the sequence under the Name heading. This name will be used to
identify the sequence in the Playback panel, where you can play back the animation
sequences that you have defined or read in. This name will also be used as the
prefix for the file names if you save the sequence frames to disk.

3. Indicate how often you want to create a new frame in the sequence by setting the
interval under Every and selecting Iteration or Time Step in the drop-down list below
When. (Time Step is a valid choice only if you are calculating unsteady flow.) For
example, to create a frame every 10 time steps, you would enter 10 under Every
and select Time Step under When.

4. Click the Define... button to open the Animation Sequence panel (Figure 25.20.2).

Figure 25.20.2: The Animation Sequence Panel

5. Define the Sequence Parameters in the Animation Sequence panel.

(a) Specify whether you want FLUENT to save the animation sequence frames in
memory or on your computer’s hard drive. To save the animation sequence
in memory, select In Memory under Storage Type. To save the animation
sequence to your computer’s hard drive as a graphics metafile, select Metafile

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under Storage Type. To save the animation sequence to your computer’s hard
drive as a pixmap image, select PPM Image under Storage Type.

i Note that the FLUENT metafiles created for each frame in the animation
sequence contain information about the entire scene, not just the view that
is displayed in the plot. As a result, they can be quite large. By default,
the files will be stored to disk. If you do not want to use up disk space
to store them, you can instead choose to store them in memory. Storing
them in memory will, however, reduce the amount of memory available to
the solver. Note that the playback of a sequence stored in memory will be
faster than one stored to disk.

i An advantage to saving the animation sequence using the PPM Image op-
tion is that you can use the separate pixmap image files for the creation of
a single GIF file. GIF file creation can be done quickly with graphics tools
provided by other third-party graphics packages such as ImageMagick, i.e.,
animate or convert. For example, if you save the PPM files starting with
the string sequence-2, and you are using the ImageMagick software, you
can use the convert command with the -adjoin option to create a single
GIF file out of the sequence using the following command.
convert -adjoin sequence-2_00*.ppm sequence2.gif
(b) If you selected Metafile or PPM Image under Storage Type, specify the directory
where you want to store the files in the Storage Directory field. (This can be a
relative or absolute path.)
(c) Specify the ID of the graphics window where you want the plot to be displayed
in the Window field, and click Set. (The specified window will open, if it is not
already open.)
When FLUENT is iterating, the active graphics window is set to this window
to update the plot. If you want to maintain each animation in a separate
window, specify a different Window ID for each.

6. Define the display properties for the sequence.

(a) Under Display Type in the Animation Sequence panel, choose the type of display
you want to animate by selecting Grid, Contours, Pathlines, Particle Tracks,
Vectors, XY Plot, or Monitor. If you choose Monitor, you can select any of the
available types of monitor plots in the Monitor Type drop-down list: Residuals,
Force, Statistics, Surface, or Volume.
The first time that you select Contours, Vectors, or XY Plot, or one of the
monitor types if you select Monitor, FLUENT will open the corresponding
panel (e.g., the Contours panel or the Vectors panel) so you can modify the
settings and generate the display. To make subsequent modifications to the

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display settings for any of the display types, click the Properties... button to
open the panel for the selected Display Type.
(b) Define the display in the panel for the selected Display Type (e.g., the Contours
or Solution XY Plot panel), and click Display or Plot.

i You must click Display or Plot to initialize the scene to be repeated during
the calculation.
See below for guidelines on defining display properties for grid, contour, and
vector displays.

7. Remember to click OK in the Solution Animation panel after you finish defining all
animation sequences.

Note that, when you click OK in the Animation Sequence panel for a sequence, the Active
button for that sequence in the Solution Animation panel will be turned on automatically.
You can choose to use a subset of the sequences you have defined by turning off the Active
button for those that you currently do not wish to use.

Guidelines for Defining an Animation Sequence

If you are defining an animation sequence containing grid, contour, or vector displays,
note the following when you are defining the display:

• If you want to include lighting effects in the animation frames, be sure to define
the lights before you begin the calculation. See Section 28.2.6: Adding Lights for
information about adding lights to the display.

• If you want to maintain a constant range of colors in a contour or vector display, you
can specify a range explicitly by turning off the Auto Range option in the Contours
or Vectors panel. See Section 28.1.2: Specifying the Range of Magnitudes Displayed
or 28.1.3 for details.

• Scene manipulations that are specified using the Scene Description panel will not be
included in the animation sequence frames. View modifications such as mirroring
across a symmetry plan will be included.

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Playing an Animation Sequence

Once you have defined a sequence (as described in Section 25.20.1: Defining an Anima-
tion Sequence) and performed a calculation, or read in a previously created animation
sequence (as described in Section 25.20.1: Reading an Animation Sequence), you can play
back the sequence using the Playback panel (Figure 25.20.3).
Solve −→ Animate −→Playback...

Figure 25.20.3: The Playback Panel

Under Animation Sequences in the Playback panel, select the sequence you want to play
in the Sequences list. To play the animation once through from start to finish, click the
“play” button under the Playback heading. (The buttons function in a way similar to
those on a standard video cassette player. “Play” is the second button from the right—a
single triangle pointing to the right.) To play the animation backwards once, click the
“play reverse” button (the second from the left—a single triangle point to the left). As
the animation plays, the Frame scale shows the number of the frame that is currently
displayed, as well as its relative position in the entire animation. If, instead of playing the
complete animation sequence, you want to jump to a particular frame, move the Frame
slider bar to the desired frame number, and the frame corresponding to the new frame
number will be displayed in the graphics window.

i For smoother animations, turn on the Double Buffering option in the Display
Options panel (see Section 28.2.7: Modifying the Rendering Options). This
will reduce screen flicker during graphics updates.

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Additional options for playing back animations are described below.

Modifying the View

If you want to replay the animation sequence with a different view of the scene, you can
use your mouse to modify (e.g., translate, rotate, zoom) it in the graphics window where
the animation is displayed. Note that any changes you make to the view for an animation
sequence will be lost when you select a new sequence (or reselect the current sequence)
in the Sequences list.

Modifying the Playback Speed

Different computers will play the animation sequence at different speeds, depending on
the complexity of the scene and the type of hardware used for graphics. You may want
to slow down the playback speed for optimal viewing. Move the Replay Speed slider bar
to the left to reduce the playback speed (and to the right to increase it).

Playing Back an Excerpt

You may sometimes want to play only one portion of a long animation sequence. To do
this, you can modify the Start Frame and the End Frame under the Playback heading. For
example, if your animation contains 50 frames, but you want to play only frames 20 to
35, you can set Start Frame to 20 and End Frame to 35. When you play the animation,
it will start at frame 20 and finish at frame 35.

“Fast-Forwarding” the Animation

You can “fast-forward” or “fast-reverse” the animation by skipping some of the frames
during playback. To fast-forward the animation, you will need to set the Increment and
click the fast-forward button (the last button on the right—two triangles pointing to the
right). If, for example, your Start Frame is 1, your End Frame is 15, and your Increment
is 2, when you click the fast-forward button, the animation will show frames 1, 3, 5, 7,
9, 11, 13 and 15. Clicking on the fast-reverse button (the first button on the left—two
triangles pointing to the left) will show frames 15, 13, 11,...1.

Continuous Animation

If you want the playback of the animation to repeat continuously, there are two options
available. To continuously play the animation from beginning to end (or from end to
beginning, if you use one of the reverse play buttons), select Auto Repeat in the Playback
Mode drop-down list. To play the animation back and forth continuously, reversing the
playback direction each time, select Auto Reverse in the Playback Mode drop-down list.
To turn off the continuous playback, select Play Once in the Playback Mode list. This is
the default setting.

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Stopping the Animation

To stop the animation during playback, click the “stop” button (the square in the middle
of the playback control buttons). If your animation contains very complicated scenes,
there may be a slight delay before the animation stops.

Advancing the Animation Frame by Frame

To advance the animation manually frame by frame, use the third button from the right
(a vertical bar with a triangle pointing to the right). Each time you click this button,
the next frame will be displayed in the graphics window. To reverse the animation frame
by frame, use the third button from the left (a left-pointing triangle with a vertical
bar). Frame-by-frame playback allows you to freeze the animation at points that are of
particular interest.

Deleting an Animation Sequence

If you want to remove one of the sequences that you have created or read in, select it in
the Sequences list and click the Delete button. If you want to delete all sequences, click
the Delete All button.

i Note that if you delete a sequence that has not yet been saved to disk (i.e.,
if you selected In Memory under Storage Type in the Animation Sequence
panel), it will be removed from memory permanently. If you want to keep
any animation sequences that are stored only in memory, you should be
sure to save them (as described in Section 25.20.1: Saving an Animation
Sequence) before you delete them from the Sequences list or exit FLUENT.

Saving an Animation Sequence

Once you have created an animation sequence, you can save it in any of the following
formats:

• Solution animation file containing the FLUENT metafiles

• Hardcopy files, each containing a frame of the animation sequence

• MPEG file containing each frame of the animation sequence

Note that, if you are saving hardcopy files or an MPEG file, you can modify the view
(e.g., translate, rotate, zoom) in the graphics window where the animation is displayed,
and save the modified view instead of the original view.

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Solution Animation File

If you selected Metafile or PPM Image under Storage Type in the Animation Sequence
panel, then FLUENT will save the solution animation file for you automatically. It will
be saved in the specified Storage Directory, and its name will be the Name you specified
for the sequence, with a .cxa extension (e.g., pressure-contour.cxa). In addition to
the .cxa file, FLUENT will also save a metafile with a .hmf extension for each frame
(e.g., pressure-contour 0002.hmf). The .cxa file contains a list of the associated .hmf
files, and tells FLUENT the order in which to display them.
If you selected In Memory under Storage Type, then the solution animation file (.cxa)
and the associated metafiles (.hmf) will be lost when you exit from FLUENT, unless you
save them as described below.
You can save the animation sequence to a file that can be read back into FLUENT (see
Section 25.20.1: Reading an Animation Sequence) when you want to replay the animation.
As noted in Section 25.20.1: Reading an Animation Sequence, the solution animation file
can be used for playback in FLUENT independent of the case and data files that were
used to generate it.
To save a solution animation file (and the associated metafiles), select Animation Frames
in the Write/Record Format drop-down list in the Playback panel, and click the Write
button. FLUENT will save a .cxa file, as well as a .hmf file for each frame of the anima-
tion sequence. The filename for the .cxa file will be the specified sequence Name (e.g.,
pressure-contour.cxa), and the filenames for the metafiles will consist of the specified
sequence Name followed by a frame number (e.g., pressure-contour 0002.hmf). All of
the files (.cxa and .hmf) will be saved in the current working directory.

Hardcopy File

You can also generate a hardcopy file for each frame in the animation sequence. This
feature allows you to save your sequence frames to hardcopy files used by an external
animation program such as ImageMagick. As noted above, you can modify the view in
the graphics window before you save the hardcopy files.

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To save the animation as a series of hardcopy files, follow these steps:

1. Select Hardcopy Frames in the Write/Record Format drop-down list in the Playback
panel.

2. If necessary, click the Hardcopy Options... button to open the Graphics Hardcopy
panel and set the appropriate parameters for saving the hardcopy files. (If you
are saving hardcopy files for use with ImageMagick, for example, you may want
to select the window dump format. See Section 4.14.1: Window Dumps (UNIX
Systems Only) for details.) Click Apply in the Graphics Hardcopy panel to save your
modified settings.

i Do not click the Save... button in the Graphics Hardcopy panel. You will
save the hardcopy files from the Playback panel in the next step.
3. In the Playback panel, click the Write button. FLUENT will replay the anima-
tion, saving each frame to a separate file. The filenames will consist of the speci-
fied sequence Name followed by an animation sequence and a frame number (e.g.,
pressure-contour 1 0002.ps), and they will all be saved in the current working
directory.

MPEG File

It is also possible to save all of the frames of the animation sequence in an MPEG file,
which can be viewed using an MPEG decoder such as mpeg play. Saving the entire
animation to an MPEG file will require less disk space than storing individual window
dump files (using the hardcopy method), but the MPEG file will yield lower-quality
images.
As noted above, you can modify the view in the graphics window before you save the
MPEG file.
To save the animation to an MPEG file, follow these steps:

1. Select MPEG in the Write/Record Format drop-down list in the Playback panel.

2. Click the Write button.

FLUENT will replay the animation and save each frame to a separate scratch
file, and then it will combine all the files into a single MPEG file. The name
of the MPEG file will be the specified sequence Name with an .mpg extension (e.g.,
pressure-contour.mpg), and it will be saved in the current working directory.

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Reading an Animation Sequence

If you have saved an animation sequence to a solution animation file (as described in
Section 25.20.1: Saving an Animation Sequence), you can read that file back in at a later
time (or in a different session) and play the animation. Note that you can read a solution
animation file into any FLUENT session; you do not need to read in the corresponding
case and data files. In fact, you do not need to read in any case and data files at all
before you read a solution animation file into FLUENT.
To read a solution animation file, click the Read... button in the Playback panel. In the
resulting Select File dialog box, specify the name of the file to be read.

25.20.2 Importing and Exporting Particle History Data

FLUENT allows you to export particle history data as your solution progresses, and allows
you to import particle history data for display purposes.

Exporting Particle History Data

Particle history data can be exported for steady and unsteady flow solutions by selecting
the Export Particle Data... option under the Solve/Particle History menu.
Solve −→ Particle History −→Export Particle Data...
This displays the Export Particle Data panel (Figure 25.20.4).

Figure 25.20.4: The Export Particle Data Panel

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Steady Flow Solutions

After you have run a steady flow solution and acquired particle history data, export the
data by performing the following steps in the Export Particle Data panel:

1. Choose the Type of file you want to export by selecting one of the following:
• Standard for FIELDVIEW format
• EnSight format (not available when Unsteady Particle Tracking is enabled under
the Define/Models/Discrete Phase... menu option)
• Geometry for .ibl format

i If you plan to export particle data to EnSight, you should first verify that
you have already written the files associated with the EnSight Case Gold file
type by using the File/Export... menu option (see Section 4.12.9: EnSight
Case Gold Files).
2. Select an appropriate category and variable under Export Variables.

3. Select a predefined injection under Injections.

4. Specify the Particle File name / directory for the exported data, using the Browse...
button.

5. If you selected EnSight under Type, you will need to specify the Encas File name. Use
the Browse... button to select the .encas file that was created when you exported
the file with the File/Export... menu option. The selected file will be modified and
renamed as a new file that contains information about all of the related particle files
that are generated during the export process (including geometry, velocity, scalars,
particle and particle scalar files).
The name of the new file will be the root of the original file with .new appended to
it (e.g. if test.encas is selected, a file named test.new.encas will be written).
It is this new file that should be read into EnSight. If you do not make a selection
under Encas File, then you will need to create an appropriate .encas file manually.

6. If you selected EnSight under Type, you will need to enter the No. of Particle Time
Steps.

7. Click Write to export the data. If you are exporting to EnSight, data files will be
written in .mpg and .mscl formats at every time step.

8. Click Close to close the panel.

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Unsteady Flow Solutions

Before you have run an unsteady flow solution, you can set up the solver to export particle
history data as it iterates by performing the following steps in the Export Particle Data
panel:

1. Choose the Type of file you want to export by selecting one of the following:
• Standard for FIELDVIEW format
• EnSight format

i If you plan to export particle data to EnSight, you should first verify that
you have already written the files associated with EnSight Case Gold file
type by using the File/Export... menu option (see Section 4.12.9: EnSight
Case Gold Files).
2. Select an appropriate category and variable under Export Variables.

3. Specify an appropriate number under Frequency.

4. Select a predefined injection under Injections.

5. Specify the Particle File name / directory for the exported data, using the Browse...
button.

6. If you selected EnSight under Type, you will need to specify the Encas File name. Use
the Browse... button to select the .encas file that was created when you exported
the file with the File/Export... menu option. The selected file will be modified and
renamed as a new file that contains information about all of the related particle
files that are generated after every time step during the export process (including
geometry, velocity, scalars, particle and particle scalar files).
The name of the new file will be the root of the original file with .new appended to
it (e.g. if test.encas is selected, a file named test.new.encas will be written).
It is this new file that should be read into EnSight. If you do not make a selection
under Encas File, then you will need to create an appropriate .encas file manually.

7. Click Apply to save the settings.

8. Click Close to close the panel.

You may then run the solution using the Solve/Iterate... menu option. The particle data
will be exported as it is generated. If you are exporting to EnSight, data files will be
written in .mpg and .mscl formats at every time step.

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Importing Particle History Data

To import particle history data in order to display the data in the graphics window,
select the Import Particle Data... option under the Solve/Particle History menu.
Solve −→ Particle History −→Import Particle Data...
This displays the Import Particle Data panel (Figure 25.20.5).

Figure 25.20.5: The Import Particle Data Panel

1. Click Read... to display a file selection dialog box where you can enter a file name
and a directory that contains the imported data.

2. Choose from the available import options by selecting Auto Range and/or Draw
Grid under Options. If you prefer to restrict the range of the scalar field, turn off
the Auto Range option (under Options) and set the Min and Max values manually
beneath the Color by list.

3. Choose to color the particle pathlines by any of the scalar fields in the Color by list.

4. Select a pathline style under Style. To set pathline style attributes, click the Style
Attributes... button. For more information about the pathline style types, see
Section 28.1.4: Controlling the Pathline Style.

5. The value of Steps sets the maximum number of steps a particle can advance. A
particle will stop when it has traveled this number of steps or when it leaves the
domain.

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 25.21 Checking Your Case Setup

6. If your pathline plot is difficult to understand because there are too many paths
displayed, you can “thin out” the pathlines by changing the Skip value.

7. Click the Display button to draw the pathlines, or click the Pulse button to animate
the particle positions. The Pulse button will become the Stop ! button during the
animation, and you must click Stop ! to stop the pulsing.

8. Click Close to close the panel.

25.20.3 Managing Acoustic Signal Data

For simulations that include acoustic modeling, (e.g., the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings
model), the Solve menu includes the Acoustic Signals... option that allows you to compute
and save sound pressure signals.
Solve −→Acoustic Signals...
Details of this option and FLUENT’s acoustic models can be found in Chapter 21: Pre-
dicting Aerodynamically Generated Noise.

25.21 Checking Your Case Setup

After you have set up your case, and prior to solving it, you can check your case setup us-
ing the Case Check panel (Figure 25.21.1). This function provides you with guidance and
best practices when choosing case parameters and models. Your case will be checked for
compliance in the grid, models, boundary conditions, material properties, and solver cat-
egories. Established rules will be available for each category, with recommended changes
to your current settings. At your discretion, you may elect to apply the recommendations,
or keep your current settings.
To access the Case Check panel (Figure 25.21.1), go to
Solve −→Case Check...
If there are no problems with your case setup, then an information dialog box (Fig-
ure 25.21.2) will appear stating that no recommendations need to be made at this time,
otherwise, the Case Check panel will open.

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Figure 25.21.1: The Case Check Panel

Figure 25.21.2: The Information Dialog Box

In the Case Check panel, each of the tabs Grid, Models, Boundary Conditions, Material
Properties, and Solver may contain recommendations. For each of the tabs that are
enabled, best practices will be listed.
In some cases, the panel will be split based on the method that the recommendation is
applied. There are two ways you can apply the listed recommendations:

Automatic Implementation : FLUENT applies the change for you.

Manual Implementation : You will manually change your case settings.

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 25.21 Checking Your Case Setup

Automatic Implementation

To the left of each of the recommendations listed under Automatic Implementation (e.g.,
Figure 25.21.4), there is an enabled Apply check box. An enabled check box will result
in FLUENT applying the change to your case automatically. If there are some recom-
mendations that you do not want FLUENT to implement automatically, then click the
Apply check box to toggle off and disable the implementation of a particular recommen-
dation. After going through all the tabs and determining which rules you want applied
automatically, click the Apply button at the bottom of the panel. Changes to your set-
tings will be applied to all recommendations throughout the panel with an enabled Apply
check box. FLUENT will print a message in the console notifying you that the applied
recommendation has been implemented.
FLUENT will ask you if you want to save the case before proceeding to the next step. If
you choose Yes, the Select File dialog box will open allowing you to save your case with
the new settings. If you select No, all the changes made to the case file will be lost once
you exit FLUENT.

Manual Implementation

For recommendations that are listed under Manual Implementation, FLUENT cannot apply
the changes for you. Therefore, if you opt to make a change to your current settings,
based on the listed recommendations, then you will need to manually make the changes
by opening the affected panels and applying what was recommended.
To the right of the recommendations is a ?, which essentially acts as a help button,
leading you to related documentation on the specific topic.
Each of the case check rules are described in the following sections:

• Section 25.21.1: Checking the Grid

• Section 25.21.2: Checking Model Selections

• Section 25.21.3: Checking Boundary Conditions

• Section 25.21.4: Checking Material Properties

• Section 25.21.5: Checking the Solver Settings

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25.21.1 Checking the Grid

Figure 25.21.3: The Grid Tab in the Case Check Panel

The following recommendations appear under the Grid tab (Figure 25.21.3):

• Check your grid.

If you have not already checked your grid, it is best practice that you do so imme-
diately after reading in your mesh, or after any grid modification. To check your
grid go to
Grid −→Check
Checking the grid will help you detect any grid trouble before you get started with
your problem setup. You can learn more about the information obtained when
checking your grid, by going to Section 6.5: Checking the Grid.

• Preview zone motion and mesh motion before beginning the simulation.
After setting up your case using the Dynamic Mesh model, it is worth while to
preview your mesh prior to running your simulation. You can preview Zone Motion
using the GUI command
Display −→Zone Motion...

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To preview the Mesh Motion, go to

Solve −→Mesh Motion...
It is important that you preview zone motion first and then mesh motion. Zone
motion shows the motion of all dynamic zones with the prescribed rigid body
motion, using the graphics library. It is a very fast process and does not alter the
mesh. Previewing the zone motion will show you if the motion is setup properly
(e.g. zones moving in the wrong direction or rotating about the wrong center). It
is much more difficult to detect these problems with mesh motion because small
time steps are performed and no continuous animation is shown.
Mesh motion should always be done for dynamic mesh cases with prescribed mo-
tion. Mesh motion will only show the validity of the mesh during the simulation.
Mesh deformation and dynamic zones without rigid body motion will be considered
during a mesh motion preview.
Both the Mesh Motion and Zone Motion panels will have a Preview button which
will allow you to view the mesh or zone motion prior to running your case. You
can obtain more information on mesh motion and zone motion by going to Sec-
tion 11.7.3: Previewing the Dynamic Mesh.

• Translate the mesh for axisymmetric geometry containing nodes below the x-axis.
If either Axisymmetric or Axisymmetric Swirl is specified in the Solver panel and there
are mesh nodes that fall below the X-axis, then it is recommended that you translate
the grid. Nodes below the x axis are forbidden for axisymmetric cases, since the
axisymmetric cell volumes are created by rotating the 2D cell volume about the x
axis; thus nodes below the x axis would create negative volumes. To find out if there
are any nodes that lie below the x-axis, perform a grid check (Section 6.5: Checking
the Grid). For information on translating the grid, see Section 6.8.11: Translating
the Grid. To access the Grid Translate panel, go to
Grid −→Translate...

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25.21.2 Checking Model Selections

Figure 25.21.4: The Models Tab in the Case Check Panel

The following recommendations appear under the Models tab (Figure 25.21.4):

• Consider realizable k-epsilon in lieu of the standard k-epsilon turbulence model.

The realizable k- model is a more recent development of the standard k- model
and differs from it in that the realizable k- model contains a new formulation for
the turbulent viscosity, as well as a new transport equation for the dissipation rate,
, derived from an exact equation for the transport of the mean-square vorticity
fluctuation.
realizable k- model means that the model satisfies certain mathematical constraints
on the Reynolds stresses, consistent with the physics of turbulent flows. For more
information on the standard k- model and the realizable k- model, visit Sec-
tion 12.4.1: Standard k- Model and Section 12.4.3: Realizable k- Model, respec-
tively.
Define −→ Models −→Viscous...
For information on all k- model options, go to Section 12.4: Standard, RNG, and
Realizable k- Models Theory.

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 25.21 Checking Your Case Setup

• Change the under-relaxation factor for the mixing plane model to 1.0.
If you have created a mixing plane, set the Under-Relaxation in the Mixing Plane
panel to 1. Look under Global Parameters in Section 10.10.2: Setting Up the
Mixing Plane Model for information about the mixing plane under-relaxation.
Define −→Mixing Planes...

• Enable the smoothing option for dynamic mesh simulations when remeshing.
When your case involves the use of dynamic meshes and remeshing is enabled, then
it is recommended that you also perform smoothing on the mesh. For a complete
discussion of smoothing and remeshing, see Section 11.7.1: Setting Dynamic Mesh
Modeling Parameters.
Define −→ Dynamic Mesh −→Parameters...

• Disable species inlet diffusion for laminar flow with species transport.
By default, FLUENT includes the diffusion flux of species at inlets. In some cases
involving species transport and laminar flow, it is recommended that the Inlet Dif-
fusion option in the Species Model panel is disabled. For example,
– If you wish to include only the convective transport of species through the
inlets of your domain.
– If at one of the inlets, the convective flux is very small, resulting in mass loss
by diffusion through the inlet.
Define −→ Models −→ Species −→Transport & Reaction...
For more information about diffusion at inlets, go to Section 14.1.5: Defining Bound-
ary Conditions for Species.

• Include turbulence interaction for the NOx model.

When running thermal NOx simulations and your flow is turbulent, then be sure
to set the NOx Turbulence Interaction Mode.
Define −→ Models −→ Species −→NOx...
In turbulent combustion calculations, FLUENT solves the density-weighted time-
averaged Navier-Stokes equations for temperature, velocity, and species concen-
trations or mean mixture fraction and variance. Methods of modeling the mean
turbulent reaction rate can be based on either moment methods or probability
density function (PDF) techniques. FLUENT uses the PDF approach.
For information about Turbulence Interaction Modes, refer to Section 20.1.9: The
Turbulence-Chemistry Interaction Model. To learn about how this feature is set
up, go to Section 20.1.10: Setting Turbulence Parameters.

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Using the Solver

25.21.3 Checking Boundary Conditions

Figure 25.21.5: The Boundary Conditions Tab in the Case Check Panel

The following recommendations appear under the Boundary Conditions tab (Figure 25.21.5):

• Apply an axis boundary on the centerline (x-axis).

For geometry that is axisymmetric or axisymmetric swirl (as set in the Solver panel),
the centerline (x-axis) boundary type should be set to axis. See Section 7.16: Axis
Boundary Conditions.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

• Change inlet boundary conditions. Velocity inlet boundary conditions are not compatible
with compressible flow.
This boundary condition is intended for incompressible flows, and its use in com-
pressible flows will lead to a nonphysical result because it allows stagnation condi-
tions to float to any level (see Section 7.4: Velocity Inlet Boundary Conditions). If
you decide to select a different boundary type, go to the Boundary Conditions panel.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

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 25.21 Checking Your Case Setup

• Change outlet boundary conditions. A combination of pressure and outflow boundaries

is not compatible.
Outflow boundary conditions in FLUENT are used to model flow exits where the
details of the flow velocity and pressure are not known prior to solution of the flow
problem. One of the limitations when using outflow boundary conditions is that
outflow boundary conditions are not compatible with pressure inlets. Therefore, it
is recommended that you use velocity or mass flow inlets instead of pressure inlets
when used in combination with outflow boundaries. See Section 7.10: Outflow
Boundary Conditions for a list of limitations that exist with outflow boundaries.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

• Change outlet boundary conditions. Outflow boundary conditions are not compatible
with the ideal gas law for density.
Outflow boundaries cannot be used if you are modeling unsteady flows with varying
density, even if the flow is incompressible. See Section 7.10: Outflow Boundary
Conditions for more limitations that exist with outflow boundaries.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

• Non-zero operating pressure set. This will be added to gauge pressure inputs.
For cases that have density specified as the ideal gas law, and the operating pressure
is greater than zero, the operating pressure will be added to the gauge pressure to
yield the absolute pressure. For more information, see Sections 8.3.6 and 8.14.2.
Define −→Operating Conditions...

• Apply positive non-zero pressure boundary conditions when using the ideal gas law for
density.
In compressible flows, isentropic relations for an ideal gas are applied to relate total
pressure, static pressure, and velocity at a pressure inlet boundary. Your input of
total pressure, p00 , at the inlet and the static pressure, p0s , in the adjacent fluid cell
are related, as described in Equations 7.3-6 and 7.3-7 of Section 7.3.3: Calculation
Procedure at Pressure Inlet Boundaries. It is recommended that pressure boundary
conditions are not set to zero for compressible flows that use the ideal gas law.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

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Using the Solver

• Review turbulence specifications at flow boundaries. Default values detected.

If your case setup has any of the turbulence models enabled, be sure to review the
default parameters for the K and Epsilon Turbulence Specification Method in the out-
let and inlet boundary conditions. FLUENT’s default parameters for the Backflow
Turb. Kinetic Energy and Backflow Turb. Dissipation Rate are 1. You can either
adjust the values, or select a different Turbulence Specification Method. For gen-
eral information turbulence parameters, see Section 7.2.2: Determining Turbulence
Parameters.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

• Assign a non-zero wall thickness for wall boundaries with shell conduction.
When the Shell Conduction option is enabled in the Wall boundary condition panel,
FLUENT will compute heat conduction within the wall, in addition to conduction
across the wall. therefore, you must specify a non-zero Wall Thickness in the Wall
panel, because the shell conduction model is relevant only for walls with non-zero
thickness. See Section 7.13.1: Shell Conduction in Thin-Walls for information on
shell conduction in thin walls.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

• Assign a value of 0 or 1 for VOF at the inlet or outlet boundary conditions.

When enabling the VOF model, the Volume Fraction in the inlet and outlet bound-
ary conditions for each phase should be set either to 0 or 1. No intermediate
values are permitted. For general information on boundary condition setup, see
Section 23.9.8: Defining Multiphase Boundary Conditions.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

• Change the outlet boundary condition. Outflow boundary condition is not compatible
with current multiphase settings.
You cannot assign an outflow boundary conditions when using the mixture and
Eulerian multiphase models. Note the limitations of this boundary condition in
Section 7.10: Outflow Boundary Conditions. FLUENT can model the effects of
open channel flow using the VOF formulation. In such a case, outflow boundary
conditions can be used at the outlet of open channel flows, to model flow exits where
the details of the flow velocity and pressure are not known prior to solving the flow
problem. See Section 23.3.9: Open Channel Flow, under the heading Outflow
Boundary, for more information.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

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 25.21 Checking Your Case Setup

• Review wall motion. Stationary wall motion relative to adjacent cell zone detected.
In cases where the fluid zone motion type is specified as Moving Mesh or Moving
Reference Frame, all wall zones should be set to Moving Wall in the Momentum
tab of the Wall boundary conditions panel. The wall motion should be defined
Relative to Adjacent Cell Zone. The exception to this is if the walls are stationary
in the absolute frame. To define wall motion, see Section 7.13.1: Inputs at Wall
Boundaries.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

• Assign non-zero velocities when specifying a moving fluid zone.

If selecting either Moving Mesh or Moving Reference Frame in the Fluid boundary
condition panel, be sure to set non-zero values for the rotational and translational
velocities. Refer to Section 7.17.1: Defining Zone Motion for user inputs.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

• Review flow specifications at inlet boundaries. Default values detected.

For mass-flow-inlet and velocity-inlet boundary conditions, the default values in FLU-
ENT are 1kg/s and 0m/s, respectively. Review the settings and adjust accordingly.
See Sections 7.4.2 and 7.5.2 for default parameters of velocity inlets and mass flow
inlets, respectively.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...

25.21.4 Checking Material Properties

The following recommendations appear under the Material Properties tab (Figure 25.21.6):

• Assign individual fluid Cps to polynomial functions of temperature.

For cases with species transport and volumetric reactions, it is best practice to
specify the specific heat capacity Cp as a polynomial that is a function of tempera-
ture. See Sections 14.1.4 and 8.7.2 for information on defining material properties
for the species in the mixture.
Define −→Materials...

• Assign a non-zero value for the density when selecting boussinesq.

The Boussinesq model is used for natural convection problems involving small
changes in temperature. To enable the Boussinesq approximation for density,
choose boussinesq from the Density drop-down list in the Materials panel and spec-
ify a constant value for Density. See Section 8.3.3: Inputs for the Boussinesq
Approximation.
Define −→Materials...

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Using the Solver

Figure 25.21.6: The Material Properties Tab in the Case Check Panel

• Review the absorption coefficient. Default value detected.

If any of the radiation models are enabled. Enter an absorption coefficient for the
material listed (Section 8.8: Radiation Properties).
Define −→Materials...

• Assign a non-zero thermal expansion coefficient when selecting the Boussinesq density
model.
When selecting boussinesq to describe the density of your material, be sure to enter
a valid thermal expansion coefficient for your material. For detailed information
on the Boussinesq model, see Section 13.2.5: The Boussinesq Model.
Define −→Materials...

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 25.21 Checking Your Case Setup

25.21.5 Checking the Solver Settings

Figure 25.21.7: The Solver Tab in the Case Check Panel

The following recommendations appear under the Solver tab (Figure 25.21.7):

• Enable the unsteady solver option when selecting moving mesh for the fluid boundary.
If the motion type of the fluid boundary condition is specified as Moving Mesh,
then your case should be specified as transient in the Solver panel. Visit Sec-
tion 11.4.2: Setting Up the Problem for steps on setting up moving mesh problem.
Define −→ Models −→Solver...

• Assign node-based gradient reconstruction.

The node-based averaging scheme is known to be more accurate than the default
cell-based scheme for unstructured meshes, most notably for triangular and tetrahe-
dral meshes. Therefore, it is recommended that node-based gradient reconstruction
is used. See Section 25.3.3: Evaluation of Gradients and Derivatives for more in-
formation on gradient options.
Define −→ Models −→Solver

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Using the Solver

• Change the under-relaxation factor for the energy equation to at least 0.90.
It is recommended to set the energy under-relaxation factor between 0.90 and 1.0.
If you decide to apply this recommendation, then FLUENT will automatically set
the energy under-relaxation factor to 0.90. If you want to increase this value, you
can manually make the change by going to the Solution Controls panel. See Sec-
tion 13.2.3: Solution Strategies for Heat Transfer Modeling for the under-relaxation
of the energy equation.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

• Review reference values for non-dimensionalized force coefficients computed with force
monitors.
If force monitors are activated, be sure to update the reference panel. See Sec-
tion 25.18.3: Monitoring Forces and Moments.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

• Increase the NOx under-relaxation factor to at least 0.90.

If the NOx model is enabled, set the NOx under-relaxation factor to a value of
at least 0.90 to fully converge the solution. Note that the under-relaxation factor
could be lower at the start of the run, but can then be increased after an initial
solution is obtained. If you decide to apply this recommendation, then FLUENT
will automatically set the NOx under-relaxation factor to 0.90. If you want to
increase this value, you can manually make the change by going to the Solution
Controls panel. See Section 20.1.10: Using the NOx Model.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

• Increase the radiation under-relaxation factor to at least 0.90.

If any of the radiation models is enabled, set the radiation under-relaxation factor
to a value of at least 0.90 to fully converge the solution. Note that the under-
relaxation factor could be lower at the start of the run, but can then be increased
after an initial solution is obtained. If you decide to apply this recommendation,
then FLUENT will automatically set the radiation under-relaxation factor to 0.90.
If you want to increase this value, you can manually make the change by going to
the Solution Controls panel. See Section 13.3.16: Solution Strategies for Radiation
Modeling.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

• Increase the species and energy under-relaxation factors to at least 0.90.

For a case with species transport and energy defined, set the species and energy
under-relaxation factors to a value of at least 0.90. If you decide to apply this
recommendation, then FLUENT will automatically set the species and energy under-
relaxation factors to 0.90. If you want to increase this value, you can manually

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 25.21 Checking Your Case Setup

make the change by going to the Solution Controls panel.See Section 14.1.7: Solution
Procedures for Chemical Mixing and Finite-Rate Chemistry.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

• Assign a value of 1 for the under-relaxation factor for unsteady DPM with 1 DPM
update per time step.
It is recommended that the DPM under-relaxation factor be set to 1 for unsteady
DPM with 1 DPM update per time step.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

• Increase the mean mixture fraction under-relaxation factor to at least 0.90.

If the non-premixed or partially premixed combustion models are enabled, then it
is best to set the mean mixture under-relaxation factor to a value of at least 0.90 to
ensure full convergence. If you decide to apply this recommendation, then FLUENT
will automatically set the mean mixture under-relaxation factor to 0.90. If you
want to increase this value, you can manually make the change by going to the
Solution Controls panel. See Section 15.16.4: Solving the Flow Problem.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

• Consider using higher order discretization for improved accuracy of the final solution.
First-order discretization may be used in the initial solution.
It is generally advisable to obtain an initial solution using first-order accurate dis-
cretization, however, second order discretization is recommended for improved ac-
curacy of the final solution. See Section 25.8: Choosing the Discretization Scheme
for more information on discretization schemes.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

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Using the Solver

25.22 Convergence and Stability

Convergence can be hindered by a number of factors. Large numbers of computational
cells, overly conservative under-relaxation factors, and complex flow physics are often the
main causes. Sometimes it is difficult to know whether you have a converged solution.
In the following sections, some of the numerical controls and modeling techniques that
can be exercised to enhance convergence and maintain stability are examined.

• Section 25.22.1: Judging Convergence

• Section 25.22.2: Step-by-Step Solution Processes

• Section 25.22.3: Modifying Algebraic Multigrid Parameters

• Section 25.22.4: Modifying the Multi-Stage Parameters

You should also refer to Sections 25.8 and 25.9.1 for information about how the choice of
discretization scheme or (for the pressure-based solver) pressure-velocity coupling scheme
can affect convergence. Manipulation of under-relaxation parameters and multigrid set-
tings to enhance convergence is discussed in Sections 25.9.2 and 25.22.3.

25.22.1 Judging Convergence

There are no universal metrics for judging convergence. Residual definitions that are
useful for one class of problem are sometimes misleading for other classes of problems.
Therefore it is a good idea to judge convergence not only by examining residual levels, but
also by monitoring relevant integrated quantities such as drag or heat transfer coefficient.
For most problems, the default convergence criterion in FLUENT is sufficient. This cri-
terion requires that the scaled residuals defined by Equation 25.18-4 or 25.18-9 decrease
to 10−3 for all equations except the energy and P-1 equations, for which the criterion is
10−6 .
Sometimes, however, this criterion may not be appropriate. Typical situations are listed
below.

• If you make a good initial guess of the flow field, the initial continuity residual may
be very small leading to a large scaled residual for the continuity equation. In such
a situation it is useful to examine the unscaled residual and compare it with an
appropriate scale, such as the mass flow rate at the inlet.

• For some equations, such as for turbulence quantities, a poor initial guess may
result in high scale factors. In such cases, scaled residuals will start low, increase as
non-linear sources build up, and eventually decrease. It is therefore good practice
to judge convergence not just from the value of the residual itself, but from its

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 25.22 Convergence and Stability

behavior. You should ensure that the residual continues to decrease (or remain
low) for several iterations (say 50 or more) before concluding that the solution has
converged.

Another popular approach to judging convergence is to require that the unscaled residuals
drop by three orders of magnitude. FLUENT provides residual normalization for this
purpose, as discussed in Section 25.18.1: Definition of Residuals for the Pressure-Based
Solver, where residuals are defined for both the pressure-based solver and the density-
based solver. In this approach the convergence criterion is that the normalized unscaled
residuals should drop to 10−3 . However, this requirement may not be appropriate in
many cases:

• If you have provided a very good initial guess, the residuals may not drop three
orders of magnitude. In a nearly-isothermal flow, for example, energy residuals
may not drop three orders if the initial guess of temperature is very close to the
final solution.

• If the governing equation contains non-linear source terms which are zero at the
beginning of the calculation and build up slowly during computation, the residuals
may not drop three orders of magnitude. In the case of natural convection in
an enclosure, for example, initial momentum residuals may be very close to zero
because the initial uniform temperature guess does not generate buoyancy. In such
a case, the initial nearly-zero residual is not a good scale for the residual.

• If the variable of interest is nearly zero everywhere, the residuals may not drop
three orders of magnitude. In fully-developed flow in a pipe, for example, the
cross-sectional velocities are zero. If these velocities have been initialized to zero,
initial (and final) residuals are both close to zero, and a three-order drop cannot
be expected.

In such cases, it is wise to monitor integrated quantities, such as drag or overall heat
transfer coefficient, before concluding that the solution has converged. It may also be
useful to examine the un-normalized unscaled residual, and determine if the residual is
small compared to some appropriate scale. Alternatively, the scaled residual defined by
Equation 25.18-4 or 25.18-9 (the default) may be considered.
Conversely, it is possible that if the initial guess is very bad, the initial residuals are
so large that a three-order drop in residual does not guarantee convergence. This is
specially true for k and  equations where good initial guesses are difficult. Here again
it is useful to examine overall integrated quantities that you are particularly interested
in. If the solution is unconverged, you may drop the convergence tolerance, as described
in Section 25.18.1: Modifying Convergence Criteria.

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Using the Solver

25.22.2 Step-by-Step Solution Processes

One important technique for speeding convergence for complex problems is to tackle the
problem one step at a time. When modeling a problem with heat transfer, you can begin
with the calculation of the isothermal flow. To solve turbulent flow, you might start
with the calculation of laminar flow. When modeling a reacting flow, you can begin by
computing a partially converged solution to the non-reacting flow, possibly including the
species mixing. When modeling a discrete phase, such as fuel evaporating from droplets,
it is a good idea to solve the gas-phase flow field first. Such solutions generally serve as a
good starting point for the calculation of the more complex problems. These step-by-step
techniques involve using the Solution Controls panel to turn equations on and off.

Selecting a Subset of the Solution Equations

FLUENT automatically solves each equation that is turned on using the Models family of
panels. If you specify in the Viscous Model panel that the flow is turbulent, equations for
conservation of turbulence quantities are turned on. If you specify in the Energy panel
that FLUENT should enable energy, the energy equation is activated. Convergence can
be sped up by focusing the computational effort on the equations of primary importance.
The Equations list in the Solution Controls panel allows you to turn individual equations
on or off temporarily.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
A typical example is the computation of a flow with heat transfer. Initially, you will define
the full problem scope, including the thermal boundary conditions and temperature-
dependent flow properties. Following the problem setup, you will use the Solution Controls
panel to temporarily turn off the energy equation. You can then compute an isothermal
flow field, remembering to set a reasonable initial value for the temperature of the fluid.

i This is possible only for the pressure-based solver; the density-based solver
solves the energy equation together with the flow equations in a coupled
manner, so you cannot turn off the energy equation as described above.

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 25.22 Convergence and Stability

When the isothermal flow is reasonably well converged, you can turn the energy equation
back on. You can actually turn off the momentum and continuity equations while the
initial energy field is being computed. When the energy field begins to converge well,
you can turn the momentum and continuity equations back on so that the flow pattern
can adjust to the new temperature field. The temperature will couple back into the flow
solution by its impact on fluid properties such as density and viscosity. The temperature
field will have no effect on the flow field if the fluid properties (e.g., density, viscosity)
do not vary with temperature. In such cases, you can compute the energy field without
turning the flow equations back on again.

i If you have specified temperature-dependent flow properties, you should be

sure that a realistic value has been set for temperature throughout the do-
main before disabling calculation of the energy equation. If an unrealistic
temperature value is used, the flow properties dependent on temperature
will also be unrealistic, and the flow field will be adversely affected. In-
structions for initializing the temperature field or patching a temperature
field onto an existing solution are provided in Section 25.14: Initializing
the Solution.

Turning Reactions On and Off

To solve a species mixing problem prior to solving a reacting flow, you should set up the
problem including all of the reaction information, and save the complete case file. To
turn off the reaction so that only the species mixing problem can be solved, you can use
the Species Model panel to turn off the Volumetric option under Reactions.
Define −→ Models −→ Species −→Transport & Reaction...
Once the species mixing problem has partially converged, you can return to the Species
Model panel and turn the Volumetric Reactions option on again. You can then resume
the calculation starting from the partially converged data.
For combustion problems you may want to patch a hot temperature in the vicinity of the
anticipated reactions before you restart the calculation. See Section 25.14.2: Patching
Values in Selected Cells for information about patching an initial value for a flow variable.

25.22.3 Modifying Algebraic Multigrid Parameters

The default algebraic multigrid settings are appropriate for nearly all problems, but in
rare cases you may need to make minor adjustments. Section 25.11: Setting Algebraic
Multigrid Parameters describes how to analyze the multigrid solver’s performance to
determine which parameters should be modified. It also provides examples of suggested
settings for particular types of problems and explains how to set the multigrid parameters.

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Using the Solver

25.22.4 Modifying the Multi-Stage Parameters

It is possible to make several changes to the multi-stage time-stepping scheme itself. See
Section 25.13: Changing the Multi-Stage Scheme for detailed information.

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Chapter 26. Adapting the Grid

The solution-adaptive mesh refinement feature of FLUENT allows you to refine and/or
coarsen your grid based on geometric and numerical solution data. In addition, FLU-
ENT provides tools for creating and viewing adaption fields customized to particular
applications. The adaption process is described in detail in the following sections.

• Section 26.1: Using Adaption

• Section 26.2: Static Adaption Process

• Section 26.3: Boundary Adaption

• Section 26.4: Gradient Adaption

• Section 26.5: Dynamic Gradient Adaption

• Section 26.6: Isovalue Adaption

• Section 26.7: Region Adaption

• Section 26.8: Volume Adaption

• Section 26.9: Yplus/Ystar Adaption

• Section 26.10: Geometry-Based Adaption

• Section 26.11: Registers

• Section 26.12: Grid Adaption Controls

• Section 26.13: Improving the Grid by Smoothing and Swapping

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Adapting the Grid

26.1 Using Adaption

Two significant advantages of the unstructured mesh capability in FLUENT are:

• Reduced setup time compared to structured grids.

• Ability to incorporate solution-adaptive refinement of the mesh.

By using solution-adaptive refinement, you can add cells where they are needed in the
mesh, thus enabling the features of the flow field to be better resolved. When adaption
is used properly, the resulting mesh is optimal for the flow solution because the solution
is used to determine where more cells need to be added. Thus, computational resources
are not wasted by the inclusion of unnecessary cells, as it occurs in the structured grid
approach. Also, the effect of mesh refinement on the solution can be studied without
completely regenerating the mesh.

Note: When you perform mesh adaption in a parallel computation, a load balancing step
will be performed by FLUENT by default.

You can turn off the automatic load balancing using the following TUI command:

(disable-load-balance-after-adaption)

To return to the default behavior, use the following command:

(enable-load-balance-after-adaption)

The automatic load balancing will not occur in conjunction with dynamic adaption. See
Section 26.5: Dynamic Gradient Adaption for information on dynamic adaption, and
Section 31.6.2: Load Balancing for information on load balancing in parallel FLUENT.

26.1.1 Adaption Example

An example of effective use of adaption is in the solution of the compressible, turbulent
flow through a 2D turbine cascade. The initial mesh around the blade is fine as shown
in Figure 26.1.1. The surface node distribution thus provides adequate definition of
the blade geometry, and enables the turbulent boundary layer to be properly resolved
without further adaption. On the other hand, the mesh on the inlet, outlet, and periodic
boundaries is comparatively coarse. To ensure that the flow in the blade passage is
appropriately resolved, solution-adaptive refinement was used to create the mesh shown
in Figure 26.1.2.

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 26.1 Using Adaption

Grid

Figure 26.1.1: Turbine Cascade Mesh Before Adaption

Grid

Figure 26.1.2: Turbine Cascade Mesh after Adaption

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Adapting the Grid

Although the procedure for solution adaption will vary according to the flow being solved,
the adaption process used for the turbine cascade is described in this example. Though
this example involves compressible flow, the general procedure is applicable for incom-
pressible flows as well.

1. Display contours of pressure adaption function to determine a suitable refinement

threshold (see Section 26.4: Gradient Adaption).

2. “Mark” the cells within the refinement threshold, creating a refinement register
(see Sections 26.11 and 26.4).

3. Repeat the process described in steps 1 and 2, using gradients of Mach number as
a refinement criterion.

4. To refine in the wake region, use isovalues of total pressure as a criterion (see
Section 26.6: Isovalue Adaption). This causes cells within the boundary layer and
the wake to be marked, since these are both regions of high total-pressure loss.

5. Use the Manage Adaption Registers panel to combine the three refinement registers
into a single register (see Section 26.11.1: Manipulating Adaption Registers).

6. Limit the minimum cell volume for adaption to prevent the addition of cells within
the boundary layer, where the mesh was judged to be fine enough already (see
Section 26.12: Grid Adaption Controls).

7. Refine the cells contained in the resulting adaption register (see Section 26.11.1: Ma-
nipulating Adaption Registers).

8. Perform successive smoothing and swapping iterations using the Smooth/Swap Grid
panel (see Section 26.13: Improving the Grid by Smoothing and Swapping). This
step is recommended if you are using conformal adaption.

The effect of refining on gradients is evident in the finer mesh ahead of the leading edge
of the blade and within the blade passage (Figure 26.1.2). The finer mesh in the wake
region is due to the adaption using isovalues of total pressure.

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 26.1 Using Adaption

26.1.2 Adaption Guidelines

The advantages of solution-adaptive refinement, when used properly as in the turbine
cascade example in Section 26.1.1: Adaption Example, are significant. However, this
capability must be used carefully to avoid certain pitfalls. Some guidelines for proper
usage of solution-adaptive refinement are as follows:

• The surface mesh must be fine enough to adequately represent the important fea-
tures of the geometry.
For example, it would be bad practice to place too few nodes on the surface of a
highly-curved airfoil, and then use solution refinement to add nodes on the surface.
The surface will always contain the facets contained in the initial mesh, regardless
of the additional nodes introduced by refinement.

• The initial mesh should contain sufficient cells to capture the essential features of
the flow field.
Consider the following example, in which you want to predict the shock forming
around a bluff body in supersonic flow. To obtain a reasonable first solution,
the initial mesh should contain enough cells and also have sufficient resolution to
represent the shape of the body. Subsequent gradient adaption can be used to
sharpen the shock and to establish a grid-independent solution.

• Polyhedral cells are not eligible for adaption. The presence of polyhedral cells in a
mesh may or may not limit the eligibility of other cells for adaption, depending on
the manner in which the polyhedral cells were created:
– If the domain was converted to polyhedra (see Section 6.7.1: Converting the
Domain to a Polyhedra), then no part of the mesh can be adapted (even if
hexahedral cells are present in the mesh after conversion).
– If the polyhedra are a result of converting skewed tetrahedral cells (see Sec-
tion 6.7.2: Converting Skewed Cells to Polyhedra) or converting the transi-
tional cells of a hexcore mesh (see Section 31.5.2: Preparing Hexcore Meshes
for Partitioning), then the nonpolyhedral cells may be adapted. The polyhe-
dral cells, however, will be automatically unmarked from the register when
adaption is initiated and will remain unchanged.

• Obtain a reasonably well-converged solution before performing an adaption. If you

adapt to an incorrect solution, cells will be added in the wrong region of the flow.
Use careful judgment in deciding how well to converge the solution before adapting,
because there is a trade-off between adapting too early to an unconverged solution
and wasting time by continuing to iterate when the solution is not changing sig-
nificantly. This does not directly apply to dynamic adaption, because here the
solution is adapted either at every iteration or at every time-step, depending on
which solver is being used.

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Adapting the Grid

• Write a case and data file before starting the adaption process. If you generate an
undesirable mesh, you can restart the process with the saved files. This does not
directly apply to dynamic adaption, because here the solution is adapted either at
every iteration or at every time-step, depending on which solver is being used.

• Select suitable variables when performing gradient adaption. For some flows, the
choice is clear. For instance, adapting on gradients of pressure is a good criterion
for refining in the region of shock waves. In most incompressible flows, however,
it makes little sense to refine on pressure gradients. A more suitable parameter
in an incompressible flow might be mean velocity gradients. If the flow feature
of interest is a turbulent shear flow, it will be important to resolve the gradients
of turbulent kinetic energy and turbulent energy dissipation, so these might be
appropriate refinement variables. In reacting flows, temperature or concentration
(or mole or mass fraction) of reacting species might be appropriate.

• Do not over-refine a particular region of the solution domain. It causes very large
gradients in cell volume. Such poor adaption practice can adversely affect the
accuracy of the solution.

26.2 Static Adaption Process

The adaption process is separated into two distinct tasks.

1. The individual cells are marked for refinement or coarsening based on the adaption
function, which is created from geometric and/or solution data.

2. The cell is refined or considered for coarsening based on these adaption marks.
The primary advantages of this modularized approach are the abilities to create
sophisticated adaption functions and to experiment with various adaption functions
without modifying the existing mesh.

i Write a case and data file before starting the adaption process. If you
generate an undesirable grid, you can restart the process with the saved
files.
Two different types of adaption are available in FLUENT:

• Hanging node adaption: It is the default method (see Section 26.2.1: Hanging Node
Adaption).

• Conformal adaption: It is available only for triangular and tetrahedral grids (see
Section 26.2.2: Conformal Adaption).

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 26.2 Static Adaption Process

26.2.1 Hanging Node Adaption

Grids produced by the hanging node adaption procedure are characterized by nodes on
edges and faces that are not vertices of all the cells sharing those edges or faces, as shown
in Figure 26.2.1.

Hanging
Node

Figure 26.2.1: Example of a Hanging Node

Hanging node grid adaption provides the ability to operate on grids with a variety of cell
shapes, including hybrid grids. Although the hanging node scheme provides significant
grid flexibility, it requires additional memory to maintain the grid hierarchy which is used
by the rendering and grid adaption operations.

Hanging Node Refinement

The cells marked for refinement are divided as described here:

• A triangle is split into 4 triangles.

• A quadrilateral is split into 4 quadrilaterals.

• A tetrahedron is split into eight tetrahedra. The subdivision consists of trimming

each corner of the tetrahedron, and subdividing the enclosed octahedron by intro-
ducing the shortest diagonal.

• A hexahedron is split into 8 hexahedra.

• A wedge (prism) is split into 8 wedges.

• A pyramid is split into 6 pyramids and 4 tetrahedra.

Figures 26.2.2 and 26.2.3 illustrate the division of the supported cell shapes.

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Adapting the Grid

To maintain accuracy, neighboring cells are not allowed to differ by more than one level of
refinement. This prevents the adaption from producing excessive cell volume variations
(reducing truncation error) and ensures that the positions of the parent (original) and
child (refined) cell centroids are similar (reducing errors in the flux evaluations).

Triangle Quadrilateral

Figure 26.2.2: Hanging Node Adaption of 2D Cell Types

Tetrahedron Hexahedron

Prism/Wedge Pyramid

Figure 26.2.3: Hanging Node Adaption of 3D Cell Types

Hanging Node Coarsening

The mesh is coarsened by reintroducing inactive parent cells (uniting the child cells to
reclaim the previously subdivided parent cell). An inactive parent cell is reactivated if all
its children are marked for coarsening. You will eventually reclaim the original grid with

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 26.2 Static Adaption Process

repeated application of the hanging node coarsening. Using the hanging node adaption
process, you cannot coarsen the grid further than the original grid. However, conformal
coarsening allows you to remove original grid points to reduce the density of the grid.

26.2.2 Conformal Adaption

The conformal adaption process does not create hanging nodes. Instead, all the cells
sharing an edge or face include all the nodes on those entities. The conformal refinement
process adds nodes on edges and the conformal coarsening removes nodes and retriangu-
lates the resulting cavity.

Note: This process should not be used in conjunction with dynamic adaption (described
in Section 26.5: Dynamic Gradient Adaption).

Conformal Refinement
To refine the cell, split the boundary or internal faces (including periodic boundary faces).
This technique has two primary advantages:

• The process is conservative and does not require interpolation to obtain the solution
vector for the new cells.
• Repeated refinement of a skewed cell does not increase the grid skewness.

Figure 26.2.4 shows how the triangle labeled A would be split for refinement. The cells
are refined by splitting the longest edge of the triangle or tetrahedron.

Figure 26.2.4: Cell Refinement by Bisecting Longest Edge

The process is to find the longest edge of any cell marked for refinement search for a
longer edge. If any of the neighbor cells has a longer edge, the scheme spins around
that new edge searching for a longer edge. When the longest edge is identified, it is
split. Although this process maintains the quality of the triangulation with repeated
application, it splits many cells that are not marked for refinement.
For example, Figure 26.2.5 shows the original cell marked for refinement (marked with an
X), and Figure 26.2.6 shows the final mesh created by the conformal refinement process.

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Adapting the Grid

Figure 26.2.5: Original Grid with Cell Marked for Refinement

Figure 26.2.6: Final Grid after Conformal Refinement

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 26.2 Static Adaption Process

Conformal Coarsening
The grid is coarsened by removing nodes that are shared by cells marked for coarsening.
If all the cells attached to the node are marked for coarsening, the solver attempts to
remove the node. Local retriangulation process is attempted for each of the nodes marked
for removal, as follows:

1. A list of the cells attached to the marked node is generated. Removing these cells
creates a cavity that must be retriangulated.

2. A list of the faces inside the cavity is generated.

3. A list of the faces on the cavity boundary is generated.

4. If the node to be removed is on a boundary, a new boundary triangulation is

generated. Those faces are added to the list of faces on the cavity.

5. From the list of faces on the cavity, a new Delaunay triangulation is created. See
the Theory chapter in the TGrid User’s Guide for a description of Delaunay trian-
gulation.

6. If the process is successful, the node, faces, and cells from the original triangulation
of the region are deleted.

7. All nodes associated with the cavity are removed from the list of deleted nodes to
avoid consecutive coarsening in the same region.

8. The solution variables in the new cells are computed using a volume-weighted
average.

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Adapting the Grid

Figure 26.2.7 illustrates the removal of node n1 and the resulting retriangulation. In this
example, c1, c2, c3, c4, and c5 are the cells attached to the node. Faces f 6, f 7, f 8, f 9, and
f 10 are the faces inside the cavity. Faces on the cavity includes f 1, f 2, f 3, f 4, and f 5.
The new faces of the triangulation are f 11 and f 12, and the new cells are c6, c7, and c8.

Figure 26.2.7: Removing a Node and Retriangulating the Region

Nodes introduced by refinement are called refinement nodes. Nodes that existed in the
mesh before refinement are called original nodes. By default, only refinement nodes can
be removed in the coarsening process, but you can remove any node by resetting the
node flags. For information on node flags, see Section 26.12: Controlling Node Removal
During Conformal Coarsening.
Presently, the grid-coarsening facility is available only in the 2D version of FLUENT.

26.2.3 Conformal vs. Hanging Node Adaption

For most problems, the hanging node adaption provides flexibility for grid adaption.
However, the following points should help you in selecting the appropriate type of adap-
tion for your specific application.

• The conformal adaption method is only valid for triangular and tetrahedral grids,
while the hanging node adaption can be applied to all supported cell shapes.
• The hanging node adaption is usually more local in nature than the conformal
adaption. In conformal adaption, many cells in addition to the marked cells may
be refined due to the longest edge splitting criteria. For highly graded grids, the
initial conformal refinement sweeps tend to exhibit substantial propagation of the
cell refinement, sometimes refining the grid many cells away from the actual cell
marked for refinement. (Subsequent refinements are usually much more local in
nature.) The hanging node scheme only propagates to maintain the refinement
level difference, which is much more confined.
• Conformal coarsening allows you to coarsen the initial grid, and this is only available
in 2D.

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 26.3 Boundary Adaption

• With refinement and coarsening, the hanging node adaption scheme will retain
the connectivity of the original grid, while the conformal adaption method will
modify the connectivity. The modification of the connectivity can have accuracy
implications for grids used in unsteady problems with periodic behavior (e.g., vortex
shedding behind a cylinder) if you perform successive refinements and coarsenings.

• The hanging node adaption has a memory overhead associated with maintaining
the grid hierarchy and temporarily storing the edges in 3D. The conformal adaption
has no memory overhead other than the additional nodes, faces and cells added to
increase the grid density.

• Conformal adaption should not be used in conjunction with dynamic adaption

(described in Section 26.5: Dynamic Gradient Adaption).

26.3 Boundary Adaption

If more cells are required on a boundary, they can be added using boundary adaption,
which allows you to mark or refine cells in the proximity of the selected boundary zones.
The ability to refine the grid near one or more boundary zones is provided because
important fluid interactions often occur in these regions. Example, development of strong
velocity gradients in the boundary layer near a wall.
An example of a grid that can be improved with boundary adaption is shown in Fig-
ure 26.3.1. This mesh has only two cells on the vertical face of a step. Boundary adaption
on the zone corresponding to the face of the step can be used to increase the number
of cells, as shown in Figure 26.3.2. This procedure cannot increase the resolution of a
curved surface. Therefore, if more cells are required on a curved surface where the shape
of the surface is important, create the mesh with sufficient surface nodes before reading
it into the solver.

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Adapting the Grid

Grid

Figure 26.3.1: Mesh Before Adaption

Grid

Figure 26.3.2: Mesh after Boundary Adaption

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 26.3 Boundary Adaption

26.3.1 Performing Boundary Adaption

You can perform the boundary adaption in three different ways based on:

• Number of cells: In this case, the distance of a cell from the boundary is measured
in number of cells.

• Normal distance: In this case, the cell refinement is based on the normal distance
of a cell from the boundary.

• Target boundary volume: In this case, the cell refinement is based on a target
boundary volume and growth factor.

You can use any of these methods in the Boundary Adaption panel (Figure 26.3.3).
Adapt −→Boundary...

Figure 26.3.3: The Boundary Adaption Panel

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Adapting the Grid

Boundary Adaption Based on Number of Cells

The procedure for performing adaption based on the distance of a cell from the boundary
in terms of the number of cells is as follows:

1. In the Boundary Adaption panel (Figure 26.3.3), select Cell Distance under Options,
choose the boundary zones near which you want to refine cells in the Boundary
Zones list, and click Apply.
This operation is performed to fill the cell distance variable for each cell to be
visualized in Step 2.

2. (optional) Click the Contours... button to open the Contours panel.

(a) Enable Filled contours, disable Node Values.
(b) Choose Adaption... and Boundary Cell Distance in the Contours of drop-down
list.
(c) Select the appropriate surfaces (3D only).
(d) Click Display to see the location of cells with each value of boundary cell
distance.
By displaying different ranges of values (as described in Section 28.1.2: Speci-
fying the Range of Magnitudes Displayed), you can determine the cell distance
of the cells you wish to adapt.

3. Set the Number of Cells to the desired value.

• If you retain the default value of 1, only those cells that have edges (2D) or
faces (3D) on the specified boundary zone(s) (i.e., those cells with a boundary
cell distance of 1) will be marked or adapted.
• If you increase the value to 2, cells with a boundary cell distance of 2 will also
be marked/adapted, and so on.

4. (optional) If you want to set any adaption options (described in Section 26.12: Grid
Adaption Controls), click on the Controls... button to open the Grid Adaption
Controls panel.

5. Click Mark to mark the cells for refinement by placing them in an adaption register
(which can be manipulated as described in Section 26.11.1: Manipulating Adaption
Registers), or click Adapt to perform the refinement immediately.

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 26.3 Boundary Adaption

Boundary Adaption Based on Normal Distance

The procedure for performing refinement based on a cell’s normal distance from the
boundary (i.e., distance of cell centroid from the boundary) is as follows:

1. In the Boundary Adaption panel, select Normal Distance under Options, choose the
boundary zones near which you want to refine cells in the Boundary Zones list, and
click Apply.
This operation is performed to fill the cell distance variable for each cell to be
visualized in Step 2.

2. (optional) Open the Contours panel by clicking on the Contours... button.

(a) Enable Filled contours, disable Node Values.
(b) Choose Adaption... and Boundary Normal Distance in the Contours of drop-
down list.
(c) Select the appropriate surfaces (3D only).
(d) Click Display to see the location of cells with each value of normal distance.
By displaying different ranges of values (as described in Section 28.1.2: Spec-
ifying the Range of Magnitudes Displayed), you can determine the normal
distance of the cells you wish to adapt.

3. Set the Distance Threshold to the desired value. Cells with a normal distance to
the selected boundary zone(s) less than or equal to this value will be marked or
adapted.

4. (optional) If you want to set any adaption options (described in Section 26.12: Grid
Adaption Controls), click on the Controls... button to open the Grid Adaption
Controls panel.

5. Click Mark to mark the cells for refinement by placing them in an adaption register
(which can be manipulated as described in Section 26.11.1: Manipulating Adaption
Registers), or click Adapt to perform the refinement immediately.

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Adapting the Grid

Boundary Adaption Based on Target Boundary Volume

This boundary adaption allows you to produce exponentially larger (or smaller) cells as
you get further from the boundaries. The cells are marked for refinement based on the
following equation:

Vn > Vboundary eαd (26.3-1)

where Vn is the cell volume, Vboundary is the specified boundary volume (Boundary Volume),
α is the exponential growth factor (Growth Factor), and d is the normal distance of the
cell centroid from the selected boundaries. Vboundary eαd is the target volume for a cell.
The procedure for this type of boundary refinement is as follows:

1. In the Boundary Adaption panel, select Volume Distance under Options, set the
Boundary Volume and Growth Factor to the desired values, choose the boundary
zones in the Boundary Zones list where you want the Boundary Volume to be applied,
and click Apply.
This operation is performed to fill the cell distance variable for each cell to be
visualized in Step 2.

2. (optional) Open the Contours panel by clicking on the Contours... button.

(a) Enable Filled contours, disable Node Values.
(b) Choose Adaption... and Boundary Normal Distance in the Contours of drop-
down list.
(c) Select the appropriate surfaces (3D only).
(d) Click Display to see the contours of the target volume.
By displaying different ranges of values (as described in Section 28.1.2: Spec-
ifying the Range of Magnitudes Displayed), you can determine the normal
distance of the cells you wish to adapt.
You can modify the values of the inputs (Boundary Volume, Growth Factor, and/or
Boundary Zones), click Apply in the Boundary Adaption panel, and then redisplay
the contour plot to visualize the modified target volume distribution.

3. (optional) If you want to set any adaption options (described in Section 26.12: Grid
Adaption Controls), click on the Controls... button to open the Grid Adaption
Controls panel.

4. Click Mark to mark the cells for refinement by placing them in an adaption register
(which can be manipulated as described in Section 26.11.1: Manipulating Adaption
Registers), or click Adapt to perform the refinement immediately.

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 26.4 Gradient Adaption

26.4 Gradient Adaption

The gradient adaption function allows you to mark cells or adapt the grid based on the
gradient, curvature, or isovalue of the selected field variables.

26.4.1 Gradient Adaption Approach

Solution-adaptive grid refinement is performed to efficiently reduce the numerical error in
the digital solution, with minimal numerical cost. Unfortunately, direct error estimation
for point-insertion adaption schemes is difficult because of the complexity of accurately
estimating and modeling the error in the adapted grids. A comprehensive mathemati-
cally rigorous theory for error estimation and convergence is not yet available for CFD
simulations. Assuming that maximum error occurs in high-gradient regions, the read-
ily available physical features of the evolving flow field may be used to drive the grid
adaption process.
Three approaches for using this information for grid adaption are available in FLUENT:

• Gradient approach: In this approach, FLUENT multiplies the Euclidean norm of

the gradient of the selected solution variable by a characteristic length scale [76].
For example, the gradient function in two dimensions has the following form:

r
|ei1 | = (Acell ) 2 |∇f | (26.4-1)

where ei1 is the error indicator, Acell is the cell area, r is the gradient volume weight,
and ∇f is the Euclidean norm of the gradient of the desired field variable, f .
The default value of the gradient volume weight is unity, which corresponds to full
volume weighting. A value of zero will eliminate the volume weighting, and values
between 0 and 1 will use proportional weighting of the volume.
If you specify adaption based on the gradient of a scalar, then the value of |ei1 | is
displayed when you plot contours of the adaption function.
This approach is recommended for problems with strong shocks, e.g., supersonic
inviscid flows.

• Curvature approach: This is the equidistribution adaption technique formerly

used by FLUENT, that multiplies the undivided Laplacian of the selected solution
variable by a characteristic length scale [391].
For example, the gradient function in two dimensions has the following form:

r
|ei2 | = (Acell ) 2 |∇2 f | (26.4-2)

where ei2 is the error indicator, Acell is the cell area, r is the gradient volume weight,
and ∇2 f is the undivided Laplacian of the desired field variable (f ).

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Adapting the Grid

The default value of the gradient volume weight is unity, which corresponds to full
volume weighting. A value of zero will eliminate the volume weighting, and values
between 0 and 1 will use proportional weighting of the volume.
This approach is recommended for problems with smooth solutions.

• Isovalue approach: This approach is not based on derivatives. Instead, the iso-
values of the required field variable f , are used to control the adaption. Therefore,
the function is of the form:

ei3 = f (26.4-3)

where ei3 is the error indicator. This approach is recommended for problems where
derivatives are not helpful. For example, if you want to refine the mesh where the
reaction is taking place, you can use the isovalues of the reaction rate and mark
for refinement at high reaction rates. This approach also allows you to customize
the criteria for controlling the adaption using custom field functions, user-defined
scalars, etc.

The length scale is the square (2D) or cube (3D) root of the cell volume. Introducing
the length scale allows resolution of both strong and weak disturbances, increasing the
potential for more accurate solutions. However, you can reduce or eliminate the volume
weighting by changing the gradient Volume Weight in the Grid Adaption Controls panel
(see Section 26.12: Grid Adaption Controls for details).
Any of the field variables available for contouring can be used in the gradient adaption
function. These scalar functions include, both geometric and physical features of the
numerical solution. Therefore, in addition to traditional adaption to physical features,
such as the velocity, you may choose to adapt to the cell volume field to reduce rapid
variations in cell volume.

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 26.4 Gradient Adaption

In addition to the Standard (no normalization) approach formerly used by FLUENT, two
options are available for Normalization [117]:

• Scale, which scales the values of ei1 , ei2 , or ei3 by their average value in the domain,
i.e.:

|ei |
(26.4-4)
|ei |
when using the Scale option, suitable first-cut values for the Coarsen Threshold and
the Refine Threshold are 0.3 to 0.5, and 0.7 to 0.9, respectively. Smaller values will
result in larger adapted regions.

• Normalize, which scales the values of ei1 , ei2 , or ei3 by their maximum value in the
domain, therefore always returning a problem-independent range of [0, 1] for any
variable used for adaption, i.e.:

|ei |
(26.4-5)
max |ei |
when using the Normalize option, suitable first-cut values for the Coarsen Threshold
and the Refine Threshold are 0.2 to 0.4, and 0.5 to 0.9, respectively. Smaller values
will result in larger adapted regions.

Example of Steady Gradient Adaption

An example of the use of steady gradient adaption is the solution of the supersonic flow
over a circular cylinder. The initial mesh, shown in Figure 26.4.1, is very coarse, even
though it contains sufficient cells to adequately describe the shape of the cylinder. The
mesh ahead of the cylinder is too coarse to resolve the shock wave that forms in front
of the cylinder. In this instance, pressure is a suitable variable to be used in gradient
adaption. This is because there will be a jump in pressure across the shock. However,
several adaptions are necessary before the shock can be properly resolved. After several
adaptions the mesh will be as shown in Figure 26.4.2.
A typical application of gradient adaption for an incompressible flow might be a mixing
layer, which involves a discontinuity.

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Adapting the Grid

Grid

Figure 26.4.1: Bluff-Body Mesh Before Adaption

Grid

Figure 26.4.2: Bluff-Body Mesh after Gradient Adaption

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 26.4 Gradient Adaption

26.4.2 Performing Gradient Adaption

The Gradient Adaption panel (Figure 26.4.3) allows you to perform gradient adaption.
Adapt −→Gradient...

Figure 26.4.3: The Gradient Adaption Panel

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Adapting the Grid

The procedure for performing gradient adaption is as follows:

1. Select appropriate adaption method.

• Curvature is the criterion for adaption, formerly used by FLUENT and is rec-
ommended for problems with smooth solutions.
• Gradient is recommended for problems with strong shocks (e.g., supersonic
inviscid flows).
• Iso-Value is recommended for problems where derivatives are not helpful, or
when you want to customize the adaption criterion (using custom field func-
tions, user-defined scalars, etc.).
2. Select a Normalization method:
• Standard if normalization of the gradient or curvature is not to be performed.
This was always the case in Fluent 6.0.
• Scale if the gradients or curvature are to be scaled by the average value in the
domain.
• Normalize uses a scaling by the maximum value of the variable in the domain,
i.e., the gradient or curvature are bounded by [0, 1].
Using either scaling or normalization makes the setting of the refine and coarsen
thresholds much simpler, and almost independent of the current solution and spe-
cific problem.
This is especially important when using the automated dynamic adaption process.
3. Select the required solution variable in the Gradients of drop-down list.
4. Click Compute.
5. Click Contours... to open the Contours panel.
(a) Enable Filled contours, disable Node Values, choose Adaption... and Existing
Value in the Contours of drop-down list.
(b) Select the appropriate surfaces (3D only).
(c) Click Display to see the location of cells with each curvature value.
By displaying different ranges of values (as described in Section 28.1.2: Spec-
ifying the Range of Magnitudes Displayed), you can determine the range of
curvatures for which you want to adapt cells.
If you are using normalization, the range for the curvatures of any variable
will always be [0, 1].
6. Set the values for Refine Threshold.
Cells with gradient values above this value will be either marked or refined.

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 26.4 Gradient Adaption

7. Select the Normalize per Zone option for cases where different flow conditions exist
for different zones.
This approach of zonal normalization normalizes (scale or normalize) each zone
of the domain in contrast to normalization on the whole domain. This approach
is useful for dynamic adaption (see Section 26.5: Dynamic Gradient Adaption for
details), where you want to solve the flow problem involving different flow intensities
in the different cell zones.
If you use gradient adaption for the whole domain, the small gradients may be
neglected in comparison to large gradients depending on the adaption threshold.
Activating Normalize per Zone in the Gradient Adaption panel will scale or normal-
ize each zone independently, which means the strongest gradient for each zone is
considered separately for adaption of that zone.
Note: If you expect gradients of different intensities throughout the domain and
you want to resolve them, separate the domain into different zones for precise
zonal normalization. This approach is referred as zonal adaption.

8. If you want to coarsen the grid, set the Coarsen Threshold to a nonzero value. Cells
with gradient values below the specified value will be either marked or coarsened.
Notes:
1. If you are using the default hanging node adaption, you will not be able to create
a grid that is coarser than the original grid. For this, use conformal adaption.
2. Conformal coarsening is only available for 2D or axisymmetric geometries. See
Section 26.12: Grid Adaption Controls for details.

9. To set adaption options (described in Section 26.12: Grid Adaption Controls), click
Controls... to open the Grid Adaption Controls panel.

10. To mark the cells for adaption (refinement/coarsening), click Mark. You can then
place the cells in an adaption register, which can be manipulated (as described
in Section 26.11.1: Manipulating Adaption Registers). To perform the adaption
immediately, click Adapt.

Note: To disable refinement, coarsening, or marking for refinement/coarsening, turn off

the Refine or Coarsen option before marking or adapting.

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Adapting the Grid

26.5 Dynamic Gradient Adaption

In contrast with the static gradient adaption (Section 26.4: Gradient Adaption) dynamic
gradient adaption is a fully automated process. For time dependent and for steady state
problems, you can perform the entire solution without changing the initial settings. That
is, you can let the solver periodically perform adaptions without changing/entering any
parameter.

26.5.1 Dynamic Gradient Adaption Approach

The dynamic gradient adaption executes the gradient adaption automatically. Though
all options of gradient adaption are valid for the dynamic gradient adaption, some specific
settings are recommended:
In the Gradient Adaption Panel

• Turn on Refine and Coarsen options.

• The Normalize per Zone enables zonal normalization for the dynamic adaption. See
Section 26.4.2: Performing Gradient Adaption (item 7) for details.
• For Normalization, use either the Scale or the Normalize option.
The non-normalized values of the gradient or the curvature of a variable (ob-
tained by selecting Standard for the Normalization) are generally strongly solution-
dependent, and therefore would require re-adjustment of the Coarsen Threshold and
Refine Threshold as the solution proceeds.
• For dynamic adaption, scaling is preferred if you wish to resolve regions of small
values of the gradient (or curvature/isovalues) accurately, in addition to the region
of highest gradient (or curvature/isovalues).
Scaling does not take very high values of the gradient or curvature as much into
account as does the normalization.
• The starting values for Refine Threshold and Coarsen Threshold are 1e10 and 0
respectively.
The more refinement you want, the smaller these values should be.
• Specify the Interval between two consecutive automatic mesh adaptions. Depending
on whether you are performing a steady state or a time dependent solution, specify
Interval in iterations or time steps respectively.
This value depends on the type of problem solved and the time step used (where
applicable). For steady state problems, values of 100 or higher are reasonable and
for time dependent problems, values of 10 or lower are often required.
If you are using the density-based explicit solver with explicit unsteady formulation,
your input will be in number of iterations.

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 26.5 Dynamic Gradient Adaption

In the Gradient Adaption Controls Panel

• Always use Hanging node adaption method.

• Set values for Min # of Cells, Max # of Cells, Max Level of Refine or Min Cell Volume.
The limits for the Min # of Cells and Max # of Cells can affect the Coarsen Threshold
and Refine Threshold values. If either the Min # of Cells or the Max # of Cells are
violated, the Coarsen Threshold or the Refine Threshold are adjusted to fulfill the
limits for the Min # of Cells or the Max # of Cells.

• The default value for Max Level of Refine is 2, which is a good start for most
problems. If required, you can increase this value.

i Even in a 2D problem, the default value of 2 can increase the number of

cells by a factor of 16, in the adapted regions. A value of zero leaves this
parameter unbounded: in this case you should use a suitable limit for Min
Cell Volume.

Examples of Dynamic Gradient Adaption

Example 1: Steady state problem.
Consider a supersonic flow over the blunt body. To determine the wave drag for such
problem, first resolve the shock wave. Start with a coarse mesh and setup dynamic
adaption. As you start iterating the solution, the solver will produce a blurred shock,
probably in an incorrect location. After the adaptions, the shock will become sharper
and move into the correct location.
Example 2: Time dependent problem.
Consider a traveling shock wave. To determine the precise pressure amplitudes and
arrival times at a number of locations, you need to resolve the shock wave over the time,
so that you can maintain the correct shock strength and its location. Dynamic adaption
is efficient in this case, as it refines the mesh near the shock and at the same time it
coarsens the mesh wherever needed.
See also Tutorial 4 for an example of applying dynamic gradient adaption to a FLUENT
simulation.

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Adapting the Grid

26.6 Isovalue Adaption

Some flows may contain flow features that are easy to identify based on values of a certain
quantity. For instance, wakes represent a total pressure deficit, and jets are identifiable
by a region of relatively high-velocity fluid. Since it is known that these regions also
contain large gradients of important flow quantities (such as k and  in turbulent flows),
it is convenient to perform an isovalue adaption on the relevant flow quantity than to
refine on gradients of the individual flow variables.
The isovalue adaption function allows you to mark or refine cells inside or outside a
specified range of a selected field variable function. The grid can be refined or marked for
refinement based on geometric and/or solution vector data. Specifically, any quantity in
the display list of field variables can be used for the isovalue adaption. Some examples
of how you might use the isovalue marking/adaption feature include the following:

• Create masks using coordinate values or the quadric function.

• Refine cells that have a velocity magnitude within a specified range.

• Mark and display cells with a pressure or continuity residual outside of a desired
range to determine where the numerical solution is changing rapidly.

The approach used in isovalue adaption function is to compute the specified value for
each cell (velocity, quadric function, centroid x coordinate, etc.), and then visit each cell,
marking for refinement the cells that have values inside (or outside) the specified ranges.
An example of a problem in which isovalue adaption is useful is shown in Figure 26.6.1.
The mesh for an impinging jet is displayed along with contours of x velocity. An isovalue
adaption based on x velocity allows refinement of the mesh only in the jet (Figure 26.6.2).

Note: When adapting to isovalues take care to prevent large gradients in cell volume.
This can affect accuracy and impede convergence (Section 26.1: Using Adaption).
To rectify large gradients in cell volume, adapt to cell-volume change, as demon-
strated in Section 26.8.2: Volume Adaption Example.

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 26.6 Isovalue Adaption

1.00e+00

9.00e-01

8.00e-01

7.00e-01

6.00e-01

5.00e-01

4.00e-01

3.00e-01

2.00e-01

1.00e-01

Contours of X-Velocity (m/s)

Figure 26.6.1: Impinging Jet Mesh Before Adaption

Grid

Figure 26.6.2: Impinging Jet Mesh after Isovalue Adaption

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26.6.1 Performing Isovalue Adaption

You can perform isovalue adaption in the Iso-Value Adaption panel (Figure 26.6.3).
Adapt −→Iso-Value...

Figure 26.6.3: The Iso-Value Adaption Panel

The general procedure for performing isovalue adaption is as follows:

1. Select the desired solution variable in the Iso-Values of drop-down list and click on
Compute to update the Min and Max fields.

2. Choose the Inside or Outside option and set the Iso-Min and Iso-Max values.
• If you choose Inside, cells with isovalues between Iso-Min and Iso-Max will be
marked or refined.
• If you choose Outside, cells with isovalues less than Iso-Min or greater than
Iso-Max will be marked or refined.

3. (optional) If you want to set any adaption options (described in Section 26.12: Grid
Adaption Controls), click Controls... button to open the Grid Adaption Controls
panel.

4. Click Mark to mark the cells for refinement by placing them in an adaption register
(which can be manipulated as described in Section 26.11.1: Manipulating Adaption
Registers), or click Adapt to perform the refinement immediately.

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 26.7 Region Adaption

26.7 Region Adaption

Many mesh generators create meshes with cell volumes that grow very rapidly with
distance from boundaries. While this avoids a dense grid as a matter of course, it might
also create problems if the mesh is not fine enough to resolve the flow. But if it is known
a priori that a finer mesh is required in a certain region of the solution domain, the mesh
can be refined using region adaption.
The region adaption function marks or refines cells inside or outside a region defined
by text or mouse input. Presently, the grid can be refined or marked inside or outside
a hexahedron (quadrilateral in 2D), a sphere (circle in 2D), or a cylinder. The region-
based marking/adaption feature is particularly useful for refining regions that intuitively
require good resolution: e.g., the wake region of a blunt-body flow field. In addition, you
can use the region marking to create mask adaption registers that can be used to limit
the extent of the refinement and coarsening.

26.7.1 Defining a Region

The basic approach to the region adaption function is to first define a region:

• The hexahedron (quadrilateral) is defined by entering the coordinates of two points

defining the diagonal.

• The sphere (circle) is defined by entering the coordinates of the center of the sphere
and its radius.

• To define a cylinder, specify the coordinates of the points defining the cylinder axis,
and the radius. In 3D this will define a cylinder. In 2D, you will have an arbitrarily
oriented rectangle with length equal to the cylinder axis length and width equal to
the radius.
A rectangle defined using the cylinder option differs from one defined with the
quadrilateral option in that the former can be arbitrarily oriented in the domain
while the latter must be aligned with the coordinate axes.
You can either enter the exact coordinates into the appropriate real entry fields or
select the locations with the mouse on displays of the grid or solution field. After
the region is defined, each cell that has a centroid inside/outside the specified region
is marked for refinement.

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26.7.2 Region Adaption Example

Figure 26.7.1 shows a mesh that was created for solving the flow around a flap airfoil.
The mesh is very fine near the surface of the airfoil so that the viscous-affected region
may be resolved. However, the mesh grows very rapidly away from the airfoil, because
of which the flow separation known to occur on the suction surface of the flap will not
be properly predicted. To avoid this problem, the grid is adapted within circular regions
(selected by mouse probe) surrounding the flap. The result is shown in Figure 26.7.2.
When the region adaption is performed, the minimum cell volume for adaption is limited
(as described in Section 26.12: Grid Adaption Controls) to prevent the very small cells
near the surface from being refined further.

Grid

Figure 26.7.1: Flap-Airfoil Mesh Before Adaption

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 26.7 Region Adaption

Grid

Figure 26.7.2: Flap-Airfoil Mesh after Region Adaption

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26.7.3 Performing Region Adaption

You will perform region adaption in the Region Adaption panel (Figure 26.7.3).
Adapt −→Region...

Figure 26.7.3: The Region Adaption Panel

The procedure for performing isovalue adaption is as follows:

1. In the Region Adaption panel, choose the Inside or Outside option.

• If you choose Inside, cells with centroids within the specified region will be
marked or refined.
• If you choose Outside, cells with centroids outside the specified region will be
marked or refined.
2. Specify the shape of the region.
In 2D, you may choose a Quadrilateral, Circle, or Cylinder. In 3D, you may choose
a Hexahedron, Sphere, or Cylinder.
3. Define the region by entering values into the panel or by using the mouse.
In the panel the inputs are as follows:
• To define a hexahedron or quadrilateral, enter the coordinates of two points
defining the diagonal of the box.
For a hexahedron, define (Xminimum,Yminimum,Zminimum)
and (Xmaximum,Ymaximum, Zmaximum). For a quadrilateral, define (Xmini-
mum,Yminimum) and (Xmaximum,Ymaximum).

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 26.7 Region Adaption

• To define a sphere or circle, enter the values for the Radius and the coordinates
of its center; (Xcenter, Ycenter, Zcenter) for a sphere or (Xcenter, Ycenter) for
a circle.
• To define a cylinder, enter the value for the Radius and the minimum and
maximum coordinates defining the cylinder axis; (X-Axis Min, Y-Axis Min, Z-
Axis Min) and (X-Axis Max, Y-Axis Max, Z-Axis Max) for 3D or (X-Axis Min,Y-
Axis Min) and (X-Axis Max,Y-Axis Max) for 2D. In 2D, this will be the width
of the resulting rectangle.

4. To define the region using the mouse, click on the Select Points with Mouse button.
Using the right mouse button select the input coordinates from a display of the grid
or solution field. After selecting the points, the values will be loaded automatically
into the appropriate fields in the panel. See Section 28.3: Controlling the Mouse
Button Functions for details about mouse button functions.
If you want, you can edit these values before marking or adapting.
• To define a hexahedron or quadrilateral, select the two points of the diagonal
in any order.
• To define a sphere or circle, first select the location of the centroid and then
select a point that lies on the sphere/circle (i.e., a point that is one radius
away from the centroid).
• To define a cylinder, first select the two points that define the cylinder axis
and then select a point that is one radius away from the axis.

5. (optional) If you want to set any adaption options (described in Section 26.12: Grid
Adaption Controls), click on the Controls... button to open the Grid Adaption
Controls panel.

6. Click Mark to mark the cells for refinement by placing them in an adaption register
(which can be manipulated as described in Section 26.11.1: Manipulating Adaption
Registers), or click Adapt to perform the refinement immediately.

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26.8 Volume Adaption

As mentioned in Section 26.1: Using Adaption, it is best for both accuracy and con-
vergence to have a mesh in which the changes in cell volume are gradual. If the mesh
creation or adaption process results in a mesh that does not have this property, the grid
can be improved by using volume adaption with the option of refining, based on either
the cell volume or the change in volume between the cell and its neighbors.

26.8.1 Approach
Marking or refining the grid based on volume magnitude is often used to remove large
cells or to globally refine the mesh. The procedure is to mark for refinement any cell
with a volume greater than the specified threshold value.
Marking or refining the grid based on the change in cell volume is used to improve the
smoothness of the grid. The procedure is to mark for refinement any cell that has a volume
change greater than the specified threshold value. The volume change is computed by
looping over the faces and comparing the ratio of the cell neighbors to the face.
For example, in Figure 26.8.1 the ratio of V1/V2 and the ratio of V2/V1 is compared
to the threshold value. If V2/V1 is greater than the threshold, then C2 is marked for
refinement.

Figure 26.8.1: Volume Change—Ratio of the Volumes of the Cells

26.8.2 Volume Adaption Example

The mesh in Figure 26.8.2 was created for computing a turbulent jet. Local refinement
was used in TGrid to create a mesh that is fine in the region of the jet, but coarse
elsewhere. This created a very sharp change in cell volume at the edge of the jet.
To improve the mesh, it was refined using volume adaption with the criterion that the
maximum cell volume change should be less than 50%. The minimum cell volume for
adaption was also limited. The resulting mesh, after smoothing and swapping, is shown
in Figure 26.8.3. It can be seen that the interface between the refined region within the
jet and the surrounding mesh is no longer as sharp.

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 26.8 Volume Adaption

Grid

Figure 26.8.2: Jet Mesh Before Adaption

Grid

Figure 26.8.3: Jet Mesh after Volume Adaption Based on Change in Cell
Volume

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26.8.3 Performing Volume Adaption

You will perform volume adaption in the Volume Adaption panel (Figure 26.8.4).
Adapt −→Volume...

Figure 26.8.4: The Volume Adaption Panel

The procedure for performing volume adaption is as follows:

1. In the Volume Adaption panel, specify whether you want to adapt based on volume
magnitude or volume change by selecting the Magnitude or Change option.

2. Click on Compute to update the Min and Max fields. These fields will show the
range of cell volumes or cell volume changes (defined in Section 26.8.1: Approach),
depending on your selection in step 1.

3. Set the Max Volume or Max Volume Change value.

(a) If you have chosen to adapt based on volume Magnitude, cells that have vol-
umes greater than Max Volume will be marked or refined.
(b) If you are adapting based on volume Change, cells with volume changes greater
than Max Volume Change will be marked or refined.

4. (optional) If you want to set any adaption options (described in Section 26.12: Grid
Adaption Controls), click on the Controls... button to open the Grid Adaption
Controls panel.

5. Click Mark to mark the cells for refinement by placing them in an adaption register
(which can be manipulated as described in Section 26.11.1: Manipulating Adaption
Registers), or click Adapt to perform the refinement immediately.

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 26.9 Yplus/Ystar Adaption

26.9 Yplus/Ystar Adaption

FLUENT provides three different options for near-wall modeling of turbulence, standard
wall functions, nonequilibrium wall functions, and the enhanced wall treatment. As
described in Section 12.11: Grid Considerations for Turbulent Flow Simulations, there
are certain mesh requirements for each of these near-wall modeling options.
It is often difficult to gauge the near-wall resolution requirements when creating the mesh.
Hence, Yplus and Ystar adaption have been provided to appropriately refine or coarsen
the mesh along the wall during the solution process.

26.9.1 Approach
The approach is to compute y + or y ∗ for boundary cells on the specified viscous wall
zones, define the minimum and maximum allowable y + or y ∗ , and mark and/or adapt
the appropriate cells. Cells with y + or y ∗ values below the minimum allowable threshold
will be marked for coarsening and cells with y + or y ∗ values above the maximum allow-
able threshold will be marked for refinement (unless coarsening or refinement has been
disabled).
Figure 26.9.1 shows the mesh for a duct flow, where the top boundary is the wall and
the bottom boundary is the symmetry plane. After an initial solution, it was determined
that y + values of the cells on the wall boundary were too large, and y + adaption was
used to refine them. The resulting mesh is shown in Figure 26.9.2. This figure shows that
the height of the cells along the wall boundary has been reduced during the refinement
process. However, the cell-size distribution on the wall after refinement is much less
uniform than in the original mesh, which is an adverse effect of y + adaption.
See Section 12.11: Grid Considerations for Turbulent Flow Simulations for guidelines on
recommended values of y + or y ∗ for different near-wall treatments.

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Grid

Figure 26.9.1: Duct Flow Mesh Before Adaption

Grid

Figure 26.9.2: Duct Flow Mesh after y + Adaption

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 26.9 Yplus/Ystar Adaption

26.9.2 Performing Yplus or Ystar Adaption

You will perform Yplus or Ystar adaption in the Yplus/Ystar Adaption panel (Figure 26.9.3).
Adapt −→Yplus/Ystar...

Figure 26.9.3: The Yplus/Ystar Adaption Panel

The procedure for performing y + or y ∗ adaption is as follows:

1. In the Yplus/Ystar Adaption panel, select Yplus or Ystar as the adaption Type.
(a) Select Yplus if you are using the enhanced wall treatment.
(b) If you are using wall functions, you can select either type.

2. Choose the wall zones for which you want boundary cells to be marked or adapted
in the Wall Zones list, and click on Compute to update the Min and Max fields. The
values displayed are the minimum and maximum values for all wall zones, not just
of those selected.

3. Set the Min Allowed and Max Allowed. Cells with y + or y ∗ values below Min Allowed
will be coarsened or marked for coarsening, and cells with y + or y ∗ values above
Max Allowed will be refined or marked for refinement.
Note: If you are using the default hanging node adaption, you will not be able to
create a grid that is coarser than the original grid. For this, you must use
conformal adaption that is conformal coarsening which is only available for
2D or axisymmetric geometries. See Section 26.12: Grid Adaption Controls
for details.

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Adapting the Grid

4. (optional) If you want to set any adaption options (described in Section 26.12: Grid
Adaption Controls), click on the Controls... button to open the Grid Adaption
Controls panel.
5. Click Mark to mark the cells for adaption (refinement/coarsening) by placing them
in an adaption register (which can be manipulated as described in Section 26.11.1: Ma-
nipulating Adaption Registers), or click Adapt to perform the adaption immediately.

To disable refinement or coarsening, or marking for refinement or coarsening, turn off the
Refine or Coarsen option before marking or adapting.

26.10 Geometry-Based Adaption

The purpose of adaption is to produce a mesh that is fine enough and adequately rep-
resents all important features of the geometry. However, when you have a coarse mesh
of a geometry that has curved profiles and sharp corners, the adapted mesh may not
recover the curved profiles and corners at the perimeter of the geometry. In such cases,
use geometry-based adaption to reconstruct the geometry (or to recover the finer details
of the geometry at its extends) along with performing the adaption process.

26.10.1 Approach
Geometry-based adaption works on the principle of geometry reconstruction. In this
approach, the cell count of the mesh is increased by creating the new nodes in the domain
in between the existing nodes of the mesh. The newly created nodes are projected in such
a way that the resulting mesh is finer and it’s shape is closer to the original geometry.
The following sections explain how nodes are projected and the parameters that control
the node propagation.

Node Projection
Consider a coarse mesh created for a circular geometry. A section of the mesh close to
the circular edge is shown in Figure 26.10.1. The edge is not smooth and has sharp
corners, because of which its shape is not closer to that of the original geometry. Using
boundary adaption along with the geometry reconstruction option will result in a mesh
with smoother edges as shown in Figure 26.10.2.
In Figure 26.10.2, the dotted lines represent the original edge of the mesh. The boundary
adaption process creates new nodes in between the original nodes. These nodes are
projected towards the edge of the geometry, because of which the resulting mesh has
smooth edges and its shape is closer to the original geometry.

i Only the nodes created in the adaption process (newly created nodes) are
projected and the original nodes retain their positions.

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 26.10 Geometry-Based Adaption

Figure 26.10.1: Mesh Before Adaption

Figure 26.10.2: Projection of Nodes

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Adapting the Grid

The following parameters control node projection and are specified in Geometry Based
Adaption panel.

• Levels of Projection Propagation: This parameter allows you to specify the number
of node layers across which node propagation should take place for geometry recon-
struction. A value of 1 means only the nodes at the boundary will be projected, a
value of 2 means the nodes at the boundary and the nodes in the next layer will
be projected, and so on.
Note: The nodes in the first level are projected by a maximum magnitude and the
node in the last level are projected by a minimum magnitude. The magnitude
of projection decreases gradually from the first level to the last level.
For example, a value of 3 for Levels of Projection Propagation means, the level
1 node is projected by maximum magnitude and level 3 node is projected by
minimum magnitude. Figure 26.10.3 illustrates the level of propagation and
magnitude of projection of newly created nodes.

Figure 26.10.3: Levels Projection Propagation and Magnitude

• Direction of Projection: This parameter allows you to specify the direction, X, Y,

or Z (for 3D), for node projection. If you do not specify any direction, the node
projection takes place at the nearest point of the newly created node.

• Background Mesh: This option allows you to use a fine surface mesh as a back-
ground mesh, based on which the geometry is reconstructed. When you read the

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 26.10 Geometry-Based Adaption

surface mesh, the node projection will take place based on the node positions of
the background mesh.
This option is useful when the mesh you want to adapt is very coarse and geometry is
highly curved. In such cases, node projection, only by specifying the parameters may
not result in a good quality mesh. However, you can also modify the propagation
criteria by specifying the parameters.

i You can read only one surface mesh at a time. The various zones of the
surface mesh will be listed in the Background Mesh drop-down list.

Example of Geometry-Based Adaption

Consider a mesh created for a spherical geometry. The initial mesh is very coarse, because
of which it has sharp corners (as in Figure 26.10.4). It does not represent the spherical
geometry accurately. To recover the original spherical geometry from this coarse mesh
use geometry-based adaption.

Figure 26.10.4: Coarse Mesh of a Sphere

If you adapt boundaries of the domain without activating the Reconstruct Geometry op-
tion, the resulting mesh (see Figure 26.10.5) has sufficient number of cells, but the bound-
ary of the domain still contains sharp corners.
Boundary adaption only creates new nodes in between the existing nodes to increase the
cell count of the mesh. Since it does not project the nodes, the shape of the mesh remains
as it is.
If you adapt the boundary with Reconstruct Geometry option. The resulting mesh (Fig-
ure 26.10.6) has more number of cells and less sharp corners at boundary. In addition,
the newly created nodes are projected in a direction such that it’s shape is closer to the
original geometry (i.e., sphere with smooth boundary).

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Adapting the Grid

Figure 26.10.5: Adapted Mesh Without Geometry Reconstruction

Figure 26.10.6: Mesh after Geometry-Based Adaption

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 26.10 Geometry-Based Adaption

26.10.2 Performing Geometry-Based Adaption

The Geometry Based Adaption panel (Figure 26.10.7) allows you to reconstruct the geom-
etry while performing boundary adaption.
Adapt −→Geometry...

Figure 26.10.7: The Geometry Based Adaption Panel

The procedure for performing geometry-based adaption is as follows:

1. Enable the Reconstruct Geometry option.

2. Under Wall Zones, select the zone you want to adapt and click Set.... The Geometry
Based Adaption Controls panel will open.

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Adapting the Grid

Figure 26.10.8: The Geometry Based Adaption Controls Panel

In the Geometry Based Adaption Controls panel, set the following parameters:
• Specify Levels of Projection Propagation to indicate the number of layers of the
nodes you want to project.
• Enable Direction of Projection and specify the directions in which you want to
project the nodes.
This will activate the parameters X, Y and Z. If you want node projection
in the X direction, specify X=1. If you do not activate this option, the node
projection will take place at the nearest point.
• (optional) If you have fine surface mesh for the geometry, you can use the
Background Mesh option to load the surface mesh as a background mesh. This
will project the nodes based on the background mesh and reconstruct the
geometry more accurately.
• To disable the geometry reconstruction for any zone in the domain, activate
Disable Geometry Based Adaption for this Zone.

3. To disable geometry-based adaption for the whole domain, disable Reconstruct Ge-
ometry.
After setting the parameters for geometry-based adaption proceed to mesh adap-
tion.

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26.11 Registers
A register is the group of cells that are marked for refinement/coarsening but not adapted.
There are two types of registers:

• Adaption Register

• Mask Register

Adaption Register
An adaption register is basically a list of identifiers for each cell in the domain. The
identifiers designate whether a cell is neutral (not marked), marked for refinement, or
marked for coarsening. Invoking the Mark command creates an adaption register. It is
called a register because it is used in a manner similar to the way memory registers are
used in calculators. For example, one adaption register holds the result of an operation,
another register holds the results of a second operation, and these registers can be used
to produce a third register.
The adaption function is used to set the appropriate identifier. For example, to refine the
cells based on pressure gradient, the solver computes the gradient adaption function for
each cell. The cell value is compared with the refining and coarsening threshold values
and assigned the appropriate identifier.

• If the cell value < coarsen threshold value, the cell is marked for coarsening.

• If the coarsen threshold value < cell value < refine threshold value, the cell is
neutral (not marked).

• If the cell value > refine threshold value, the cell is marked for refinement.

Adaption registers can be created using geometric data, physical features of the flow field,
and combinations of these information. After they are created, the adaption registers
can be listed, displayed, deleted, combined, exchanged, inverted, and changed to mask
registers.

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Hybrid Adaption Functions

The hybrid adaption functions are created to confine the adaption to a specific region
(using masks) and/or create a more accurate error indicator. FLUENT provides a few
basic tools to aid in creating hybrid adaption functions.

1. Create the initial adaption registers using geometric and/or solution vector infor-
mation.

2. Manipulate these registers and their associated refinement and coarsening marks.
• Manipulate the registers by changing the type and/or combining them to
create the desired hybrid function.
• Manipulate the marks by using Exchange, Invert, Limit, and Fill operations.

3. Delete, display adapt to the hybrid adaption functions.

For example, you can capture the shock wave generated on a wedge in a supersonic flow
field by adapting the grid to the gradients of pressure. The pressure gradient near the
surface of the wedge, however, is relatively small. You can therefore use the velocity field
to resolve the equally important boundary layer near the surface of the wedge.

• If you adapt to pressure, regions near the surface might be coarsened.

• If you subsequently adapted to velocity, these regions may be refined, but the net
result will not gain in resolution.

• If you combine the velocity and pressure gradient adaption functions, the new
adaption function will allow increased resolution in both regions.

The relative weight of the two functions in the hybrid function is determined by the
values of the refinement and coarsening thresholds you specify for each of the flow field
variables.
To refine the shock and boundary layer only near the leading edge of the wedge, create
a circle at the leading edge of the wedge using the region adaption function, change this
new register to a mask, and combine it with the hybrid gradient function.
The GUI and text interface commands generate adaption registers that designate the cells
marked for refinement or coarsening. These registers can be converted to mask registers.

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 26.11 Registers

Mask Register
Mark registers maintain only two states: ACTIVE and INACTIVE. If the adaption
register is converted to a mask, cells marked for refinement become ACTIVE cells, while
those that are unmarked or marked for coarsening become INACTIVE.
You can use a mask register to limit adaption to cells within a certain region.
This process is illustrated in Figures 26.11.1, 26.11.2, and 26.11.3.
Figure 26.11.1 shows a cloud of cells representing an adaption register (shaded cells are
marked cells). Figure 26.11.2 illustrates the active cells associated with a mask register.
If the mask is applied to (combined with) the adaption register, the new adaption register
formed from the combination has the marked cells shown in Figure 26.11.3.

Figure 26.11.1: Adaption Register with Marked Cells

Figure 26.11.2: Mask Register with Active Cells

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Figure 26.11.3: New Adaption Register Created from Application of Mask

This example does not differentiate between refinement or coarsening marks because the
mask is applied to both types of marks. For more information on combining registers,
see Section 26.11.1: Manipulating Adaption Registers.

26.11.1 Manipulating Adaption Registers

You can manipulate, delete, and display adaption registers by marking cells for adaption.
Since these registers are used to adapt the grid, the ability to manipulate them provides
additional control over the adaption process.
Management of adaption registers is performed in the Manage Adaption Registers panel
(Figure 26.11.4). You can also open this panel by clicking on the Manage... button in
any of the adaption panels.
Adapt −→Manage...
You can modify and manipulate adaption registers by:

• changing the register types

• combining the registers

• deleting the registers

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 26.11 Registers

Figure 26.11.4: The Manage Adaption Registers Panel

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Adapting the Grid

Changing Register Types

If the adaption register is converted to a mask, the cells marked for refinement are
ACTIVE, and all other cells are INACTIVE (i.e., the cells marked for coarsening are
ignored). Generally, the adaption registers converted to masks are those that are gen-
erated by adaption functions that mark cells exclusively for refinement, such as region
or isovalue adaption functions. The other major difference between adaption and mask
registers is the manner in which they are combined.
To change the type of one or more registers from adaption to mask, or vice versa, do the
following:

1. Choose the register(s) in the Registers list.

2. Click on the Change Type button under Register Actions.

The new type of the register (if multiple registers are selected, the most recently selected
or deselected register) will be shown as the Type under Register Info. Select each register
individually to see what its current type is.

Combining Registers
After the individual adaption registers have been created and appropriately modified,
they are combined to create hybrid adaption functions.

1. Any number of registers can be combined in the following manner:

• All adaption registers are combined into a new adaption register.
• All mask registers are combined into a new mask register.
• The new adaption and mask registers are combined.

2. Any number of adaption registers can be combined in the following manner:

• If the cell is marked for refinement in any of the registers, mark the cell for
refinement in the new register (bitwise OR).
• If the cell is marked for coarsening in all of the registers, mark the cell for
coarsening in the new register (bitwise AND).

3. The mask registers are combined in a manner similar to the refinement marks. If
any cell is marked ACTIVE, the cell in the new register is marked ACTIVE (bitwise
OR).

4. Finally, in the combination of an adaption and mask register, only cells that are
marked in the mask register can have an adaption mark in the combined register
(bitwise AND).

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 26.11 Registers

For example, creating an adaption function based on pressure gradient may generate
cells marked for refinement and coarsening throughout the entire solution domain. If
this register is then combined with a mask register created from cells marked inside a
sphere, only the cells inside the sphere will be marked for refinement or coarsening in the
new register.

Note: The effect of masks depends on the order in which they are applied.

For example, consider two adjacent, circular masks. Applying one mask to the adaption
register and then applying the other mask to the result of the first combination would
give a much different result than applying the combination of the two masks to the initial
adaption register. The second combination results in a greater possible number of marked
cells.
To combine two or more registers, do the following:

1. Choose the registers in the Registers list.

2. Click on the Combine button under Register Actions.

The selected registers will remain intact, and the register(s) resulting from the combina-
tion will be added to the Registers list. In some instances, three new registers may be
created:

• a combination of the adaption registers

• a combination of the mask registers
• a combination of the two combined registers

For more information about combining registers, see Section 26.11: Adaption Register.

Deleting Registers
The primary reason for deleting registers is to discard unwanted adaption registers. This
will reduce confusion and the possibility of generating undesired results by selecting
these discarded registers. In addition, only 32 adaption registers can exist at one time.
Therefore discard unwanted registers to make room for new ones. You can delete any
number of adaption registers.
To permanently remove one or more registers, do the following:

1. Choose the register(s) in the Registers list.

2. Click on the Delete button under Register Actions.

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26.11.2 Modifying Adaption Marks

The adaption marks are the identifiers that designate whether a cell should be refined,
coarsened, or neutral. The operations used for modifying the adaption marks are:

• Exchange: It changes the cells marked for refinement into cells marked for coarsen-
ing, and all cells originally marked for coarsening into cells marked for refinement.
This operation is applied to adaption registers that have only refinement marks.
For example, the exchange operation can be used to coarsen a rectangular region.
First, create an adaption register that marks a rectangular region of cells for re-
finement. Then use the Exchange operation to modify the cell marks, creating a
rectangular region with cells marked for coarsening.

• Invert: This operation can only be used with mask registers. It toggles the mask
markings, i.e., all cells marked ACTIVE are switched to INACTIVE, and all cells
marked INACTIVE are switched to ACTIVE.
For example, if you generate a mask that defines a circular region, you can quickly
modify the mask to define the region outside of the circle using the Invert operation.

• Limit: This operation applies the present adaption volume limit to the selected
adaption register. For information on adaption limits, see Section 26.12: Grid
Adaption Controls. You generally use this operation to determine the effect of the
present limits on the adaption process. You can use the volume limit to create a
uniform mesh by setting the limit to refine only the large cells. After all the cells
have reached a uniform size, you can continue the refinement process to the desired
resolution.

• Fill: This operation marks the cells in the adaption register that are not marked for
refinement. You can use the Fill operation to combine multiple registers to make a
new register.
Notes: 1. When you combine registers, a cell will be marked for coarsening only
if it is marked for coarsening in all of the registers.
2. If you create an adaption register with an operation that only marks cells for
refinement, but you do not want to prohibit coarsening, use the Fill operation before
combining the register with any other registers.

The process for modifying adaption marks is as follows:

1. Choose the register(s) in the Registers list.

2. Click on the Exchange, Invert, Limit, or Fill button under Mark Actions.

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 26.11 Registers

26.11.3 Displaying Registers

Viewing the cell markings is often helpful in the process of creating hybrid adaption
functions. You can plot a marker at the cell centroid and/or a wireframe of the cell to
view the state of the cell. By default, the cells marked for refinement are colored in
red, and the cells marked for coarsening are marked in cyan. In addition, cells marked
ACTIVE in a mask register are also colored red. These are the cells that are marked for
adaption, but the final number of cells added or subtracted from the grid depends on the
adaption limits and the grid characteristics.
To display a register, do the following:

1. Choose the register in the Registers list.

2. Set the display options by clicking on the Options... button.

3. Click on the Display button.

Adaption Display Options

Various aspects of the adaption register display can be modified, such as the wireframe
visibility and shading, marker visibility, color, size, and symbol. Also, you can select
either surface or zone grids for the display.
The adaption register display capability allows you to view the cells that are flagged for
adaption.

• Depending on the dimension of the problem and the number of flagged cells, you
can customize the adaption display options. The most common method for viewing
flagged cells in 2D is to draw the grid and filled wireframes, but this is impractical
in 3D. In three dimensions, you can plot the centroid markers of the cells with the
grid of selected boundary zones.

• You can use markers and/or wireframes to display the flagged cells in an adaption
or mask register. The marker is a symbol placed at the centroid of the cell. There
is a refine marker and a coarsen marker. You can change the symbol, color, and
size of these markers. A wireframe is composed of the edges of the triangle or
tetrahedron. Its color is the same as the respective marker color, and can be filled,
if required.

• Portions of the grid can be drawn with the marker symbols or wireframes to aid in
evaluating the location of marked cells.

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All of these options are set in the Adaption Display Options panel (Figure 26.11.5). You
can also open this panel by clicking on the Options... button in the Manage Adaption
Registers panel.
Adapt −→Display Options...

Figure 26.11.5: The Adaption Display Options Panel

• To enable or disable the display of wireframes for cells marked for refinement/coarsening,
turn the Wireframe option on or off under Refine and/or Coarsen. To draw filled
wireframes (i.e., using a solid color, instead of the outline) turn on the Filled option.

• To enable or disable the display of markers for cells marked for refinement/coarsening,
turn the Marker option on or off under Refine and/or Coarsen. Use markers to specify
their size in the Size field, and their symbol in the Symbol drop-down list.

• To change the color of the refine or coarsen markers/wireframes, select a new color
in the Color drop-down list under Refine or Coarsen. By default, refine mark-
ers/wireframes are red and coarsen markers/wireframes are cyan.

• To include portions of the grid in the register display, enable the Draw Grid option.
The Grid Display panel will appear automatically, where you can set the grid display
parameters. When you click on Display in the Manage Adaption Registers panel, the
grid display, as defined in the Grid Display panel, will be included in the register
display.

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 26.12 Grid Adaption Controls

26.11.4 Adapting to Registers

These register tools provide you with the ability to create hybrid adaption functions
customized to your flow-field application. The customized adaption function is used to
direct the refinement and coarsening of the grid.
To perform the adaption, follow these steps:

1. Choose the register in the Registers list.

2. Click the Adapt button.

26.12 Grid Adaption Controls

FLUENT allows you to:

• Change the adaption type from hanging node to conformal.

• Place restrictions on the cell zones.

• Limit adaption by cell volume or volume weight.

• Limit the total number of cells that can be produced from the adaption process.

• Modify the intensity of the volume weighting in the gradient function.

• Restrict the adaption process to refinement and/or coarsening, and control which
nodes are eligible for possible elimination from the grid during conformal coarsening.

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Adapting the Grid

The parameters controlling the aspects of adaption are set in the Grid Adaption Controls
panel (Figure 26.12.1). You can also open this panel by clicking on the Controls... button
in any of the adaption panels.
Adapt −→Controls...

Figure 26.12.1: The Grid Adaption Controls Panel

Note: Write a case and data file before starting the adaption process. Then, if you
generate an undesirable grid, you can restart the process with the saved files.

Controlling the Type of Adaption

You can choose to use hanging node or conformal adaption. You can also restrict the
adaption process to the addition of grid resolution through refinement and/or the removal
of grid density through coarsening.

• To use hanging node adaption (the default), select Hanging in the Type frame,
and to use conformal adaption, select Conformal. The hanging node and conformal
adaption procedures are described in detail in Section 26.2: Static Adaption Process.

• To enable/disable refinement, turn the Refine option on or off.

• To enable/disable coarsening, turn the Coarsen option on or off.

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 26.12 Grid Adaption Controls

Limiting Adaption by Zone

You can limit the adaption process to specified cell zones. The cells composing the fluid
and solid regions of the analysis generally have very different resolution requirements and
error indicators. Limiting the adaption to a specific cell zone and use different adaption
functions to create the optimal grid.
To limit the adaption to a particular cell zone (or to particular cell zones), select the cell
zones in which you want to perform adaption in the Zones list. By default, adaption will
be performed in all cell zones.

Limiting Adaption by Cell Volume or Volume Weight

The minimum cell volume limit restricts the refinement process to cells with volumes
greater than the limit. Use this to initiate the refinement process on larger cells, gradually
reducing the limit to create a uniform cell size distribution. Set this limit in the Min Cell
Volume field. The input that you will give in this field for a 2D axisymmetric problem
will be interpreted as the minimum cell area.
In addition, the gradient volume weight can be modified. A value of zero eliminates
volume weighting, a value of unity uses the entire volume, and values between 0 and
1 scale the volume weighting. Set this value in the Volume Weight field. For more
information, see Section 26.4.1: Gradient Adaption Approach.

Limiting the Total Number of Cells

The maximum number of cells is a restriction that prevents FLUENT from creating more
cells than required for the present analysis. In addition, it saves the time you spent
waiting for the grid adaption process to complete the creation of these cells. However,
this premature termination of the refinement process can produce undesirable grid qual-
ity depending on the order in which the cells were visited, which is based on the cell
arrangement in memory (random).
During the dynamic gradient adaption, the resulting number of cells after adaption is
estimated. If this number exceeds the maximum number of cells, both the Coarsen
Threshold and the Refine Threshold are updated. This is done to ensure the best possible
grid resolution with the specified number of cells. You can also specify the minimum
number of cells. This is helpful if strong structures of the flow that were resolved with
the adaption vanished (e.g. left the domain) and you want to resolve the remaining
weaker ones. This would otherwise require modifying the Coarsen Threshold and the
Refine Threshold.
You can set the total number of cells allowed in the grid in the Max # of Cells field. The
minimum number of cells in the grid can be set in the Min # of Cells field. The default
values of zero places no limits on the number of cells.

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Controlling the Levels of Refinement During Hanging Node Adaption

You can control the number of levels of refinement used to split cells during nonconformal
adaption by setting the Max Level of Refine. The default value of 2 is a good start for
most problems. If this is not sufficient, you can increase this value.

Note: Even in a 2D problem, the default value of 2 can increase the number of cells by
a factor of 16, in the adapted regions.

A value of zero leaves this parameter unbounded, and you should use a suitable limit for
Min Cell Volume. For more information on hanging node adaption, see Section 26.2.1: Hang-
ing Node Adaption. For guidelines for limiting cell sizes and number of cells during
dynamic gradient adaption, see Section 26.5.1: Dynamic Gradient Adaption Approach.

Controlling Node Removal During Conformal Coarsening

You can control the removal of nodes during coarsening by modifying the node removal
flags. The node removal flags control which nodes are eligible for possible elimination
from the grid.

Note: The node removal flags apply to conformal adaption only.

For hanging node adaption, only refinement nodes can be removed during coarsening,
and they are always removed.
Nodes introduced by refinement are called refinement nodes, and nodes that existed in
the mesh before refinement are called original nodes. FLUENT maintains a section in
the case file with the node flags. If this section doesn’t exist (i.e., when you first read
a grid), it identifies all nodes as original nodes. It also distinguishes between nodes on
boundary, internal, and periodic zones for both original nodes and nodes created by
adaptive refinement.
To guarantee that the original shape of the domain boundaries is maintained, only the
nodes introduced by refinement are removed. For example, consider the grid of a rectan-
gular domain. If one of the nodes on the edges of the rectangle is removed the shape is
not modified, but if one of the corner nodes of the rectangle is eliminated, the shape is
changed from a quadrilateral to a pentagon.
You can modify this default behavior by changing the node removal flags. The most
common modification is to allow the removal of original internal nodes. Removing internal
nodes does not destroy the shape of the boundary. In fact, it can be very helpful if the
initial grid has substantial resolution in a region with minor or no changes in physical
features.

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 26.13 Improving the Grid by Smoothing and Swapping

Note: Removing the original boundary or periodic nodes can alter the shape, and in some
instances may even destroy the topology, producing a worthless grid. Therefore, be
careful when removing original boundary and periodic nodes. Write a case and data
file before starting the adaption process. Then, if you generate an undesirable grid,
you can restart the process with the saved files.

By default, only the removal of refinement nodes is allowed, as indicated by the enabled
status of Boundary - Refined, Internal - Refined, and Periodic - Refined and the disabled
status of Boundary - Original, Internal - Original, and Periodic - Original in the Grid Adaption
Controls panel. If you want to disable the removal of these types of nodes, do so by turning
off the associated check button. Similarly, if you want to enable their removal, turn on
the associated check button.

26.13 Improving the Grid by Smoothing and Swapping

Smoothing and face swapping are tools that complement grid adaption, increasing the
quality of the final numerical mesh. Smoothing repositions the nodes and face swapping
modifies the cell connectivity to achieve these improvements in quality.

i Face swapping is applicable only to grids with triangular or tetrahedral

cells.

i Smoothing and face swapping are available only for serial cases, not for
parallel cases.

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Both, smoothing and swapping are performed using the Smooth/Swap Grid panel (Fig-
ure 26.13.1).
Adapt −→Smooth/Swap...

Figure 26.13.1: The Smooth/Swap Grid Panel

26.13.1 Smoothing
Two smoothing methods available in FLUENT are:

• Laplace smoothing: It can be applied to all types of grids, but it is recommended

to use it for quadrilateral and hexahedral grids.

• Skewness-based smoothings: It is recommended for triangular and tetrahedral

grids. This method can be used alternatively with face swapping (see Section 26.13.3: Com-
bining Skewness-Based Smoothing and Face Swapping).

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 26.13 Improving the Grid by Smoothing and Swapping

Laplacian Smoothing
When you use this method, a Laplacian smoothing operator is applied to the unstructured
grid to reposition nodes. The new node position is the average of the positions of its
node neighbors. The relaxation factor (with value between 0.0 and 1.0) multiplies the
computed node position increment. A value of zero results in no movement of the node
and a value of unity results in movement equivalent to the entire computed increment.
Figure 26.13.2 illustrates the new node position for a typical configuration of quadrilateral
cells. The dashed line is the original grid and the solid line is the final grid.

Figure 26.13.2: Result of Smoothing Operator on Node Position

This repositioning strategy improves the skewness of the mesh, but relaxes the clustering
of node points. In extreme circumstances, the present operator may create grid lines that
cross over the boundary, creating negative cell volumes. This is most likely to occur near
sharp or coarsely resolved convex corners, especially if you perform multiple smoothing
operations with a large relaxation factor. Figure 26.13.3 illustrates an initial tetrahedral
grid before one unrelaxed smoothing iteration creates grid lines that cross over each other
(Figure 26.13.4).
The default smoothing parameters are designed to improve grid quality with minimal
adverse effects, but save a case file before smoothing the mesh. If you apply a conservative
relaxation factor and start with a good quality initial grid, the frequency of failure due to
smoothing is extremely low in two dimensions. However, corruption of the grid topology
occurs much more frequently in three dimensions, particularly with tetrahedral grids.
The smoothing operator can also be applied repeatedly, but as the number of smoothing
sweeps increase, the node points have a tendency to pull away from boundaries and the
grid tends to lose any clustering characteristics.

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Adapting the Grid

Figure 26.13.3: Initial Grid Before Smoothing Operation

Figure 26.13.4: Grid Smoothing Causing Grid-Line Crossing

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 26.13 Improving the Grid by Smoothing and Swapping

To perform Laplacian smoothing, do the following:

1. In the Smooth/Swap Grid panel (Figure 26.13.1), select laplace in the Method drop-
down list under Smooth.
2. Set the factor by which to multiply the computed position increment for the node
in the Relaxation Factor field. The lower the factor, the more reduction in node
movement.
3. Specify the number of successive smoothing sweeps to be performed on the grid in
the Number of Iterations field. The default value is 4.
4. Click the Smooth button.

Skewness-Based Smoothing
When you use skewness-based smoothing, FLUENT applies a smoothing operator to the
grid, repositioning interior nodes to lower the maximum skewness of the grid. FLUENT
will try to move interior nodes to improve the skewness of cells with skewness greater
than the specified “minimum skewness.” This process can be very time-consuming, so
perform smoothing only on cells with high skewness.
Improved results can be obtained by smoothing the nodes several times. There are inter-
nal checks that will prevent a node from being moved if moving it causes the maximum
skewness to increase, but it is common for the skewness of some cells to increase when a
cell with a higher skewness is being improved. Thus, you may see the average skewness
increase while the maximum skewness is decreasing.

i Carefully consider whether the improvements to the mesh due to a decrease

in the maximum skewness are worth the potential increase in the average
skewness. Performing smoothing only on cells with very high skewness
(e.g., 0.8 or 0.9) may reduce the adverse effects on the average skewness.
To perform skewness-based smoothing, do the following:

1. In the Smooth/Swap Grid panel (Figure 26.13.1), select skewness in the Method
drop-down list under Smooth.
2. Set the minimum cell skewness value for which node smoothing will be attempted
in the Minimum Skewness field. FLUENT will try to move interior nodes to improve
the skewness of cells with skewness greater than this value. By default, Minimum
Skewness is set to 0.4 for 2D and 0.8 for 3D.
3. Specify the number of successive smoothing sweeps to be performed on the grid in
the Number of Iterations field. The default value is 4.
4. Click the Smooth button.

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26.13.2 Face Swapping

Face swapping is used to improve the quality of a triangular or tetrahedral grid.
To perform face swapping, click on the Swap button in the Smooth/Swap Grid panel until
the reported Number Swapped is 0. The Number Visited indicates the total number of
faces that were visited and tested for possible face swapping.
Face swapping is applicable only to grids with triangular or tetrahedral cells.

Triangular Grids
The approach for triangular grids is to use the Delaunay circle test to decide if a face
shared by two triangular cells should be swapped. A pair of cells sharing a face satisfies
the circle test if the circumcircle of one cell does not contain the unshared node of the
second cell. Figure 26.13.5 illustrates cell neighbors in the circle test. In cases where the
circle test is not satisfied, the diagonal or face is swapped, as illustrated in Figure 26.13.6.

Figure 26.13.5: Examples of Cell Configurations in the Circle Test

Figure 26.13.6: Swapped Faces to Satisfy the Delaunay Circle Test

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 26.13 Improving the Grid by Smoothing and Swapping

Repeated application of the face-swapping technique will produce a constrained Delaunay

mesh. If you have a Delaunay grid, it is a unique triangulation that maximizes the
minimum angles in the mesh. Thus, the triangulation tends toward equilateral cells,
providing the most equilateral grid for the given node distribution. For more information
on Delaunay mesh generation, see the Theory chapter in the TGrid User’s Guide.

Tetrahedral Grids
For tetrahedral grids, face swapping consists of searching for configurations of three cells
sharing an edge and converting them into two cells sharing a face to decrease skewness
and the cell count (see Figure 26.13.7).

Figure 26.13.7: 3D Face Swapping

26.13.3 Combining Skewness-Based Smoothing and Face Swapping

As mentioned in Section 26.13.1: Skewness-Based Smoothing, skewness-based smooth-
ing should usually be alternated with face swapping. Guidelines for this procedure are
presented here.

• Perform four smoothing iterations using a Minimum Skewness of 0.8 for 3D, or 0.4
for 2D.

• Swap until the Number Swapped decreases to 0.

• For 3D grids, decrease the Minimum Skewness to 0.6 and repeat the smooth-
ing/swapping procedure.

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Chapter 27. Creating Surfaces for Displaying and
Reporting Data

FLUENT allows you to select portions of the domain to be used for visualizing the flow
field. The domain portions are called surfaces, and there are a variety of ways to create
them. Surfaces are required for graphical analysis of 3D problems, since you cannot
display vectors, contours, etc. or create an XY plot for the entire domain at once. In 2D
you can usually visualize the flow field on the entire domain, but to create an XY plot
of a variable in a portion of the interior of the domain, you must generate a surface. In
addition, in both 2D and 3D, you will need one or more surfaces if you want to generate
a surface-integral report. Note that FLUENT will automatically create a surface for each
boundary zone in the domain. Surface information is stored in the case file.
The following sections explain how to create surfaces, rename, group, and delete them,
and determine their sizes.

• Section 27.1: Using Surfaces

• Section 27.2: Zone Surfaces

• Section 27.3: Partition Surfaces

• Section 27.4: Point Surfaces

• Section 27.5: Line and Rake Surfaces

• Section 27.6: Plane Surfaces

• Section 27.7: Quadric Surfaces

• Section 27.8: Isosurfaces

• Section 27.9: Clipping Surfaces

• Section 27.10: Transforming Surfaces

• Section 27.11: Grouping, Renaming, and Deleting Surfaces

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Creating Surfaces for Displaying and Reporting Data

27.1 Using Surfaces

In order to visualize the internal flow of a 3D problem or create XY plots of solution
variables for 3D results, you must select portions of the domain (surfaces) on which the
data is to be displayed. Surfaces can also be used for visualizing or plotting data for 2D
problems, and for generating surface-integral reports.
FLUENT provides methods for creating several kinds of surfaces, and stores all surfaces
in the case file. These surfaces and their uses are described briefly below:

Zone Surfaces: If you want to create a surface that will contain the same cells/faces as
an existing cell/face zone, you can generate a zone surface. This kind of surface is
useful for displaying results on boundaries.

Partition Surfaces: When you are using the parallel version of FLUENT, you may
find it useful to create surfaces that are defined by the boundaries between grid
partitions (see Chapter 31: Parallel Processing for more information about running
the parallel solver). You can then display data on each side of a partition boundary.

Point Surfaces: To monitor the value of some variable or function at a particular lo-
cation in the domain, you can create a surface consisting of a single point.

Line and Rake Surfaces: To generate and display pathlines, you must specify a sur-
face from which the particles are released. Line and rake surfaces are well-suited
for this purpose and for obtaining data for comparison with wind tunnel data. A
rake surface consists of a specified number of points equally spaced between two
specified endpoints. A line surface is simply a line that includes the specified end-
points and extends through the domain; data points will be at the centers of the
cells through which the line passes, and consequently will not be equally spaced.

Plane Surfaces: If you want to display flow-field data on a specific plane in the domain,
you can create a plane surface. A plane surface is simply a plane that passes through
three specified points.

Quadric Surfaces: To display data on a line (2D), plane (3D), circle (2D), sphere (3D),
or quadric surface you can specify the surface by entering the coefficients of the
quadric function that defines it. This feature provides you with an explicit method
for defining surfaces.

Isosurfaces: You can use an isosurface to display results on cells that have a constant
value for a specified variable. Generating an isosurface based on x, y, or z co-
ordinate, for example, will give you an x, y, or z cross-section of your domain.
Generating an isosurface based on pressure will allow you to display data for an-
other variable on a surface of constant pressure.

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27.2 Zone Surfaces

Zone surfaces are useful for displaying results on boundaries. For example, you may want
to plot contours of velocity magnitude at the inlet and outlet of the problem domain, or
temperature contours on the domain’s walls. To do so, you need to have a surface that
contains the same faces (or cells) as an existing face (or cell) zone. Zone surfaces are
created automatically for all boundary face zones in the domain, so you will generally
not need to create any zone surfaces unless you accidentally delete one.
To create a zone surface, you will use the Zone Surface panel (Figure 27.2.1).
Surface −→Zone...

Figure 27.2.1: The Zone Surface Panel

The steps for creating the zone surface are as follows:

1. In the Zone list, select the zone for which you want to create a surface.

2. If you do not want to use the default name assigned to the surface, enter a new name
under New Surface Name. The default name is the concatenation of the surface type
and an integer which is the new surface ID (e.g., zone-surface-6). (If the New
Surface Name you enter is the same as the name of a surface that already exists,
FLUENT will automatically assign the default name to the new surface when it is
created.)

i The surface name that you enter must begin with an alphabetical letter.
If your surface name begins with any other character or number, FLUENT
will not accept the entry.

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3. Click on the Create button. The new surface name will be added to the Surfaces
list in the panel.

If you want to delete or otherwise manipulate any surfaces, click on the Manage... button
to open the Surfaces panel. See Section 27.11: Grouping, Renaming, and Deleting Surfaces
for details.

27.3 Partition Surfaces

If you are using the parallel version of FLUENT (see Chapter 31: Parallel Processing),
you may find it useful to create data surfaces defined by the boundaries of grid partitions.
As described in Section 31.5: Partitioning the Grid, partitioning the grid divides it into
groups of cells that can be solved on separate processors when you use a parallel solver.
A partition surface will contain faces or cells on the boundary of two grid partitions.
For example, you can plot solution values on the partition surface to determine how
the solution is changing across a partition interface. Figure 27.3.1 shows cell-partition
contours on a partition surface which is overlaid on the grid.

0.00e+00

3.00e-01

6.00e-01

9.00e-01

1.20e+00

1.50e+00

1.80e+00

2.10e+00

2.40e+00

2.70e+00

3.00e+00

Contours of Cell Partition

Figure 27.3.1: Contours of Cell Partitions on Partition Surface Overlaid on

Grid

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 27.3 Partition Surfaces

To create a partition surface, you will use the Partition Surface panel (Figure 27.3.2).
Surface −→Partition...

Figure 27.3.2: The Partition Surface Panel

The steps for creating the partition surface are as follows:

1. Specify the partition boundary you are interested in by indicating the two bordering
partitions under the Partitions heading. The boundary that defines the partition
surface is the boundary between the “interior partition” and the “exterior parti-
tion”. Int Part indicates the ID number of the interior partition (i.e., the partition
under consideration), and Ext Part indicates the ID number of the bordering (exte-
rior) partition. The Min and Max fields will indicate the minimum and maximum
ID numbers of the grid partitions. (The minimum is always zero, and the maximum
is one less than the number of processors.) If there are more than two grid parti-
tions, each interior partition will share boundaries with several exterior partitions.
By setting the appropriate values for Int Part and Ext Part, you can create surfaces
for any of these boundaries.

2. Choose interior or exterior faces or cells to be contained in the partition surface by

turning Cells and Interior on or off under Options. To obtain a surface consisting of
cells that are on the “interior” side of the partition boundary, turn on both Cells
and Interior. To create one consisting of cells that are on the “exterior” side, turn
on Cells and turn off Interior. If you want the surface to contain the faces on the
boundary instead of the cells, turn off the Cells option. To have the faces reflect
data values for the interior cells, turn the Interior check button on, and to have
them reflect values for the exterior cells, turn it off.

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3. If you do not want to use the default name assigned to the surface, enter a new name
under New Surface Name. The default name is the concatenation of the surface type
and an integer which is the new surface ID (e.g., partition-surface-6). (If the
New Surface Name you enter is the same as the name of a surface that already exists,
FLUENT will automatically assign the default name to the new surface when it is
created.)

i The surface name that you enter must begin with an alphabetical letter.
If your surface name begins with any other character or number, FLUENT
will not accept the entry.
4. Click on the Create button. The new surface name will be added to the Surfaces
list in the panel.

If you want to delete or otherwise manipulate any surfaces, click on the Manage... button
to open the Surfaces panel. See Section 27.11: Grouping, Renaming, and Deleting Surfaces
for details.

27.4 Point Surfaces

You may often be interested in displaying results at a single point in the domain. For
example, you may want to monitor the value of some variable or function at a particular
location. To do this, you must first create a “point” surface, consisting of a single point.
When you display node-value data on a point surface, the value displayed will be a linear
average of the neighboring node values. If you display cell-value data, the value at the
cell in which the point lies will be displayed.
To create a point surface, you will use the Point Surface panel (Figure 27.4.1).
Surface −→Point...
The steps for creating the point surface are as follows:

1. Specify the location of the point. There are three different ways to do this:
• Enter the coordinates (x0,y0,z0) under Coordinates.
• Click on the Select Point With Mouse button and then select the point by click-
ing on a location in the active graphics window with the mouse-probe button.
(See Section 28.3: Controlling the Mouse Button Functions for information
about setting mouse button functions.)
• Use the Point Tool option to interactively position a point in the graphics
window. You can set the initial location of this point using one of the two
methods described above for specifying the point’s position (or you can start
from the position defined by the default Coordinates). See Section 27.4.1: Using
the Point Tool for information about using the point tool.

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 27.4 Point Surfaces

Figure 27.4.1: The Point Surface Panel

2. If you do not want to use the default name assigned to the surface, enter a new name
under New Surface Name. The default name is the concatenation of the surface type
and an integer which is the new surface ID (e.g., point-5). (If the New Surface
Name you enter is the same as the name of a surface that already exists, FLUENT
will automatically assign the default name to the new surface when it is created.)

i The surface name that you enter must begin with an alphabetical letter.
If your surface name begins with any other character or number, FLUENT
will not accept the entry.
3. Click on the Create button to create the new surface.

If you want to check that your new surface has been added to the list of all defined sur-
faces, or you want to delete or otherwise manipulate any surfaces, click on the Manage...
button to open the Surfaces panel. See Section 27.11: Grouping, Renaming, and Deleting
Surfaces for details.

27.4.1 Using the Point Tool

The point tool allows you to interactively fine-tune the definition of a point using graphics.
Starting from an initial point, you can translate the point until its position is as desired.
For example, if you need to position a point surface at the center of a duct, just past the
inlet, you can start with the point tool near the desired location (e.g., on the inlet), and
translate it until it is in the proper place. (You may find it helpful to display grid faces
to ensure that the point tool is correctly positioned inside the domain.)

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Initializing the Point Tool

Before turning on the Point Tool option, set the Coordinates to suitable starting values.
You can enter values manually, or use the Select Point With Mouse button. Often it is
convenient to display the grid for an inlet or isosurface on or near which the point is
to be located, and then select a point on that grid to specify the initial position of the
point tool. Once you have specified the appropriate Coordinates, activate the tool by
turning on the Point Tool option. The point tool, an eight-sided polygon, will appear in
the graphics window, as shown in Figure 27.4.2.

Figure 27.4.2: The Point Tool

You can then translate the point tool as described below. The point surface you create
will be located at the center of the point tool.

Translating the Point Tool

To translate the point tool in the direction along the red axis, click the mouse-probe
button (the right button by default—see Section 28.3: Controlling the Mouse Button
Functions for information about changing the mouse functions) anywhere on the gray
part of the point tool and drag the mouse until the tool reaches the desired location.
Green arrows will show the direction of motion.
To translate the tool in the transverse directions (i.e., along either of the other axes),
press the <Shift> key, click the mouse-probe button anywhere on the gray part of the
point tool, and drag the mouse until the tool reaches the desired location. Two sets
of green arrows will show the possible directions of motion. (In 2D, there will be only

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 27.5 Line and Rake Surfaces

one set of green arrows, since there is only one other direction for translation.) If you
find the perspective distracting when performing this type of translation, you can turn
it off in the Camera Parameters panel (opened from the Views panel), as described in
Section 28.4.2: Controlling Perspective and Camera Parameters.

Resetting the Point Tool

If you “lose” the point tool, or want to reset it for any other reason, you can either click
on the Reset button to return the point tool to the default position and start from there,
or turn the tool off and reinitialize it as described above. In the default position, the
point tool will lie at the center of the domain.

27.5 Line and Rake Surfaces

You can create lines and rakes in the domain for releasing particles, obtaining data for
comparison with tunnel data, etc. A rake consists of a specified number of points equally
spaced between two specified endpoints. A line is simply a line that extends up to and
includes the specified endpoints; data points will be located where the line intersects the
faces of the cell, and consequently may not be equally spaced.
To create a line or rake surface, you will use the Line/Rake Surface panel (Figure 27.5.1).
Surface −→Line/Rake...

Figure 27.5.1: The Line/Rake Surface Panel

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The steps for creating the line or rake surface are as follows:

1. Indicate whether you are creating a Line surface or a Rake surface by selecting the
appropriate item in the Type drop-down list.

2. If you are creating a rake surface, specify the Number of Points to be equally spaced
between the two endpoints.

3. Specify the location of the line or rake surface. There are three different ways to
define the location:
• Enter the coordinates of the first point (x0,y0,z0) and the last point (x1,y1,z1)
under End Points.
• Click on the Select Points With Mouse button and then select the endpoints
by clicking on locations in the active graphics window with the mouse-probe
button. (See Section 28.3: Controlling the Mouse Button Functions for infor-
mation about setting mouse button functions.)
• Use the Line Tool option to interactively position a line in the graphics window.
You can set the initial location of this line using one of the two methods
described above for specifying endpoints (or you can start from the position
defined by the default End Points). See Section 27.5.1: Using the Line Tool for
information about using the line tool.
Note that the coordinates of the End Points will be updated automatically when
you use the second or third method described above.

4. If you do not want to use the default name assigned to the surface, enter a new name
under New Surface Name. The default name is the concatenation of the surface type
and an integer which is the new surface ID (e.g., line-5 or rake-6). (If the New
Surface Name you enter is the same as the name of a surface that already exists,
FLUENT will automatically assign the default name to the new surface when it is
created.)

i The surface name that you enter must begin with an alphabetical letter.
If your surface name begins with any other character or number, FLUENT
will not accept the entry.
5. Click on the Create button to create the new surface.

If you want to check that your new surface has been added to the list of all defined sur-
faces, or you want to delete or otherwise manipulate any surfaces, click on the Manage...
button to open the Surfaces panel. See Section 27.11: Grouping, Renaming, and Deleting
Surfaces for details.

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 27.5 Line and Rake Surfaces

27.5.1 Using the Line Tool

The line tool allows you to interactively fine-tune the definition of a line or rake using
graphics. Starting from an initial line, you can translate, rotate, and resize the line until
its position, orientation, and length are as desired. For example, if you need to position
a rake surface just inside the inlet to a duct, you can start with the line tool near the
desired location (e.g., on the inlet), and translate, rotate, and resize it until you are
satisfied. (You may find it helpful to display grid faces to ensure that the line tool is
correctly positioned inside the domain.)

Initializing the Line Tool

Before turning on the Line Tool option, set the End Points to suitable starting values.
You can enter values manually, or use the Select Points With Mouse button. Often it is
convenient to display the grid for an inlet or isosurface on or near which you wish to
place the line or rake surface and then select two points on that grid to specify the initial
position of the line tool. Once you have specified the appropriate End Points, activate
the tool by turning on the Line Tool option. The line tool will appear in the graphics
window, as shown in Figure 27.5.2.

Figure 27.5.2: The Line Tool

You can then translate, rotate, and/or resize the line tool as described below.

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Creating Surfaces for Displaying and Reporting Data

Translating the Line Tool

To translate the line tool in the direction along the red axis, click the mouse-probe button
(the right button by default—see Section 28.3: Controlling the Mouse Button Functions
for information about changing the mouse functions) anywhere on the “line” part of the
tool (see note below) and drag the mouse until the tool reaches the desired location.
Green arrows will show the direction of motion.

i Do not click on the axes of the line tool that have arrows on the ends.
These axes control rotation of the tool. Click only on the portion of the
tool that represents the prospective line surface. This portion is designated
by the rectangles attached to each end.
To translate the tool in the transverse directions (i.e., along either of the axes within
the plane perpendicular to the red axis), press the <Shift> key, click the mouse-probe
button anywhere on the “line” part of the tool (see note above), and drag the mouse until
the tool reaches the desired location. Two sets of green arrows will show the possible
directions of motion. (In 2D, there will be only one set of green arrows, since there is
only one other direction for translation.) If you find the perspective distracting when
performing this type of translation, you can turn it off in the Camera Parameters panel
(opened from the Views panel), as described in Section 28.4.2: Controlling Perspective
and Camera Parameters.

Rotating the Line Tool

To rotate the line tool, you will click the mouse-probe button on one of the white axes
with arrows. When you click on one of these axes, a green ribbon will encircle the other
arrowed axis, designating it as the axis of rotation. As you drag the mouse along the
circle to rotate the tool, the green circle will become yellow.

i Do not click on the red axis to rotate the line tool.

Resizing the Line Tool

If you plan to generate a rake surface, you can resize the line tool to define the length of
the rake. Click the mouse-probe button in one of the white rectangles at the ends of the
“line” part of the tool (shown in black in Figure 27.5.2) and drag the mouse to lengthen
or shorten the tool. Green arrows will show the direction of stretching/shrinking.

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 27.6 Plane Surfaces

Resetting the Line Tool

If you “lose” the line tool, or want to reset it for any other reason, you can either click
on the Reset button to return the line tool to the default position and start from there,
or turn the tool off and reinitialize it as described above. In the default position, the
line tool will lie midway along the x and y lengths of the domain, spanning the z domain
extent.

27.6 Plane Surfaces

To display flow-field data on a specific plane in the domain, you will use a plane surface.
You can create surfaces that cut through the solution domain along arbitrary planes only
in 3D; this feature is not available in 2D.
There are six types of plane surfaces that you can create:

• Intersection of the domain with the infinite plane: This is the default plane surface
created. The extents of the plane will be determined by the extents of the domain.
Since the plane is slicing through the domain, the data points will, by default, be
located where the plane intersects the faces of a cell, and consequently may not be
equally spaced.

• Bounded plane: This plane will be a bounded parallelepiped, for which 3 of the 4
corners are the 3 points that define the plane equation (or the 4 corners are the
corners of the “plane tool”). Like the default plane surface described above, this
type of surface will also have unequally spaced data points.

• Bounded plane with equally spaced data points: This plane is the same as the
bounded plane described above, except you will specify the density of points along
the 2 directions of the parallelepiped, creating a uniform distribution of data points.

• Plane having a certain normal vector and passing through a specified point: To
create this type of plane, you will define a normal vector and a point. A plane with
the specified normal and passing through the specified point will be created.

• Plane aligned with an existing surface: To create this type of plane, you will define
a single point and a surface. A plane parallel to the selected surface and passing
through the specified point will be created.

• Plane aligned with the view in the graphics window: To create this type of plane,
you will define a single point. A plane parallel to the current view in the active
graphics window and passing through the specified point will be created.

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To create a plane surface, you will use the Plane Surface panel (Figure 27.6.1).
Surface −→Plane...

Figure 27.6.1: The Plane Surface Panel

The steps for creating the plane surface are as follows:

1. Decide which of the six types of planes described above you want to create. If
you are creating the default plane type (the intersection of the infinite plane with
the domain), go directly to step 2. To create a bounded plane, turn on Bounded
under Options. To create a bounded plane with equally spaced data points, turn
on both Bounded and Sample Points, and then set the number of data points under
Sample Density. You will specify the point density in each direction by entering the
appropriate values for Edge 1 and Edge 2. (Edge 1 extends from point 0 to point
1, and edge 2 extends from point 1 to point 2. The points are specified in step 2,
below.)
To define a plane aligned with an existing surface, select Aligned With Surface, and
then choose the surface in the Surfaces list and specify a single point using one of
the first two methods described below in step 2.

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 27.6 Plane Surfaces

To define a plane aligned with the view plane, select Aligned With View Plane, and
then choose a single point using one of the first two methods described below in
step 2.
To define a plane having a certain normal vector and passing through a specified
point, select Point And Normal, and then specify the normal vector by entering
values in the ix, iy, and iz fields under Normal, and a single point using one of the
first two methods described below in step 2.

2. Specify the location of the plane surface. There are three different ways to define
the location:
• Enter the coordinates of the three Points defining the planar surface: (x0,y0,z0),
(x1,y1,z1), and (x2,y2,z2).
• Click on the Select Points button and then select the three points by clicking
on locations in the active graphics window with the mouse-probe button. (See
Section 28.3: Controlling the Mouse Button Functions for information about
setting mouse button functions.)
• Use the Plane Tool option to interactively position a plane in the graphics
window. You can set the initial location of this plane using one of the two
methods described above for specifying the defining points (or you can start
from the position defined by the default Points). See Section 27.6.1: Using the
Plane Tool for information about using the plane tool.
Note that the coordinates of the Points will be updated automatically when you
use the second or third method described above.

3. If you do not want to use the default name assigned to the surface, enter a new name
under New Surface Name. The default name is the concatenation of the surface type
and an integer which is the new surface ID (e.g., plane-7). (If the New Surface
Name you enter is the same as the name of a surface that already exists, FLUENT
will automatically assign the default name to the new surface when it is created.)

i The surface name that you enter must begin with an alphabetical letter.
If your surface name begins with any other character or number, FLUENT
will not accept the entry.
4. Click on the Create button to create the new surface.

If you want to check that your new surface has been added to the list of all defined sur-
faces, or you want to delete or otherwise manipulate any surfaces, click on the Manage...
button to open the Surfaces panel. See Section 27.11: Grouping, Renaming, and Deleting
Surfaces for details.

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27.6.1 Using the Plane Tool

The plane tool allows you to interactively fine-tune the definition of a plane using graph-
ics. Starting from an initial plane, you can translate, rotate, and resize the plane until
its position, orientation, and size are as desired. For example, if you need to position a
plane surface at a cross-section of an irregularly-shaped, curved duct, you can start with
the plane tool near the desired location, resize it, translate it until it is within the duct
walls, and rotate it to the proper orientation. (You may find it helpful to display grid
faces to ensure that the plane tool is correctly positioned inside the domain.)

Initializing the Plane Tool

Before turning on the Plane Tool option, set the Points to suitable starting values. You
can enter values manually, or use the Select Points button. Often it is convenient to
display the grid for an inlet or isosurface that is similar to the desired plane surface, and
then select three points on that grid to position the initial plane. Once you have specified
the appropriate Points, activate the tool by turning on the Plane Tool option. The plane
tool will appear in the graphics window, as shown in Figure 27.6.2.

Figure 27.6.2: The Plane Tool

You can then translate, rotate, and/or resize the plane tool as described below.

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 27.6 Plane Surfaces

Translating the Plane Tool

To translate the plane tool in the direction normal to the plane, click the mouse-probe
button (the right button by default—see Section 28.3: Controlling the Mouse Button
Functions for information about changing the mouse functions) anywhere on the gray
part of the plane tool and drag the mouse until the tool reaches the desired location.
Green arrows will show the direction of motion.
To translate the tool in the transverse directions (i.e., along either of the axes that lie
within the plane), press the <Shift> key, click the mouse-probe button anywhere on
the gray part of the plane tool, and drag the mouse until the tool reaches the desired
location. Two sets of green arrows will show the possible directions of motion. If you
find the perspective distracting when performing this type of translation, you can turn
it off in the Camera Parameters panel (opened from the Views panel), as described in
Section 28.4.2: Controlling Perspective and Camera Parameters.

Rotating the Plane Tool

To rotate the plane tool, you will click the mouse-probe button on one of the white arrows
at the tips of the plane’s axes. Clicking on any arrow allows you to rotate the tool about
either of the other two axes: when you click on the arrow, two green ribbons will encircle
the plane tool, forming circles about each of the two possible axes of rotation. Drag the
mouse along the desired circle to rotate the tool. As you do so, the circle along which
the tool is rotating will become yellow.
The following notes may help you when you are rotating the plane tool:

• Once you move your mouse along one circle, you cannot change the direction of
rotation unless you release the mouse-probe button and try again. Be careful to
start moving your mouse very steadily so that you can choose the correct direction.

• Do not click on the red arrow to rotate.

• Do not try to rotate by clicking on an arrow that is pointing away from you. It
will be very difficult for you to judge which direction of rotation is correct from
this point of view. Since there are two arrows on each axis, there will always be an
appropriate arrow available.

• Do not rotate the plane tool more than 90◦ or so at once. If you rotate the tool by
a large angle, the arrow on which you are clicking will begin to point away from
you, and you will have trouble controlling the rotation (as discussed in the item
above).

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Resizing the Plane Tool

If you plan to generate a bounded plane, you can resize the plane tool to define the
plane’s boundaries. Click the mouse-probe button in one of the white squares at the
plane tool’s corners (shown in black in Figure 27.6.2) and drag the mouse to stretch or
shrink the tool. Green arrows will show the direction of the plane’s diagonal.

i Be careful not to drag your mouse across any of the axes while resizing the
tool. This will flip the tool over and corrupt it. If you accidentally do this,
reset the plane tool and start again.

Resetting the Plane Tool

If you “lose” the plane tool, or want to reset it for any other reason, you can either click
on the Reset Points button to return the plane tool to the default position and start from
there, or turn the tool off and reinitialize it as described above. In the default position,
the plane tool will lie midway along the x length of the domain, spanning the y and z
domain extents.

27.7 Quadric Surfaces

If you want to display data on a line (2D), plane (3D), circle (2D), sphere (3D), or general
quadric surface, you can specify the surface by entering the coefficients of the quadric
function that defines it. This feature provides you with an explicit method for defining
surfaces. See Sections 27.5 and 27.6 for additional methods for creating line and plane
surfaces.

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To create a quadric surface, you will use the Quadric Surface panel (Figure 27.7.1).
Surface −→Quadric...

Figure 27.7.1: The Quadric Surface Panel

The steps for creating the quadric surface are as follows:

1. Decide which type of quadric surface you want to create. In 3D, choose Plane,
Sphere, or (general) Quadric in the Type drop-down list. In 2D, choose Line, Circle,
or Quadric.

2. Specify the defining equation for the surface in SI units.

• Line or plane surface: If you have selected Line (in 2D) or Plane (in 3D) as
the surface type, the surface will consist of all points on the domain that
satisfy the equation ix ∗ x + iy ∗ y + iz ∗ z = distance. You will input ix (the
coefficient of x), iy (the coefficient of y), iz (the coefficient of z), and distance
(the distance of the line or plane from the origin) in the fields to the right
of the Type drop-down list. When you click on the Update button under the
Quadric Function heading, the display of the quadric function coefficients will
change to reflect your inputs.
• Circle or sphere surface: If you have selected Circle (in 2D) or Sphere (in 3D)
as the surface type, the surface will consist of all points on the domain that
satisfy the equation (x − x0)2 + (y − y0)2 + (z − z0)2 = r2 . You will input
x0,y0,z0 (the x, y, and z coordinates of the sphere or circle’s center) and r (the
radius) in the fields to the right of the Type drop-down list. When you click

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on the Update button under the Quadric Function heading, the display of the
quadric function coefficients will change to reflect your inputs.
• Quadric surface: If you have selected Quadric as the surface type, the surface
will consist of all points in the domain that satisfy the general quadric function
Q = value. You will input the coefficients of the quadric function Q (the
coefficients of the terms x2 , y2 , z2 , xy, yz, zx, x, y, z and the constant term)
directly in the Quadric Function box, and you will set value to the right of the
Type drop-down list. Note that the Update button will be disabled when you
choose this type of surface.

3. If you do not want to use the default name assigned to the surface, enter a new
name under New Surface Name. The default name is the concatenation of the
surface type and an integer which is the new surface ID (e.g., sphere-slice-7 or
quadric-slice-10). (If the New Surface Name you enter is the same as the name
of a surface that already exists, FLUENT will automatically assign the default name
to the new surface when it is created.)

i The surface name that you enter must begin with an alphabetical letter.
If your surface name begins with any other character or number, FLUENT
will not accept the entry.
4. Click on the Create button to create the new surface.

If you want to check that your new surface has been added to the list of all defined sur-
faces, or you want to delete or otherwise manipulate any surfaces, click on the Manage...
button to open the Surfaces panel. See Section 27.11: Grouping, Renaming, and Deleting
Surfaces for details.

27.8 Isosurfaces
If you want to display results on cells that have a constant value for a specified variable,
you will need to create an isosurface of that variable. Generating an isosurface based
on x, y, or z coordinate, for example, will give you an x, y, or z cross-section of your
domain; generating an isosurface based on pressure will allow you to display data for
another variable on a surface of constant pressure. You can create an isosurface from an
existing surface or from the entire domain. Furthermore, you can restrict any isosurface
to a specified cell zone.

i Note that you cannot create an isosurface until you have initialized the
solution, performed calculations, or read a data file.

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 27.8 Isosurfaces

To create an isosurface, you will use the Iso-Surface panel (Figure 27.8.1).
Surface −→Iso-Surface...

Figure 27.8.1: The Iso-Surface Panel

The steps for creating the isosurface are as follows:

1. Choose the scalar variable to be used for isosurfacing in the Surface of Constant
drop-down list. First, select the desired category in the upper list. You can then
select from related quantities from the lower list. (See Chapter 30: Field Function
Definitions for an explanation of the variables in the list.)
2. If you wish to create an isosurface from an existing surface (i.e., generate a new
surface of constant x, y, temperature, pressure, etc. that is a subset of another
surface), choose that surface in the From Surface list. If you do not select a surface
from the list, the isosurfacing will be performed on the entire domain. You can
specify the cell zone on which you want to create an isosurface by selecting the
zone in the From Zones list. If you do not select a zone from the list, then the
isosurfacing will not be restricted to any cell zone and will run through the entire
domain.
3. Click on the Compute button to calculate the minimum and maximum values of the
selected scalar field in the domain or on the selected surface (in the From Surface
list). The minimum and maximum values will be displayed in the Min and Max
fields.

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Creating Surfaces for Displaying and Reporting Data

4. Set the isovalue using one of the following methods. (Note that the second method
will allow you to define multiple isovalues in a single isosurface.)
• You can set an isovalue interactively by moving the slider with the left mouse
button. The value in the Iso-Values field will be updated automatically. This
method will also create a temporary isosurface in the graphics window. Using
the slider allows you to preview an isosurface before creating it.

i Even though the isosurface is displayed, it is only a temporary surface. To

create an isosurface, use the Create button after deciding on a particular
isovalue.
• You can type in isovalues in the Iso-Values field directly, separating multi-
ple values by white space. Multiple isovalues will be contained in a single
isosurface; i.e., you cannot select subsurfaces within the resulting isosurface.

5. If you do not want to use the default name assigned to the surface, enter a new name
under New Surface Name. The default name is the concatenation of the surface type
and an integer which is the new surface ID (e.g., z-coordinate-6). (If the New
Surface Name you enter is the same as the name of a surface that already exists,
FLUENT will automatically assign the default name to the new surface when it is
created.)

i The surface name that you enter must begin with an alphabetical letter.
If your surface name begins with any other character or number, FLUENT
will not accept the entry.
6. Click on the Create button. The new surface name will be added to the From
Surface list in the panel.

If you want to delete or otherwise manipulate any surfaces, click on the Manage... button
to open the Surfaces panel. See Section 27.11: Grouping, Renaming, and Deleting Surfaces
for details.

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27.9 Clipping Surfaces

If you have created a surface, but you do not want to use the whole surface to display
data, you can clip the surface between two isovalues to create a new surface that spans
a specified subrange of a specified scalar quantity. The clipped surface consists of those
points on the selected surface where the scalar field values are within the specified range.
For example, in Figure 27.9.1 the external wall has been clipped to values of x coordinate
less than 0 to show only the back half of the wall, allowing you to see the valve inside
the intake port.

Figure 27.9.1: External Wall Surface Isoclipped to Values of x Coordinate

To clip an existing surface, you will use the Iso-Clip panel (Figure 27.9.2).
Surface −→Iso-Clip...

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Creating Surfaces for Displaying and Reporting Data

Figure 27.9.2: The Iso-Clip Panel

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 27.9 Clipping Surfaces

The steps for clipping a surface are as follows:

1. Choose the scalar variable on which the clipping will be based in the Clip To Values
Of drop-down list. First, select the desired category in the upper list. You can then
select from related quantities from the lower list. (See Chapter 30: Field Function
Definitions for an explanation of the variables in the list.)

2. Select the surface to be clipped in the Clip Surface list.

3. Click on the Compute button to calculate the minimum and maximum values of the
selected scalar field on the selected surface. The minimum and maximum values
will be displayed in the Min and Max fields.

4. Define the clipping range using one of the following methods.

• You can set the upper and lower limits of the clipping range interactively by
moving the indicator in each dial (i.e., the dial above the Min or Max field) with
the left mouse button. The value in the corresponding Min or Max field will be
updated automatically. This method will also create a temporary surface in
the graphics window. Using the dials allows you to preview a clipped surface
before creating it.

i Even though the clipped surface is displayed, it is only a temporary surface.

To create the new surface, use the Clip button after deciding on the clipping
range.
• You can type the minimum and maximum values in the clipping range directly
in the Min and Max fields.

5. If you do not want to use the default name assigned to the surface, enter a new name
under New Surface Name. The default name is the concatenation of the surface type
and an integer which is the new surface ID (e.g., clip-density-8). (If the New
Surface Name you enter is the same as the name of a surface that already exists,
FLUENT will automatically assign the default name to the new surface when it is
created.)

i The surface name that you enter must begin with an alphabetical letter.
If your surface name begins with any other character or number, FLUENT
will not accept the entry.
6. Click on the Clip button. The new surface name will be added to the Clip Surface
list in the panel. (The original surface will remain unchanged.)

If you want to delete or otherwise manipulate any surfaces, click on the Manage... button
to open the Surfaces panel. See Section 27.11: Grouping, Renaming, and Deleting Surfaces
for details.

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27.10 Transforming Surfaces

You can create a new data surface from an existing surface by rotating and/or trans-
lating the original surface. For example, you can rotate the surface of a complicated
turbomachinery blade to plot data in the region between blades. You can also create a
new surface at a constant normal distance from the original surface.
To transform an existing surface to create a new one, you will use the Transform Surface
panel (Figure 27.10.1).
Surface −→Transform...

Figure 27.10.1: The Transform Surface Panel

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The steps for transforming a surface are as follows:

1. Select the surface to be transformed in the Transform Surface list.

2. Set the appropriate transformation parameters, as described below. You can per-
form any combination of translation, rotation, and “isodistancing” on the surface.
• Rotation: To rotate a surface, you will specify the origin about which the
rotation is performed, and the angle by which the surface is rotated.
In the About box under Rotate, you will specify a point, and the origin of the
coordinate system for the rotation will be set to that point. (The x, y, and z
directions will be the same as for the global coordinate system.) For example,
if you specified the point (1,5,3) in 3D, rotation would be about the x, y, and
z axes anchored at (1,5,3). You can either enter the point’s coordinates in
the x,y,z fields or click on the Mouse Select button and select a point in the
graphics window using the mouse-probe button. (See Section 28.3: Controlling
the Mouse Button Functions for information about mouse button functions.)
In the Angles box under Rotate, you will specify the angles about the x, y, and
z axes (i.e., the axes of the coordinate system with the origin defined under
About) by which the surface is rotated. For 2D problems, you can specify
rotation about the z axis only.
• Translation: To translate a surface, you will simply define the distance by
which the surface is translated in each direction. Set the x, y, and z translation
distances under Translate.
• Isodistancing: To create a surface positioned at a constant normal distance
from the original surface, you need to set only that normal distance between
the original surface and the transformed surface. Set the value for d under
Iso-Distance.

3. If you do not want to use the default name assigned to the surface, enter a new
name under New Surface Name. The default name is the concatenation of the
surface type and an integer which is the new surface ID (e.g., transform-9). (If
the New Surface Name you enter is the same as the name of a surface that already
exists, FLUENT will automatically assign the default name to the new surface when
it is created.)

i The surface name that you enter must begin with an alphabetical letter.
If your surface name begins with any other character or number, FLUENT
will not accept the entry.
4. Click on the Create button. The new surface name will be added to the Transform
Surface list in the panel. (The original surface will remain unchanged.)

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If you want to delete or otherwise manipulate any surfaces, click on the Manage... button
to open the Surfaces panel. See Section 27.11: Grouping, Renaming, and Deleting Surfaces
for details.

27.11 Grouping, Renaming, and Deleting Surfaces

Once you have created a number of surfaces, you can interactively rename, delete, and
group surfaces and obtain information about their components. Grouping surfaces is
useful if you want to perform postprocessing on a number of surfaces at a time. For
example, you may want to group several wall surfaces together to generate a contour
plot of temperature on all walls. To postprocess results on each wall surface individually,
you will simply “ungroup” the surfaces.
Manipulation of existing surfaces is performed with the Surfaces panel (Figure 27.11.1).
Surface −→Manage...

Figure 27.11.1: The Surfaces Panel

You can also open this panel by clicking on the Manage... button in one of the surface
creation panels described in the previous sections.

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Grouping Surfaces
As mentioned above, you may want to group several surfaces together in order to perform
postprocessing on all of them at once. To create a surface group, select the surfaces to
be grouped in the Surfaces list. You can define a new name for the group in the Name
field, or you can use the default name, which is the name of the first surface you selected
in the Surfaces list. Then click on the Group button. The selected surfaces will disappear
from the Surfaces list, and the name of the surface group will be added to the list.

i Note that the Group button will not appear until you have selected at least
two surfaces. As soon as you choose a second surface in the Surfaces list,
the Rename button will change to the Group button.
To ungroup the surfaces, simply select the surface group in the Surfaces list and click on
the UnGroup button. The group name will disappear from the list and the names of the
original surfaces in the group will reappear in the list.

Renaming Surfaces
To change the name of an existing surface, select the surface in the Surfaces list, enter a
new name in the Name field, and then click on the Rename button. The new name will
replace the old name in the Surfaces list and the surface will be otherwise unchanged.
Note that the Rename button will not appear in the panel if you have selected more than
one surface. When more than one surface is selected, the Rename button is replaced by
the Group button.

i The surface name that you enter must begin with an alphabetical letter.
If your surface name begins with any other character or number, FLUENT
will not accept the entry.

Deleting Surfaces
If you find that a surface is no longer useful, you may want to delete it to prevent the
list of surfaces from becoming too cluttered. Select the surface or surfaces to be deleted
in the Surfaces list, and then click on the Delete button. The delete operation is not
reversible, so if you want to get a deleted surface back again you will need to recreate it
using one of the surface-creation panels described in the previous sections.

Surface Statistics
You can also use the Surfaces panel to retrieve topological information about surfaces.
Points is the total number of nodes in a surface. 0D Facets is the number of isolated
nodes in a surface (i.e., nodes that have no connectivity, such as point surfaces or nodes
in a rake), 1D Facets is the number of linear faces (consisting of two connected nodes)

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in a surface in a 2D problem, and 2D Facets is the number of 2D faces (triangular or

quadrilateral) in a surface in a 3D problem. Note that an interior zone surface in a 3D
problem consists of 2D facets, and similarly an interior zone surface in a 2D problem
consists of 1D facets.
These statistics are listed for the surface(s) selected in the Surfaces list. If more than one
surface is selected, the sum over all selected surfaces is displayed for each quantity.
Note that if you want to check these statistics for a surface that was read from a case
file, you will need to first display it.

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Chapter 28. Displaying Graphics

Graphics tools available in FLUENT allow you to process the information contained in
your CFD solution and easily view the results. The following sections explain how to use
these tools to examine your solution. (Note that the procedure for saving hardcopy files
of graphics displays is described in Section 4.14: Saving Hardcopy Files.)

• Section 28.1: Basic Graphics Generation

• Section 28.2: Customizing the Graphics Display

• Section 28.3: Controlling the Mouse Button Functions

• Section 28.4: Modifying the View

• Section 28.5: Composing a Scene

• Section 28.6: Animating Graphics

• Section 28.7: Creating Videos

• Section 28.8: Histogram and XY Plots

• Section 28.9: Turbomachinery Postprocessing

• Section 28.10: Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) Postprocessing

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28.1 Basic Graphics Generation

In FLUENT you can generate graphics displays showing grids, contours, profiles, vectors,
and pathlines. Some graphics are generated using variables that are plotted directly from
the FLUENT data file once the file has been read. The variables listed in the data file
depend on the models active at the time the file is written. Variables that are required
by the solver, based on the current model settings, but are missing from the data file
are set to their default values. For those missing variables, one iteration should be
performed in order to obtain the required values for generating the plot. A complete list
of variables stored in the data file is available in (xfile.h) and can be accessed as stated
in Section B.5: Data Sections. The following sections describe how to create these plots.
(Generation of histogram and XY plots is discussed in Section 28.8: Histogram and XY
Plots.)

i If your model includes a discrete phase, you can also display the particle
trajectories, as described in Section 22.16.1: Displaying of Trajectories.

• Section 28.1.1: Displaying the Grid

• Section 28.1.2: Displaying Contours and Profiles

• Section 28.1.3: Displaying Vectors

• Section 28.1.4: Displaying Pathlines

• Section 28.1.5: Displaying Results on a Sweep Surface

• Section 28.1.6: Hiding the Graphics Window Display

28.1.1 Displaying the Grid

During the problem setup or when you are examining your solution, you may want to
look at the grid associated with certain surfaces. You can display the outline of all or
part of the domain, as shown in Figure 28.1.1; draw the grid lines (edges), as shown
in Figure 28.1.2; draw the solid surfaces (filled grids) for a 3D domain, as shown in
Figure 28.1.3; and/or draw the nodes on the domain surfaces, as shown in Figure 28.1.4.
See also Section 28.1.5: Displaying Results on a Sweep Surface for information about
displaying the grid on a surface that sweeps through the domain.

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X Z

Grid Outline

Figure 28.1.1: Outline Display

Z
X

Grid

Figure 28.1.2: Grid Edge Display

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Displaying Graphics

X Z

Grid

Figure 28.1.3: Grid Face (Filled Grid) Display

X Z

Node Display

Figure 28.1.4: Node Display

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 28.1 Basic Graphics Generation

Steps for Generating Grid or Outline Plots

You can draw the grid or outline for all or part of your domain using the Grid Display
panel (Figure 28.1.5).
Display −→Grid...

Figure 28.1.5: The Grid Display Panel

The basic steps for generating a grid or outline plot are as follows:

1. Choose the surfaces for which you want to display the grid or outline in the Surfaces
list.
If you want to select several surfaces of the same type, you can select that type
in the Surface Types list instead. All of the surfaces of that type will be selected
automatically in the Surfaces list (or deselected, if they are all selected already).
Another shortcut is to specify a Surface Name Pattern and click Match to select
surfaces with names that match the specified pattern. For example, if you spec-
ify wall*, all surfaces whose names begin with wall (e.g., wall-1, wall-top) will be
selected automatically. If they are all selected already, they will be deselected. If
you specify wall?, all surfaces whose names consist of wall followed by a single
character will be selected (or deselected, if they are all selected already).
To choose all “outline” surfaces (i.e., surfaces on the outer boundary of the domain),
click the Outline button below the Surface Types list. If all outline surfaces are
already selected, this will deselect them. To choose all “interior” surfaces, click the
Interior button. If all interior surfaces are already selected, this will deselect them.

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2. Depending on what you want to draw, do one or more of the following:

• To draw an outline of the selected surfaces (as in Figure 28.1.1), select Edges
under Options and Outline under Edge Type. If you need more detail in the
outline display of a complex geometry, see the description of the Feature option,
below.
• To draw the grid edges (as in Figure 28.1.2), select Edges under Options and
All under Edge Type.
• To generate a filled-grid display (as in Figure 28.1.3), select Faces under Op-
tions.
• To draw the nodes on the selected surfaces (as in Figure 28.1.4), select Nodes
under Options.

3. Set any of the options described below.

4. Click the Display button to draw the specified grid or outline in the active graphics
window.

If you choose to display filled grids, and you want a smoothly shaded display, you should
turn on lighting and select a lighting interpolation method other than Flat in the Display
Options panel or the Lights panel.
If you display nodes, and you want to change the symbol representing the nodes, you can
change the Point Symbol in the Display Options panel. See Section 28.2.7: Modifying the
Rendering Options for details.

Grid and Outline Display Options

The options mentioned in the procedure above include modifying the grid colors, adding
the outline of important features to an outline display, drawing partition boundaries, and
shrinking the faces and/or cells in the display.

Modifying the Grid Colors

FLUENT allows you to control the colors that are used to render the grids for each zone
type or surface. This capability can help you to understand grid plots quickly and easily.
To modify the colors, open the Grid Colors panel (Figure 28.1.6) by clicking on the Colors...
button in the Grid Display panel.

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 28.1 Basic Graphics Generation

Figure 28.1.6: The Grid Colors Panel

(Note that you can set colors individually for the grids displayed on each surface, using
the Scene Description panel.)
By default, the Color by Type option is turned on, allowing you to assign colors based on
zone type. To change the color used to draw the grid for a particular zone type, select
the zone type in the Types list and then select the new color in the Colors list. You will
see the effect of your change when you next display the grid. Note that the surface type
in the Types list applies to all surface grids (i.e., grids that are drawn for surfaces created
using the panels opened from the Surface menu) except zone surfaces.
If you prefer to use the colors FLUENT assigns by zone ID, then you can display the grid
using the Color by ID option.

Adding Features to an Outline Display

For closed 3D geometries such as cylinders, the standard outline display often will not
show enough detail to accurately depict the shape. This is because for each boundary,
only those edges on the “outside” of the geometry (i.e., those that are used by only one
face on the boundary) are drawn. In Figure 28.1.7, which shows the outline display for
a complicated duct geometry, only the inlet and outlet are visible.
You can capture additional features using the Feature option in the Grid Display panel.
(See Figure 28.1.8.) Turn on Feature under Edge Type, and then set the Feature Angle.
With the default Feature Angle of 20, if the difference between the normal directions of two
adjacent faces is more than 20◦ , the edge between those faces will be drawn. Decreasing
the Feature Angle will result in more edge lines (i.e., more detail) being added to the
outline display. The appropriate angle for your geometry will depend on its curvature
and complexity. You can modify the Feature Angle until you find the value that yields
the best outline display.

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Figure 28.1.7: Standard Outline of Complex Duct

Figure 28.1.8: Feature Outline of Complex Duct

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Drawing Partition Boundaries

If you have partitioned your grid for parallel processing, you can add the display of
partition boundaries to the grid display by turning on the Partitions option in the Grid
Display panel.

Shrinking Faces and Cells in the Display

If you need to distinguish individual faces or cells in the display, you may want to enlarge
the space between adjacent faces or cells by increasing the Shrink Factor in the Grid Display
panel. The default value of zero produces a display in which the edges of adjacent faces or
cells overlap. A value of 1 creates the opposite extreme: each face or cell is represented by
a point and there is considerable space between each one. A small value such as 0.01 may
be large enough to allow you to distinguish one face or cell from its neighbor. Displays
with different Shrink Factor values are shown in Figures 28.1.9 and 28.1.10. Remember
that you must click Display to see the effect of the change in Shrink Factor.

Figure 28.1.9: Grid Display with Shrink Factor = 0

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Figure 28.1.10: Grid Display with Shrink Factor = 0.01

28.1.2 Displaying Contours and Profiles

FLUENT allows you to plot contour lines or profiles superimposed on the physical domain.
Contour lines are lines of constant magnitude for a selected variable (isotherms, isobars,
etc.). A profile plot draws these contours projected off the surface along a reference
vector by an amount proportional to the value of the plotted variable at each point on
the surface. Sample plots are shown in Figures 28.1.11 and 28.1.12.
See also Section 28.1.5: Displaying Results on a Sweep Surface for information about
displaying contours or profiles on a surface that sweeps through the domain.

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6.60e-02

5.80e-02

5.01e-02

4.21e-02

3.41e-02

2.61e-02

1.82e-02

1.02e-02

2.23e-03

-5.75e-03

-1.37e-02

Natural Convection in a Power Bus Configuration

Contours of Static Pressure (pascal)

Figure 28.1.11: Contours of Static Pressure

1.45e-01

1.20e-01

9.61e-02

7.17e-02

4.74e-02

2.30e-02

-1.34e-03

-2.57e-02

-5.00e-02

-7.44e-02

-9.87e-02

Natural Convection in a Power Bus Configuration

Profiles of Y-Velocity (m/s)

Figure 28.1.12: Profile Plot of y Velocity

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Displaying Graphics

Steps for Generating Contour and Profile Plots

You can plot contours or profiles using the Contours panel (Figure 28.1.13).
Display −→Contours...

Figure 28.1.13: The Contours Panel

The basic steps for generating a contour or profile plot are as follows:

1. Select the variable or function to be contoured or profiled in the Contours of drop-

down list. First select the desired category in the upper list; you may then select a
related quantity in the lower list. (See Chapter 30: Field Function Definitions for
an explanation of the variables in the list.)
2. Choose the surface or surfaces on which to draw the contours or profiles in the
Surfaces list. For 2D cases, if no surface is selected, contouring or profiling is done
on the entire domain. For 3D cases, you must always select at least one surface.
If you want to select several surfaces of the same type, you can select that type
in the Surface Types list instead. All of the surfaces of that type will be selected
automatically in the Surfaces list (or deselected, if they are all selected already).
Another shortcut is to specify a Surface Name Pattern and click Match to select
surfaces with names that match the specified pattern. For example, if you spec-
ify wall*, all surfaces whose names begin with wall (e.g., wall-1, wall-top) will be

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selected automatically. If they are all selected already, they will be deselected. If
you specify wall?, all surfaces whose names consist of wall followed by a single
character will be selected (or deselected, if they are all selected already).

3. Specify the number of contours or profiles in the Levels field. The maximum number
of levels allowed is 100.

4. If you are generating a profile plot, turn on the Draw Profiles option. In the resulting
Profile Options panel (Figure 28.1.14) you will define the profiles as described below:

Figure 28.1.14: The Profile Options Panel

(a) Set the “zero height” reference value for the profile (Reference Value) and the
length scale factor for projection (Scale Factor). Any point on the profile with
a value equal to the Reference Value will be plotted exactly on the defining
surface. Values greater than the Reference Value will be projected ahead of
the surface (in the direction of Projection Dir.) and scaled by Scale Factor),
and values less than the Reference Value will be projected behind the surface
and scaled.
These parameters can be used to create fuller profiles when you need to display
the variation in a variable which is small compared to the absolute value of
the variable. Consider, for example, the display of temperature profiles when
the temperature range in the domain is from 300 K to 310 K. The 10 K range
in the temperature will be hard to detect when profiles are drawn using the
default scaling (which will be based on the absolute magnitude of 310 K). To
create a fuller profile, you can set the Reference Value to 300 and the profile
Scaling Factor to 5 (for example) to magnify the display of the remaining 10 K
range. In subsequent display of the profiles, the reference value of 300 will be
effectively subtracted from the data before display so that the temperatures
of 300 K will not be offset from the baselines. The profiles will then reflect
only the variation of temperature from 300 K.

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(b) Set the direction in which profiles are projected (Projection Dir.). In 2D, for
example, a contour plot of pressure on the entire domain can be projected
in the z direction to form a carpet plot, or a contour plot of y velocity on a
sequence of y-coordinate slice lines can be projected in the y direction to form
a series of velocity profiles (as shown in Figure 28.1.12).
(c) Click Apply and close the Profile Options panel.

5. Set any of the options described below.

6. Click the Display button to draw the specified contours or profiles in the active
graphics window.

The resulting display will include the specified number of contours or profiles of the
selected variable, with the magnitude on each one determined by equally incrementing
between the values shown in the Min and Max fields.

Contour and Profile Plot Options

The options mentioned in the procedure above include drawing color-filled contours/profiles
(instead of the default line contours/profiles), specifying a range of values to be contoured
or profiled, including portions of the grid in the contour or profile display, choosing node
or cell values for display, and storing the contour or profile plot settings.

Drawing Filled Contours or Profiles

Color-filled contour or profile plots show a contour or profile display containing a contin-
uous color display (see Figure 28.1.15), instead of just drawing lines representing specific
values. (Note that a color-filled profile display is often referred to as a “carpet plot”.) To
generate a filled contour or profile plot, turn on the Filled option in the Contours panel
during step 5 above.
To display smoothly shaded filled contours, you must turn on lighting and select a lighting
interpolation method other than Flat in the Display Options panel or the Lights panel.
Note that you will not get smooth shading of filled contours if the Clip to Range (see
below) option is turned on. Smooth shading of filled profiles is not available.

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Figure 28.1.15: Filled Contours of Static Pressure

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Specifying the Range of Magnitudes Displayed

By default, the minimum and maximum values contoured or profiled are set based on
the range of values in the entire domain. This means that the color scale will start at the
smallest value in the domain (shown in the Min field) and end at the largest value (shown
in the Max field). If you are plotting contours or profiles on a subset of the domain (i.e.,
on a surface), your plot may cover only the midrange of the color scale. For example, if
blue corresponds to 0 and red corresponds to 10, and the values on your surface range
only from 4 to 6, your plot will contain mostly green contours or profiles, since green is
the color at the middle of the default color scale.
If you want to focus in on a smaller range of values, so that blue corresponds to 4 and red
to 6, you can manually reset the range to be displayed. (You can also use the minimum
and maximum values on the selected surfaces—rather than in the entire domain—to
determine the range, as described below.) Another reason to manually set the range is
if you are interested only in certain values. For example, if you want to determine the
region where pressure exceeds a certain value, you can increase the minimum value for
display so that the lower pressure values are not displayed.
To manually set the contour/profile range, turn off the Auto Range option in the Contours
panel. The Min and Max fields will become editable, and you can enter the new range of
values to be displayed. To show the default range at any time, click the Compute button
and the Min and Max fields will be updated.
If you are drawing filled contours or profiles (as described above) you can control whether
or not values outside the prescribed Min/Max range are displayed. To leave areas in which
the value is outside the specified range empty (i.e., draw no contours or profiles), turn
on the Clip to Range option. This is the default setting. If you turn Clip to Range off,
values below the Min value will be colored with the lowest color on the color scale, and
values above the Max value will be colored with the highest color on the color scale.
Figures 28.1.16 and 28.1.17 show the results of enabling/disabling the Clip to Range
option.
You can also choose to base the minimum and maximum values on the range of values
on the selected surfaces, rather than in the entire domain. To do this, turn off the Global
Range option in the Contours panel. The Min and Max values will be updated when you
next click Compute or Display.

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Figure 28.1.16: Filled Contours with Clip to Range On

Figure 28.1.17: Filled Contours with Clip to Range Off

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Including the Grid in the Contour Plot

For some problems, especially complex 3D geometries, you may want to include portions
of the grid in your contour or profile plot as spatial reference points. For example, you
may want to show the location of an inlet and an outlet along with the contours. This is
accomplished by turning on the Draw Grid option in the Contours panel. The Grid Display
panel will appear automatically when you turn on the Draw Grid option, and you can set
the grid display parameters there. When you click Display in the Contours panel, the grid
display, as defined in the Grid Display panel, will be included in the contour or profile
plot.

Choosing Node or Cell Values

In FLUENT you can choose to display the computed cell-center values or values that have
been interpolated to the nodes. By default, the Node Values option is turned on, and the
interpolated values are displayed. For line contours or profiles, node values are always
used. If you are displaying filled contours or profiles and you prefer to display the cell
values, turn the Node Values option off. Filled contours/profiles of node values will show
a smooth gradation of color, while filled contours/profiles of cell values may show sharp
changes in color from one cell to the next.
If you are plotting contours to show the effect of a porous medium or fan, to depict a
shock wave, or to show any other discontinuities or jumps in the plotted variable, you
should use cell values; if you use node values in such cases, the discontinuity will be
smeared by the node averaging for graphics and will not be shown clearly in the plot.

Storing Contour Plot Settings

For frequently used combinations of contour variables and options, you can store the
information needed to generate the contour plot by specifying a Setup number and setting
up the desired information in the Contours panel. When you click on the Display button,
the settings for Options, Contours of, Min, Max, and Surfaces will be saved. You can
then change the Setup number to an unused value (i.e., an ID for which no information
has been saved) and generate a different contour plot. To generate a plot using the
saved setup information, change the Setup number back to the value for which you saved
contour information and click Display. You can save up to 10 different setups.

i Note that the number of contour Levels, the surfaces selected for display
in the Grid Display panel (when the Draw Grid option is activated), and the
settings for profiles in the Profile Options panel (when the Draw Profiles
option is activated) will not be saved in the Setup, nor will the Setups be
saved in the case file.

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28.1.3 Displaying Vectors

You can draw vectors in the entire domain, or on selected surfaces. By default, one vector
is drawn at the center of each cell (or at the center of each facet of a data surface), with the
length and color of the arrows representing the velocity magnitude (Figure 28.1.18). The
spacing, size, and coloring of the arrows can be modified, along with several other vector
plot settings. Velocity vectors are the default, but you can also plot vector quantities
other than velocity. Note that cell-center values are always used for vector plots; you
cannot plot node-averaged values.
See also Section 28.1.5: Displaying Results on a Sweep Surface for information about
displaying vectors on a surface that sweeps through the domain.

1.45e-01

1.30e-01

1.16e-01

1.01e-01

8.69e-02

7.24e-02

5.79e-02

4.34e-02

2.90e-02

1.45e-02

0.00e+00

Natural Convection in a Power Bus Configuration

Velocity Vectors Colored By Velocity Magnitude (m/s)

Figure 28.1.18: Velocity Vector Plot

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Steps for Generating Vector Plots

You can plot vectors using the Vectors panel (Figure 28.1.19).
Display −→Vectors...

Figure 28.1.19: The Vectors Panel

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The basic steps for generating a vector plot are as follows:

1. In the Vectors of drop-down list, select the vector quantity to be plotted. By

default, only velocity and relative velocity are available, but you can create your
own custom vectors as described below.

2. In the Surfaces list, choose the surface(s) on which you want to display vectors. If
you want to display vectors on the entire domain, select none of the surfaces in the
list.
If you want to select several surfaces of the same type, you can select that type
in the Surface Types list instead. All of the surfaces of that type will be selected
automatically in the Surfaces list (or deselected, if they are all selected already).
Another shortcut is to specify a Surface Name Pattern and click Match to select
surfaces with names that match the specified pattern. For example, if you spec-
ify wall*, all surfaces whose names begin with wall (e.g., wall-1, wall-top) will be
selected automatically. If they are all selected already, they will be deselected. If
you specify wall?, all surfaces whose names consist of wall followed by a single
character will be selected (or deselected, if they are all selected already).

3. Set any of the options described below.

4. Click the Display button to draw the vectors in the active graphics window.

Displaying Relative Velocity Vectors

If you are solving your problem using one or more moving reference frames or moving
meshes, you will have the option to display either the absolute vectors or the relative
vectors. If you select Velocity (the default) in the Vectors of list, the vectors will be
drawn based on the absolute, stationary reference frame. If you select Relative Velocity,
the vectors will be drawn based on the reference frame of the Reference Zone in the
Reference Values panel. See Section 29.10.2: Setting the Reference Zone for details. (If
you are modeling a single rotating reference frame, you need not specify the Reference
Zone; the vectors will be drawn based on the rotating reference frame.)

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Vector Plot Options

The options mentioned in the procedure above include scaling the vector arrows, skipping
the display of some vectors, displaying vectors in the plane of the data surface, display-
ing fixed-length or fixed-color vectors, displaying directional components of the vectors,
specifying a range of values to be displayed, coloring the vectors by a different scalar
field, including portions of the grid in the vector display, and changing the style of the
arrows or the scale of the arrowheads.
The most common options are set in the Vectors panel, and others are set in the Vector
Options panel (Figure 28.1.20), which you can open by clicking on the Vector Options...
button in the Vectors panel.

Figure 28.1.20: The Vector Options Panel

Scaling the Vectors

By default, vectors are scaled automatically so that the arrows overlap minimally when
no vectors are skipped. (See below for instructions on thinning the vector display.) With
the Auto Scale option, you can modify the Scale factor (which is set to 1 by default) to
increase or decrease the vector scale from the default “auto scale”. The main advantage
of autoscaling is that the vector display with a scale factor of 1 will always be appropriate,
regardless of the size of the domain, giving you a better starting point for fine-tuning the
vector scale.
If you turn off the Auto Scale option, the vectors will be drawn at their actual sizes scaled
by the scale factor (Scale, which is set to 1 by default). The “actual” size of a vector is
the magnitude of the vector variable (velocity, by default) at the point where it is drawn.
A vector drawn at a point where the velocity magnitude is 100 m/s is drawn 100 m long,
whether the domain is 0.1 m or 1000 m. You can modify the vector scale by changing
the value of Scale in the Vectors panel until the size of the vectors (i.e., the actual size
multiplied by Scale) is satisfactory.

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Skipping Vectors

If your vector display is difficult to understand because there are too many arrows dis-
played, you can “thin out” the vectors by changing the Skip value in the Vectors panel.
By default, Skip is set to 0, indicating that a vector will be drawn for each cell in the
domain or for each face on the selected surface (e.g., n vectors). If you increase Skip to
1, every other vector will be displayed, yielding n/2 vectors. If you increase Skip to 2,
every third vector will be displayed, yielding n/3 vectors, and so on. The order of faces
on the selected surface (or cells in the domain) will determine which vectors are skipped
or drawn; thus adaption and reordering will change the appearance of the vector display
when a non-zero Skip value is used.

Drawing Vectors in the Plane of the Surface

For some problems, you may be interested in visualizing velocity (or other vector) com-
ponents that are normal to the flow. These “secondary flow” components are usually
much smaller than the components in the flow direction and are difficult to see when the
flow direction components are also visible. To easily view the normal flow components,
you can turn on the In Plane option in the Vector Options panel. When this option is on,
FLUENT will display only the vector components in the plane of the surface selected for
display. If the selected surface is a cross-section of the flow domain, you will be displaying
the components normal to the flow.
Figure 28.1.21 shows velocity vectors generated using the In Plane option. (Note that
these vectors have been translated outside the domain, as described in Section 28.5.3: Trans-
forming Geometric Objects in a Scene, so that they can be seen more easily.)

Displaying Fixed-Length Vectors

By default, the length of a vector is proportional to its velocity magnitude. If you want
all of the vectors to be displayed with the same length, you can turn on the Fixed Length
option in the Vector Options panel. To modify the vector length, adjust the value of the
Scale factor in the Vectors panel.

Displaying Vector Components

All Cartesian components of the vectors are drawn by default, so that the arrow points
along the resultant vector in physical space. However, sometimes one of the components,
say, the x component, is relatively large. In such cases, you may want to suppress the x
component and scale up the vectors, in order to visualize the smaller y and z components.
To suppress one or more of the vector components, turn off the appropriate button(s)
(X, Y, or Z Component) in the Vector Options panel.

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Figure 28.1.21: Velocity Vectors Generated Using the In Plane Option

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Specifying the Range of Magnitudes Displayed

By default, the minimum and maximum vectors included in the vector display are set
based on the range of vector-variable (velocity, by default) magnitudes in the entire
domain. If you want to focus in on a smaller range of values, you can restrict the range
to be displayed. The color scale for the vector display will change to reflect the new
range of values. (You can also use the minimum and maximum values on the selected
surfaces—rather than on the entire domain—to determine the range, or change the scalar
field by which the vectors are colored from velocity magnitude to any other scalar, as
described below.)
To manually set the range of velocity magnitudes (or the range of whatever scalar field
is selected in the Color by drop-down list), turn off the Auto Range option in the Vectors
panel. The Min and Max fields will become editable, and you can enter the new range
of values to be displayed. For example, if you want to display velocity vectors only in
regions where the velocity magnitude exceeds 150 m/s but is less than 300 m/s, you will
change the value of Min to 150 and the value of Max to 300. Similarly, if you are coloring
the vectors by static pressure, you can choose to display velocity vectors only in regions
where the pressure is within a specified range. To show the default range at any time,
click the Compute button and the Min and Max fields will be updated.
When you restrict the range of vectors displayed, you can also control whether or not
values outside the prescribed Min/Max range are displayed. To leave areas in which the
value is outside the specified range empty (i.e., draw no vectors), turn on the Clip to
Range option. This is the default setting. If you turn Clip to Range off, values below the
Min value will be colored with the lowest color on the color scale, and values above the
Max value will be colored with the highest color on the color scale. This feature is the
same as the one available for displaying filled contours (see Figures 28.1.16 and 28.1.17).
You can also choose to base the minimum and maximum values on the range of values
on the selected surfaces, rather than the entire domain. To do this, turn off the Global
Range option in the Vectors panel. The Min and Max values will be updated when you
next click Compute or Display.

Changing the Scalar Field Used for Coloring the Vectors

If you want to color the vectors by a scalar field other than velocity magnitude (the
default), you can select a different variable or function in the Color by drop-down list.
Select the desired category in the upper list, and then choose one of the related quantities
from the lower list. If you choose static pressure, for example, the length of the vectors
will still correspond to the velocity magnitude, but the color of the vectors will correspond
to the value of pressure at each point where a vector is drawn.

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Displaying Vectors Using a Single Color

If you want all of the vectors to be the same color, you can select the color to be used
in the Color drop-down list in the Vector Options panel. If no color is selected (i.e., if
you choose the empty space at the top of the drop-down list—the default selection), the
vector color will be determined by the Color by field specified in the Vectors panel. Single
color vectors are useful in displays that overlay contours and vectors.

Including the Grid in the Vector Plot

For some problems, especially complex 3D geometries, you may want to include portions
of the grid in your vector plot as spatial reference points. For example, you may want to
show the location of an inlet and an outlet along with the vectors. This is accomplished
by turning on the Draw Grid option in the Vectors panel. The Grid Display panel will
appear automatically when you turn on the Draw Grid option, and you can set the grid
display parameters there. When you click Display in the Vectors panel, the grid display,
as defined in the Grid Display panel, will be included in the vector plot.

Changing the Arrow Characteristics

There are five different styles available for drawing the vector arrows. Choose cone, filled-
arrow, arrow, harpoon, or headless in the Style drop-down list in the Vectors panel. The
default arrow style is harpoon.
If you choose a vector arrow style that includes heads, you can control the size of the
arrowhead by modifying the Scale Head value in the Vector Options panel.

Creating and Managing Custom Vectors

In addition to the velocity vector quantity provided by FLUENT, you can also define your
own custom vectors to be plotted. This capability is available with the Custom Vectors
panel.
Any custom vectors that you define will be saved in the case file the next time that you
save it. You can also save your custom vectors to a separate file, so that they can be
used with a different case file.

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Creating Custom Vectors

To create your own custom vector, you will use the Custom Vectors panel (Figure 28.1.22).
This panel allows you to define custom vectors based on existing quantities. Any vectors
that you define will be added to the Vectors of list in the Vectors panel.
To open the Custom Vectors panel, click the Custom Vectors... button in the Vectors
panel.

Figure 28.1.22: The Custom Vectors Panel

The steps for creating a custom vector are as follows:

1. Specify the name of the custom vector in the Vector Name field.

i Be sure that you do not specify a name that is already used for a standard
vector (e.g., velocity or relative-velocity).
2. Select the variable or function for the x component of the vector in the X Compo-
nent drop-down list. First select the desired category in the upper list; you may
then select a related quantity in the lower list. (See Chapter 30: Field Function
Definitions for an explanation of the variables in the list.)
3. Repeat the step above to select the variable or function for the y component (and,
in 3D, the z component) of the custom vector.

i You can use the Custom Vectors option to plot vectors in solid cell zones.
The scalars that are selected in the x, y components (and, in 3D, the z
component), and which are valid in solid regions, will have vector plots
displayed in the solid cell zones. Note that if a vector has no valid compo-
nents in the solid region, then that vector will not be plotted in the solid
region. However, if at least one component of the vector is valid in the
solid region, then only that component of the vector will be plotted.
4. Click the Define button.

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Manipulating, Saving, and Loading Custom Vectors

Once you have defined your vectors, you can manipulate them using the Vector Definitions
panel (Figure 28.1.23). You can display a vector definition to be sure that it is correct,
delete the vector if you decide that it is incorrect and needs to be redefined, or give the
vector a new name. You can also save custom vectors to a file or read them from a file.
The custom vector file allows you to transfer custom vectors between case files.
To open the Vector Definitions panel, click the Manage... button in the Custom Vectors
panel.

Figure 28.1.23: The Vector Definitions Panel

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The following actions can be performed in the Vector Definitions panel:

• To check the definition of a vector, select it in the Vectors list. Its definition will
be displayed in the X Component, Y Component, and Z Component fields at the top
of the panel. This display is for informational purposes only; you cannot edit it.
If you want to change a vector definition, you must delete the vector and define it
again in the Custom Vectors panel.

• To delete a vector, select it in the Vectors list and click the Delete button.

• To rename a vector, select it in the Vectors list, enter a new name in the Name field,
and click the Rename button.

i Be sure that you do not specify a name that is already used for a standard
vector (e.g., velocity or relative-velocity).
• To save all the vectors in the Vectors list to a file, click the Save... button, and
specify the file name in the resulting Select File dialog box (see Section 2.1.2: Select
File Dialog Box (UNIX or Linux)).

• To read custom vectors from a file that you saved as described above, click the
Load... button and specify the file name in the resulting Select File dialog box.
(Custom vectors are valid Scheme functions, and can also be loaded with the
File/Read/Scheme... menu item, as described in Section 4.8: Reading Scheme Source
Files.)

28.1.4 Displaying Pathlines

Pathlines are used to visualize the flow of massless particles in the problem domain. The
particles are released from one or more surfaces that you have created with the tools in
the Surface menu (see Chapter 27: Creating Surfaces for Displaying and Reporting Data).
A line or rake surface (see Section 27.5: Line and Rake Surfaces) is most commonly used.
Figure 28.1.24 shows a sample plot of pathlines.

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Figure 28.1.24: Pathline Plot

Note that the display of discrete-phase particle trajectories is discussed in Section 22.16.1: Dis-
playing of Trajectories.

Steps for Generating Pathlines

You can plot pathlines using the Pathlines panel (Figure 28.1.25).
Display −→Pathlines...
The basic steps for generating pathlines are as follows:

1. Select the surface(s) from which to release the particles in the Release From Surfaces
list.

2. Set the step size and the maximum number of steps. The Step Size sets the length
interval used for computing the next position of a particle. (Note that particle
positions are always computed when particles enter/leave a cell; even if you specify
a very large step size, the particle positions at the entry/exit of each cell will still be
computed and displayed.) The value of Steps sets the maximum number of steps a
particle can advance. A particle will stop when it has traveled this number of steps
or when it leaves the domain. One simple rule of thumb to follow when setting
these two parameters is that if you want the particles to advance through a domain

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Figure 28.1.25: The Pathlines Panel

of length L, the Step Size times the number of Steps should be approximately equal
to L.

3. Set any of the options described below.

4. Click the Display button to draw the pathlines, or click the Pulse button to animate
the particle positions. The Pulse button will become the Stop ! button during the
animation, and you must click Stop ! to stop the pulsing.

Options for Pathline Plots

The options mentioned in the procedure above include the following. You can include
the grid in the pathline display, control the style of the pathlines (including the twisting
of ribbon-style pathlines), and color them by different scalar fields and control the color
scale. You can also “thin” the pathline display, trace the particle positions in reverse,
and draw “oil-flow” pathlines. If you are “pulsing” the pathlines, you can control the
pulse mode. If you are using larger time step size for calculations then you can control
the accuracy of the pathline by specifying tolerance. In addition to the regular pathline
display, you can also generate an XY plot of a specified quantity along the pathline
trajectories. Finally, you can choose node or cell values for display (or plotting).

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Including the Grid in the Pathline Display

For some problems, especially complex 3D geometries, you may want to include portions
of the grid in your pathline display as spatial reference points. For example, you may
want to show the location of an inlet and an outlet along with the pathlines (as in
Figure 28.1.24). This is accomplished by turning on the Draw Grid option in the Pathlines
panel. The Grid Display panel will appear automatically when you turn on the Draw Grid
option, and you can set the grid display parameters there. When you click Display in the
Pathlines panel, the grid display, as defined in the Grid Display panel, will be included in
the plot of pathlines.

Controlling the Pathline Style

Pathlines can be displayed as lines (with or without arrows), ribbons, cylinders (coarse,
medium, or fine), triangles, spheres, or a set of points. You can choose line, line-arrows,
point, sphere, ribbon, triangle, coarse-cylinder, medium-cylinder, or fine-cylinder in the Style
drop-down list in the Pathlines panel. (Note that pulsing can be done only on point,
sphere, or line styles.)
Once you have selected the pathline style, click the Style Attributes... button to set the
pathline thickness and other parameters related to the selected Style:

• If you are using the line or line-arrows style, set the Line Width in the Path Style
Attributes panel that appears when you click the Style Attributes... button. For
line-arrows you will also set the Spacing Factor, which controls the spacing between
the lines. The size of the arrow heads can be adjusted by entering a value in the
Scale text-entry box.

• If you are using the point style, you will set the Marker Size in the Path Style
Attributes panel. The thickness of the pathline will be the thickness of the marker.

• If you are using the sphere style, you will set the Diameter and the Detail in the
Path Style Attributes panel.
The best diameter to use will depend on the dimensions of the domain, the view,
and the particle density. However, an adequate starting point would be a diameter
on the order of 1/4 of the average cell size or 1/4 step size. Units for the Diameter
field correspond to the mesh dimensional units.
The level of detail applied to the graphical rendering of the spheres can be controlled
using the Detail field in the Path Style Attributes panel. The level of detail uses
integer values ranging from 4 to 50. Note that the performance of the graphical
rendering will be better when using a small level of detail, i.e., very coarse spheres,
such as 6 or 8. The rendering performance significantly decreases with higher
levels of detail. You should gradually increase the detail to determine the best-case
scenario between performance and quality.

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Also note that to take full advantage of spherical rendering, lighting should be
turned on in the view. The Gouraud setting provides much smoother looking
spheres than the Flat setting and better performance than the Phong setting. For
more information on lighting, see Section 28.2.6: Adding Lights.

• If you are using the triangle or any of the cylinder styles, you will set the Width
in the Path Style Attributes panel. For triangles, the specified value will be half
the width of the triangle’s base, and for cylinders, the value will be the cylinder’s
radius.

• If you are using the ribbon style, clicking on the Style Attributes... button will open
the Ribbon Attributes panel, in which you can set the ribbon’s Width. You can
also specify parameters for twisting the ribbon pathlines. In the Twist By drop-
down list, you can select a scalar field on which the pathline twisting is based (e.g.,
helicity). Select the desired category in the upper list and then select a related
quantity in the lower list. Note that the twisting may not be displayed smoothly
because the scalar field by which you are twisting the pathline is calculated at cell
centers only (and not interpolated to a particle’s position). The Twist Scale sets
the amount of twist for the selected scalar field. To magnify the twist for a field
with very little change, increase this factor; to display less twist for a field with
dramatic changes, decrease this factor.
(When you click Compute, the Min and Max fields will be updated to show the
range of the Twist By scalar field.)

Controlling Pathline Colors

By default, the pathlines are colored by the particle ID number. That is, each particle’s
path will be a different color. You can also choose the color based on the surface from
where the pathlines were released from using the surface ID as the particle variable. You
can choose to color the pathlines by any of the scalar fields in the Color by drop-down list.
(Select the desired category in the upper list and then select a related quantity in the
lower list.) If you color the pathlines by velocity magnitude, for example, each particle’s
path will be colored depending on the speed of the particle at each point in the path.
The range of values of the selected scalar field will, by default, be the upper and lower
limits of that field in the entire domain. The color scale will map to these values accord-
ingly. If you prefer to restrict the range of the scalar field, turn off the Auto Range option
(under Options) and set the Min and Max values manually beneath the Color by list. If
you color the pathlines by velocity, and you limit the range to values between 30 and
60 m/s, for example, the “lowest” color will be used when the particle speed falls below
30 m/s and the “highest” color will be used when the particle speed exceeds 60 m/s. To
show the default range at any time, click the Compute button and the Min and Max fields
will be updated.

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“Thinning” Pathlines

If your pathline plot is difficult to understand because there are too many paths displayed,
you can “thin out” the pathlines by changing the Path Skip value in the Pathlines panel.
By default, Path Skip is set to 0, indicating that a pathline will be drawn from each
face on the selected surface (e.g., n pathlines). If you increase Path Skip to 1, every
other pathline will be displayed, yielding n/2 pathlines. If you increase Path Skip to 2,
every third pathline will be displayed, yielding n/3, and so on. The order of faces on the
selected surface will determine which pathlines are skipped or drawn; thus adaption and
reordering will change the appearance of the pathline display when a non-zero Path Skip
value is used.

Coarsening Pathlines

To further simplify pathline plots, and reduce plotting time, a coarsening factor can be
used to reduce the number of points that are plotted. Providing a coarsening factor of n,
will result in each nth point being plotted for a given pathline in any cell. This coarsening
factor is specified in the Pathlines panel, in the Path Coarsen field. For example, if the
coarsening factor is set to 2, then FLUENT will plot alternate points.

i Note that if any particle or pathline enters a new cell, this point will always
be plotted.

Reversing the Pathlines

If you are interested in determining the source of a particle for which you know the final
destination (e.g., a particle that leaves the domain through an exit boundary), you can
reverse the pathlines and follow them from their destination back to their source. To do
this, turn on the Reverse option in the Pathlines panel. All other inputs for defining the
pathlines will be exactly the same as for forward pathlines; the only difference is that
the surface(s) selected in the Release From Surfaces list will be the final destination of the
particles instead of their source.

Plotting Oil-Flow Pathlines

If you want to display “oil-flow” pathlines (i.e., pathlines that are constrained to lie on
a particular boundary), turn on the Oil Flow option in the Pathlines panel. You will
then need to select a single boundary zone in the On Zone list. The selected zone is the
boundary on which the oil-flow pathlines will lie.

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Controlling the Pulse Mode

If you are going to use the Pulse button in the Pathlines panel to animate the pathlines,
you can choose one of two pulse modes for the release of particles that follow the pathlines.
To release a single wave of particles, select the Single option under Pulse Mode. To release
particles continuously from the initial positions, select the Continuous option.

Controlling the Accuracy

If you are using large time step size for the calculation, there might be significant error
introduced while calculating the pathlines. To control this error, select Accuracy Control
and specify the value of Tolerance. The tolerance value will be taken in to consideration
while calculating the pathlines for each time step.

Generating an XY Plot Along Pathline Trajectories

If you want to generate an XY plot along the trajectories of the pathlines you have
defined, turn on the XY Plot option in the Pathlines panel. The Color by drop-down list
will be replaced by Y Axis Function and X Axis Function lists. Select the variable to be
plotted on the y axis in the Y Axis Function list, and specify whether you want to plot
this quantity as a function of the Time elapsed along the trajectory, or the Path Length
along the trajectory by selecting the appropriate item in the X Axis Function drop-down
list. Specify the Step Size, number of Steps, and other parameters as usual for a standard
pathline display. Then click Plot to display the XY plot.
Once you have generated an XY plot, you may want to save the plot data to a file. You
can read this file into FLUENT at a later time and plot it alone using the File XY Plot
panel, as described in Section 28.8.3: XY Plots of File Data, or add it to a plot of solution
data, as described in Section 28.8.2: Including External Data in the Solution XY Plot.
To save the plot data to a file, turn on the Write to File option in the Pathlines panel. The
Plot button will change to the Write... button. Clicking on the Write... button will open
the Select File dialog box, in which you can specify a name and save a file containing the
plot data. The format of this file is described in Section 28.8.5: XY Plot File Format.

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Saving Pathline Data

To save pathline data to a file, perform the following steps:

1. Enable the Write to File option in the Pathlines panel (Figure 28.1.25).

2. In the Type drop-down list, select one of the following types of files:
• Standard for FIELDVIEW (.fvp) format
• Geometry for .ibl format (which can be read by GAMBIT)
• EnSight format

i If you plan to write the pathline data in EnSight format, you should first
verify that you have already written the files associated with the EnSight
Case Gold file type by using the File/Export... menu option (see Sec-
tion 4.12.9: EnSight Case Gold Files).
For further information about the files that are written for any of these types, please
refer to the appropriate section following these steps.

3. Choose to color the pathlines by any of the scalar fields in the Color by drop-down
lists.

4. Select the surface(s) from which to release the particles in the Release From Surfaces
list.

5. If you selected EnSight under Type, you will need to specify the EnSight Encas File
Name. Use the Browse... button to select the .encas file that was created when
you exported the file with the File/Export... menu option. If you do not make a
selection, then you will need to create an appropriate .encas file manually.
You can also select the number of Time Steps For EnSight Export. This number
directly determines how many time levels will be available for animation in EnSight.

6. Click on the Write... button to open the Select File dialog box, in which you can
specify a name and save a file containing the pathline data.

To initiate saving pathline data through the text command interface enter the following
TUI command:
display/path-lines/write-to-files
In addition to pathline data, you can also export particle data in either Standard, EnSight
or Geometry type. For information on exporting particle data in FIELDVIEW (standard),
EnSight or .ibl (geometry) format, refer to Section 25.20.2: Importing and Exporting
Particle History Data.

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Standard Type

If Standard is selected under Type, FLUENT will write the file in FIELDVIEW format,
which can be exported and read into FIELDVIEW. The FIELDVIEW T M ASCII Particle
Path Format is licensed from Intelligent Light, proprietor of an independent visualization
software package (http://www.ilight.com). The file name that you use for saving the data
must have a .fvp extension. You also have the ability to retrieve and display the particle
and pathline trajectories from the file.
If the case is steady-state, the particle path information will be written in ASCII format.
For transient or unsteady-state cases, the BINARY format must be used. The FIELD-
VIEW file contains a set of paths, where each path consists of a series of points. At every
point the spatial location and selected variables are defined. A full description of the
ASCII and BINARY formats can be found in Appendix K - Particle Path Formats of
FIELDVIEW’s Reference Manual [2], available to licensed FIELDVIEW users.
The following is an example of the FIELDVIEW format for a steady-state case:

FVPARTICLES 2 1
Tag Names
0
Variable Names
2
time
particle_id
3
0.2 0.8 1.3 0.2 0
0.3 0.9 1.3 0.4 0
0.5 1.1 1.3 0.6 0

The beginning of the file displays header information. Tag Names cannot be specified
when the file is exported from FLUENT, and hence will always be 0. FLUENT allows you
to export two variables, which are listed under Variable Names: the first is determined
by the scalar fields selected in the Color by drop-down lists (time in the example above);
the second is always particle id.
The rest of the file contains information about each path. A path section begins by
listing the total number of points for the path. Then a line of data is presented for each
point, with the X, Y, and Z locations listed in the first three columns and the variable
information in the fourth and fifth columns. The example above presents a single pathline
consisting of three points; the time ranges from .2 to .6, and the ID of the particle is 0.

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Geometry Type

If Geometry is selected under Type, the file will be written in .ibl format. The resulting
file contains particle paths in the form of a curve which can be read in GAMBIT. The
following is an example of a Geometry file format that contains multiple curves:

Closed Index Arclength

Begin section ! 1
Begin curve ! 1
1 185.61 0 23.26
2 88.90000000000001 0 -89.67

Begin curve ! 2
1 88.89999999999569 0 -89.6699999999997
2 76.90221619148909 0 -101.2290490001453
3 62.92208239159677 0 -110.2907424975297
4 47.47166726362848 0 -116.5231659809653
5 31.11689338997181 0 -119.6980363161113
6 14.45680848476821 0 -119.6990633707006
7 -1.898356710978934 0 -116.5262095254603
8 -17.34954014966171 0 -110.2956910520416
9 -31.33079110697006 0 -101.2357213074894
10 -43.330000000007 0 -89.67815166483965

Begin curve ! 3
1 -43.33 0 -89.67815166485001
2 -175.56 0 64.69066040289

The above example demonstrates how multiple curves can be imported; single curves
may also be imported. After importing this file into GAMBIT, the file is read by first
looking for a Begin curve string and then looking for the X, Y, and Z coordinates under
the Begin curve line.

EnSight Type

By selecting EnSight under Type, you can generate files with the following extensions:

• .mpg

• .mscl

• .encas

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An .mpg file will be written for every time step specified in the Time Steps For EnSight
Export field. A sequential number will be appended to the .mpg extension to indicate
the time step. Each file contains a header which lists the time at which the data was
exported, as well as three columns listing the X, Y and Z coordinates for every particle
at that particular time step.
The following is an example of a file called particle.mpg0003, which contains data for
nine particles at the third time step:

File is written from fluent in ensight measured particle format for

t = 2.42813e-04
particle coordinates
9
1-7.27734e-05 1.91710e-03 4.69093e-03
2-1.75772e-04 1.97040e-03 3.92842e-03
3-2.26051e-04 2.10134e-03 5.63228e-03
4-1.16390e-04 2.32442e-03 5.23423e-03
5-6.32735e-04 2.53326e-03 5.70791e-03
6-9.69431e-04 2.37006e-03 5.27602e-03
7-6.77868e-04 2.92054e-03 4.11570e-03
8-9.78029e-04 2.75717e-03 4.13314e-03
9-8.54859e-04 3.73727e-03 2.23796e-03

An .mscl file will be written for every time step specified in the Time Steps For EnSight
Export field. A sequential number will be appended to the .mscl extension to indicate
the time step. Each file contains the scalar information (specified under Color By) for
every particle at a particular time step.
The following is an example of a file called particle.mscl0006, which captures Particle
ID data for nine particles at the sixth time step:

particle id
0.00000e+00 6.00000e+00 1.20000e+01 1.80000e+01 2.40000e+01 3.00000e+01
3.60000e+01 4.20000e+01 4.80000e+01

A new .encas file will be written if a selection is made under EnSight Encas File Name.
This new file is a modified version of the .encas file selected with the Browse... button,
and contains information about all of the related files (including geometry, velocity, scalar
and coordinate files). The name of the new file will be the root of the original file with
.new appended to it (e.g. if test.encas is selected, a file named test.new.encas will
be written). It is this new file that should be read into EnSight.

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The following is an example of a file called spray2-unsteady.new.encase, that refers

to the files generated when the data was originally exported as an EnSight Case Gold
file type (.geo, .vel, .sc11 and .sc12) and the files created during the pathline data
export (.mpg and .mscl):

FORMAT
type: ensight gold
GEOMETRY
model: spray2-unsteady.geo
measured: 1 particle.mpg****
VARIABLE
scalar per measured node: 1 particle-id particle.mscl****
scalar per node: pressure spray2-unsteady.scl1
scalar per node: pressure-coefficient spray2-unsteady.scl2
vector per node: velocity spray2-unsteady.vel
TIME
time set: 1 Model
number of steps: 10
filename start number: 1
filename increment: 1
time values: 0.00000e+00 1.21406e-04 2.42813e-04 3.64219e-04 4.85626e-04
6.07032e-04 7.28438e-04 8.49845e-04 9.71251e-04 1.09266e-03

Choosing Node or Cell Values

In FLUENT you can determine the scalar field value at a particle location using the
computed cell-center values or values that have been interpolated to the nodes. By
default, the Node Values option is turned on, and the interpolated values are used. If you
prefer to use the cell values, turn the Node Values option off.
If you are plotting pathlines to show the effect of a porous medium or fan, to depict a
shock wave, or to show any other discontinuities or jumps in the plotted variable, you
should use cell values; if you use node values in such cases, the discontinuity will be
smeared by the node averaging for graphics and will not be shown clearly in the plot.

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28.1.5 Displaying Results on a Sweep Surface

Sweep surfaces can be used when you want to examine the grid, contours, or vectors on
various sections of the domain without explicitly creating the corresponding surfaces. For
example, if you want to display solution results for a 3D combustion chamber, instead of
creating numerous surfaces at different cross-sections of the domain, you can use a sweep
surface to view the variation of the flow and temperature throughout the chamber.

Steps for Generating a Plot Using a Sweep Surface

You can plot grids, contours, or vectors on a sweep surface using the Sweep Surface panel
(Figure 28.1.26).
Display −→Sweep Surface...

Figure 28.1.26: The Sweep Surface Panel

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The basic steps for generating a grid, contour, or vector plot using a sweep surface are
as follows:

1. Under Sweep Axis, specify the (X, Y, Z) vector representing the axis along which
the surface should be swept.

2. Click Compute to update the Min Value and Max Value to reflect the extents of the
domain along the specified axis.

3. Under Display Type, specify the type of display you want to see: Grid, Contours, or
Vectors. The first time that you select Contours or Vectors, FLUENT will open the
Contours panel or the Vectors panel so you can modify the settings for the display.
To make subsequent modifications to the display settings, click the Properties...
button to open the Contours or Vectors panel.

4. Move the slider under Value (which indicates the value of x, y, or z) to move the
sweep surface through the domain along the specified Sweep Axis. FLUENT will
update the grid, contour, or vector display when you release the slider. You can
also enter a position in the Value field and press the <Enter> key to update the
display.

5. If you want to save the currently displayed sweep surface so that you can use it
for a different type of plot (e.g., a pathlines plot or an XY plot) or combine it
with displays on other surfaces, click Create... to open the Create Surface panel
(Figure 28.1.27). Enter the Surface Name and click OK.

Figure 28.1.27: The Create Surface Panel

The surface that is created is an isosurface based on the grid coordinates; the
contour or vector settings are not stored in the surface.

You can also animate the sweep surface display, as described below, rather than moving
the slide bar yourself.

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Animating a Sweep Surface Display

The steps for animating a sweep surface display are as follows:

1. Specify the Sweep Axis and Display Type as described above.

2. Under Animation, enter the Initial Value and Final Value for the animation. These
values correspond to the minimum and maximum values along the Sweep Axis for
which you want to animate the display.

3. Specify the number of Frames you want to see in the animation.

4. Click Animate.

28.1.6 Hiding the Graphics Window Display

There may be situations where displaying graphics on a local machine is not practical,
such as when running FLUENT remotely (Section 1.2: Executing FLUENT Remotely) or
when using the RSF (Section 1.1.4: Remote Simulation Facility (RSF)). Therefore, you
may decide to hide (or disable) the graphics display window.
To disable the graphics display window when starting FLUENT from the command line,
you can specify the driver as null:
fluent -driver null
For a FLUENT session that is already in progress, the graphics window display can be
disabled using the following TUI command:
display −→ set −→ rendering-options −→ driver −→null

i All graphics windows must be closed prior to invoking the above TUI
command.
If the graphics window display is disabled, you can continue to save graphics using the
Graphics Hardcopy option, as described in Section 4.14: Saving Hardcopy Files. The saved
graphics files will be identical whether the graphics window display is enabled or disabled.
For a FLUENT session that is already in progress, to re-enable a graphics window display
that had been previously disabled, use the following TUI command:
display −→ set −→ rendering-options −→ driver −→opengl

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If any graphics windows are open (which are not visible to you), FLUENT will prompt
you to close all open windows. You can close them using the following Scheme command:
(close-all-open-windows)
and then retype the TUI command to enable the graphics windows.

i If you happen to be logged on to a machine remotely, then opengl may not

work on your system. Use x11 instead to enable your graphics windows.

28.2 Customizing the Graphics Display

There are a number of ways in which you can alter the graphical display once you have
generated the basic elements in it (contours, grids, etc.). For example, you can overlay
multiple graphics, add descriptive text or lighting to the plot, and modify the captions
or legend layout. These and other customizations are described in this section.

• Section 28.2.1: Overlay of Graphics

• Section 28.2.2: Opening Multiple Graphics Windows

• Section 28.2.3: Changing the Legend Display

• Section 28.2.4: Adding Text to the Graphics Window

• Section 28.2.5: Changing the Colormap

• Section 28.2.6: Adding Lights

• Section 28.2.7: Modifying the Rendering Options

28.2.1 Overlay of Graphics

Normally, you can see only one picture at a time in the graphics window; i.e., as one plot
is generated, the previous plot is erased. Sometimes, however, you may want to see two
plots overlaid. For example, you may want to plot vectors and pressure contours on the
same plot (see Figure 28.2.1). You can do this by turning on the Overlays option (and
clicking Apply) in the Scene Description panel.
Display −→Scene...

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Once overlaying is enabled, subsequent graphics that you generate will be displayed on top
of the existing display in the active graphics window. To generate a plot without overlays,
you must turn off the Overlays option in the Scene Description panel (and remember to
click Apply).
When you are overlaying multiple graphics, the captions and color scale that will appear
in the latest display are those that correspond to the most recently drawn graphic.
Note that when overlaying is enabled, it will apply to all graphics windows, including
those that are not yet open. Turning overlays on and off does so for all graphics windows,
not just for the active window. That is, if you enable overlays, open a new graphics
window (as described in Section 28.2.2: Opening Multiple Graphics Windows), and then
generate two or more graphics in that window, they will be overlaid.

Figure 28.2.1: Overlay of Velocity Vectors and Pressure Contours

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28.2.2 Opening Multiple Graphics Windows

During your FLUENT session, you can open up to 12 graphics windows at one time. The
windows are numbered 0 through 11 and the ID number for each window will appear at
the top of the frame that surrounds it. The first time you display graphics, window 0
will open automatically. To open an additional window, you can use the Display Options
panel (Figure 28.2.2).
Display −→Options...

Figure 28.2.2: The Display Options Panel

Use the up arrow to increment the window ID in the Active Window field under Graphics
Window and then click the Open button.
To close an open window, increase or decrease the Active Window value to the ID of the
window to be closed, and then click the Close button that appears next to the Active
Window field. (The Open button will change to the Close button if the Active Window is
open.)

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Setting the Active Window

When you have more than one graphics window open, you must identify the active
window so that FLUENT will know which one to draw the plot in. There are two ways
to set the active window: you can simply click any mouse button in the desired graphics
window, or you can specify the ID for the desired graphics window in the Active Window
field (in the Display Options panel) and click the Set button. Regardless of the method
used, this window will remain active until you set a new active window.

28.2.3 Changing the Legend Display

FLUENT graphics include, by default, a captions or legend block that consists of fields
of text describing the contents of the graphic, the FLUENT product identification, an
axis triad indicating the orientation of the displayed object, and a color key defining the
correspondence between each color and the magnitude of the plotted variable. You can
turn off the display of the legend and color scale, and/or the axis triad. You can also
display the colormap on any side of the display window as per convenience. In addition
you can also edit the captions directly in the graphics window.

Enabling/Disabling the Legend and Color Scale

You can disable the display of the Titles, Axes, and the Colormap scale by deselecting
each of the options under Layout in the Display Options panel (Figure 28.2.2).
Display −→Options...
Note that you can use the text interface to enable/disable the captions and color scale
individually, and to change the size and position of the captions and color scale.
display −→ set −→ windows −→ text −→

display −→ set −→ windows −→ scale −→

Editing the Legend

When captions are displayed in the graphics window, you may choose to modify, delete,
or add to the text that appears in the caption box. To do so, click the left mouse button
in the desired location. A cursor will appear, and you can then type new text or delete
the text that was originally there (using the backspace or delete key). Note that changes
to existing text in the caption block will be removed when you draw new graphics in the
window (unless you are overlaying multiple graphics in the same window), but text that
you add on a previously empty line in the caption block will not be removed until the
default caption text makes use of that line.

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Adding a Title to the Caption

You can define a title for your problem using the title text command:
display −→ set −→title
The title you define will appear on the top line of the caption, at the far left, in all
subsequent plots. It will also be saved in the case file.

i You will need to enclose your title in quotation marks (e.g., "my title").

Enabling/Disabling the Axes

You can disable the display of the axis triad by turning off the Axes option under Layout
in the Display Options panel (Figure 28.2.2).

Colormap Alignment
You can set the position of the colormap on any side (left, top, bottom, or right) of the
display window. Default alignment for the colormap is set to the Left. If you wish to
change the alignment, select the required direction in the Colormap Alignment drop-down
list.

28.2.4 Adding Text to the Graphics Window

There are two ways to add text annotations with optional attachment lines to the graphics
windows. You can either use the mouse-annotate function for one of the mouse buttons, or
use the Annotate panel. Both of these methods are described in this section. Figure 28.2.3
shows an example of a graphics display with annotated text in it.

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Figure 28.2.3: Graphics Window with Text Annotation

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Adding Text Using the Annotate Panel

Adding text to the graphics window using the Annotate panel (Figure 28.2.4) allows you
to control the font and color of the text.
Display −→Annotate...

Figure 28.2.4: The Annotate Panel

The steps for adding text are as follows:

1. Under Font Specification, select the font type in the Name drop-down list, the font
weight (Medium or Bold) in the Weight drop-down list, the size (in points) in the
Size drop-down list, the color in the Color drop-down list, and the slant (Regular or
Italic) in the Slant drop-down list.

2. Enter the text to be added in the Annotation Text field.

3. Click Add. You will be asked to pick the location in the graphics window where
you want to place the text, using the mouse-probe button. (By default, the mouse-
probe button is the right button, but you can change this using the Mouse Buttons
panel, as described in Section 28.3: Controlling the Mouse Button Functions.) If
you click the mouse button once in the desired location, the text will be placed at
that point. Dragging the mouse with the mouse-probe button depressed will draw
an attachment line from the point where the mouse was first clicked to the point
where it was released. The annotation text will be placed at the point where the
mouse button was released.

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Adding Text Using the mouse-annotate Function

To add text annotations to the graphics window using the mouse-annotate function, you
must first set the function of one of the mouse buttons to be mouse-annotate in the
Mouse Buttons panel. (See Section 28.3: Controlling the Mouse Button Functions for
details about modifying the mouse button functions.) Then, click the mouse-annotate
button in the desired location in the graphics window. A cursor will appear and you
can type the text directly in the graphics window. Dragging the mouse with the mouse-
annotate button depressed will draw an attachment line from the point where the mouse
was first clicked to the point where it was released. The cursor will then appear at the
point where the mouse button was released.
You can use the Annotate panel to edit or delete text added using the mouse, as described
below.

Editing Existing Annotation Text

Once you have added text to the graphics display, using either the Annotate panel or
the mouse-annotate function, you may change the font characteristics of one or more text
items, or delete individual text items.
To modify or delete existing text, follow these steps:

1. Select the appropriate item in the Names list in the Annotate panel (Figure 28.2.4).
When you select a name, the associated text will be displayed in the Annotation
Text field, and the Add button will become the Edit button.

2. Modify the Font Specification entries as desired, and click the Edit button to modify
the text, or simply click the Delete Text button below the Names list to delete the
selected text.

Note that if you want to make changes to all current annotation text, you can select all
of the Names instead of just one in step 1.
You can move the text in the same way that you move other geometric objects in
the display, using the Scene Description panel and the Transformations panel. See Sec-
tion 28.5.3: Transforming Geometric Objects in a Scene for details.

Clearing Annotation Text

Annotation text is associated with the active graphics window and is removed only when
the annotations are explicitly cleared. To remove the annotations from the graphics
window, you must click the Clear button in the Annotate panel (even if you use the
mouse-annotate function to add the text). If you draw new graphics in the window
without clearing the annotations, they will remain visible in the new display.

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28.2.5 Changing the Colormap

The default colormap used by FLUENT to display graphical data (e.g., vectors) ranges
from blue (minimum value) to red (maximum value). Additional predefined colormaps
are available, and you can also create custom colormaps. To make any changes to the
colormap, you will use the Colormaps panel (Figure 28.2.5).
Display −→Colormaps...

Figure 28.2.5: The Colormaps Panel

(When you plot contours, you can temporarily modify the number of colors in the col-
ormap by changing the number of contour levels in the Contours panel; you will only need
to use the Colormaps panel if you wish to change other characteristics of the colormap.)

i Note that if you are using a gray-scale colormap and you wish to save a
gray-scale hardcopy, you should actually save a color hardcopy. When you
save a gray-scale hardcopy, FLUENT uses an internal gray scale, not the
gray scale specified by the colormap. If you save a color hardcopy, the
colormap you selected (i.e., your gray scale) will be used.

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Predefined Colormaps
The following colormaps are automatically available in FLUENT:

bgr: Blue represents the minimum value, green the middle, and red the maximum
value. Colors in between are interpolated from blue to green, and from green to
red. (This is the default colormap.)

bgrb: Blue represents the minimum and maximum values, and green and red are values
1/3 and 2/3 of the maximum value, respectively. Colors in between are interpolated
from blue to green, from green to red, and from red to blue.

blue: The minimum value is represented by blue-black, and the maximum value by
pure blue.

cyan-yellow: Cyan represents the minimum value and yellow represents the maximum
value.

fea: Blue represents the minimum value and red represents the maximum value. The
colors in between are those used in third-party finite element analysis packages.

gray: Black is used for the minimum value and white for the maximum value.

green: The minimum value is represented by green-black, and the maximum value by
pure green.

purple-magenta: Purple represents the minimum value and magenta represents the
maximum value.

red: The minimum value is represented by red-black, and the maximum value by pure
red.

rgb: Red represents the minimum value, green the middle, and blue the maximum
value. Colors in between are interpolated from red to green, and from green to
blue.

The number of colors interpolated between the colors in the scale name (e.g., between
purple and magenta) will depend on the size of the colormap.

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Selecting a Colormap
The procedure for selecting a new colormap to be used in graphics displays is as follows:

1. In the Colormaps panel (Figure 28.2.5), select the desired colormap in the Currently
Defined drop-down list. This list will contain all of the colormaps predefined by
FLUENT as well as any custom colormaps that you have created as described below.

2. Set any of the options described below.

3. Click Apply to update the current graphics display with the new colormap. All
future displays will use the newly selected colormap and options.

Specifying the Colormap Size and Scale

Once you have selected the desired colormap from the Currently Defined list, you may
modify the Colormap Size. This value is the number of distinct colors in the color scale.
You can also choose to use a logarithmic scale instead of a decimal scale by turning on the
Log Scale option. With a log scale, the color used in the graphics display will represent
the log of the value at that location in the domain. The values represented by the colors
will, therefore, increase exponentially.

Changing the Number Format

You can change the format of the labels that define the color divisions at the left of the
graphics window using the controls under the Number Format heading in the Colormaps
panel.

• To display the real value with an integral and fractional part (e.g., 1.0000), select
float in the Type drop-down list. You can set the number of digits in the fractional
part by changing the value of Precision.

• To display the real value with a mantissa and exponent (e.g., 1.0e-02), select ex-
ponential in the Type drop-down list. You can define the number of digits in the
fractional part of the mantissa in the Precision field.

• To display the real value with either float or exponential form, depending on the
size of the number and the defined Precision, choose general in the Type drop-down
list.

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Colormap Label Display

You can customize the number of values displayed on the colormap. The default number
of labels that appear alongside the colormap depends on the font size and the colormap
size (Figure 28.2.6). If you prefer to reduce the number of labels that appear alongside
the colormap, then you must increase the number of labels skipped. To do so, dese-
lect Show All in the Colormaps panel and set the number of labels to be skipped. To
demonstrate what effect this command has on the display, enter a value of 4 under Skip
(note that the value entered must be an integer). This will result in three intermediate
labels being skipped, with the first and the last colormap values always being displayed
(Figure 28.2.7). To reset the original colormap display, simply select Show All.

Figure 28.2.6: The Default Colormap Label Display

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Figure 28.2.7: The Colormap with Skipped Labels

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Creating a Customized Colormap

You can create your own colormap by manipulating the “anchor colors” and the colormap
size. A color scale is created by linear interpolation between the anchor colors. The color,
number, and position of the anchor colors will therefore control the description of the
colormap. By increasing the colormap size, you can increase the total number of colors
and obtain a color scale that changes more gradually.
The procedure you will follow is listed below:

1. In the Colormaps panel, click the Edit... button to open the Colormap Editor panel
(Figure 28.2.8).

Figure 28.2.8: The Colormap Editor Panel

2. In the Colormap Editor panel, select a color scale in the Currently Defined list as your
starting point. The colors in the scale will be displayed at the top of the panel. A
white bar below a color is an “anchor point” indicating that this color is an “anchor
color”.

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3. If you want to add more colors to the color scale, increase the Colormap Size; to
use fewer colors, decrease this value. When you use the counter arrows (or type in
a value and press <Enter>), the color scale display at the top of the panel will be
updated immediately.

i The total number of colors must not be less than the number of anchor
points.
4. To obtain the desired color scale interpolation, manipulate the anchor colors as
needed:
• To add an anchor point, click any mouse button on the black space directly
below the desired anchor color (or click on the color itself). A white bar will
appear below the color to identify it as an anchor color, and the color will
automatically be selected for color-definition modification.
• To remove an anchor point, click on the white bar below the anchor color.
The white bar will disappear and the color scale will be updated to reflect the
new interpolation.
• To select a current anchor color in order to modify its color definition, click
on the color itself at the top of the panel.
• To modify the color of the selected anchor color, you can change either the
red/green/blue components (choose RGB, the default) or the hue/saturation/value
components (choose HSV). HSV is recommended if you plan to record the
graphics display on video, as it allows you to create a more subtle gradation
of color and reduce the tendency of bright colors to “bleed”. Move the Red,
Green, and Blue or Hue, Saturation, and Value sliders to obtain the desired
color. The color scale at the top of the panel will be updated automatically
to show the effect of your change.

i It is a good idea to note the original value of a color component before

moving the slider so that you will be able to return to it if you change your
mind. (See Section 2.1.3: Scale for instructions on using a scale slider.)
If you make a mistake while modifying the color scale, you can start over by selecting
the starting-point colormap in the Currently Defined list.

5. If you want to change the default name of the new colormap, enter the new name
in the Name field. By default, custom colormaps are called cmap-0, cmap-1, etc.

6. Click OK to save the new colormap. The colormap name will now appear in the
Currently Defined list in the Colormaps panel and can be selected for use in the
graphics display.

Custom colormap definitions will be saved in the case file.

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28.2.6 Adding Lights

In FLUENT you can add lights with a specified color and direction to your display. These
lights can enhance the appearance of the display when it contains 3D geometries. By
default one light is defined. You can turn on the effect of the existing light(s) using the
Display Options panel or the Lights panel, and you can add new lights using the Lights
panel.

Turning on Lighting Effects with the Display Options Panel

To turn on the effect of lighting, you can use the Display Options panel.
Display −→Options...
If you turn on the Lights On option under Lighting Attributes and click the Apply button,
you will see the lighting effects in the active graphics window. To turn off the lighting
effects, simply turn off the Lights On option and click Apply.
You can also choose the method to be used in lighting interpolation; select Flat, Gouraud,
or Phong in the Lighting drop-down list. (Flat is the most basic method: there is no
interpolation within the individual polygonal facets. Gouraud and Phong have smoother
gradations of color because they interpolate on each facet.)

Turning on Lighting Effects with the Lights Panel

You can also turn on lighting effects using the Lights panel (Figure 28.2.9).
Display −→Lights...
For constant lighting effects in the direction of the view, turn on the Headlight On option
in the Lights panel. This option has the effect of a light source directly in front of the
model, no matter what orientation the model is viewed in. To disable this feature, turn
off the Headlight On option in the Lights panel.
In the Lighting Method drop-down list, choose Flat, Gouraud, or Phong to enable the
appropriate lighting method. (These methods are described above.) To disable lighting,
select Off in the list. To see the lighting effects in the active graphics window, click the
Apply button.

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Defining Light Sources

You can control individual lights in the Lights panel (Figure 28.2.9). The Lights panel
allows you to create a light and then turn it off without deleting it. In this way, you can
retain lights that you have defined previously but do not wish to use at present.
Display −→Lights...

Figure 28.2.9: The Lights Panel

(You can also open the Lights panel by clicking on the Lights... button in the Display
Options panel.)

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By default, light 0 is defined to be dark gray with a direction of (1,1,1). A light source
is a distant light, similar to the sun. The direction (1,1,1) means that the rays from the
light will be parallel to the vector from (1,1,1) to the origin. To create an additional light
(e.g., light 1), follow the steps listed below.

1. Increase Light ID to a new value (e.g., 1).

2. Turn on the Light On check button.

3. Define the light color by entering a descriptive string (e.g., lavender) in the Color
field, or by moving the Red, Green, and Blue sliders to obtain the desired color. The
default color for all lights is dark gray.

4. Specify the light direction by doing one of the following:

• Enter the (X,Y,Z) Cartesian components under Direction.
• Click the middle mouse button in the desired location on the sphere under
Active Lights. (You can also move the light along the circles on the surface
of the sphere by dragging the mouse while holding down the middle button.)
You can rotate the sphere by pressing the left mouse button and moving the
mouse (like a trackball).
• Use your mouse to change the view in the graphics window so that your
position in reference to the geometry is the position from which you would
like a light to shine. Then click the Use View Vector button to update the
X,Y,Z fields with the appropriate values for your current position and update
the graphics display with the new light direction. This method is convenient
if you know where you want a light to be, but you are not sure of the exact
direction vector.

5. Repeat steps 1–4 if you want to add more lights.

6. When you have defined all the lights you want, click Apply to save their definitions.

Removing a Light

To remove a light, enter the ID number of the light to be removed in the Light ID field and
then turn off the Light On button. When a light is turned off, its definition is retained,
so you can easily add it to the display again at a later time by turning on the Light On
button. For example, you may want to define three different lights to be used in different
scenes. You can define each of them, and then turn on only one or two at a time, using the
Light ID field and the Light On button. Once you have made all the desired modifications
to the lights, remember to click the Apply button to save the changes.

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Resetting the Light Definitions

If you have made changes to the light definitions, but you have not yet clicked on Apply,
you can reset the lights by clicking on the Reset button. All lighting characteristics will
revert to the last saved state (i.e., the lighting that was in effect the last time you opened
the panel or clicked on Apply).

28.2.7 Modifying the Rendering Options

Depending on the objects in your display window and what kind of graphics hardware
and software you are using, you may want to modify some of the rendering parameters
listed below. All are listed under the Rendering heading in the Display Options panel
(Figure 28.2.2).
Display −→Options...
After making a change to any of these rendering parameters, click the Apply button to
re-render the scene in the active graphics window with the new attributes. To see the
effect of the new attributes on another graphics window, you must redisplay it or make it
the active window (see Section 28.2.2: Setting the Active Window) and click Apply again.

Line Width: By default, all lines drawn in the display have a thickness of 1 pixel. If
you want to increase the thickness of the lines, increase the value of Line Width.

Point Symbol: By default, nodes displayed on surfaces and data points on line or rake
surfaces are represented in the display by a + sign inside a circle. If you want to
modify this representation (e.g., to make the nodes easier to see), you can select a
different symbol in the Point Symbol drop-down list.

Wireframe Animation: When you use the mouse to modify the view in the display,
a wireframe representation will be displayed for all geometry during the mouse
manipulation. If your computer has a graphics accelerator, you may want to disable
this feature by turning off the Wireframe Animation option. Turning this option
off when your computer does not have a graphics accelerator may make mouse
manipulation very slow.

Double Buffering: Enabling the Double Buffering option can dramatically reduce screen
flicker during graphics updates. Note, however, that if your display hardware does
not support double buffering and you turn this option on, double buffering will be
done in software. Software double buffering uses extra memory.

Outer Face Culling: This option allows you to turn off the display of outer faces in
wall zones. Outer Face Culling is useful for displaying both sides of a slit wall. By
default, when you display a slit wall, one side will “bleed” through to the other.
When you turn on the Outer Face Culling option, the display of a slit wall will show

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each side distinctly as you rotate the display. This option can also be useful for
displaying two-sided walls (i.e., walls with fluid or solid cells on both sides).

Hidden Line Removal: If you do not use hidden line removal, FLUENT will not try to
determine which lines in the display are behind others; it will display all of them,
and a cluttered display will result for most 3D grid displays. For most 3D problems,
therefore, you should turn on the Hidden Line Removal option. You should turn this
option off (for optimal performance) if you are working with a 2D problem or with
geometries that do not overlap.

Hidden Surface Removal: If you do not use hidden surface removal, FLUENT will not
try to determine which surfaces in the display are behind others; it will display all
of them, and a cluttered display will result for most 3D grid displays. For most 3D
problems, therefore, you should turn on the Hidden Surface Removal option. You
should turn this option off (for optimal performance) if you are working with a 2D
problem or with geometries that do not overlap.
You can choose one of the following methods for performing hidden surface removal
in the Hidden Surface Method drop-down list. These options vary in speed and
quality, depending on the device you are using.
Hardware Z-buffer is the fastest method if your hardware supports it. The ac-
curacy and speed of this method is hardware-dependent. Note that if this
method is not available on your computer, selecting it will cause the Software
Z-buffer method to be used.
Painters will show fewer edge-aliasing effects than Hardware-Z-buffer. This method
is often used instead of Software-Z-buffer when memory is limited.
Software Z-buffer is the fastest of the accurate software methods available (espe-
cially for complex scenes), but it is memory-intensive.
Z-sort only is a fast software method, but it is not as accurate as Software-Z-
buffer.

Graphics Device Information

If you need to know which graphics driver you are using and what graphics hardware
it recognizes, you can click the Info button in the Display Options panel. The graphics
device information will be printed in the text (console) window.

28.3 Controlling the Mouse Button Functions

A convenient feature of FLUENT is that it allows you to assign a specific function to
each of the mouse buttons. According to your specifications, clicking a mouse button
in the graphics window will cause the appropriate action to be taken. These functions
apply only to the graphics windows; they are not active when an XY plot or histogram

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is displayed. (See Section 28.8.1: Plot Types for information about the use of mouse
buttons in these plots.) Clicking any mouse button in a graphics window will make that
window the active window.

Button Functions
The predefined button functions available are listed below:

mouse-rotate allows you to rotate the view by dragging the mouse across the screen.
Dragging horizontally rotates the object about the screen’s y axis; vertical mouse
movement rotates the object about the screen’s x axis. The function completes
when the mouse button is released or the cursor leaves the graphics window.
mouse-dolly allows you to translate the view by dragging the mouse while holding
down the button. The function completes when the mouse button is released or
the cursor leaves the graphics window.
mouse-zoom allows you to draw a zoom box, anchored at the point at which the button
was pressed, by dragging the mouse with the button held down. When you release
the button, if the dragging was from left to right, a magnified view of the area
within the zoom box will fill the window. If the dragging was from right to left,
the area of the window is shrunk to fit into the zoom box, resulting in a “zoomed
out” view. If the mouse button is simply clicked (not dragged), the selected point
becomes the center of the window.
mouse-roll-zoom allows you to rotate or zoom the view, depending on the direction
in which you drag the mouse. If you drag the mouse horizontally, the display will
rotate about the axis normal to the screen. If you drag it vertically, the display
will be magnified (if you drag it down) or shrunk (if you drag it up). The function
completes when the mouse button is released or the cursor leaves the graphics
window. Note that this function is similar to the function of the right mouse
button in GAMBIT.
mouse-probe allows you to select items from the graphics windows and request infor-
mation about displayed scenes. If the probe function is turned off and you click
the mouse-probe button in the graphics window, only the identity of the item on
which you clicked will be printed out in the console window. If the probe function
is turned on, more detailed information about a selected item will be printed out.
mouse-annotate allows you to insert text into the graphics window. If the mouse
button is dragged, an attachment line is drawn. When the button is released (after
dragging or clicking), a cursor is displayed in the graphics window, and you can
enter your text. When you are finished, press <Enter> or move the cursor out of
the graphics window. To modify or remove annotated text and attachment lines,
use the Clear button in the Annotate panel, as described in Section 28.2.4: Editing
Existing Annotation Text.

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Modifying the Mouse Button Functions

Mouse button functions are specified in the Mouse Buttons panel (Figure 28.3.1).
Display −→Mouse Buttons...

Figure 28.3.1: The Mouse Buttons Panel

For each mouse button (Left, Middle, and Right), select the desired function in the drop-
down list. The functions are listed above. If you assign the probe function to one of the
buttons, select on or off as the Probe status.
The new button functions take effect as soon as you click OK. That is, you do not have
to redraw the graphics window to use the new functions; the appropriate function will
be executed when a mouse button is subsequently clicked in a graphics window.
The default button functions are as follows:

Button 2D 3D
Left mouse-dolly mouse-rotate
Middle mouse-zoom mouse-zoom
Right mouse-probe mouse-probe

28.4 Modifying the View

FLUENT allows you to control the view of the scene that is displayed in the graphics
window. You can modify the view by scaling, centering, rotating, translating, or zooming
the display. You can also save a view that you have created, or restore or delete a view
that you saved earlier. These operations are performed in the Views panel (Figure 28.4.1)
or with the mouse.

i You can revert to the previous view using the keyboard command <Ctrl>-L
while the graphics window has the main focus. You can also use the text
command view last from the top level of the text command tree. You
can use the command to revert to any of the past 20 views.

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28.4.1 Scaling, Centering, Rotating, Translating, and Zooming the Display

Scaling and centering the display is accomplished using the Views panel (Figure 28.4.1).
Display −→Views...

Figure 28.4.1: The Views Panel

You can rotate, translate, and zoom the graphics display using either the mouse or the
Camera Parameters panel (Figure 28.4.2), which is opened from the Views panel.

Figure 28.4.2: The Camera Parameters Panel

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Scaling and Centering

You can scale and center the current display without changing its orientation by clicking
on the Auto Scale button in the Views panel.

Rotating the Display

In 3D you can rotate the display in any direction, using either the mouse or the Camera
Parameters panel. In 2D you can rotate the display about the axis normal to the screen,
using either the mouse or the Camera Parameters panel.
To rotate a 3D display with the mouse, you will use the button with the mouse-rotate
function (the left button, by default). (See Section 28.3: Controlling the Mouse Button
Functions for information about changing the mouse functions.) Click and drag the left
mouse button in the graphics window to rotate the geometry in the display. You can
also click and drag the left mouse button on the (x,y,z) graphics triad in the lower left
corner to rotate the display. If you press the <Shift> key when you first click the mouse
button to begin the rotation, the rotation will be constrained to a single direction (e.g.,
you can rotate about the screen’s horizontal axis without changing the position relative
to the vertical axis). If you want to constrain the rotation of a 3D display to be about
the axis normal to the screen, you can also use the mouse-roll-zoom function described
below for 2D cases.
To rotate a 3D display using the Camera Parameters panel (Figure 28.4.2) you will use
the dial and the scales below it and to its left:

• To rotate about the horizontal axis at the center of the screen, move the slider on
the scale to the left of the dial up or down (see Section 2.1.3: Scale for instructions
on using the scale).
• To rotate about the vertical axis at the center of the screen, move the slider on the
scale below the dial to the left or right.
• To rotate about the axis at the center of and perpendicular to the screen, click the
left mouse button on the indicator in the dial and drag it around the dial.

i Note that the position of the slider or the dial indicator does not reflect
the cumulative rotation about the axis; the slider or indicator will return
to its original position when you release the mouse button.
To rotate a 2D display about the axis normal to the screen, you can use the dial in the
Camera Parameters panel, as described above for 3D cases. If you want to rotate with the
mouse instead, you can use the mouse-roll-zoom function. (See Section 28.3: Controlling
the Mouse Button Functions for information about enabling this optional function.) Click
the appropriate mouse button and drag the mouse to the left for clockwise rotation, or
to the right for counter-clockwise rotation.

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Spinning the Display with the Mouse

When you use the mouse for rotation, you have the option to “push” the display into a
continuous spin. This feature can be used in conjunction with video recording, or simply
for interactive viewing of the domain from different angles. To activate this option, use
the auto-spin? text command:
display −→ set −→ rendering-options −→auto-spin?
Then display the graphics (or, if the graphics are already displayed, you can click the
Apply button in the Display Options panel). The mouse-rotate button will then have two
uses:

• To perform the standard rotation, stop dragging the mouse before you release the
mouse-rotate button.

• To start the continuous spin, release the mouse-rotate button while you are still
dragging the mouse. The display will continue to rotate on its own until you click
any mouse button in the graphics window again. The speed of the rotation will
depend on how fast you are dragging the mouse when you release the button.

For smoother rotation, turn on the Double Buffering option in the Display Options panel
(see Section 28.2.7: Modifying the Rendering Options). This will reduce screen flicker
during graphics updates.

Translating the Display

By default the left mouse button is set to mouse-dolly in 2D. (See Section 28.3: Controlling
the Mouse Button Functions for information about changing the mouse functions.) Click
and drag the left mouse button in the graphics window to translate the geometry in the
display.
In 3D, you can either change one of the button functions to mouse-dolly and follow the
instructions above for 2D, or use the mouse-zoom button (the middle button by default).
Click the middle button once on the point in the display that you want to move to the
center of the screen. FLUENT will redisplay the graphic with that point in the center of
the window. (Note that this method can also be used in 2D.)

Zooming the Display

In both 2D and 3D you will use the mouse button with the mouse-zoom function (the
middle button by default) or the mouse-roll-zoom function (see Section 28.3: Controlling
the Mouse Button Functions for information about enabling this optional function), or
the Camera Parameters panel to magnify and shrink the display.

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With the mouse-zoom function, click the middle mouse button and drag it from left to
right (creating a “zoom box”) to magnify the display. Figure 28.4.3 displays the correct
dragging of the mouse, from upper left to lower right on the display, in order to zoom.
(You can also drag from lower left to upper right.) After you release the mouse button,
FLUENT will redisplay the graphic, filling the graphics window with the portion of the
display that previously occupied the zoom box.

click here

drag
direction

release
region to be
zoomed

Figure 28.4.3: Zooming In (Magnifying the Display)

release

drag
direction

click here
region to be
un-zoomed

Figure 28.4.4: Zooming Out (Shrinking the Display)

Click the middle mouse button and drag it from right to left to shrink the display.
Figure 28.4.4 displays the correct dragging of the mouse, from lower right to upper left
on the display, in order to “zoom out”. (You can also drag from upper right to lower

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left.) After you release the mouse button, FLUENT will redisplay the graphic, shrinking
the graphical display by the ratio of sizes of the zoom box you created and the previous
display.
With the mouse-roll-zoom function, click the appropriate mouse button and drag the
mouse down to zoom in continuously, or up to zoom out.
In the Camera Parameters panel (Figure 28.4.2), use the scale to the right of the dial to
zoom the display. Move the slider bar up to zoom in and down to zoom out.

28.4.2 Controlling Perspective and Camera Parameters

Perspective and other camera parameters are defined in the Camera Parameters panel,
which you can open by clicking on the Camera... button in the Views panel (Figure 28.4.1).
Display −→Views...

Perspective and Orthographic Views

You may choose to display either an orthographic view or a perspective view of your
graphics. To show a perspective view (the default), select Perspective in the Projection
drop-down list in the Camera Parameters panel (Figure 28.4.2). To turn off perspective,
select Orthographic in the Projection drop-down list.

Modifying Camera Parameters

Instead of translating, rotating, and zooming the display as described in Section 28.4.1: Scal-
ing, Centering, Rotating, Translating, and Zooming the Display, you may sometimes want
to modify the “camera” through which you are viewing the graphics display.
The camera is defined by four parameters: position, target, up vector, and field, as
illustrated in Figure 28.4.5. “Position” is the camera’s location. “Target” is the location
of the point the camera is looking at, and “up vector” indicates to the camera which way
is up. “Field” indicates the field of view (width and height) of the display.
To modify the camera’s position, select Position in the Camera drop-down list and specify
the X, Y, and Z coordinates of the desired point. To modify the target location, select
Target in the Camera drop-down list and specify the coordinates of the desired point.
Select Up Vector to change the up direction. The up vector is the vector from (0,0,0) to
the specified (X,Y,Z) point. Finally, to change the field of view, select Field in the Camera
list and enter the X (horizontal) and Y (vertical) field distances.

i Click Apply after you change each camera parameter (Position, Target, Up
Vector, and Field).

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view plane

up vector
position
target

x field

y field

Figure 28.4.5: Camera Definition

28.4.3 Saving and Restoring Views

After you make changes to the view shown in your graphics window, you may want to
save the view so that you can return to it later. Several default views are predefined for
you, and can be easily restored. All saving and restoring functions are performed with
the Views panel (Figure 28.4.1).
Display −→Views...

i Note that settings for mirroring and periodic repeats are not saved in a
view.

Restoring the Default View

When experimenting with different view manipulation techniques, you may accidentally
“lose” your geometry in the display. You can easily return to the default (front) view by
clicking the Default button in the Views panel.

Returning to Previous Views

After manipulating the display and viewing it from different angles, you can return to
previous displays by clicking the Previous button in the Views panel.

Saving Views
Once you have created a new view that you want to save for future use, enter a name for
it in the Save Name field in the Views panel and click the Save button. Your new view
will be added to the list of Views, and you can restore it later as described below.

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If a view with the same name already exists, you will be asked in a Question dialog box
if it is OK to overwrite the existing view. If you overwrite one of the default views (top,
left, right, front, etc.), be sure to save it in a view file if you wish to use it in a later
session. (Although all views are saved to the case file, the default views are recomputed
automatically when a case file is read in. Any custom view with the same name as a
default view will be overwritten at that time.)
As mentioned above, all defined views will be saved in the case file when you write one.
If you plan to use your views with another case file, you can write a “view file” containing
just the views. You can read this view file into another solver session involving a different
case file and restore any of the defined views, as described below.
To save a view file, click the Write... button in the Views panel. In the resulting Write
Views panel (Figure 28.4.6), select the views you want to save in the Views to Write list
and click OK. You will then use the Select File dialog box to specify the file name and
save the view file.

Figure 28.4.6: The Write Views Panel

Reading View Files

If you have saved views to a view file (as described above), you can read them into your
current solver session by clicking on the Read... button in the Views panel, and indicating
the name of the view file in the resulting Select File dialog box. If a view that you read
has the same name as a view that already exists, you will be asked in a Question dialog
box if it is OK to overwrite (i.e., replace) the existing view.

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Deleting Views
If you decide that you no longer want to keep a particular view, you can delete it by
selecting it in the Views list and clicking on the Delete button. Use this option carefully,
so that you do not accidentally delete one of the predefined views.

28.4.4 Mirroring and Periodic Repeats

If you model the problem domain as a subset of the complete geometry using symmetry
or periodic boundaries, you can display results on the complete geometry by mirroring or
repeating the domain. For example, only one half of the annulus shown in Figure 28.4.7
was modeled, but the graphics are displayed on both halves. You can also define mirror
planes or periodic repeats just for graphical display, even if you did not model your
problem using symmetry or periodic boundaries.

Figure 28.4.7: Mirroring Across a Symmetry Boundary

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Display of symmetry and periodic repeats is controlled in the Views panel (Figure 28.4.8).
Display −→Views...

Figure 28.4.8: The Views Panel

For a symmetric domain, all symmetry boundaries are listed in the Mirror Planes list.
Select one or more of these boundaries as the plane(s) about which to mirror the display.
For a periodic domain, click the Define... button to open the Graphics Periodicity panel,
to access the periodicity parameters. Specify the number of times to repeat the modeled
portion by increasing the value of Number of Repeats. If, for example, you modeled a
90◦ sector of a duct and you wanted to display results on the entire duct, you would set
Number of Repeats to 4.
In some cases, there may be multiple zones with different periodicity in the domain. For
example, in turbomachinery problems with multiple blade rows using the mixing plane
model, the periodic angles are different for each blade row. One blade may contain 20
blades (18◦ periodic angle) and other may contain 15 blades (24◦ periodic angle). In such
cases select the required cell zone and specify the number of repeats for that particular
cell zone.
When you click Set in the Graphics Periodicity panel the graphics display will be immedi-
ately updated to show the requested periodic repeats.
Figures 28.4.9 and 28.4.10 shows the display for the sample geometry before and after
applying the periodic repeats respectively. In this case the value of Number of Repeats is
set to 6 for the 60◦ sector (outer part) and to a value of 4 is set for the 90◦ sector (inner
part) of the geometry.

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Y
Z X

Grid

Figure 28.4.9: Before Applying Periodicity

Y
Z X

Grid

Figure 28.4.10: After Applying Periodicity

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Periodic Repeats for Graphics

To define graphical periodicity for a non-periodic domain, follow these steps:

1. Click the Define... button under Periodic Repeats in the Views panel.

Figure 28.4.11: The Graphics Periodicity Panel

2. In the resulting Graphics Periodicity panel (Figure 28.4.11), select the Cell Zone for
which you want to specify the number of repeats.
Associated Surfaces list contains the surfaces associated with the selected cell zone.
This is only informative and you can not edit the selection of surfaces in this box.

3. Specify Rotational or Translational as the Periodic Type.

4. For translational periodicity, specify the Translation distance of the repeated domain
in the X, Y, and Z directions. For rotational periodicity, specify the axis about
which the periodicity is defined and the Angle by which the domain is rotated to
create the periodic repeat. For 3D problems, the axis of rotation is the vector
passing through the specified Axis Origin and parallel to the vector from (0,0,0) to
the (X,Y,Z) point specified under Axis Direction. For 2D problems, you will specify
only the Axis Origin; the axis of rotation is the z-direction vector passing through
the specified point.

5. Specify Number of Repeats for the selected cell zone.

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6. Click Set in the Graphics Periodicity panel.

7. Follow the same procedure for other cell zones.

8. Click Apply in the Views panel to visualize the modified display.

You can delete the definition of any periodicity you have defined for graphics by clicking
on the Reset button in the Graphics Periodicity panel.

Note: For the 3D domain with multiple periodic zones having different periodicity, FLU-
ENT can repeat only grid, contour and vector plots, and not the pathlines and par-
ticle tracks. Also if such domain contains, isosurfaces and clip-surfaces, that are
associated with a particular cell zone, they are repeated using the same periodicity
that is defined for that cell zone. However, if the surface is not associated with any
cell zone, you can not specify the periodicity for that surface.

Mirroring for Graphics

To define a mirror plane for a non-symmetric domain, follow the procedure below:

1. Click the Define Plane... button under Mirror Planes in the Views panel.

Figure 28.4.12: The Mirror Planes Panel

2. In the resulting Mirror Planes panel (Figure 28.4.12), set the coefficients of X, Y,
and Z and the Distance (of the plane from the origin) in the following equation for
the mirror plane:

Ax + By + Cz = distance (28.4-1)

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3. Click the Add button to add the defined plane to the Mirror Planes list. When
you are done creating mirror planes, click OK. The newly defined plane(s) will now
appear in the Mirror Planes list in the Views panel. To include the mirroring in the
display, select the plane(s) and click Apply, as described above.

If you want to delete a mirror plane that you have defined, select it in the Mirror Planes
list in the Mirror Planes panel and click the Delete button. When you click OK in this
panel, the deleted plane will be removed permanently from the Mirror Planes list in the
Views panel.

28.5 Composing a Scene

Once you have displayed some geometric objects (grids, surfaces, contours, vectors, etc.)
in your graphics window, you may want to move them around and change their char-
acteristics to increase the effectiveness of the scene displayed. You can use the Scene
Description panel (Figure 28.5.1) and the Display Properties panel (Figure 28.5.2) and
Transformations panel (Figure 28.5.4), which are opened from within it, to rotate, trans-
late, and scale each object individually, as well as change the color and visibility of each
object.
Display −→Scene...

Figure 28.5.1: The Scene Description Panel

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The Iso-Value panel (Figure 28.5.5), which is also opened from within the Scene Description
panel, allows you to change the isovalue of a selected isosurface. The Pathline Attributes
panel (Figure 28.5.6) lets you set some pathline attributes. The ability to make geometric
objects visible and invisible is especially useful when you are creating an animation (see
Section 28.6: Animating Graphics) because it allows you to add or delete objects from
the scene one at a time. The ability to change the color and position of an object
independently of the others in the scene is also useful for setting up animations, as is the
ability to change isosurface isovalues. You will find the features in the Scene Description
panel useful even when you are not generating animations because they allow you to
manage your graphics window efficiently. The procedure for overlaying graphics, which
uses the Scene Description panel, is described in Section 28.2.1: Overlay of Graphics.
(Note that you cannot use the Scene Description panel to control XY plot and histogram
displays.)

28.5.1 Selecting the Object(s) to be Manipulated

In order to manipulate the objects in the scene, you will begin by selecting the object or
objects of interest in the Names list in the Scene Description panel (Figure 28.5.1). The
Names list is a list of the geometric objects that currently exist in the scene (including
those that are presently invisible). If you select more than one object at a time, any
operation (transformation, color specification, etc.) will apply to all the selected objects.
You can also select objects by clicking on them in the graphics display using the mouse-
probe button, which is, by default, the right mouse button. (See Section 28.3: Controlling
the Mouse Button Functions for information about mouse button functions.) To deselect
a selected object, simply click on its name in the Names list.
When you select one or more objects (either in the Names list or in the display), the
Type field will report the type of the selected object(s). Possible types for a single object
include grid, surface, contour, vector, path, and text (i.e., annotation text). This
information is especially helpful when you need to distinguish two or more objects with
the same name. When more than one object is selected, the type displayed is Group.

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28.5.2 Changing an Object’s Display Properties

To enhance the scene in the graphics window, you can change the color, visibility, and
other display properties of each geometric object in the scene. You can specify different
colors for displaying the edges and faces of a grid object to show the underlying mesh
(edges) when the faces of the grid are filled and shaded. You can also make a selected
object temporarily invisible. If, for example, you are displaying the entire grid for a
complicated problem, you can make objects visible or invisible to display only certain
boundary zones of the grid without regenerating the grid display using the Grid Display
panel. You can also use the visibility controls to manipulate geometric objects for efficient
graphics display or for the creation of animations. These features, plus several others,
are available in the Display Properties panel (Figure 28.5.2).

Figure 28.5.2: The Display Properties Panel

To set the display properties described above, select one or more objects in the Names
list in the Scene Description panel and then click the Display... button to open the Display
Properties panel for that object or group of objects.

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Controlling Visibility
There are several ways for you to control the visibility of an object. All visibility options
are listed under the Visibility heading in the Display Properties panel.

• To make the selected object(s) invisible, turn off the Visible option. To “undo”
invisibility, simply turn the Visible option on again.

• To turn the effect of lighting for the selected object(s) on or off, use the Lighting
check button. You can choose to have lighting affect only certain objects instead
of all of them. Note that if Lighting is turned on for an object such as a contour
or vector plot, the colors in the plot will not be exactly the same as those in the
colormap at the left of the display.

• To toggle the filled display of faces for the selected grid or surface object(s), use
the Faces option. Turning Faces on here has the same effect as turning it on for the
entire grid in the Grid Display panel.

• To turn the display of outer edges on or off, use the Outer Faces option. This option
is useful for displaying both sides of a slit wall. By default, when you display a
slit wall, one side will “bleed” through to the other. When you turn off the Outer
Faces option, the display of a slit wall will show each side distinctly as you rotate
the display. This option can also be useful for displaying two-sided walls (i.e., walls
with fluid or solid cells on both sides).

• To turn the display of interior and exterior edges of the geometric object(s) on or
off, use the Edges option.

• To turn the display of the outline of the geometric object(s) on or off, use the
Perimeter Edges check button.

• To toggle the display of feature lines (described in Section 28.1.1: Adding Features
to an Outline Display), if any, for the selected object(s), use the Feature Edges
option.

• To toggle the display of the lines (if any) in the geometric object(s), use the Lines
check button. Pathlines, line contours, and vectors are “lines”.

• To toggle the display of nodes (if any) in the geometric object(s), use the Nodes
check button.

Once you have set the appropriate display parameters, click the Apply button to update
the graphics display.

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Controlling Object Color and Transparency

The Display Properties panel also lets you control an object’s color and how transparent
it is. All color and transparency options are listed under the Colors heading.

• To modify the color of faces, edges, or lines in the selected object(s), choose face-
color, edge-color, line-color, or node-color in the Color drop-down list. The Red,
Green, and Blue color scales will show the RGB components of the face, edge or
line color, which you can modify by moving the sliders on the color scales. When
you are satisfied with the color specification, click Apply to save it and update the
display. The ability to set the colors for faces and edges can be useful when you
wish to have a filled display for the grid or surface, but you also want to be able to
see the grid lines. You can achieve this effect by specifying different colors for the
faces and the edges.

• To set the relative transparency of an object, select face-color in the Color drop-
down list. Move the slider on the Transparency scale and click the Apply button to
update the graphics display. An object with a transparency of 0 is opaque, and an
object with a transparency of 100 is transparent. By specifying a high transparency
value for the walls of a pipe, for example, you will be able to see contours that you
have displayed on cross-sections inside the pipe. (This feature is available on all
platforms when the software z buffer is used for hidden surface removal, but if
your display hardware supports transparency, it will be more efficient to use the
hardware z buffer as the hidden surface method instead. You can select these
methods in the Display Options panel, as described in Section 28.2.7: Modifying the
Rendering Options.)

i If you save a hardcopy of a display with transparent surfaces, you should

not set the File Type in the Graphics Hardcopy panel to Vector.

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28.5.3 Transforming Geometric Objects in a Scene

When you are composing a scene in your graphics window, you might find it helpful
to move a particular object from its original position or to increase or decrease its size.
For example, if you have displayed contours or vectors on cross-sections of an internal
flow domain (such as a pipe), you might want to translate these cross-sections so that
they will appear outside of the pipe, where they can be seen and interpreted more easily.
Figure 28.5.3 shows such an example.

Figure 28.5.3: Velocity Vectors Translated Outside the Domain for Better
Viewing

You can also move an object by rotating it about the x, y, or z axis. If you want to
display one object more prominently than the others, you can scale its size. If your
geometry is rotating or has rotational symmetry, you can display the meridional view.
All of these capabilities are available in the Transformations panel (Figure 28.5.4).
To perform the transformations described above, select one or more objects in the Names
list in the Scene Description panel and then click the Transform... button to open the
Transformations panel for that object or group of objects.

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Figure 28.5.4: The Transformations Panel

Translating Objects
To translate the selected object(s), enter the translation distance in each direction in the
X, Y, and Z real number fields under Translate. (Note that you can check the domain
extents in the Scale Grid panel or the Iso-Surface panel.) Translations are not cumulative,
so you can easily return to a known state. To return to the original position, simply
enter 0 in all three real number fields.

Rotating Objects
To rotate the selected object(s), enter the number of degrees by which to rotate about
each axis in the X, Y, and Z integer number fields under Rotate By. (You can enter any
value between −360 and 360.) By default, the rotation origin will be (0,0,0). If you want
to spin an object about its own origin, or about some other point, specify the X, Y, and
Z coordinates of that point under Rotate About.
Rotations are not cumulative, so you can easily return to a known state. To return to
the original position, simply enter 0 in all three integer number fields under Rotate By.

Scaling Objects
To scale the selected object(s), enter the amount by which to scale in each direction in
the X, Y, and Z real number fields under Scale. To avoid distortion of the object’s shape,
be sure to specify the same value for all three entries. Scaling is not cumulative, so you
can easily return to a known state. To return the object to its original size, simply enter
1 in all three real number fields.

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Displaying the Meridional View

To display the meridional view of the selected object(s), turn on the Meridional option.
This option is available only for 3D models. It is applicable to cases with a defined axis
of rotation and is especially useful in turbomachinery applications.
The meridional transformation projects the selected entities onto a surface of constant
angular coordinate, θ. The resultant projection thus lies in an (r, ζ) plane where ζ is
in the direction of the rotation axis and r is normal to it. The value of θ used for the
projection is taken as that corresponding to the minimum (r, ζ) point of the entity.

28.5.4 Modifying Iso-Values

One convenient feature that you can use to generate effective animations is the ability to
generate surfaces with intermediate values between two isosurfaces with different isoval-
ues. If the surfaces have contours, vectors, or pathlines displayed on them, FLUENT will
generate and display contours, vectors, or pathlines on the intermediate surfaces that it
creates.

Steps for Modifying Iso-Values

You can modify an isosurface’s isovalue directly by selecting it in the Scene Description
panel’s Names list or indirectly by selecting an object displayed on the isosurface. Then
click the Iso-Value... button to open the Iso-Value panel (Figure 28.5.5) for the selected
object. Note that this button is available only if the geometric object selected in the
Names list is an isosurface or a object on an isosurface (contour on an isosurface, for
example); otherwise it is grayed out.

Figure 28.5.5: The Iso-Value Panel

In the Iso-Value panel, set the new isovalue in the Value field, and click Apply. Contours,
vectors, or pathlines that were displayed on the original isosurface will be displayed for
the new isovalue.

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An Example of Iso-Value Modification for an Animation

The ability to generate intermediate surfaces with data displayed on them is especially
convenient if you want to create an animation that shows data on successive slices of
the problem domain. For example, if you have solved the flow through a pipe junction
and you want to create an animation that moves through one of the pipes (along the y
axis) and displays pressure contours on several cross-sections, you can use the following
procedure:

1. Generate a surface of constant y coordinate (such as the y coordinate at the pipe

inlet) using the Iso-Surface panel.

2. Use the Contours panel to generate contours of static pressure on this isosurface
and manipulate the graphics display to the desired view.

3. Open the Animate panel and create key frame 1.

4. In the Scene Description panel, select the contour in the Names list and click the
Iso-Value... button to open the Iso-Value panel.

5. Change the value of the isovalue to the y coordinate at the other end of the pipe,
and click Apply. You will see the contours of static pressure at the new y coordinate.

6. Set key frame 10 in the Animate panel.

7. Play back the animation.

When you play back the animation, FLUENT will create the intermediate frames showing
contours of static pressure on the slices between the two ends of the pipe. Ten slices will
be shown in succession, all with contours displayed on them.
Using the Sweep Surface panel to animate the display of contours or vectors on a surface
that sweeps through the domain may be more convenient than the procedure described
above. See Section 28.1.5: Displaying Results on a Sweep Surface for details.

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28.5.5 Modifying Pathline Attributes

If you are creating animations of existing pathlines, you may want to change the number
of steps used in the computation of the pathlines. This allows you to animate pathlines
advancing through the domain. To do so, select the pathlines in the Names list in
the Scene Description panel and then click the Pathlines... button to open the Pathline
Attributes panel (Figure 28.5.6).

Figure 28.5.6: The Pathline Attributes Panel

In the Pathline Attributes panel, set the new maximum number of steps for pathline
computation (Max Steps). After you change the value and click Apply, the selected
pathline will be recomputed and redrawn.

An Example of Pathline Modification for an Animation

You can use the following procedure to animate pathlines from step 2 to step 101 (for
example):

1. Generate the plot of pathlines using the Pathlines panel.

2. In the Scene Description panel, select the pathlines in the Names list and click the
Pathlines... button to open the Pathline Attributes panel.
3. Change the value of the maximum number of steps to 2, and click Apply.
4. Open the Animate panel and create key frame 1.
5. In the Pathline Attributes panel, change the value of the maximum number of steps
to 101, and click Apply.
6. Set key frame 100 in the Animate panel.
7. Play back the animation.

When you play back the animation, FLUENT will animate the pathlines so that they
advance one step in each frame.

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28.5.6 Deleting an Object from the Scene

If you are composing a complex scene with overlays and find that you no longer want
to keep one of the objects, it is possible to delete it without affecting any of the other
objects in the scene. The ability to delete individual objects is especially useful if you
have overlays on and you generate an unwanted object (e.g., if you generate contours of
the wrong variable). You can simply delete the unwanted object and continue your scene
composition, instead of starting over from the beginning. Note that it is also possible to
make objects temporarily invisible, as described in Section 28.5.2: Controlling Visibility.
Object deletion is performed in the Scene Description panel (Figure 28.5.1). To delete
an object from the scene, select it in the Names list and then click the Delete Geometry
button. The selected name will disappear from the Names list, and the display will be
updated immediately.

28.5.7 Adding a Bounding Frame

FLUENT allows you to add a bounding frame around your displayed domain. You may
also include measure markings on the bounding frame to indicate the length, height,
and/or width of the domain, as shown in Figure 28.5.7.

1.1 1.2
3.2 -0.85

Y
X
Z

Figure 28.5.7: Graphics Display with Bounding Frame

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To add a bounding frame to your display, you will follow the procedure below:

1. Click the Frame Options... button in the Scene Description panel (Figure 28.5.1) to
open the Bounding Frame panel (Figure 28.5.8).

Figure 28.5.8: The Bounding Frame Panel

2. Under Frame Extents in the Bounding Frame panel, select Domain or Display to
indicate whether the bounding frame should encompass the domain extents or only
the portion of the domain that is shown in the display.

3. In the Axes portion of the Bounding Frame panel, specify the frame boundaries and
measurements to be shown in the display:
• Indicate the bounding plane(s) (e.g., the x-z and y-z planes shown in Fig-
ure 28.5.7) to be displayed by clicking on the white square on the appropriate
plane of the box shown under the Axes heading. (You can use any of the mouse
buttons.) The square will turn red to indicate that the associated bounding
plane will be displayed in the graphics window.
• Specify where you would like to see the measurement annotations by clicking
on the appropriate edge of the box. The edge will turn red to indicate that
the markings will be displayed along that edge of the displayed geometry.

i If you have trouble determining which square or edge corresponds to which

location in your domain, you can easily find out by displaying one or two
bounding planes to get your bearings. You can then select the appropriate
objects to obtain the final display.

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4. Click the Display button to update the display with the current settings. If you are
not satisfied with the frame, repeat steps 2 and/or 3 and click Display again.

5. Once you are satisfied with the bounding frame that is displayed, click OK to close
the Bounding Frame panel and save the frame settings for future displays.

6. If you wish to include the bounding frame in all subsequent displays, turn on the
Draw Frame option in the Scene Description panel and click Apply. If this option is
not enabled, the bounding box will appear only in the current display; it will not
be redisplayed when you generate a new display (unless you have overlays enabled).

The bounding planes and axis annotations will appear in the Names list of the Scene
Description panel, and you can manipulate them in the same way as any other geometric
object in the display. For example, you can use the Display Properties panel to change the
face color of a bounding plane or to make it transparent (see Section 28.5.2: Changing
an Object’s Display Properties).

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28.6 Animating Graphics

To generate animations that progress from one static view of the graphics display to the
next, you can set up “key frames” (individual static images) using the Animate panel
(Figure 28.6.1).
Display −→Scene Animation...

Figure 28.6.1: The Animate Panel

You can compose a scene in the graphics window and define it as a single key frame.
Then, modify the scene by moving or scaling objects, making some objects invisible or
visible, changing colors, changing the view, or making other changes, and define the new
scene as another key frame. FLUENT can then interpolate smoothly between the two
frames that you defined, creating a specified number of intermediate frames.
Another method of generating animations is to automatically generate surfaces with inter-
mediate values between two isosurfaces with different isovalues. See Section 28.5.4: Mod-
ifying Iso-Values for details. See Section 28.1.5: Displaying Results on a Sweep Surface
for information about displaying the grid, contours, or vectors on a surface that sweeps
through the domain. If you want to create a graphical animation of the solution over
time, you can use the Solution Animation panel to set up the graphical displays that you
want to use in the animation. You can choose the type of display you want to animate
by choosing Grid, Contours, Pathlines, Particle Tracks, Vectors, XY Plot, or Monitor. For
details on animating the solution, see Section 25.20.1: Animating the Solution. For more
information on generating, displaying, and saving pathlines and particle tracks, refer to
Section 28.1.4: Displaying Pathlines.

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28.6.1 Creating an Animation

You can define any number of key frames (up to 3000) to create your animation. By
assigning the appropriate numbers to the key frames, you provide the information FLU-
ENT needs to create the correct number of intermediate frames. For example, to create
a simple animation that begins with a front view of an object, moves to a side view, and
ends with a rear view of the object, you would follow the procedure outlined below:

1. Determine the number of frames that you want in the animation. For this example,
consider the animation to be 31 frames.

2. Determine the number of key frames that you need to specify. In this example, you
will specify three: one showing the front view, one showing the side view, and one
showing the rear view.

3. Determine the appropriate key frame numbers to assign to the 3 specified frames.
Here, the front view will be specified as key frame 1, the side view will be key
frame 16, and the rear view will be key frame 31.

4. Compose the scenes for each view to be used as a key frame. You can use the Scene
Description panel (see Section 28.5: Composing a Scene) and the Views panel (see
Section 28.4: Modifying the View) to modify the display, and any other panels or
commands to create contours, vectors, pathlines, etc. to be included in each scene.
After you complete each scene, create the appropriate key frame by setting the
Frame number and clicking on the Add button under Key Frames in the Animate
panel. (See Section 28.6.5: Notes on Animation for special considerations related
to key frame definition.)

i Be sure to change the Frame number before clicking on the Add button, or
you will overwrite the last key frame that you created.
You can check any of the key frames that you have created by selecting it in the
Keys list. The selected key frame will be displayed in the graphics window.

5. When you complete the animation, you can play it back as described in Sec-
tion 28.6.2: Playing an Animation and/or save it as described in Section 28.6.3: Sav-
ing an Animation.

Deleting Key Frames

If, during the creation of your animation, you want to remove one of the key frames that
you have defined, select the key frame in the Keys list and click the Delete button. If you
want to delete all key frames and start over again, click the Delete All button.

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28.6.2 Playing an Animation

Once you have defined the key frames (as described in Section 28.6.1: Creating an
Animation) or read in a previously created animation file (as described in
Section 28.6.4: Reading an Animation File), you can play back the animation and FLU-
ENT will interpolate between the frames that you specified to complete the animation.
To play the animation once through from start to finish, click the “play” button under
the Playback heading in the Animate panel. (The buttons function in a way similar to
those on a standard video cassette player. “Play” is the second button from the right—a
single triangle pointing to the right.) To play the animation backwards once, click the
“play reverse” button (the second from the left—a single triangle point to the left). As
the animation plays, the Frame scale shows the number of the frame that is currently
displayed, as well as its relative position in the entire animation. If, instead of playing
the complete animation, you want to jump to a particular key frame, move the Frame
slider bar to the desired frame number, and the frame corresponding to the new frame
number will be displayed in the graphics window.
Additional options for playing back animations are described below. Be sure to check
Section 28.6.5: Notes on Animation as well for important notes about playing back ani-
mations.

Playing Back an Excerpt

You may sometimes want to play only one portion of a long animation. To do this, you
can modify the Start Frame and the End Frame under the Playback heading in the Animate
panel. For example, if your animation contains 50 frames, but you want to play only
frames 20 to 35, you can set Start Frame to 20 and End Frame to 35. When you play the
animation, it will start at frame 20 and finish at frame 35.

“Fast-Forwarding” the Animation

You can “fast-forward” or “fast-reverse” the animation by skipping some of the frames
during playback. To fast-forward the animation, you will need to set the Increment and
click the fast-forward button (the last button on the right—two triangles pointing to the
right). If, for example, your Start Frame is 1, your End Frame is 15, and your Increment
is 2, when you click the fast-forward button, the animation will show frames 1, 3, 5, 7,
9, 11, 13 and 15. Clicking on the fast-reverse button (the first button on the left—two
triangles pointing to the left) will show frames 15, 13, 11,...1.

Continuous Animation
If you want the playback of the animation to repeat continuously, there are two options
available. To continuously play the animation from beginning to end (or from end to
beginning, if you use one of the reverse play buttons), select Auto Repeat in the Playback

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Mode drop-down list in the Animate panel. To play the animation back and forth con-
tinuously, reversing the playback direction each time, select Auto Reverse in the Playback
Mode drop-down list.
To turn off the continuous playback, select Play Once in the Playback Mode list. This is
the default setting.

Stopping the Animation

To stop the animation during playback, click the “stop” button (the square in the middle
of the playback control buttons). If your animation contains very complicated scenes,
there may be a slight delay before the animation stops.

Advancing the Animation Frame by Frame

To advance the animation manually frame by frame, use the third button from the right
(a vertical bar with a triangle pointing to the right). Each time you click this button,
the next frame will be displayed in the graphics window. To reverse the animation frame
by frame, use the third button from the left (a left-pointing triangle with a vertical
bar). Frame-by-frame playback allows you to freeze the animation at points that are of
particular interest.

28.6.3 Saving an Animation

Once you have created your animation, you can save it in any of the following formats:

• Animation file containing the key frame descriptions

• Hardcopy files, each containing a frame of the animation

• MPEG file containing each frame of the animation

• Video (see Section 28.7: Creating Videos)

Animation File
You can save the key frame definitions to a file that can be read back into FLUENT
(see Section 28.6.4: Reading an Animation File) when you want to replay the animation.
Since the animation file will contain only the key frame definitions, you must be sure that
you have a case and data file containing the necessary surfaces and other information
referred to by the key frame descriptions.
To write an animation file, select Key Frames in the Write/Record Format drop-down list
in the Animate panel, and click the Write... button. In the resulting Select File dialog
box, specify the name of the file and save it.

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Hardcopy File
You can also generate a hardcopy file for each frame in the animation. This feature allows
you to save your animation frames to hardcopy files used by an external animation
program such as ImageMagick. To save the animation as a hardcopy file, follow these
steps:

1. Select Hardcopy Frames in the Write/Record Format drop-down list in the Animate
panel.

2. If necessary, click the Hardcopy Options... button to open the Graphics Hardcopy
panel and set the appropriate parameters for saving the hardcopy files. (If you
are saving hardcopy files for use with ImageMagick, for example, you may want
to select the window dump format. See Section 4.14.1: Window Dumps (UNIX
Systems Only) for details.) Click Apply in the Graphics Hardcopy panel to save your
modified settings.

i Do not click the Save... button in the Graphics Hardcopy panel. You will
save the hardcopy files from the Animate panel in the next step.
3. In the Animate panel, click the Write... button. In the resulting Select File dialog
box, specify the filename and click OK to save the files. (See Section 4.14.1: Win-
dow Dumps (UNIX Systems Only) for information about specifying filenames that
increment automatically as additional hardcopies are saved.) FLUENT will replay
the animation, saving each frame to a separate file.

MPEG File
It is also possible to save all of the frames of the animation in an MPEG file, which can
be viewed using an MPEG decoder such as mpeg play. Saving the entire animation to
an MPEG file will require less disk space than storing the individual window dump files
(using the hardcopy method), but the MPEG file will yield lower-quality images. To save
the animation to an MPEG file, follow these steps:

1. Select MPEG in the Write/Record Format drop-down list in the Animate panel.

2. In the Animate panel, click the Write... button. In the resulting Select File dialog
box, specify the filename and click OK to save the files.
FLUENT will replay the animation and save each frame to a separate scratch file,
and then it will combine all the files into a single MPEG file.

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28.6.4 Reading an Animation File

If you have saved the key frames defining an animation to an animation file (as described
in Section 28.6.3: Saving an Animation), you can read that file back in at a later time
(or in different session) and play the animation. Before reading in an animation file, be
sure that the current case and data contain the surfaces and any other information that
the key frame description refers to.
To read an animation file, click the Read... button in the Animate panel. In the resulting
Select File dialog box, specify the name of the file to be read.

28.6.5 Notes on Animation

When you are creating and playing back animations, please note the following:

• For smoother animations, turn on the Double Buffering option in the Display Options
panel (see Section 28.2.7: Modifying the Rendering Options). This will reduce
screen flicker during graphics updates.

• When you are defining key frames, you must create all geometric objects that will
be used in the animation before you create any key frames. You cannot create a
key frame using one set of geometric objects and then generate a new geometry
(such as a vector plot) and include that in another key frame. Create all geometric
objects first, and then use the Display Properties panel to control the visibility of
the objects in each key frame (see Section 28.5.2: Controlling Visibility).

• A single animation sequence can contain up to 3000 key frames.

• When you play back an animation, the colormap used will be the one that is
currently active, not the one that was active during “recording.”

28.7 Creating Videos

Tools are available for creating videos from FLUENT. This section is a guide to video
creation using the new video capabilities. It assumes that you have a ready-to-use video
system, and that you are familiar with this system, including the special video hardware
and software installed on your computer. The main use for this feature is to record an an-
imation that you have created using the Animate panel (as described in Section 28.6: An-
imating Graphics). This section will describe issues involved in recording animations to
video, the kind of video equipment you will need, and the procedures for creating a video
using FLUENT.

i Video creation is not currently available in Windows versions of FLUENT.

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28.7.1 Recording Animations To Video

Recording an animation involves copying the computer-generated images to videotape so
that you can view the animation with a VCR, or another type of tape player. This task
is not an easy one, as there are several issues that should be addressed in order to create
an acceptable video. A couple of these issues are described in the following sections.

Computer Image vs. Video Image

The computer monitor uses a different video signal than the video tape recorder (VTR).
Most computers use an RGB-component, non-interlaced signal with high resolution and
a high refresh rate. A VTR typically uses a standard broadcast video signal (such as
NTSC or PAL), which has an interlaced, composite signal with lower resolution and
a lower refresh rate. In order to send the computer image to the VTR for recording,
the computer has to produce a video signal in the proper format. This requires extra
hardware, which, in many cases, converts RGB component video to standard broadcast
video, resulting in a lower quality image. A solution to this problem is to make sure that
the image you are recording does not have small text, or too much small detail that will
be hard to see on video. Sometimes it is best to zoom in on an area of interest in a large
image and animate just that portion.
Another problem is that RGB-component video has a larger color space (or color gamut)
than standard broadcast video. This means that some colors may get “clipped” when an
image is converted to broadcast video, resulting in washed-out colors, or color bleeding.
The solution is to try to make sure that the colors fall within the color space of the
video format, and are not oversaturated. Some picture controls that can help you do this
are available in FLUENT. These controls will be discussed in Section 28.7.3: Check the
Picture Quality.

Real-Time vs. Frame-By-Frame

If the images in the animation can be rendered fast enough on the computer screen, it
may be possible to record the animation in real-time. This is as simple as placing the
video tape recorder (VTR) in record mode, and playing the animation on the computer
screen. This also requires scan-converting hardware that will convert the scan lines of
the computer screen to a video signal sent to the VTR.
In many cases, however, the animation cannot be played back on the computer screen
in real-time. To create a video that plays the animation at a desirable speed, the ani-
mation must be recorded frame-by-frame. This involves sending one frame to the VTR,
instructing it to record the frame at a specific point on the tape, then backing up the
VTR to repeat the procedure with the next frame. This process takes quite a bit longer
than real-time recording, but the result can be a much smoother video animation.

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28.7.2 Equipment Required

In general, recording an animation to video requires a system with the following hardware
components:

Computer with video hardware to produce the video signal.

Editing VTR (video tape recorder) that supports frame-accurate recording.

VTR Controller which enables computer software to control the recording process.

Two VTR controller models are supported by FLUENT: the V-LAN controller developed
by Videomedia, Inc., and the MiniVAS/MiniVAS-2 controller developed by the V.A.S.
Group. FLUENT assumes that your recording system is set up as shown in Figure 28.7.1
for a system with a V-LAN controller or as shown in Figure 28.7.2 for a system with a
MiniVAS controller.

RS-232 V-LAN Editing VTR

Computer
Controller

Video
Composite Video

Figure 28.7.1: Recording System with V-LAN Controller

RS-232 MiniVAS Editing VTR

Computer
Controller

Video
Composite Video

Figure 28.7.2: Recording System with MiniVAS/MiniVAS-2 Controller

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28.7.3 Recording an Animation with FLUENT

The steps for recording an animation using FLUENT are as follows:

1. Create an animation.

2. Open a connection to the VTR controller.

3. Set up your recording session.

4. Check the picture quality.

5. Make sure your tape is formatted (preblacked).

6. Start the recording session.

Each step is described in detail in the following sections.

Create an Animation
When recording animations to video, you must first create your animation. It’s also a
good idea to play it back a couple times to make sure you are satisfied with it, and to save
the animation key frame definitions to a file for later use (see Section 28.6.1: Creating an
Animation).
When you are ready to record the animation, you can select Video in the Write/Record
Format drop-down list found in the Animate panel. When you do so, the name of the
Write... button will change to Record..., and you can click Record... to display the Video
Control panel (Figure 28.7.3) used for video creation. This panel can also be displayed
by selecting the Video Control... menu item in the Display pull-down menu.

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Figure 28.7.3: The Video Control Panel

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Open a Connection to the VTR Controller

The steps for connecting to your VTR controller are as follows:

1. Select the protocol used by your VTR controller using the Protocol drop-down list.

2. Check the settings for your VTR controller by clicking on the Settings... button.
For V-LAN, this will display the V-LAN Settings panel, and for MiniVAS, it will
display the MiniVAS Settings panel.

3. Select the RS-232 serial port used to connect the VTR controller to your computer.
Usually, the serial port is identified by a file name such as /dev/ttyd1 for serial
port 1, and /dev/ttyd2 for serial port 2. If this is the case on your system, you can
simply set the value of Port #; otherwise, you can type a new file name in the Serial
Port text entry. Make sure that you have the proper UNIX read/write permissions
for the file.

4. Open a connection to the VTR controller by clicking the Open button. If successful,
a line will be printed out in the console window that reports the VTR controller
protocol version and the VTR device ID.

Set Up Your Recording Session

Once you have established a connection to the VTR controller, you can set up your
recording session. There are three types of recording sessions, as described below:

Preblack is the process of formatting a tape by laying down a time code onto the tape.
A tape must be formatted before any frame-accurate editing, including frame-by-
frame animation, can be performed. During this process, one usually records a
black video signal onto the tape as well, thus the name “preblack”. When you
select this option, the current graphics window will be cleared to black. You can
use the window to send your black video signal to the VTR.

i Remember that when you preblack a previously formatted tape, a new time
code will be written and any previously recorded video will be destroyed.
Live Action allows you to record a live FLUENT session which can be used for demon-
stration. This option requires your computer’s video hardware to have a scan
converter that will send the computer display image to your VTR system.

Animation will play an animation that you have created, and record it onto your VTR
system.

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The Options... button in the Video Control panel is used to display the Animation Recording
Options panel (Figure 28.7.4):

Figure 28.7.4: The Animation Recording Options Panel

There are three parts to setting up your animation recording session:

1. Select the recording source.

2. Choose real-time or frame-by-frame recording.

3. Set the video frame hold counts.

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Select the Recording Source

There are two possible video sources that can be used for recording an animation: Screen
and Hardcopy. The choice of video source depends on what your video hardware/software
provides. Here is a description of each:

Screen can be used if your computer’s video hardware can send all or a portion of the
computer screen as a video signal to the VTR using a scan converter and associated
software. With this option, you are responsible for setting up the scan converter
and sending the video signal to the VTR.

Hardcopy instructs FLUENT to create a hardcopy of each frame of animation and send
the hardcopy file to the computer’s video hardware using a system command. This
option assumes that your computer’s video system includes a frame buffer that can
store an image and send it as a video signal to the video recording system.

When using the hardcopy option, a shell script will be called that will send the hardcopy
file to the video frame buffer. The default setting is videocmd, which is a shell script
that is included in your FLUENT distribution. It is located in path/Fluent.Inc/bin,
where path is the folder in which you have placed the release folder, Fluent.Inc. This
shell script will execute your system’s command to send an image file to the video frame
buffer. The script videocmd is set up to call the SGI system command memtovid. If
you have a different system, you must copy the shell script videocmd to a new file and
modify it to perform the proper task on your system (see the comments in videocmd for
details). You can specify the name of your shell script using the Video Command text
entry in the Animation Recording Options panel.
In order to send a hardcopy file of the proper format to the video frame buffer, you must
set up the hardcopy format using the Graphics Hardcopy panel, which can be displayed
by clicking the Hardcopy Options... button in the Animation Recording Options panel. If
you choose to perform a window dump to create the hardcopy file, the default window
dump command used will also be videocmd. You can change this setting to use your
own command. After setting the hardcopy options, click Apply instead of Save... in the
Graphics Hardcopy panel to apply the change.
Once you have set up the hardcopy format and system command, you can test the
configuration by sending the picture in the current graphics window to the video frame
buffer. This is done by clicking on Preview in the Animation Recording Options panel.
(Note that this is another way to send a black video signal to your VTR when you are
preblacking a tape).

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Choose Real-Time or Frame-By-Frame Recording

There are two methods for recording an animation: real-time and frame-by-frame. These
methods are described below:

Real-Time can be used if the animation playback speed is fast enough to provide a
reasonably smooth animation in real-time. This is only available if the selected
record source is Screen. In this mode, FLUENT will simply turn VTR recording on,
play the animation, then stop the recording.

Frame-By-Frame is used to produce a higher-quality video animation by recording one

frame at a time. For each animation frame, this method will 1) play the frame on
the screen (and generate the hardcopy file, if needed), 2) preroll the VTR, and 3)
record the frame. If the animation has 50 frames, this procedure is repeated 50
times, i.e., 50 record passes are made. This is the recommended method, because
the real-time playback of the animation will usually be too slow and choppy.

When recording in frame-by-frame mode, there is an optional setting called Frames/Pass,

which can be used to try and speed up the frame-by-frame recording process. It specifies
the number of animation frames recorded to tape per record pass. If the animation is
long enough (200 frames or more), you can try setting this value to 2 or higher. For
example, if you set this value to 2 for a 202-frame animation, it will record animation
frame 1 during the first pass, frames 2 and 102 during the second pass, frames 3 and 103
during the third pass, and so on. This is possible only if the animation frames can be
rendered in time to be inserted onto the tape during a record pass, so use this setting
with caution.

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Set the Video Frame Hold Counts

The video standard NTSC has a frame rate of 30 frames/sec (and the PAL standard
has a rate of 25 frames/sec). At the NTSC rate, a 150-frame animation will take only
5 seconds to play. To stretch out the animation, you can record the same animation
frame over 2 or more video frames. This is done by setting video frame hold counts for
the beginning, middle, and end of the animation, using the Animation Recording Options
panel controls described below:

Begin Hold specifies the number of video frames to hold the first animation frame.
It helps to hold the first frame for about 5 seconds (150 video frames for NTSC,
or 125 for PAL) so that the viewer can get accustomed to the picture before the
animation begins.

Frame Hold specifies the number of video frames to hold each animation frame, other
than the first and last. To slow down your recorded animation, try setting this
value to 2 or 3.

End Hold specifies the number of video frames to hold the last animation frame. You
may want to hold the last animation frame for about 5 seconds to provide closure.

Check the Picture Quality

As described in Section 28.7.1: Recording Animations To Video, there are several sacri-
fices made when sending a computer image to video, including loss of color and resolution.
Some steps can be taken to minimize the problem using the Picture Options panel (Fig-
ure 28.7.5). Display this panel by clicking the Picture... button in the Video Control
panel.

Color Use these controls to ensure that all colors fall into the proper color space for
your video device. Also, for best results, set the saturation and brightness levels to
80% or less.

Window Size If you have a scan converter that converts a portion of the computer
screen, you can set the graphics window to a particular pixel size to match the scan
converter’s window size. You can also create a margin around the picture in the
window to keep unwanted parts of the screen (such as the window border) out of
the video image.

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Figure 28.7.5: The Picture Options Panel

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Make Sure Your Tape is Formatted (Preblacked)

Before you can start the recording session, you need to make sure the tape has been
preblacked with a time code or frame code. When you start with a brand new tape, you
need to take time out and preblack the whole tape first. This can be done using the
following steps:

1. Rewind the tape to the beginning.

2. Select a preblack recording session by clicking on the Preblack radio button in the
Video Control panel.

3. Send the VTR a black video signal using a scan converter or a hardcopy by clicking
on the Preview button in the Animation Recording Options panel.

4. Click the Preblack button in the VTR Controls section of the Video Control panel to
start the preblacking.

Start the Recording Session

Make sure you have the proper recording session selected. If you are recording an ani-
mation, the Animation radio button should be selected.
To start recording onto tape, you must first go to the “in point” on tape where you want
the recording to begin. With a blank tape, it is important to start at about 20 seconds
into the tape, so the VTR has a chance to preroll up to the in point. You can use the
VTR button controls to position the tape, but an easier way to go to a certain point is
to type the time code or frame code in the Time or Frame counter and press the <Enter>
key. For example, a time code of 00:02:36:07 is 2 minutes, 36 seconds, and 7 frames. In
order to go to this position on the tape, you can enter the time code as 2:36:07, leaving
out the leading zeros, or you can simply enter 23607, leaving out the leading zeros and
colons.
Once your tape is at the start position for your recording session, click the Record button
to start recording.

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28.8 Histogram and XY Plots

In addition to the many graphics tools already discussed, FLUENT also provides tools
that allow you to generate XY plots and histograms, file, and residual data. You can
modify the colors, titles, legend, and axis and curve attributes to customize your plots.
The following sections describe the XY and histogram plotting features in FLUENT.

• Section 28.8.1: Plot Types

• Section 28.8.2: XY Plots of Solution Data

• Section 28.8.3: XY Plots of File Data

• Section 28.8.4: XY Plots of Circumferential Averages

• Section 28.8.5: XY Plot File Format

• Section 28.8.6: Residual Plots

• Section 28.8.7: Histograms

• Section 28.8.8: Modifying Axis Attributes

• Section 28.8.9: Modifying Curve Attributes

28.8.1 Plot Types

Data can be plotted in XY (abscissa/ordinate) form or histogram form. Each form is
described below.

XY Plots
An XY (abscissa/ordinate) plot is a line and/or symbol chart of data. Virtually any
defined variable or function is accessible for this type of plot. Furthermore, you may read
in an externally-generated data file in order to compare your results with experimental
data. You can also use the XY-plot facility to plot out the residual histories of variables,
or the time histories if you have a transient problem.
FLUENT provides tools for controlling many aspects of the XY plot, including background
color, legend, and axis and curve attributes. Figure 28.8.1 shows a sample XY plot.

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Zones/Surfaces

symmetry-3 7.00e-02

wall-4
6.00e-02

5.00e-02

4.00e-02

Static 3.00e-02
Pressure
(pascal) 2.00e-02

1.00e-02

-2.24e-10

-1.00e-02
-0.08 -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 -1.79e-09 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08

Position (m)

Static Pressure

Figure 28.8.1: Sample XY Plot

To differentiate the data being displayed, you can customize the pattern, color and weight
of the data lines and the shape, color, and size of the data markers.
When an XY plot is displayed in the graphics window, you can use any of the mouse
buttons to add text annotations to the plot. (See Section 28.2.4: Adding Text Using the
mouse-annotate Function for more information about the mouse-annotate function.) In
addition, you can use any of the mouse buttons to move and resize the legend box.

Histograms
A histogram plot is a bar chart of data. It is a representation of a frequency of distribution
by means of rectangles of widths representing class intervals and with areas proportional
to the corresponding frequencies. When a histogram plot is displayed in the graphics
window, you can use any of the mouse buttons to add text annotations to the plot. (See
Section 28.2.4: Adding Text Using the mouse-annotate Function for more information
about the mouse-annotate function.) Figure 28.8.2 shows a sample histogram.

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25

22.5

20

17.5

15

12.5

10

7.5

2.5

0
0.94 0.96 0.98 1 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.08

Density (kg/m3)

Histogram of Density

Figure 28.8.2: Sample Histogram

See Section 29.7: Histogram Reports for information about printing histogram reports.
For more information on histogram plots, see Section 28.8.7: Histograms.

28.8.2 XY Plots of Solution Data

You can produce a very sophisticated XY plot by using data from several zones, surfaces,
or files and modifying the axis and curve attributes. Using the capability for loading
external data files, you can create plots that compare your FLUENT results with data
from other sources. To get further information about the solution, you can investigate the
frequency of distribution of the data using a histogram (see Section 28.8.7: Histograms).

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Steps for Generating Solution XY Plots

You can create an XY plot of solution data using the Solution XY Plot panel (Fig-
ure 28.8.3).
Plot −→XY Plot...

Figure 28.8.3: The Solution XY Plot Panel

The basic steps for generating a solution XY plot are as follows:

1. Specify the variables(s) you are plotting:

• To plot a variable on the y axis as a function of position on the x axis, turn on
the Position on X Axis option and choose the variable to be plotted on the y axis
in the Y Axis Function drop-down list. Select a category from the upper list
and then choose the desired quantity in the lower list. (See Chapter 30: Field
Function Definitions for an explanation of the variables in the list.)
• To plot a variable on the x axis as a function of position on the y axis, turn
on the Position on Y Axis option and choose the variable to be plotted on the
x axis in the X Axis Function drop-down list.
• To plot one variable as a function of another, turn off both the Position on X
Axis and Position on Y Axis options and select the variables to be plotted in
the X Axis Function and Y Axis Function drop-down lists.

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2. Specify the plot direction:

• To plot a variable as a function of position along a specified direction vector,
select Direction Vector in the X Axis Function or Y Axis Function drop-down
list (whichever is the position axis), and specify the components of the direc-
tion vector for plotting under Plot Direction. The position axis of the plot is
indicated by the selection of Position on X Axis or Position on Y Axis. The po-
sitions plotted will have coordinate values that correspond to the dot product
of the data coordinate vector with the plot direction vector. For example, if
you are plotting a variable at the pressure outlet of the geometry shown in
Figure 28.8.4, you would specify the Plot Direction vector (1,0,0) since you
are interested in how the variable changes as a function of x. Figure 28.8.5
shows the resulting XY plot. (If you specified (0,1,0) as the plot direction,
all variable values would be plotted at the same position (see Figure 28.8.6),
since the y value is the same at every point on the pressure outlet.)
• It is also possible to plot a variable as a function of position along the length of
a specified curvilinear surface. The curvilinear surface must be piecewise linear
and it cannot contain more than one closed curve, such as a complete circle.
To plot a variable in this way, select Curve Length in the X Axis Function or
Y Axis Function drop-down list (whichever is the position axis). Then specify
the plot direction along the surface: to plot the variable along the direction
of increasing curve length, select Default under Plot Direction; to plot the
variable in the direction of decreasing surface length, select Reverse. To check
the direction in which the variable will be plotted along a surface, select the
surface in the Surfaces list and click Show under Plot Direction. FLUENT will
display the selected surface in the graphics window, marking the start of the
surface with a blue dot and the end of the surface with a red dot. FLUENT will
also display arrows on the surface showing the direction in which the variable
will be plotted.

3. Choose the surface(s) on which to plot data in the Surfaces list. Note that if you
are plotting a variable as a function of position along the length of a curvilinear
surface, you can select only one surface in the Surfaces list.

4. Set any of the options described below, or modify the attributes of the axes or
curves as described in Sections 28.8.8 and 28.8.9.

5. Click the Plot button to generate the XY plot in the active graphics window.

Note that you can use any of the mouse buttons to annotate the XY plot (see Sec-
tion 28.2.4: Adding Text to the Graphics Window) or move the plot legend from its
default position in the upper left corner of the graphics window.

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Figure 28.8.4: Geometry Used for XY Plot

Figure 28.8.5: Data Plotted at Outlet Using a Plot Direction of (1,0,0)

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Figure 28.8.6: Data Plotted at Outlet Using a Plot Direction of (0,1,0)

Options for Solution XY Plots

The options mentioned in the procedure above include the following. You can include
data from an external file in the solution XY plot to compare your results with exper-
imental data. You can also choose node or cell values to be plotted, and save the plot
data to a file.

Including External Data in the Solution XY Plot

To add external data to your XY plot for comparison with your results, you must first
ensure that any external data files are in the format described in Section 28.8.5: XY Plot
File Format. You can then load the file(s) by clicking on the Load File... button and spec-
ifying the file(s) to be read in the resulting Select File dialog box (see Section 2.1.2: Select
File Dialog Box (UNIX or Linux)). Once a file has been loaded, its title will appear in
the File Data list. You can choose the data file(s) to be included in your plot from the
titles in this list.
To remove a file from the File Data list, select it and then click the Free Data button.

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Choosing Node or Cell Values

In FLUENT you can choose to display the computed cell-center values or values that have
been interpolated to the nodes. By default, the Node Values option is turned on, and the
interpolated values are displayed. If you prefer to display the cell values, turn the Node
Values option off. Node-averaged data curves may be somewhat smoother than curves
for cell values.
If you are displaying the XY plot to show the effect of a porous medium or fan, to depict
a shock wave, or to show any other discontinuities or jumps in the plotted variable, you
should use cell values; if you use node values in such cases, the discontinuity will be
smeared by the node averaging for graphics and will not be shown clearly in the plot.

Saving the Plot Data to a File

Once you have generated an XY plot, you may want to save the plot data to a file. You
can read this file into FLUENT at a later time and plot it alone using the File XY Plot
panel, as described in Section 28.8.3: XY Plots of File Data, or add it to a plot of solution
data, as described above.
To save the plot data to a file, turn on the Write to File option in the Solution XY Plot
panel. The Plot button will change to the Write... button. Clicking on the Write... button
will invoke the Select File dialog box, in which you can specify a name and save a file
containing the plot data. The format of this file is described in Section 28.8.5: XY Plot
File Format.
To sort the saved plot data in order of ascending x axis value, turn on the Order Points
option in the Solution XY Plot panel before you click the Write... button. This option is
available only when the Write to File option is turned on.

28.8.3 XY Plots of File Data

In addition to plots of FLUENT data, you can also plot the data contained in external
files. The File XY Plot panel allows you to display data read from external files in an
abscissa/ordinate plot form. The format of the plot file is described in Section 28.8.5: XY
Plot File Format.

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Steps for Generating XY Plots of Data in External Files

You can create an XY plot of data contained in one or more external files using the File
XY Plot panel (Figure 28.8.7).
Plot −→File...

Figure 28.8.7: The File XY Plot Panel

The steps for generating a file XY plot are as follows:

1. Load each external data file (with the format described in Section 28.8.5: XY Plot
File Format) by entering its name in the text field beneath the Files list and clicking
on the Add... button (or pressing <Enter>). If you click Add... without specifying
a name under Files (or if you specify an incorrect or duplicate name), a Select File
dialog box will appear and you can specify one or more files there. When a file is
loaded, its name will appear in the Files list and its title will appear in the Legend
Entries list. Data in all loaded files will be plotted, so if you decide not to include
one of the loaded files in the plot you must select it and click the Delete button to
remove it.
2. Set any of the options described below, or modify the attributes of the axes or
curves as described in Sections 28.8.8 and 28.8.9.
3. Click the Plot button to generate an XY plot of the data associated with all loaded
files.

Options for File XY Plots

The options mentioned in the procedure above include the following. You can change
the plot title, legend title, or legend entry.

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Changing the Plot Title

The plot title will appear in the caption box at the bottom of the graphics window. You
can modify the plot title by changing the entry in the Plot Title text box in the File XY Plot
panel (or by editing the caption box manually, as described in Section 28.2.3: Changing
the Legend Display).

Changing the Legend Entry

When you plot data from a single file, the y axis of the plot will be labeled by the “legend
entry.” To modify this label, click on the text in the Legend Entries list, edit the text that
appears in the text field below the list, and then click the Change Legend Entry button
(or hit <Enter>). When you next plot the data, the new legend entry will appear in the
plot.

Changing the Legend Title

When you plot data from more than one file, a legend will appear in the upper left corner
of the graphics window. By default, the legend will have no title. If you want to add a
title, enter it in the Legend Title text field. The title will appear above the legend the
next time you plot the data.
Note that you can use any of the mouse buttons to annotate the plot (see
Section 28.2.4: Adding Text to the Graphics Window) or move the legend from its default
position.

28.8.4 XY Plots of Circumferential Averages

You can also generate a plot of circumferential averages in FLUENT. This allows you to
find the average value of a quantity at several different radial or axial positions in your
model. FLUENT computes the average of the quantity over a specified circumferential
area, and then plots the average against the radial or axial coordinate.

Steps for Generating an XY Plot of Circumferential Averages

You can generate an XY plot of circumferential averages in the radial direction using the
circum-avg-radial text command:
plot −→circum-avg-radial
or you can use the circum-avg-axial text command to generate an average in the axial
direction:
plot −→circum-avg-axial

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The steps for generating an XY plot of circumferential averages are as follows:

1. Specify the variable to be averaged by typing its name when FLUENT prompts you
for averages of. You can press <Enter> to see a list of available variables.

2. Choose the surface on which to plot data by typing its name when FLUENT prompts
you for on surface.

i Use the Grid Display panel to see a list of surfaces on which you can plot
data. (Pressing <Enter> will not show a list of available surfaces.)

3. Specify the number of bands to be created. (The default number of bands is 5.)

FLUENT will create circumferential bands by isoclipping the specified surface into equal
bands of radial or axial coordinate. An example of the iso-clips created is shown in
Figure 28.8.8. (The radial or axial coordinate is derived from the rotation axis of the
Reference Zone specified in the Reference Values panel.)

iso-clips

X
Z Y

Iso-Clips for Circumferential Average

Figure 28.8.8: Iso-Clips Created For Circumferential Averaging

FLUENT then computes the average of the variable for each band using the area-weighted
average described in Section 29.5.1: Computing Surface Integrals. Finally, it plots the
average of the variable as a function of radial or axial coordinate. Figure 28.8.9 shows
an example of an XY plot of circumferential averages using radial coordinates.

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1.02e+05

1.02e+05

1.02e+05

1.01e+05

1.00e+05

Total 1.00e+05
Pressure
9.95e+04

9.90e+04

9.85e+04

9.80e+04

9.75e+04
0.17 0.18 0.19 0.2 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25 0.26

Radius
Y
X
Z

Circumferential Averages

Figure 28.8.9: XY Plot of Circumferential Averages

When the circumferential average plot is generated, FLUENT also creates a new surface
called radial-bands or axial-bands, which contains the iso-clips described above (see
Figure 28.8.8). You can use this surface to generate other XY plots. For more information
on the creation and manipulation of surfaces, see Chapter 27: Creating Surfaces for
Displaying and Reporting Data.

Customizing the Appearance of the Plot

If you want to customize the appearance of the axes or curves in a circumferential average
plot, you can save the plot data to a file (using the plot-to-file text command, as
described below), read the file into FLUENT and plot it again (using the File XY Plot
panel, as described in Section 28.8.3: XY Plots of File Data), and then use the Axes and
Curves panels (as described in Sections 28.8.8 and 28.8.9) to modify the appearance of
the plot.
To save the plot data to a file, first use the plot-to-file text command to specify the
name of the file.
plot −→ file-set −→plot-to-file
Then generate the circumferential average XY plot as described above. FLUENT will
display the plot in the graphics window, and also save the plot data to the specified file.

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28.8.5 XY Plot File Format

The XY file format read or written by FLUENT includes the following information:

• The title of the plot

• The label for the abscissa and the ordinate

• Cortex variables and pairs of abscissa/ordinate data for each curve in the plot

The following sample file illustrates the XY file format:

(title "Velocity Magnitude")

(labels "Position" "Velocity Magnitude")

((xy/key/label "pressure-inlet-8")
(xy/key/visible? #t)
(xy/line/pattern "--")
0.0000 230.097
0.0625 160.551
0.1250 149.205
...
0.5000 183.007
)

Similar to the case file format, parentheses bound the various pieces of information in
the formatted, ASCII file. The title (title " ") and labels (labels " ") must be first
in the file, then each curve has information in the form ((cxvar value) x y x y x y
...), where there may be zero or more Cortex variables defined for each curve.
You do not have to include Cortex variables to import your XY data. For example,
you may wish to import experimental data to compare with the FLUENT solution. The
following example would use the default Cortex variables in the code to define the data.
After you import the file into FLUENT, you could then use the Axes panel and the Curves
panel to customize the XY plot, as described in Sections 28.8.8 and 28.8.9.

(title "Experiment, Run 11")

(labels "X, m" "Cp")
( 0 1.5
1.5 1.3
3.2 1.5
5.1 1.2
)

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28.8.6 Residual Plots

Residual history can be displayed using an XY plot. The abscissa of the plot corresponds
to the number of iterations and the ordinate corresponds to the log-scaled residual values.
To plot the current residual history, click the Plot button in the Residual Monitors panel.
Plot −→Residuals...
For additional information about using the Residual Monitors panel to plot residuals, see
Section 25.18.1: Printing and Plotting Residuals.

28.8.7 Histograms
Histograms can be displayed in a graphics window using a bar chart (or printed in the
console window, as described in Section 29.7: Histogram Reports). The abscissa of the
chart is the desired solution quantity and the ordinate is the percentage of the total
number of cells.

Steps for Generating Histogram Plots

You can create a histogram plot of solution data using the Histogram panel (Figure 28.8.10).

Plot −→Histogram...

Figure 28.8.10: The Histogram Panel

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The steps for generating a histogram plot are as follows:

1. Choose the scalar quantity to be plotted in the Histogram Of drop-down list. Select
a category in the upper list and then select the desired quantity in the lower list.
(See Chapter 30: Field Function Definitions for an explanation of the variables in
the list.)

2. Set the number of data intervals that will be plotted in the histogram in the Divisions
field. By default there will be 10 intervals (“bars”) in the histogram plot. If
you want to resolve the histogram plot to finer intervals, increase the number of
Divisions. You may want to click the Compute button to update the Min and Max
fields when you are trying to decide how many divisions to plot.

3. Select the face or cell zone under Zones for which you want results plotted or
printed. If all zones are selected, then the entire domain will be plotted. You can
also plot histograms based on the selected Zone Types.

4. Set the option described below, if desired, or modify the attributes of the axes or
curves as described in Section 28.8.8: Modifying Axis Attributes and Section 28.8.9: Mod-
ifying Curve Attributes.

5. Click the Plot button to generate the histogram plot in the active graphics window.

6. Click the Print button to print out your histogram results on individual zones, or
the entire domain. Similarly, you can click the Compute button to calculate your
histogram results on individual zones, or the entire domain.

Options for Histogram Plots

Other than the axis and curve attribute controls mentioned in the procedure above, the
only option for histogram plotting is the ability to specify a subrange of values to be
plotted.

Specifying the Range of Values Plotted

By default, the range of values included in the histogram plot is automatically set to the
range of values in the entire domain for the selected variable. If you want to focus in on
a smaller range of values, you can restrict the range to be displayed.
To manually set the range of values, turn off the Auto Range option in the Histogram
panel. The Min and Max fields will become editable, and you can enter the new range of
values to be plotted. To show the default range at any time, click the Compute button
and the Min and Max fields will be updated.
You can also choose to base the minimum and maximum values on the range of values
on the selected surfaces, rather than in the entire domain. To do this, turn off the Global

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Range option in the Histogram panel. The Min and Max values will be updated when you
next click Compute.

28.8.8 Modifying Axis Attributes

You can modify the appearance of the XY and histogram plot axes by changing the
parameters that control the labels, scale, range, numbers, and major and minor rules.
For each type of plot (solution XY, file XY, residual, histogram, etc.), you can set different
axis parameters in the Axes panel (Figure 28.8.11). Note that the title following Axes in
the panel indicates which plot environment you are changing (e.g., the Axes - Solution
XY Plot panel controls axis parameters for solution XY plots).

Figure 28.8.11: The Axes Panel

To open the Axes panel for a particular plot type, click the Axes... button in the appro-
priate panel (e.g., the Solution XY Plot, File XY Plot, or Residual Monitors panel).

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Using the Axes Panel

The Axes panel allows you to independently control the characteristics of the ordinate (y
axis) and abscissa (x axis) on an XY plot or histogram. To set parameters for one axis
or the other, you will follow the procedure below:

1. Choose the axis for which you want to modify the attributes by selecting X or Y
under Axis.
2. Set the desired parameters.
3. Click Apply and then choose the other axis and repeat the steps, if desired.

Your changes to the axis attributes will appear in the graphics window the next time you
generate a plot.

Changing the Axis Label

If you want to modify the label for the axis, you can do so by editing the Label text field
in the Axes panel.

Changing the Format of the Data Labels

You can change the format of the labels that define the primary data divisions on the
axes using the controls under the Number Format heading in the Axes panel.

• To display the real value with an integral and fractional part (e.g., 1.0000), select
float in the Type drop-down list. You can set the number of digits in the fractional
part by changing the value of Precision.
• To display the real value with a mantissa and exponent (e.g., 1.0e-02), select ex-
ponential in the Type drop-down list. You can define the number of digits in the
fractional part of the mantissa in the Precision field.
• To display the real value with either float or exponential form, depending on the
size of the number and the defined Precision, choose general in the Type drop-down
list.

Choosing Logarithmic or Decimal Scaling

By default, decimal scaling is used for both axes (except for the y axis in residual plots,
which uses a log scale). If you want to change to a logarithmic scale, turn on the Log
option in the Axes panel. To return to a decimal scale, turn off the Log option. Note that
when you are using the logarithmic scale, the Range values are the exponents; to specify
a logarithmic range from 1 to 10000, for example, you will specify a minimum value of 1
and a maximum value of 4.

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Resetting the Range of the Axis

By default, the extents of the axis will range from the minimum value plotted to the
maximum value plotted. If you want to change the range or extents of the axis, you can
do so by turning off the Auto Range option in the Axes panel and setting the new Minimum
and Maximum values for the Range. This feature is useful when you are generating a series
of plots and you want the extents of one or both of the axes to be the same, even if the
range of plotted values differs. (For example, if you are generating plots of temperature
on several different wall zones, you might want the minimum and maximum temperature
on the y axis to be the same in every plot so that you can easily compare one plot with
another. You would determine a temperature range that includes the temperatures on
all walls, and use that as the range for the y axis in each plot.)

Controlling the Major and Minor Rules

FLUENT allows you to display major and/or minor rules on the axes. Major and mi-
nor rules are the horizontal or vertical lines that mark, respectively, the primary and
secondary data divisions and span the whole plot window to produce a “grid.” To add
major or minor rules to the plot, turn on the Major Rules or Minor Rules option. You can
then specify a color and weight for each type of rule. Under the Major Rules or Minor
Rules heading, select the desired color for the lines in the Color drop-down list and specify
the line thickness in the Weight field. A line of weight 1.0 is normally 1 pixel wide. A
weight of 2.0 would make the line twice as thick (i.e., 2 pixels wide).

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28.8.9 Modifying Curve Attributes

The data curves in XY plots and histograms can be represented by any combination of
lines and markers. You can modify the attributes of the curves, including the patterns,
weights, and colors of the lines, and the symbols, sizes, and colors of the markers. For
each type of plot (solution XY, file XY, residual, histogram, etc.), you can set different
curve parameters in the Curves panel (Figure 28.8.12). Note that the title following
Curves in the panel indicates which plot environment you are changing (e.g., the Curves
- Solution XY Plot panel controls curve parameters for solution XY plots).

Figure 28.8.12: The Curves Panel

To open the Curves panel for a particular plot type, click the Curves... button in the
appropriate panel (e.g., Solution XY Plot, File XY Plot, or Residual Monitors panel).

Using the Curves Panel

The Curves panel allows you to independently control the characteristics of each data
curve in an XY plot or histogram. To set parameters for a curve, you will follow the
procedure below:

1. Specify the curve for which you want to modify the attributes by increasing or
decreasing the Curve # counter. The curves are numbered sequentially, starting
from 0. For example, if you were plotting flow-field values on two surfaces, the first
surface would be curve 0, and the second, curve 1. If the plot contains only one
curve, the Curve # is set to 0 and is not editable.

2. Set the desired line and/or marker parameters as described below.

3. Click Apply and then choose another Curve # and repeat the steps, if desired.

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Your changes to the curve attributes will appear in the graphics window the next time
you generate a plot.

Changing the Line Style

You can control the pattern, color, and weight of the line using the controls under the
Line Style heading:

• To set the line pattern for the curve, choose one of the items in the Pattern drop-
down list. Except for center and phantom lines, the list displays examples of the
pattern choices. A center line alternates a very long dash and a short dash and
a phantom line alternates a very long dash and a double short dash. Note that
selecting the second item in the drop-down list, represented by 4 short dashes, will
result in a solid-line curve.

i If you do not want the data points to be connected by any type of line
(i.e., if you plan to use just markers), select the “blank” choice, which is
the first item in the Pattern list.
• To set the color of the line, pick one of the choices in the Color drop-down list.
• To define the line thickness, set the value of Weight. A line weight of 1.0 is normally
1 pixel wide. Therefore, a weight of 2.0 would make the line twice as thick (i.e., 2
pixels wide).

Changing the Marker Style

You can control the symbol, color, and size for the data marker using the controls under
the Marker Style heading:

• To set the symbol used to mark data, choose one of the items in the Symbol drop-
down list. The list displays examples of the symbol choices. For example, in plotting
pressure-coefficient data on the upper and lower surfaces of an airfoil, the symbol
/*\ (filled-in upward-pointing triangle) could be used for the marker representing
the upper surface data, and the symbol \*/ (filled-in downward-pointing triangle)
could be used for the marker representing the lower surface data.

i If you do not want the data points to be represented by markers (i.e., if

you plan to use just a line connecting the data points), select the “blank”
choice, which is the first item in the Style list.
• To set the color of the marker, pick one of the choices in the Color drop-down list.
• To define the size of the data marker, set the value of Size. A symbol of size 1.0 is
3.0% of the height of the display screen, except for the “.” symbol, which is always
one pixel.

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Previewing the Curve Style

To see what a particular setting will look like in the plot, you can preview it in the Sample
window of the Curves panel. A single marker and/or line will be shown with the specified
style attributes.

28.9 Turbomachinery Postprocessing

In addition to the many graphics tools already discussed, FLUENT also provides
turbomachinery-specific postprocessing features which can be accessed once you have
defined the topology of the problem. Information on postprocessing for turbomachinery
applications is provided in the following sections:

• Section 28.9.1: Defining the Turbomachinery Topology

• Section 28.9.2: Generating Reports of Turbomachinery Data

• Section 28.9.3: Displaying Turbomachinery Averaged Contours

• Section 28.9.4: Displaying Turbomachinery 2D Contours

• Section 28.9.5: Generating Averaged XY Plots of Turbomachinery Solution Data

• Section 28.9.6: Globally Setting the Turbomachinery Topology

• Section 28.9.7: Turbomachinery-Specific Variables

28.9.1 Defining the Turbomachinery Topology

In order to establish the turbomachinery-specific coordinate system used in subsequent
postprocessing functions, FLUENT requires you to define the topology of the flow domain.
The procedure for defining the topology is described below, along with details about the
boundary types.

i Note that the current implementation of the turbomachinery topology def-

inition for postprocessing is no longer limited to one row of blades at a
time. If your geometry contains multiple rows of blades, you can define all
turbomachinery topologies simultaneously. You can name and/or manage
all topologies and perform various turbomachinery postprocessing tasks on
a single topology or on all topologies at once.

i The turbo coordinates can only be generated properly if the correct rota-
tion axis is specified in the boundary conditions panel for the fluid zone
(see Section 7.17.1: Specifying the Rotation Axis).

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To define the turbomachinery topology in FLUENT, you will use the Turbo Topology panel
(Figure 28.9.1).
Define −→Turbo Topology...

Figure 28.9.1: The Turbo Topology Panel

The steps for defining topology for your turbomachinery application are as follows:

1. Select a boundary type under Boundaries (e.g., Hub in Figure 28.9.1). The boundary
types are described in detail below.

2. In the Surfaces list, choose the surface(s) that represent the boundary type you
selected in step 1.
If you want to select several surfaces of the same type, you can select that type
in the Surface Types list instead. All of the surfaces of that type will be selected
automatically in the Surfaces list (or deselected, if they are all selected already).
Another shortcut is to specify a Surface Name Pattern and click Match to select
surfaces with names that match the specified pattern. For example, if you spec-
ify wall*, all surfaces whose names begin with wall (e.g., wall-1, wall-top) will be
selected automatically. If they are all selected already, they will be deselected. If
you specify wall?, all surfaces whose names consist of wall followed by a single
character will be selected (or deselected, if they are all selected already).

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3. Repeat the steps above for all the boundary types that are relevant for your model.

i For a complete turbo topology definition the surfaces defined as inlet, out-
let, hub, casing, periodic, theta min, and theta max (if available) should
form a closed domain.
4. Enter a name in the Turbo Topology Name field or keep the default name.

5. Click Define to complete the definition of the boundaries.

FLUENT will inform you that the turbomachinery postprocessing functions have
been activated, and the Turbo menu will appear in FLUENT’s menu bar at the top
of the console window.

6. Specify a position vector that is defined as θ = 0. This position vector should

be outside the domain, e.g., if your domain lies in the first and second quadrant,
specify negative y axis as the zero θ line. This will ensure that there is no dis-
continuity in angular coordinates within the domain. This can be done using the
display/set/zero-angle-dir command.
Default zero θ line is +y axis. If this axis passes through the domain, you should
define the zero θ line, so as to satisfy above criteria.

7. To view a defined topology, select the topology from the Turbo Topology Name drop-
down list and click Display. The defined topology is shown in the active graphics
window. This allows you to visually check the boundaries to ensure that you have
defined them correctly.

8. To edit a defined topology, select the topology from the Turbo Topology Name
drop-down list, make the appropriate changes and click Modify.

9. To remove a defined topology, select the topology from the Turbo Topology Name
drop-down list and click Delete.

i Note that the topology setup that you define will be saved to the case file
when you save the current model. Thus, if you read this case back into
FLUENT, you do not need to set up the topology again.
However, use of a boundary condition file to set the turbo topology for two similar cases
may not work properly. In that case you need to set the turbo topology manually.

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Boundary Types
The boundaries for the turbomachinery topology are as follows (see Figure 28.9.2):

Hub is the wall zone(s) forming the lower boundary of the flow passage (generally
toward the axis of rotation of the machine).

Casing is the wall zone(s) forming the upper boundary of the flow passage (away from
the axis of rotation of the machine).

Theta Periodic is the periodic boundary zone(s) on the circumferential boundaries of

the flow passage.

Theta Min and Theta Max are the wall zones at the minimum and maximum angular
(θ) positions on a circumferential boundary.

Inlet is the inlet zone(s) through which the flow enters the passage.

Outlet is the outlet zone(s) through which the flow exits the passage.

Blade is the wall zone(s) that defines the blade(s) (if any). Note that these zones
cannot be attached to the circumferential boundaries. For this situation, use Theta
Min and Theta Max to define the blade.

TOP view of passage

theta periodic (periodic boundaries)

inlet outlet

blade
theta min (wall)

theta max (wall)

Figure 28.9.2: Turbomachinery Boundary Types

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28.9.2 Generating Reports of Turbomachinery Data

Once you have defined your turbomachinery topologies, as described in Section 28.9.1: Defin-
ing the Turbomachinery Topology, you can report a number of turbomachinery quanti-
ties, including mass flow, swirl number, torque, and efficiencies.
To report turbomachinery quantities in FLUENT, you will use the Turbo Report panel
(Figure 28.9.3).
Turbo −→Report...

Figure 28.9.3: The Turbo Report Panel

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The procedure for using this panel is as follows:

1. Under Averages, specify whether you want to report Mass-Weighted or Area-Weighted

averages.

2. Under Turbo Topology, specify a predefined turbomachinery topology from the

drop-down list.

3. Click Compute. FLUENT will compute the turbomachinery quantities as described

below, and display their values.

4. If you want to save the reported values to a file, click Write... and specify a name
for the file in the resulting Select File dialog box.

Computing Turbomachinery Quantities

Mass Flow

The mass flow rate through a surface is defined as follows:

Z
ṁ = (ρ~v · n̂)dA (28.9-1)
A

where A is the area of the inlet or outlet, ~v is the velocity vector, ρ is the fluid density,
and n̂ is a unit vector normal to the surface.

Swirl Number

The swirl number is defined as follows:

Z
rvθ (~v · n̂) dS
SW = SZ (28.9-2)
r vz (~v · n̂) dS
S

where r is the radial coordinate (specifically, the radial distance from the axis of rotation),
vθ is the tangential velocity, ~v is the velocity vector, n̂ is a unit vector normal to the
surface, S denotes the inlet or outlet, and

1Z
r= rdS (28.9-3)
S S

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Average Total Pressure

The area-averaged total pressure is defined as follows:

Z
pt dA
A
pt = (28.9-4)
A
where pt is the total pressure and A is the area of the inlet or outlet.
The mass-averaged total pressure is defined as follows:
Z
(ρpt |~v · n̂|)dA
pt = ZA (28.9-5)
(ρ |~v · n̂|)dA
A

where pt is the total pressure, A is the area of the inlet or outlet, ~v is the velocity vector,
ρ is the fluid density, and n̂ is a unit vector normal to the surface.

Average Total Temperature

The area-averaged total temperature is defined as follows:

Z
Tt dA
A
Tt = (28.9-6)
A
where Tt is the total temperature and A is the area of the inlet or outlet.
The mass-averaged total temperature is defined as follows:
Z
(ρTt |~v · n̂|)dA
T t = ZA (28.9-7)
(ρ |~v · n̂|)dA
A

where Tt is the total temperature, A is the area of the inlet or outlet, ~v is the velocity
vector, ρ is the fluid density, and n̂ is a unit vector normal to the surface.

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Average Flow Angles

The area-averaged flow angles are defined as follows:

Z 
vθ dA 
αr = tan−1  A

Z

 (28.9-8)
vz dA
A

in the radial direction, and

Z 
vr dA 
αθ = tan−1  A

Z

 (28.9-9)
vz dA
A

in the tangential direction, where vz , vr , and vθ represent the axial, radial, and tangential
velocities, respectively.
The mass-averaged flow angles are defined as follows:
Z 
(ρvr )dA 
αr,m = tan−1  A

Z

 (28.9-10)
(ρvz )dA
A

in the radial direction, and

Z 
(ρvθ )dA 
αθ,m = tan−1  A

Z

 (28.9-11)
(ρvz )dA
A

in the tangential direction.

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Passage Loss Coefficient

The engineering loss coefficient is defined as follows:

pt,i − pt,o
KL = 1 (28.9-12)
2
ρv 2i

where pt,i is the mass-averaged total pressure at the inlet, pt,o is the mass-averaged total
pressure at the outlet, ρ is the density of the fluid, and v i is the mass-averaged velocity
magnitude at the inlet.
The normalized loss coefficient is defined as follows:

pt,i − pt,o
KL,n = (28.9-13)
pt,i − ps,o

where ps,o is the mass-averaged static pressure at the outlet.

Axial Force

The axial force on the rotating parts is defined as follows:

Z 
Fa = (τ · n̂) dS · â (28.9-14)
S

where S represents the surfaces comprising all rotating parts, τ is the total stress tensor
(pressure and viscous stresses), n̂ is a unit vector normal to the surface, and â is a unit
vector parallel to the axis of rotation.

Torque

The torque on the rotating parts is defined as follows:

Z 
T = (~r × (τ · n̂)) dS · â (28.9-15)
S

where S represents the surfaces comprising all rotating parts, τ is the total stress tensor,
n̂ is a unit vector normal to the surface, ~r is the position vector, and â is a unit vector
parallel to the axis of rotation.

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Efficiencies for Pumps and Compressors

The definitions of the efficiencies for compressible and incompressible flows in pumps and
compressors are described in this section. Efficiencies for turbines are described later in
this section. Consider a pumping or compression device operating between states 1 and 2
as illustrated in Figure 28.9.4. Work input to the device is required to achieve a specified
compression of the working fluid.

1 2

Work input to rotor

Figure 28.9.4: Pump or Compressor

Assuming that the processes are steady state, steady flow, and that the mass flow rates
are equal at the inlet and outlet of the device (no film cooling, bleed air removal, etc.),
the efficiencies for incompressible and compressible flows are as described below.

Incompressible Flows

For devices such as liquid pumps and fans at low speeds, the working fluid can be treated
as incompressible. The efficiency of a pumping process with an incompressible working
fluid is defined as the ratio of the head rise achieved by the fluid to the power supplied
to the rotor/impeller. This can be expressed as follows:

Q(pt2 − pt1 )
η= (28.9-16)
Tω

where
Q = volumetric flow rate
pt = total pressure
T = net torque acting on the rotor/impeller
ω = rotational speed
This definition is sometimes called the “hydraulic efficiency”. Often, other efficiencies
are included to account for flow leakage (volumetric efficiency) and mechanical losses
along the transmission system between the rotor and the machine providing the power

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for the rotor/impeller (mechanical efficiency). Incorporating these losses then yields a
total efficiency for the system.

Compressible Flows

For gas compressors that operate at high speeds and high pressure ratios, the compress-
ibility of the working fluid must be taken into account. The efficiency of a compression
process with a compressible working fluid is defined as the ratio of the work required
for an ideal (reversible) compression process to the actual work input. This assumes the
compression process occurs between states 1 and 2 for a given pressure ratio. In most
cases, the pressure ratio is the total pressure at state 2 divided by the total pressure at
state 1. If the process is also adiabatic, then the ideal state at 2 is the isentropic state.
From the foregoing definition, the efficiency for an adiabatic compression process can be
written as

ht2,i − ht1
ηc = (28.9-17)
ht2 − ht1

where
ht1 = total enthalpy at 1
ht2 = actual total enthalpy at 2
ht2,i = isentropic total enthalpy at 2
If the specific heat is constant, Equation 28.9-17 can also be expressed as

Tt2,i − Tt1
ηc = (28.9-18)
Tt2 − Tt1

where
Tt1 = total temperature at 1
Tt2 = actual total temperature at 2
Tt2,i = isentropic total temperature at 2
Using the isentropic relation

! γ−1
Tt2,i pt2 γ
= (28.9-19)
Tt1 pt1

where γ is the ratio of specific heats specified in the Reference Values panel.

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The efficiency can be written in the compact form

" #
  γ−1
pt2 γ
Tt1 pt1
−1
ηc = (28.9-20)
Tt2 − Tt1

Note that this definition requires data only for the actual states 1 and 2.
Compressor designers also make use of the polytropic efficiency when comparing one
compressor with another. The polytropic efficiency is defined as follows:
 
γ−1
γ
ln ppt2
t1
ηc,p =  
Tt2
(28.9-21)
ln Tt1

Efficiencies for Turbines

Consider a turbine operating between states 1 and 2 in Figure 28.9.5. Work is extracted
from the working fluid as it expands through the turbine. Assuming that the processes
are steady state, steady flow, and that the mass flow rates are equal at the inlet and
outlet of the device (no film cooling, bleed air removal, etc.), turbine efficiencies for
incompressible and compressible flows are as described below.

1 2

Work output from rotor

Figure 28.9.5: Turbine

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Incompressible Flows

The efficiency of a turbine with an incompressible working fluid is defined as the ratio of
the work delivered to the rotor to the energy available from the fluid stream. This ratio
can be expressed as follows:

Tω
η= (28.9-22)
Q(pt1 − pt2 )

where
Q = volumetric flow rate
pt = total pressure
T = net torque acting on the rotor/impeller
ω = rotational speed
Note the similarity between this definition and the definition of incompressible compres-
sion efficiency (Equation 28.9-16). As with hydraulic pumps and compressors, other
efficiencies (e.g., volumetric and mechanical efficiencies) can be defined to account for
other losses in the system.

Compressible Flows

For high-speed gas turbines operating at large expansion pressure ratios, compressibility
must be accounted for. The efficiency of an expansion process with a compressible work-
ing fluid is defined as the ratio of the actual work extracted from the fluid to the work
extracted from an ideal (reversible) process. This assumes that the expansion process
occurs between states 1 and 2 for a given pressure ratio. In contrast to the compression
process, the pressure ratio for expansion is the total pressure at state 1 divided by the
total pressure at state 2. If the process is also adiabatic, then the ideal state at 2 is the
isentropic state.
From the foregoing definition, the efficiency for an adiabatic expansion process through
a turbine can be written as

ht1 − ht2
ηc = (28.9-23)
ht1 − ht2,i

where
ht1 = total enthalpy at 1
ht2 = actual total enthalpy at 2
ht2,i = isentropic total enthalpy at 2

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If the specific heat is constant, Equation 28.9-23 can also be expressed as

Tt1 − Tt2
ηe = (28.9-24)
Tt1 − Tt2,i

where
Tt1 = total temperature at 1
Tt2 = actual total temperature at 2
Tt2,i = isentropic total temperature at 2
Using the isentropic relation

! γ−1
Tt1 pt1 γ
= (28.9-25)
Tt2,i pt2

the expansion efficiency can be written in the compact form

Tt1 − Tt2
ηe = "
  γ−1
# (28.9-26)
pt2 γ
Tt1 1 − pt1

Note that this definition requires data only for the actual states 1 and 2.
As with compressors, one may also define a polytropic efficiency for turbines. The poly-
tropic efficiency is defined as follows:
 
Tt1
ln
Tt2
ηe,p = γ−1
 
pt1
(28.9-27)
γ
ln pt2

28.9.3 Displaying Turbomachinery Averaged Contours

Turbo averaged contours are generated as projections of the values of a variable averaged
in the circumferential direction and visualized on an r-z plane. A sample plot is shown
in Figure 28.9.7.

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Steps for Generating Turbomachinery Averaged Contour Plots

You can display contours using the Turbo Averaged Contours panel (Figure 28.9.6).
Turbo −→Averaged Contours...

Figure 28.9.6: The Turbo Averaged Contours Panel

The basic steps for generating a turbo averaged contour plot are as follows:

1. Select All or a specific predefined turbomachinery topology from the Turbo Topology
drop-down list.
2. Select the variable or function to be displayed in the Contours of drop-down list.
First select the desired category in the upper list; you may then select a related
quantity in the lower list. (See Section 28.9.7: Turbomachinery-Specific Variables
for a list of turbomachinery-specific variables, and see Chapter 30: Field Function
Definitions for an explanation of the variables in the list.)
3. Specify the number of contours in the Levels field. The maximum number of levels
allowed is 100.
4. Set any of the options described below.
5. Click the Display button to draw the specified contours in the active graphics win-
dow.

The resulting display will include the specified number of contours of the selected variable,
with the magnitude on each one determined by equally incrementing between the values
shown in the Min and Max fields.

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Note that the Min and Max values displayed in the panel are the minimum and maximum
averaged values. These limits will in general be different from the global Domain Min and
Domain Max, which are also displayed for your reference (see Figure 28.9.6).

1.80e+00

1.63e+00

1.45e+00

1.28e+00

1.10e+00

Y
Z X
9.24e-01

Averaged Turbo Contour - pressure (atm) (atm)

Figure 28.9.7: Turbo Averaged Filled Contours of Static Pressure

Contour Plot Options

The options mentioned in the procedure above include drawing color-filled contours (in-
stead of line contours), specifying a range of values to be contoured, and storing the
contour plot settings. These options are the same as those in the standard Contours
panel. See Section 28.1.2: Contour and Profile Plot Options for details about using
them.

28.9.4 Displaying Turbomachinery 2D Contours

In postprocessing a turbomachinery solution, it is often desirable to display contours on
surfaces of constant spanwise coordinate, and then project these contours onto a plane.
This permits easier evaluation of the contours, especially for surfaces that are highly
three-dimensional.

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Steps for Generating Turbo 2D Contour Plots

You can display contours using the Turbo 2D Contours panel (Figure 28.9.8).
Turbo −→2D Contours...

Figure 28.9.8: The Turbo 2D Contours Panel

The basic steps for generating a turbo 2D contour plot are as follows:

1. Specify a specific predefined turbomachinery topology using the Turbo Topology

drop-down list.
2. Enter a value for the Normalized Spanwise Coordinates (0 to 1) for the spanwise
surface you want to create.

i If shroud and hub are the curved surfaces, the iso-surface very close to them
may contain void spaces as FLUENT displays only a plane cut surface.
3. Select the variable or function to be displayed in the Contours of drop-down list.
First select the desired category in the upper list; you may then select a related
quantity in the lower list. (See Section 28.9.7: Turbomachinery-Specific Variables
for a list of turbomachinery-specific variables, and see Chapter 30: Field Function
Definitions for an explanation of the variables in the list.)
4. Specify the number of contours in the Levels field. The maximum number of levels
allowed is 100.
5. Click the Display button to draw the specified contours in the active graphics win-
dow.

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The resulting display will include the specified number of contours of the selected variable,
with the magnitude on each one determined by equally incrementing between the values
shown in the Min and Max fields.

Contour Plot Options

Depending on the type of contour plot you want to display, select appropriate choice
under Options. These options are the same as those in the standard Contours panel. See
Section 28.1.2: Contour and Profile Plot Options for details about using them.

28.9.5 Generating Averaged XY Plots of Turbomachinery Solution Data

When comparing numerical solutions of turbomachinery problems to experimental data,
it is often useful to plot circumferentially averaged quantities in the spanwise and merid-
ional directions. This section describes how to do this in FLUENT.

Steps for Generating Turbo Averaged XY Plots

To create an XY plot of circumferentially averaged solution data, you will use the Turbo
Averaged XY Plot panel (Figure 28.9.9).
Turbo −→Averaged XY Plot...

Figure 28.9.9: The Turbo Averaged XY Plot Panel

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The basic steps for generating a turbo averaged XY plot are as follows:

1. Select the variable or function to be plotted in the Y Axis Function drop-down list.
First select the desired category in the upper list; you may then select a related
quantity in the lower list. (See Section 28.9.7: Turbomachinery-Specific Variables
for a list of turbomachinery-specific variables, and see Chapter 30: Field Function
Definitions for an explanation of the variables in the list.)

2. Select All or a specific predefined turbomachinery topology from the Turbo Topology
drop-down list.

3. Select the variable or function to be plotted in the X Axis Function drop-down list.
The choices are Hub to Casing Distance and Meridional Distance.

4. Specify the desired value in the Fractional Distance field. The definition of the
fractional distance depends on your selection of X Axis Function:
• If you selected Hub to Casing Distance, the fractional distance is Inlet to Outlet.
• If you selected Meridional Distance, the fractional distance is Hub to Casing.

5. (optional) Modify the attributes of the axes or curves as described in Sections 28.8.8
and 28.8.9.

6. Click the Plot button to generate the XY plot in the active graphics window.
Note that you can use any of the mouse buttons to annotate the XY plot (see
Section 28.2.4: Adding Text to the Graphics Window).

If you wish to write the XY data to a file, follow these steps instead of Step 5 above:

1. Turn on the Write to File option. The Plot button will change to the Write... button.

2. Click Write....

3. In the resulting Select File dialog box, specify a name for the plot file and save it.

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28.9.6 Globally Setting the Turbomachinery Topology

In some cases, i.e., iso-surface creation, FLUENT allows you to globally set the current
turbomachinery topology for your model using the Turbo Options panel (Figure 28.9.10).

Turbo −→Options...

Figure 28.9.10: The Turbo Options Panel

To set the current topology, select a topology from the Current Topology drop-down list
and select OK.

28.9.7 Turbomachinery-Specific Variables

The following turbomachinery-specific variables are available in FLUENT:

• Meridional Coordinate

• Abs Meridional Coordinate

• Spanwise Coordinate

• Abs (H-C) Spanwise Coordinate

• Abs (C-H) Spanwise Coordinate

• Pitchwise Coordinate

• Abs Pitchwise Coordinate

These variables are contained in the Grid... category of the variable selection drop-down
list. See Chapter 30: Field Function Definitions for their definitions.

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28.10 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) Postprocessing

When trying to interpret time-sequence data from a transient solution, it is often useful
to look at the data’s spectral (frequency) attributes. For instance, you may wish to
determine the major vortex-shedding frequency from the time-history of the drag force
on a body recorded during a FLUENT simulation. Or, you may want to compute the
spectral distribution of static pressure data recorded at a particular location on a body
surface. Similarly, you may need to compute the spectral distribution of turbulent kinetic
energy using data for fluctuating velocity components. To interpret some of these time
dependent data, you need to perform Fourier transform analysis. In essence, the Fourier
transform enables you to take any time dependent data and resolve it into an equivalent
summation of sine and cosine waves.
FLUENT allows you to analyze your time dependent data using the Fast Fourier Trans-
form (FFT) algorithm. Information on using the FFT algorithm in FLUENT is provided
in the following sections:

• Section 28.10.1: Limitations of the FFT Algorithm

• Section 28.10.2: Windowing

• Section 28.10.3: Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)

• Section 28.10.4: Using the FFT Utility

28.10.1 Limitations of the FFT Algorithm

The following limitations apply to FLUENT’s FFT module:

• The FLUENT FFT module can only read inputs files in the FLUENT monitor and
x-y file formats.

• The FLUENT FFT module assumes that the input data have been sampled at equal
intervals and are consecutive (in the order of increasing time).

• The lowest frequency that the FFT module can pick up is given by 1/t, where t is
the total sampling time. If the sampled sequence contains frequencies lower than
this, these frequencies will be aliased into higher frequencies.

• The highest frequency that the FFT module can pick up is 1/(2dt), where dt is the
sampling interval (or time step).

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28.10.2 Windowing
The discrete FFT algorithm is based on the assumption that the time-sequence data
passed to the FFT corresponds to a single period of a periodically repeating signal. Since,
in most situations, the first and the last data points will not coincide, the repeating signal
implied in the assumption can often have a large discontinuity. The large discontinuity
produces high-frequency components in the resulting Fourier modes, causing an aliasing
error. You can condition the input signal before the transform by “windowing” it, in
order to avoid this problem.
Suppose that we have N consecutive discrete (time-sequence) data sampled with a con-
stant interval, ∆t:

φk ≡ φ(tk ), tk ≡ k ∆t, k = 0, 1, 2, ..., (N − 1) (28.10-1)

Windowing is done by multiplying the original input data (φj ) by a window function,
Wj :

φ̃j = φj Wj j = 0, 1, 2, ..., (N − 1) (28.10-2)

FLUENT offers four different window functions:

Hamming’s window:
(  
8πj
0.54 − 0.46 cos N
j ≤ N8 , j ≥ 7N
8
Wj = N 7N
(28.10-3)
1 8
< j < 8

Hanning’s window:
(
0.5[1 − cos( 8πj
N
)] j ≤ N8 , j ≥ 7N
8
Wj = N 7N (28.10-4)
1 8
< j < 8

Barlett’s window:
8j
j ≤ N8

N


j
Wj =  8(1 − N
) j ≥ 7N8
(28.10-5)
N 7N

1 8
< j < 8

Blackman’s window:
(
0.42 − 0.5 cos( 8πj
N
) + 0.08 cos( 16πj
N
) j ≤ N8 , j ≥ 7N
8
Wj = N (28.10-6)
1 8
< j < 7N 8

These window functions preserve a large fraction (3/4) of the original data, affecting only
1/4 of the data on both ends.

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28.10.3 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)

The Fourier transform utility in FLUENT allows you to compute the Fourier transform
of a signal, φ(t), a real-valued function, from a finite number of its sampled points.
The discrete Fourier transform of φk is defined by

N −1
φ̂n e2πikn/N
X
φk = k = 0, 1, 2, ...(N − 1) (28.10-7)
n=0

where φ̂n are the discrete Fourier coefficients, which can be obtained from

−1
1 NX
φ̂n = φk e−2πikn/N n = 0, 1, 2, ...(N − 1) (28.10-8)
N k=0

Equation 28.10-7 and Equation 28.10-8 form a Fourier transform pair that allows us to
determine one from the other.
Note that when we follow the convention of varying n from 0 to N −1 in Equation 28.10-7
or Equation 28.10-8 instead of from −N/2 to N/2, the range of index 1 ≤ n ≤ N/2 − 1
corresponds to positive frequencies, and the range of index N/2 + 1 ≤ n ≤ N − 1
corresponds to negative frequencies. n = 0 still corresponds to zero frequency.
For the actual calculation of the transforms, FLUENT adopts the so-called fast Fourier
transform (FFT) algorithm which significantly reduces operation counts in comparison
to the direct transform. Furthermore, unlike most FFT algorithms in which the number
of data should be a power of 2, the FFT utility in FLUENT employs a prime-factor algo-
rithm [372]. The number of data points permissible in the prime-factor FFT algorithm
is any products of mutually prime factors from the set 2,3,4,5,7,8,9,11,13,16, with a max-
imum value of 720720 = 5 × 7 × 9 × 11 × 13 × 16. Thus, the prime-factor FFT preserves
the original data better than the conventional FFT.
Just prior to computing the transform, FLUENT determines the largest permissible num-
ber of data points based on the prime factors, discarding the rest of the data.

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28.10.4 Using the FFT Utility

The FLUENT FFT utility is available through the Fourier Transform panel (Figure 28.10.1).

Plot −→FFT...

Figure 28.10.1: The Fourier Transform Panel

Loading Data for Spectral Analysis

FFT analysis requires an input signal data file consisting of time-sequence data. To
load an input signal data file into the Fourier Transform panel, click the Load Input File...
button. This displays a File Selection dialog box where you can browse through your file
directories and locate your data file containing your time-sequence data. To remove a
file from the Files list, select it and then click the Free File Data button.
If you computed acoustic signals “on the fly”, you have the option of processing signal
data from a file or processing receiver data stored in memory. To analyze signal data
from an existing input file, select Process File Data under Process Options and proceed
as described above. To analyze receiver data stored in memory, select Process Receiver
under Process Options and select the appropriate receiver in the Receiver list.
Click Plot FFT to display the spectral analysis data.

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Customizing the Input

With the input signal data file loaded into the Fourier Transform panel, you may want
to customize the input signal data set. You can customize the input signal by clicking
the Plot/Modify Input Signal button. This displays the Plot/Modify Input Signal panel
(Figure 28.10.2).

Figure 28.10.2: The Plot/Modify Input Signal Panel

The Plot/Modify Input Signal panel allows you to analyze a portion of the input sig-
nal, view input Signal Statistics (Min, Max, Mean, and Variance), and set title and label
information for the input signal data file.

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Customizing the Input Signal Data Set

By default, the entire data set is analyzed. To analyze a portion of the input signal,
turn on the Clip to Range option and specify the data range by entering Min and Max
values under X-Axis Range. To have the y axis quantities reduced by the Mean value of
the relevant signal property, turn on the Subtract Mean Value option.
The Set Defaults button will reset the original values for the Min and Max fields under
X-Axis Range and turn off the Clip to Range option.

Viewing Data Statistics

To aid in the signal analysis, whether for the entire input signal or for a certain range
of data, the Signal Statistics portion of the Plot/Modify Input Signal panel displays signal
information such as minimum, maximum, and average signal values, as well as signal
variance.

Customizing Titles and Labels

You can create a new title or edit the original title for the input signal plot by entering
a text string in the Signal Plot Title text box. Likewise, you can create a new axis label
or edit the original axis label by entering a text string into either the Y-Axis Label text
box or the X-Axis Label text box.

Applying the Changes in the Input Signal Data

To apply any changes you have made in the Plot/Modify Input Signal panel and view a
plot of the input signal, click the Apply/Plot button.

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Customizing the Output

In most practical applications with CFD data, you may want to find out how much
power or energy is contained in a certain frequency range, but do not want to distinguish
positive and negative frequency. In recognition of this, all the outputs from the FFT
module in FLUENT pertain to one-sided spectra for the range of positive frequency.
The Fourier Transform (Figure 28.10.1) and Plot/Modify Input Signal (Figure 28.10.2)
panels allow you to set several different functions for the x and y axes, apply different
FFT windowing techniques, and set various output options.

Specifying a Function for the y Axis

You can choose the y-axis function using the Y Axis Function drop-down list. Available
options for the y-axis functions are as follows:

Power Spectral Density is the distribution of signal power in the frequency domain. It
has units of the signal magnitude squared (e.g., Pa2 ) and is defined as

E(fn ) = |φ̂0 |2
E(fn ) = 2 |φ̂n |2 n = 1, 2, ..., N/2 (28.10-9)

Magnitude (or amplitude) is the square root of the power spectral density.

q
A(fn ) ≡ E(fn ) n = 0, 1, 2, ..., N/2 (28.10-10)

Sound Pressure Level (dB) is the decibel level. For either general or acoustic data,
when the sampled data is pressure (e.g., static pressure or sound pressure), you can
compute the power in decibel units using

p02 (fn )
!
Lsp (fn ) = 10 log (dB) (28.10-11)
p2ref

where p02 (fn ) is the power spectral density of the pressure fluctuation and pref is
the reference acoustic pressure. See Section 21.3.1: Enabling the FW-H Acoustics
Model for details about specifying this parameter.

Sound Amplitude (dB) is exactly one-half of the sound pressure level in Equation 28.10-11.
This quantity is also applicable for acoustics analysis.
v
u 02
u p (fn )
Asp (fn ) = 10 log t 2 (dB) (28.10-12)
pref

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A-Weighted, Sound Pressure Level (dB A) is the calculated sound pressure level weighted
by the A-scale function to more closely approximate the frequency response of the
human ear. A-Weighting is applied for loudness levels below 55 phons (55 dB at
1 kHz) and is the most commonly used weighting function. See Figure 28.10.3 for
a graphical representation.

B-Weighted, Sound Pressure Level (dB B) is the calculated sound pressure level weighted
by the B-scale function. B-Weighting is applied to loudness levels between 55 and
85 phons, though it is rarely used.

C-Weighted, Sound Pressure Level (dB C) is the calculated sound pressure level weighted
by the C-scale function. C-Weighting is applied for loudness levels above 85 phons
and is commonly used for high-intensity sound such as traffic studies.

Figure 28.10.3: A-, B-, and C-Weighting Functions

Further graphical customizations for the y axis are available by clicking the Axes... but-
ton. For more information, see Section 28.8.8: Modifying Axis Attributes.

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Specifying a Function for the x Axis

There are three options for the x-axis function you can choose from. They are all related
to the discrete frequencies at which the Fourier coefficients are computed. You can apply
specific analytic functions for the x-axis using the X Axis Function drop-down list.
Available options for the x-axis functions are:

Frequency (Hz) is defined as:

1
fn = n n = 0, 1, 2, ..., N/2 (28.10-13)
N ∆t

where N is the number of data points used in the FFT.

Strouhal Number is the nondimensionalized version of the frequency defined in Equa-

tion 28.10-13:

fn Lref
Stn ≡ (28.10-14)
Uref

where Lref and Uref are the reference length and velocity scales specified in the
Reference Values panel.

Fourier Mode is the index in Equations 28.10-7 and/or 28.10-8, which represents the
nth or kth term in the Fourier transform of the signal.

Octave Band (Hz) is a range of discrete frequency bands for different octaves within
the threshold of hearing. The range of each octave band is double to that of the
previous band (see Table 28.10.1).

1/3-Octave Band (Hz) is a range of discrete frequency bands within the threshold of
hearing. Here, the range of each band is one-third of an octave, meaning that there
are three times as many bands for the same frequency range.

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Table 28.10.1: Octave Band Frequencies and Weightings

Lower Center Upper dB A dB B dB C

Freq. (Hz) Freq. (Hz) Freq. (Hz)
11 16 22 -56.7 -28.5 -8.5
22 31.5 45 -39.4 -17.1 -3.0
45 63 90 -26.2 -9.3 -0.8
90 125 180 -16.1 -4.2 -0.2
180 250 355 -8.6 -1.3 0.0
355 500 710 -3.2 -0.3 0.0
710 1000 1400 0.0 0.0 0.0
1400 2000 2800 1.2 -0.1 -0.2
2800 4000 5600 1.0 -0.7 -0.8
5600 8000 11200 -1.1 -2.9 -3.0
11200 16000 22400 -6.6 -8.4 -8.5

Further graphical customizations for the x-axis are available by clicking the Axes... but-
ton. For more information, see Section 28.8.8: Modifying Axis Attributes.

Specifying Output Options

You can write out the FFT data directly to a file by choosing the Write FFT to File
option under Options in the Fourier Transform panel. Once the Write FFT to File option
is selected, click the Write FFT button to display a file selection dialog box where you
can choose a file and/or a location to hold the FFT data.
Further customizations for how the FFT data is displayed are available by clicking the
Curves... button. For more information, see Section 28.8.9: Modifying Curve Attributes.

Specifying a Windowing Technique

You can use the various windowing techniques described in Section 28.10.2: Windowing
by selecting any of the Window options in the Plot/Modify Input Signal panel. By default,
None is selected so that no windowing technique is applied.

Specifying Labels and Titles

You can assign a title for your FFT plot using the Plot Title text field. You can also
assign y-axis and x-axis labels for your FFT plot using the Y-Axis Label and X-Axis Label
text fields, respectively. By default, FLUENT assigns the Y-Axis Label and the X-Axis
Label to the particular selection of Y-Axis Function and X-Axis Function.

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Chapter 29. Reporting Alphanumeric Data

FLUENT provides tools for computing and reporting integral quantities at surfaces and
boundaries. These tools enable you to find the mass flow rate and heat transfer rate
through boundaries, the forces and moments on boundaries, and the area, integral, flow
rate, average, and mass average (among other quantities) on a surface or in a volume. In
addition, you can print histograms of geometric and solution data, set reference values
for the calculation of non-dimensional coefficients, and compute projected surface areas.
You can also print or save a summary report of the models, boundary conditions, and
solver settings in the current case. These features are described in the following sections.

• Section 29.1: Reporting Conventions

• Section 29.2: Fluxes Through Boundaries

• Section 29.3: Forces on Boundaries

• Section 29.4: Projected Surface Area Calculations

• Section 29.5: Surface Integration

• Section 29.6: Volume Integration

• Section 29.7: Histogram Reports

• Section 29.8: Discrete Phase

• Section 29.9: S2S Information

• Section 29.10: Reference Values

• Section 29.11: Summary Reports of Case Settings

Reporting tools for the discrete phase are described in Section 22.16: Postprocessing for
the Discrete Phase.

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29.1 Reporting Conventions

For 2D problems, FLUENT computes all integral quantities for a unit depth equivalent to
1 meter. This value can by adjusted to match the specific dimension of your application
only by manually revising the Depth in the Reference Values panel (see Section 29.10: Ref-
erence Values).

i The default value of Depth will be equivalent to 1 meter, even if the units
are changed for depth in the Set Units panel (e.g., if the units for depth are
changed to cm in the Set Units panel, the value of Depth in the Reference
Values panel will be 100 cm).
For axisymmetric problems, all integral quantities are computed for an angle of 2π radi-
ans.

29.2 Fluxes Through Boundaries

For selected boundary zones, you can compute the following quantities:

• The mass flow rate through a boundary is computed by summing the dot product
of the density times the velocity vector and the area projections over the faces of
the zone.

• The total heat transfer rate through a boundary is computed by summing the total
heat transfer rate, q = qc + qr , over the faces, where qc is the convective heat
transfer rate and qr is the radiation heat transfer rate. The computation of the
heat transfer through the face depends on the specified boundary condition. For
example, the conduction heat transfer on a constant-temperature wall face would be
the product of the thermal conductivity with the dot product of the area projection
and the temperature gradient. For flow boundaries, the total heat transfer rate is
the flow rate of the conserved quantity. Depending on the models that are being
used, the total heat transfer rate may include the convective flow of sensible or
total enthalpy, diffusive flux of energy, etc. For reacting flows, FLUENT reports
the total energy flux, which consists of the sensible and formation enthalpies (see
Section 13.2.1: Heat Transfer Theory for details).

• The radiation heat transfer rate through a boundary is computed by summing the
radiation heat transfer rate qr over the faces. The computation of the radiation
heat transfer depends on the radiation model used.

For example, you might use flux reporting to compute the resulting mass flow through a
duct with pressure boundaries specified at the inlet and exit.

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 29.2 Fluxes Through Boundaries

Flux Reporting with Particles and Volumetric Sources

Note that the reported mass and heat balances address only flow that enters or leaves
the domain through boundaries; they do not include the contributions from user-defined
volumetric sources or particle injections. For this reason, a mass or heat imbalance may
be reported. To determine if a solution involving a discrete phase is converged, you can
compare this imbalance with the change in mass flow or heat content computed in the
particle tracking summary report. The net flow rate or heat transfer rate reported in the
Flux Reports panel should be nearly equal to the Change in Mass Flow or Heat Content
in the summary report generated from the Particle Tracks panel.

29.2.1 Generating a Flux Report

To obtain a report of mass flow rate, heat transfer rate, or radiation heat transfer rate
on selected boundary zones, use the Flux Reports panel (Figure 29.2.1).
Report −→Fluxes...

Figure 29.2.1: The Flux Reports Panel

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The steps for generating the report are as follows:

1. Specify which flux computation you are interested in by selecting Mass Flow Rate,
Total Heat Transfer Rate, or Radiation Heat Transfer Rate under Options.

2. In the Boundaries list, choose the boundary zone(s) on which you want to report
fluxes.
If you want to select several boundary zones of the same type, you can select that
type in the Boundary Types list instead. All of the boundaries of that type will be
selected automatically in the Boundaries list (or deselected, if they are all already
selected).
Another shortcut is to specify a Boundary Name Pattern and click Match to select
boundary zones with names that match the specified pattern. For example, if you
specify wall*, all boundaries whose names begin with wall (e.g., wall-1, wall-top) will
be selected automatically. If they are all selected already, they will be deselected.
If you specify wall?, all boundaries whose names consist of wall followed by a single
character will be selected (or deselected, if they are all already selected).

3. Click on the Compute button. The Results list will display the results of the selected
flux computation for each selected boundary zone, and the box below the Results
list will show the summation of the individual zone flux results.

i Additional steps must be taken prior to generating a flux report for an

interior boundary zone that has the same fluid defined on either side. In
such a case, the area vectors of the cell faces associated with the zone may
have been automatically defined in an inconsistent manner when the mesh
file was read into the solver. Since the flux for each individual cell face is
calculated with respect to its area vector, such an inconsistency leads to
inaccurate results when the face fluxes are summed to calculate the total
flux of the boundary zone.
To ensure accurate flux results for such an interior zone, you must orient
the area vectors by changing the definition of the zone Type to wall. You
should then change the Type back to interior and proceed to generate the
flux report.
Note that the fluxes are reported exactly as computed by the solver. Therefore, they are
inherently more accurate than those computed with the Flow Rate option in the Surface
Integrals panel (described in Section 29.5: Surface Integration).

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 29.3 Forces on Boundaries

29.3 Forces on Boundaries

You can compute and report the forces along a specified vector, the moments about a
specified center for selected wall zones, and the coordinates of the center of pressure of
a wall. This feature is useful for reporting, for instance, aerodynamic quantities such as
lift, drag, and moment coefficients, as well as the center of pressure for an airfoil.

29.3.1 Computing Forces, Moments, and the Center of Pressure

The total force component along the specified force vector ~a on a wall zone is computed
by summing the dot product of the pressure and viscous forces on each face with the
specified force vector. The terms in this summation represent the pressure and viscous
force components in the direction of the vector ~a:

F a = ~a · F~p + ~|a ·{zF~v} (29.3-1)

|{z} | {z }
total f orce component pressure f orce component viscous f orce component

where
~a = specified force vector
F~p = pressure force vector
F~v = viscous force vector

In addition to the actual pressure, viscous, and total forces, the associated force coef-
ficients are also computed, using the reference values specified in the Reference Values
panel (as described in Section 29.10: Reference Values). The force coefficient is defined
as force divided by 21 ρv 2 A, where ρ, v, and A are the density, velocity, and area explicitly
specified in the Reference Values panel. Finally, the net values of the pressure, viscous,
and total forces and coefficients for all the selected wall zones are also computed.
The total moment vector about a specified center A is computed by summing the cross
products of the pressure and viscous force vectors for each face with the moment vector
~rAB , which is the vector from the specified moment center A to the force origin B (see
Figure 29.3.1). The terms in this summation represent the pressure and viscous moment
vectors:

M~A = ~rAB × F~p + ~r| AB {z× F~v} (29.3-2)

|{z} | {z }
total moment pressure moment viscous moment

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where
A = specified moment center
B = force origin
~rAB = moment vector
F~p = pressure force vector
F~v = viscous force vector

Line of action of F

Moment center
A
rAB
F = Fp + Fv

z B
Force origin

MA= rΑΒ F

y
O

Figure 29.3.1: Moment About a Specified Moment Center

Direction of the total moment vector follows the right hand rule for cross products.
In addition to the actual components of the pressure, viscous, and total moments, the mo-
ment coefficients are also computed, using the reference values specified in the Reference
Values panel (as described in Section 29.10: Reference Values). The moment coefficient is
defined as the moment divided by 21 ρv 2 AL, where ρ, v, A, and L are the density, velocity,
area, and length explicitly specified in the Reference Values panel. Finally, the net values
of the pressure, viscous, and total moments and coefficients for all the selected wall zones
are also computed.

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 29.3 Forces on Boundaries

To reduce round-off error, a reference pressure (also specified in the Reference Values
panel) is used to normalize the cell pressure for computation of the pressure force. For
example, the net pressure force vector, acting on a wall zone, is computed as the vector
sum of the individual force vectors for each cell face:

n
F~p =
X
(p − pref )An̂ (29.3-3)
i=1
Xn n
X
= pAn̂ − pref An̂ (29.3-4)
i=1 i=1

where n is the number of faces, A is the area of the face, and n̂ is the unit normal to the
face.
The center of pressure is the average location of the pressure. The pressure varies around
the surface of an object, such that P = p(x). The general expression for determining the
center of pressure is
R
xp(x)dx
cp = R (29.3-5)
p(x)dx

However, the center of pressure of a wall is also defined as the point about which the
moment on the wall(s) will be zero, that is, the point on the wall where all the forces
balance. It is computed as follows:

~ = ~r × F~
M (29.3-6)
~ = 0
M (29.3-7)

where F~ is the force acting on the selected wall and ~r is the position vector from the
center of pressure to the point where the force is applied.

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29.3.2 Generating a Force, Moment, or Center of Pressure Report

To obtain a report (for selected wall zones) of forces along a specified vector or moments
about a specified center, use the Force Reports panel (Figure 29.3.2).
Report −→Forces...

Figure 29.3.2: The Force Reports Panel

The steps for generating the report are as follows:

1. Specify which type of report you are interested in by selecting Forces, Moments, or
Center of Pressure under Options.
2. If you choose a force report, specify the X, Y, and Z components of the Force Vector
along which the forces will be computed. If you choose a moment report, specify
the X, Y, and Z coordinates of the Moment Center about which the moments will
be computed. If you choose a center of pressure report, specify the value of the X,
Y, or Z coordinate that you would like to fix.
3. In the Wall Zones list, choose the wall zone(s) on which you want to report the
force or moment information.
A shortcut that may be useful if you have a large number of wall zones is to specify
a Wall Name Pattern and click Match to select wall zones with names that match
the specified pattern. For example, if you specify out*, all walls whose names begin
with out (e.g., outer-wall-top, outside-wall) will be selected automatically. If they
are all selected already, they will be deselected. If you specify out?, all walls whose
names consist of out followed by a single character will be selected (or deselected,
if they are all selected already).

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 29.3 Forces on Boundaries

4. Click the Print button if you want the results printed in the console, or click Write...
to save it to a file.
If Forces has been selected under Options, the console window will display the pres-
sure force, viscous force (if appropriate), total forces, pressure coefficient, viscous
coefficient, and total coefficients for each selected wall zones.
If Moments has been selected, the pressure moments, viscous moments (if appropri-
ate), total moments, pressure coefficient, viscous coefficient and total coefficients
for each selected wall zones will be displayed. Additionally, the net values of the
coefficients and the forces or moments for all selected wall zones will be printed at
the end of the report. See Section 29.3.1: Computing Forces, Moments, and the
Center of Pressure for details about computing forces and moments.
If Center of Pressure has been selected, then FLUENT prints out the coordinates
about which the moment is zero.
To demonstrate how you would generate and interpret the center of pressure report,
consider Figure 29.3.3 which shows an airfoil of chord length 1 m.
• Select Center of Pressure under Options.
• Fix one of the coordinates. In this case, the Y coordinate is set to a value of
10 as shown in the panel, Figure 29.3.4.
• Select the Wall Zones that are necessary for the computation.
• Click Print to have the coordinates of the center of pressure printed in the
console. The report generated will be in the following form:

Pressure Center Coordinates (in m):

X = 0.41267981
Y = 10

i If Fx , the x-component of the force, is zero, then either the Y or Z coordi-

nate can be set (or fixed). If Fy , is zero, then either the X or Z coordinate
can be set, and similarly for Fz .

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cp
y = 10

0 0.2 x = 0.4126 1.2 x

Figure 29.3.3: An Airfoil with its Computed Center of Pressure

Figure 29.3.4: The Center of Pressure in the Force Reports Panel

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 29.4 Projected Surface Area Calculations

29.4 Projected Surface Area Calculations

You can use the Projected Surface Areas panel (Figure 29.4.1) to compute an estimated
area of the projection of selected surfaces along the x, y, or z axis (i.e., onto the yz, xz,
or xy plane).
Report −→Projected Areas...

Figure 29.4.1: The Projected Surface Areas panel

The procedure for calculating the projected area is as follows:

1. Select the Projection Direction (X, Y, or Z).

2. Choose the surface(s) for which the projected area is to be calculated in the Surfaces
list.

3. Set the Min Feature Size to the length of the smallest feature in the geometry that
you want to resolve in the area calculation. (You can just use the default value to
start with, if you are not sure of the size of the smallest geometrical feature.)

4. Click on Compute. The area will be displayed in the Area box and in the console
window.

5. To improve the accuracy of the area calculation, reduce the Min Feature Size by half
and recompute the area. Repeat this step until the computed Area stops changing
(or you reach memory capacity).

This feature is available only for 3D domains.

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29.5 Surface Integration

You can compute the area or mass flow rate, or the integral, area-weighted average, flow
rate, mass-weighted average, sum, facet average, facet maximum, facet minimum, vertex
average, vertex minimum, and vertex maximum for a selected field variable on selected
surfaces in the domain. These surfaces are sets of data points created by FLUENT for
each of the zones in your model, or defined by you using the methods described in
Chapter 27: Creating Surfaces for Displaying and Reporting Data, or by using the Text
User Interface, described in Chapter 3: Text User Interface (TUI).
Since a surface can be arbitrarily positioned in the domain, the value of a variable at
each data point is obtained by linear interpolation of node values. For some variables,
these node values are computed explicitly by the solver. For others, however, only cell-
center values are computed, and the node values are obtained by averaging of the cell
values. These successive interpolations can lead to small errors in the surface integration
reports. (Chapter 30: Field Function Definitions provides information on which variables
have computed node values.)
Example uses of several types of surface integral reports are given below:

• Area: You can compute the area of a velocity inlet zone, and then estimate the
velocity from the mass flow rate:

ṁ
v= (29.5-1)
ρA
• Area-weighted average: You can find the average value on a solid surface, such as
the average heat flux on a heated wall with a specified temperature.
• Mass average: You can find the average value on a surface in the flow, such as
average enthalpy at a velocity inlet.
• Mass flow rate: You can compute the mass flow rate through a velocity inlet zone,
and then estimate the velocity from the area, as described above.
• Flow rate: To calculate the heat transfer rate through a surface, you can calculate
the flow rate of enthalpy.
• Integral: You can use integrals for more complex calculations, which may involve
the use of the Custom Field Function Calculator panel, described in Section 30.5: Cus-
tom Field Functions, to calculate a function that requires integral computations
(e.g., swirl number).
• Standard deviation: You can find the standard deviation of a specified field variable
on a surface, such as enthalpy, viscosity, and velocity.
• Volume flow rate: This will report the volume flow rate through the specified
surface.

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 29.5 Surface Integration

29.5.1 Computing Surface Integrals

Area
The area of a surface is computed by summing the areas of the facets that define the
surface. Facets on a surface are either triangular or quadrilateral in shape.

Z n
X
dA = |Ai | (29.5-2)
i=1

Integral
An integral on a surface is computed by summing the product of the facet area and the
selected field variable, such as density or pressure. Each facet is associated with a cell in
the domain. If the facet is the result of an isovalue cut through the cell, the field variable
assigned to the facet is the associated cell value. If the facet is on a boundary surface, an
interpolated face value is used for the integration instead of the cell value. This is done
to improve the accuracy of the calculation, and to ensure that the result matches the
boundary conditions specified on the boundary and the fluxes reported on the boundary.

Z n
X
φdA = φi |Ai | (29.5-3)
i=1

Area-Weighted Average
The area-weighted average of a quantity is computed by dividing the summation of the
product of the selected field variable and facet area by the total area of the surface:

n
1Z 1X
φdA = φi |Ai | (29.5-4)
A A i=1

Flow Rate
The flow rate of a quantity through a surface is computed by summing the product of
density and the selected field variable with the dot product of the facet area vector and
the facet velocity vector:

Z n
~= ~i
X
φρ~v · dA φi ρi v~i · A (29.5-5)
i=1

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Mass Flow Rate

The mass flow rate through a surface is computed by summing the product of density
with the dot product of the facet area vector and the facet velocity vector:

Z n
~= ~i
X
ρ~v · dA ρi v~i · A (29.5-6)
i=1

Mass-Weighted Average
The mass-weighted average of a quantity is computed by dividing the summation of the
product of the selected field variable and the absolute value of the dot product of the
facet area and momentum vectors by the summation of the absolute value of the dot
product of the facet area and momentum vectors (surface mass flux):

n  
~ i 
Z X
φ ρ v
~ · A
 
~

φρ ~v · dA
  i i  i
i=1
Z   = n (29.5-7)
ρ ~v · dA
 ~ X  
~ i 
ρi v~i · A
i=1

Sum of Field Variable

The sum of a specified field variable on a surface is computed by summing the value of
the selected variable at each facet:

n
X
φi (29.5-8)
i=1

Facet Average
The facet average of a specified field variable on a surface is computed by dividing the
summation of the facet values of the selected variable by the total number of facets. See
Section 30.1: Node, Cell, and Facet Values for definitions of facet values.

n
X
φi
i=1
(29.5-9)
n

Facet Minimum
The facet minimum of a specified field variable on a surface is the minimum facet value
of the selected variable on the surface. See Section 30.1: Node, Cell, and Facet Values
for definitions of facet values.

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 29.5 Surface Integration

Facet Maximum
The facet maximum of a specified field variable on a surface is the maximum facet value
of the selected variable on the surface. See Section 30.1: Node, Cell, and Facet Values
for definitions of facet values.

Vertex Average
The vertex average of a specified field variable on a surface is computed by dividing the
summation of the vertex values of the selected variable by the total number of vertices.
See Section 30.1: Node, Cell, and Facet Values for definitions of vertex values.

n
X
φi
i=1
(29.5-10)
n

Vertex Minimum
The vertex minimum of a specified field variable on a surface is the minimum vertex value
of the selected variable on the surface. See Section 30.1: Node, Cell, and Facet Values
for definitions of vertex values.

Vertex Maximum
The vertex maximum of a specified field variable on a surface is the maximum vertex
value of the selected variable on the surface. See Section 30.1: Node, Cell, and Facet
Values for definitions of vertex values.

Standard-Deviation
The standard deviation of a specified field variable on a surface is computed using the
mathematical expression below:
v
u n
uX
u
u (x − x0 )2
t i=1
(29.5-11)
n

where x is the cell value of the selected variables at each facet, x0 is the mean of x

n
X
x
i=1
x0 =
n

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Reporting Alphanumeric Data

and n is the total number of facets. See Section 30.1: Node, Cell, and Facet Values for
definitions of facet values.

Volume Flow Rate

The volume flow rate through a surface is computed by summing the dot product of the
facet area vector and the facet velocity vector:

Z n
~= ~i
X
~v · dA v~i · A (29.5-12)
i=1

29.5.2 Generating a Surface Integral Report

To obtain a report for selected surfaces of the area or mass flow rate or the integral, flow
rate, sum, facet maximum, facet minimum, vertex maximum, vertex minimum, or mass-,
area-, facet-, or vertex-averaged quantity of a specified field variable, use the Surface
Integrals panel (Figure 29.5.1).
Report −→Surface Integrals...

Figure 29.5.1: The Surface Integrals Panel

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 29.5 Surface Integration

The steps for generating the report are as follows:

1. Specify which type of report you are interested in by selecting Area, Integral, Area-
Weighted Average, Flow Rate, Mass Flow Rate, Mass-Weighted Average, Sum, Facet
Average, Facet Minimum, Facet Maximum, Vertex Average, Vertex Minimum, or Vertex
Maximum in the Report Type drop-down list.
2. If you are generating a report of area or mass flow rate, skip to the next step.
Otherwise, use the Field Variable drop-down lists to select the field variable to be
used in the surface integrations. First, select the desired category in the upper
drop-down list. You can then select a related quantity from the lower list. (See
Chapter 30: Field Function Definitions for an explanation of the variables in the
list.)
3. In the Surfaces list, choose the surface(s) on which to perform the surface integra-
tion.
If you want to select several surfaces of the same type, you can select that type
in the Surface Types list instead. All of the surfaces of that type will be selected
automatically in the Surfaces list (or deselected, if they are all selected already).
Another shortcut is to specify a Surface Name Pattern and click Match to select
surfaces with names that match the specified pattern. For example, if you spec-
ify wall*, all surfaces whose names begin with wall (e.g., wall-1, wall-top) will be
selected automatically. If they are all selected already, they will be deselected. If
you specify wall?, all surfaces whose names consist of wall followed by a single
character will be selected (or deselected, if they are all selected already).
4. Click on the Compute button. Depending on the type of report you have selected,
the label for the result will change to Area, Integral, Area-Weighted Average, Flow
Rate, Mass Flow Rate, Mass-Weighted Average, Sum of Facet Values, Average of Facet
Values, Minimum of Facet Values, Maximum of Facet Values, Average of Surface Vertex
Values, Minimum of Vertex Values, or Maximum of Vertex Values, as appropriate. The
computed results will also be printed in the FLUENT console window.
5. To save the computed results to a file, click the Write... button and specify the
filename in the resulting Select File dialog box.

Note the following items:

• Mass averaging “weights” toward regions of higher velocity (i.e., regions where more
mass crosses the surface).
• Flow rates reported using the Surface Integrals panel are not as accurate as those
reported with the Flux Reports panel (described in Section 29.2: Fluxes Through
Boundaries).
• The facet and vertex average options are recommended for zero-area surfaces.

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29.6 Volume Integration

The volume, sum, maximum, minimum, volume integral, volume-weighted average, mass
integral, and mass-weighted average can be obtained for a selected field variable in se-
lected cell zones in the domain.
Example uses of the different types of volume integral reports are given below:

• Volume: You can compute the total volume of a fluid region.

• Sum: You can add up the discrete-phase mass or energy sources to determine the
net transfer from the discrete phase. You can also sum user-defined sources of mass
or energy.

• Maximum: The maximum value of the selected variable at each cell in the selected
zone.

• Minimum: The minimum value of the selected variable at each cell in the selected
zone.

• Volume Integral: For quantities that are stored per unit volume, you can use volume
integrals to determine the net value (e.g., integrate density to determine mass).

• Volume-Average: You can obtain volume averages of mass sources, energy sources,
or discrete-phase exchange quantities.

• Mass Integral: You can determine the total mass of a particular species by integrat-
ing its mass fraction.

• Mass-Average: You can find the average value (such as average temperature) in a
fluid zone.

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 29.6 Volume Integration

29.6.1 Computing Volume Integrals

Volume
The volume of a surface is computed by summing the volumes of the cells that comprise
the zone:

Z n
X
dV = |Vi | (29.6-1)
i=1

Sum
The sum of a specified field variable in a cell zone is computed by summing the value of
the selected variable at each cell in the selected zone:

n
X
φi (29.6-2)
i=1

Volume Integral
A volume integral is computed by summing the product of the cell volume and the
selected field variable:

Z n
X
φdV = φi |Vi | (29.6-3)
i=1

Volume-Weighted Average
The volume-weighted average of a quantity is computed by dividing the summation of
the product of the selected field variable and cell volume by the total volume of the cell
zone:

n
1 Z 1 X
φdV = φi |Vi | (29.6-4)
V V i=1

Mass-Weighted Integral
The mass-weighted integral is computed by summing the product of density, cell volume,
and the selected field variable:

Z n
X
φρdV = φi ρi |Vi | (29.6-5)
i=1

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Reporting Alphanumeric Data

Mass-Weighted Average
The mass-weighted average of a quantity is computed by dividing the summation of the
product of density, cell volume, and the selected field variable by the summation of the
product of density and cell volume:

Z n
X
φρdV φi ρi |Vi |
i=1
Z = n (29.6-6)
ρdV
X
ρi |Vi |
i=1

29.6.2 Generating a Volume Integral Report

To obtain a report (of quantities such as the volume, sum, minimum, maximum, volume
integral, volume-weighted average, mass-weighted integral, or mass-weighted average)
for selected cell zones for a specified field variable, use the Volume Integrals panel (Fig-
ure 29.6.1). Report −→Volume Integrals...

Figure 29.6.1: The Volume Integrals Panel

The steps for generating the report are as follows:

1. Specify which type of report you are interested in by selecting Volume, Sum, Max,
Min, Volume Integral, Volume-Average, Mass Integral, or Mass-Average under Options.

2. If you are generating a report of volume, skip to the next step. Otherwise, use the
Field Variable drop-down lists to select the field variable to be used in the integral,
sum, or averaged volume integrations. First, select the desired category in the
upper drop-down list. You can then select a related quantity from the lower list.

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 29.7 Histogram Reports

(See Chapter 30: Field Function Definitions for an explanation of the variables in
the list.)

3. In the Cell Zones list, choose the zones on which to compute the volume, sum, max,
min, volume integral, volume-weighted average, mass integral, or mass-averaged
quantity.

4. Click on the Compute button. Depending on the type of report you have selected,
the label for the result will change to Total Volume, Sum, Max, Min, Total Volume
Integral, Volume-Weighted Average, Total Mass-Weighted Integral, or Mass-Weighted
Average, as appropriate.
The computed results will also be printed in the FLUENT console window.

5. To save the computed results to a file, click the Write... button and specify the
filename in the resulting Select File dialog box.

29.7 Histogram Reports

In FLUENT, you can print geometric and solution data in the console (text) window in
histogram format or plot a histogram in the graphics window. Graphical display of his-
tograms and the procedures for defining a histogram are discussed in Section 28.8.7: Histograms.
The number of cells, the range of the selected variable or function, and the percentage
of the total number of cells in the interval will be reported, as in the example below:

0 cells below 1.195482 (0 %)

2 cells between 1.195482 and 1.196048 (4.1666667 %)
1 cells between 1.196048 and 1.196614 (2.0833333 %)
0 cells between 1.196614 and 1.19718 (0 %)
0 cells between 1.19718 and 1.197746 (0 %)
2 cells between 1.197746 and 1.198312 (4.1666667 %)
1 cells between 1.198312 and 1.198878 (2.0833333 %)
6 cells between 1.198878 and 1.199444 (12.5 %)
9 cells between 1.199444 and 1.20001 (18.75 %)
25 cells between 1.20001 and 1.200576 (52.083333 %)
2 cells between 1.200576 and 1.201142 (4.1666667 %)
0 cells above 1.201142 (0 %)

To generate such a printed histogram, use the Histogram panel.

Report −→Histogram...
Follow the instructions in Section 28.8.7: Histograms for generating histogram plots, but
click on Print instead of Plot to create the report.

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Reporting Alphanumeric Data

29.8 Discrete Phase

FLUENT allows you to write particle states (position, velocity, diameter, temperature,
and mass flow rate) to files at various boundaries and planes (lines in 2D) using the
Sample Trajectories panel (Figure 22.16.2). Information about discrete phase reporting is
dicussed in detail in Section 22.16.6: Sampling of Trajectories, Section 22.16.7: Histogram
Reporting of Samples, and Section 22.16.8: Summary Reporting of Current Particles.

29.9 S2S Information

FLUENT allows you to view the values of the view factor and radiation emitted from
one zone to another. You will use the S2S Information panel (Figure 13.3.30) to gen-
erate a report of these values. For details on reporting S2S information, refer to Sec-
tion 13.3.17: Reporting Radiation in the S2S Model.

29.10 Reference Values

You can control the reference values that are used in the computation of derived physical
quantities and non-dimensional coefficients. These reference values are used only for
postprocessing.
Some examples of the use of reference values include the following:

• Force coefficients use the reference area, density, and velocity. In addition, the
pressure force calculation uses the reference pressure.

• Moment coefficients use the reference length, area, density and velocity. In addition,
the pressure force calculation uses the reference pressure.

• Reynolds number uses the reference length, density, and viscosity.

• Pressure and total pressure coefficients use the reference pressure, density, and
velocity.

• Entropy uses the reference density, pressure, and temperature.

• Skin friction coefficient uses the reference density and velocity.

• Heat transfer coefficient uses the reference temperature.

• Turbomachinery efficiency calculations use the ratio of specific heats.

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 29.10 Reference Values

29.10.1 Setting Reference Values

To set the reference quantities used for computing normalized flow-field variables, use
the Reference Values panel (Figure 29.10.1).
Report −→Reference Values...

Figure 29.10.1: The Reference Values Panel

You can input the reference values manually or compute them based on values of physical
quantities at a selected boundary zone. The reference values to be set are Area, Density,
Enthalpy, Length, Pressure, Temperature, Velocity, dynamic Viscosity, and Ratio Of Specific
Heats.

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Reporting Alphanumeric Data

For 2D problems, an additional quantity, Depth, can also be defined. This quantity will
be used for reporting fluxes and forces, as well as relevant variables computed using the
Surface Integrals panel and the Volume Integrals panel (e.g. Area, Flow Rate, Mass Flow
Rate, Volume, etc.). You should verify that the value and units of Depth corresponds to
the depth dimension of your application prior to reporting any of the variables above.

i The units for Depth are set independently from the units for Length in the
Set Units panel.
If you want to compute reference values from the conditions set on a particular boundary
zone, select the zone in the Compute From drop-down list. Note, however, that depending
on the boundary condition used, only some of the reference values may be set. For
example, the reference length and area will not be set by computing the reference values
from a boundary condition; you will need to set these manually.
To set the values manually, simply enter the value for each under the Reference Values
heading.

29.10.2 Setting the Reference Zone

If you are solving a flow involving multiple reference frames or sliding meshes, you can
plot velocities and other related quantities relative to the motion of a specified “reference
zone”. Choose the desired zone in the Reference Zone drop-down list. Changing the
reference zone allows you to plot velocities (and total pressure, temperature, etc.) relative
to the motion of different zones. See Chapter 10: Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference
Frames for details about postprocessing of relative quantities.

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 29.11 Summary Reports of Case Settings

29.11 Summary Reports of Case Settings

You may sometimes find it useful to get a report of the current settings in your case.
In FLUENT, you can list the settings for physical models, boundary conditions, material
properties, and solver controls. This report allows you to get an overview of your current
problem definition quickly, instead of having to check the settings in each panel.

29.11.1 Generating a Summary Report

To generate a summary report you will use the Summary panel (Figure 29.11.1).
Report −→Summary...

Figure 29.11.1: The Summary Panel

The steps are as follows:

1. Select the information you would like to see in the report (Models, Boundary Con-
ditions, Solver Controls, and/or Material Properties) in the Report Options list.

2. To print the information to the FLUENT console window, click on the Print button.
To save the information to a text file, click on the Save... button and specify the
filename in the resulting Select File dialog box.

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Reporting Alphanumeric Data

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Chapter 30. Field Function Definitions

You must select flow variables for a number of tasks in FLUENT. The values are computed
and placed in temporary memory that is allocated for storing the results for each cell.
For example, the Compute command associated with a panel that contains the field
variable drop-down list calculates the values of the selected function and places them
into temporary storage.
Sections 30.1 and 30.2 provide some general information related to the field variables. In
Section 30.3: Field Variables Listed by Category, the variables are listed by category in
Tables 30.3.1–30.3.13. These tables will also indicate when each variable will be available.
Section 30.4: Alphabetical Listing of Field Variables and Their Definitions contains an
alphabetical listing of the variables along with their definitions. All variables appear as
they would in the variable selection drop-down lists that are contained in many of the
FLUENT panels. Section 30.5: Custom Field Functions explains how you can calculate
your own field function.

• Section 30.1: Node, Cell, and Facet Values

• Section 30.2: Velocity Reporting Options
• Section 30.3: Field Variables Listed by Category
• Section 30.4: Alphabetical Listing of Field Variables and Their Definitions
• Section 30.5: Custom Field Functions

30.1 Node, Cell, and Facet Values

For the following discussion, “surface” refers to a collection of facets, lines or points
that are created and manipulated in the Surface menu. In most cases, these surfaces are
created by computing intersections of constant isovalues with the domain cells or with
existing surfaces.

30.1.1 Cell Values

FLUENT stores most variables in cells. For postprocessing, the entire region contained
within the cell has this value. A surface cell value is the value of the cell that has been
intersected by a surface facet or line, or that contains a surface point. Since surface facets
and lines are created from the intersection of isovalues and the existing grid cells, this is
a unique definition. On a boundary, the cell value is the value in the cell adjacent to the
boundary.

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Field Function Definitions

30.1.2 Node Values

Node values are explicitly defined or obtained by weighted averaging of the cell data.
Various boundary conditions impose values of field variables at the domain boundaries,
so grid node values on these boundary zones are obtained by simple averaging of the
adjacent boundary face data. In addition, for several variables (e.g., node coordinates)
explicit node values are available at all nodes.
Computation of node values is performed in two steps:

1. Values at all nodes are initialized to the weighted average of the surrounding cell
values. The weights are the inverses of the distances between the nodes and the
cell centroid.

2. At boundaries, these node values are overwritten with the simple average of the
boundary face values. Variables for which explicit node values are available at
boundaries are indicated by bnv in Tables 30.3.1–30.3.13.

For example, in Figure 30.1.1, the value at node n1 will be computed from the weighted
average of the values in the surrounding cells (c1–c6). The value at node n2 will be
computed from the simple average of the boundary faces (bf 1 and bf 2) if there are
explicit boundary values available for the variable in question.

c4
c3 c5

n1

c2 c6
c1 c7
bf1 n2 bf2
boundary

Figure 30.1.1: Computing Node Values

i Note that explicit boundary node values are not available for custom field
functions.

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 30.1 Node, Cell, and Facet Values

Vertex Values for Points That are Not Mesh Nodes

The values of the nodes on surfaces are linearly interpolated from the grid node data.
For zone surfaces, the nodes on the surface and the zone correspond; thus, the values
are identical. For surfaces that are not zone surfaces (e.g., isosurfaces, plane surfaces,
etc.), the node values are interpolated from grid nodes on the cell faces intersected by
the postprocessing surface. For point surfaces the value is interpolated from all the grid
nodes of the cell containing the point.

30.1.3 Facet Values

Facets can be created on preprocessing surfaces and postprocessing surfaces.

Facet Values on Zone Surfaces

The interior facets on a zone surface are associated with two cells (c0 and c1). The values
of specified variable on such facets are computed as the average of the two cell values of
the selected variable.
The boundary facet values of a specified field variable on a zone surface are computed
from the boundary condition provided by the user.

Facet Values on Postprocessing Surfaces

The facets on a postprocessing surface are associated with one cell. The values of a
specified variable on such facets are the same as the cell values of the selected variable
in the associated cells.

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Field Function Definitions

30.2 Velocity Reporting Options

The following methods are available for reporting velocities:

• Cartesian velocities: These velocities are based on the Cartesian coordinate system
used by the geometry. To report Cartesian velocities, select X Velocity, Y Velocity,
or Z Velocity. This is the most common type of velocity reported.

• Cylindrical velocities: These velocities are the axial, radial, and tangential compo-
nents based on the following coordinate systems:
– For axisymmetric problems, in which the rotation axis must be the x axis, the
x direction is the axial direction and the y direction is the radial direction. (If
you model axisymmetric swirl, the swirl direction is the tangential direction.)
– For 2D problems involving a single cell zone, the z direction is the axial direc-
tion, and its origin is specified in the Fluid panel.
– For 3D problems involving a single cell zone, the coordinate system is defined
by the rotation axis and origin specified in the Fluid panel.
– For problems involving multiple zones (e.g., multiple reference frames or sliding
meshes), the coordinate system is defined by the rotation axis specified in
the Fluid (or Solid) panel for the “reference zone”. The reference zone is
chosen in the Reference Values panel, as described in Section 29.10: Reference
Values. Recall that for 2D problems, you will specify only the axis origin; the
z direction is always the axial direction.
For all of the above definitions of the cylindrical coordinate system, positive radial
velocities point radially out from the rotation axis, positive axial velocities are in
the direction of the rotation axis vector, and positive tangential velocities are based
on the right-hand rule using the positive rotation axis.
To report cylindrical velocities, select Axial Velocity, Radial Velocity, etc. Fig-
ure 30.2.1 illustrates the cylindrical velocities available for different types of do-
mains: For 3D problems, you can report axial, radial, and tangential velocities.
For 2D problems, radial and tangential velocities are available. For axisymmetric
problems, you can report axial and radial velocities, and if you are modeling ax-
isymmetric swirl you can also report the swirl velocity (which is equivalent to the
tangential velocity).

• Relative velocities: These velocities are based on the coordinate system and motion
of a moving reference frame. They are useful when you are modeling your flow using
a rotating reference frame, a mixing plane, multiple reference frames, or sliding
meshes. (See Chapter 10: Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames for
information about modeling flow in moving zones.) To report relative velocities,
select Relative X Velocity, Relative Y Velocity, Relative Radial Velocity, etc. (Note that
you can report relative velocities for both Cartesian and cylindrical components.)

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 30.2 Velocity Reporting Options

axial
radial
tangential tangential

radial
rotation axis
rotation origin
axis

radial

rotation axis
axial
tangential
(swirl)

Figure 30.2.1: Cylindrical Velocity Components in 3D, 2D, and Axisymmet-

ric Domains

If you are using a single rotating reference frame, the relative velocity values will
be reported with respect to the moving frame. If you are using multiple reference
frames, mixing planes, or sliding meshes, you will need to specify the frame to
which you want the velocities to be relative by choosing the appropriate cell zone
as the Reference Zone in the Reference Values panel (see Section 29.10: Reference
Values). The axis of rotation for each cell zone is defined in the associated Fluid
panel or Solid panel. (See Section 7.17.1: Specifying the Rotation Axis or 7.18.1 for
details.)
Note that if your problem does not involve any moving zones, relative and absolute
velocities will be equivalent.

Note that relative velocities can also be used to compute stagnation quantities (total
pressure and total temperature), and that the cylindrical coordinate systems described
in the second item above are used for defining the Axial Coordinate and Radial Coordinate
as well.

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Field Function Definitions

30.3 Field Variables Listed by Category

In Tables 30.3.1–30.3.13, the following restrictions apply to marked variables:

2d available only for 2D flows

2da available only for 2D axisymmetric flows (with or without swirl)
2dasw available only for 2D axisymmetric swirl flows
3d available only for 3D flows
bns available only for broadband noise source models
bnv node values available at boundaries
cpl available only in the density-based solvers
cv available only for cell values (Node Values option turned off)
des available only when the DES turbulence model is used
dil not available with full multicomponent diffusion
do available only when the discrete ordinates radiation model is used
dpm available only for coupled discrete phase calculations
dtrm available only when the discrete transfer radiation model is used
fwh available only with the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings acoustics model
e available only for energy calculations
edc available only with the EDC model for turbulence-chemistry
interaction
emm available also when the Eulerian multiphase model is used
ewt available only with the enhanced wall treatment
gran available only if a granular phase is present
h2o available only when the mixture contains water
id available only when the ideal gas law is enabled for density
ke available only when one of the k- turbulence models is used
kw available only when one of the k-ω turbulence models is used
les available only when the LES turbulence model is used
melt available only when the melting and solidification model is used
mix available only when the multiphase mixture model is used
mp available only for multiphase models
nox available only for NOx calculations
np not available in parallel solvers
nv uses explicit node value function
p available only in parallel solvers
p1 available only when the P-1 radiation model is used

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 30.3 Field Variables Listed by Category

pdf available only for non-premixed combustion calculations

pmx available only for premixed combustion calculations
ppmx available only for partially premixed combustion calculations
r available only when the Rosseland radiation model is used
rad available only for radiation heat transfer calculations
rc available only for finite-rate reactions
rsm available only when the Reynolds stress turbulence model is used
s2s available only when the surface-to-surface radiation model is used
sa available only when the Spalart-Allmaras turbulence model is used
seg available only in the pressure-based solver
sp available only for species calculations
sr available only for surface reactions
sol available only when the solar model is used
soot available only for soot calculations
stat available only with data sampling for unsteady statistics
stcm available only for stiff chemistry calculations
t available only for turbulent flows
turbo available only when a turbomachinery topology has been defined
udm available only when a user-defined memory location is used
uds available only when a user-defined scalar is used
v available only for viscous flows

Table 30.3.1: Pressure and Density Categories

Category Variable
Pressure... Static Pressure (bnv)
Pressure Coefficient
Dynamic Pressure
Absolute Pressure (bnv)
Total Pressure (bnv)
Relative Total Pressure
Density... Density
Density All

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Field Function Definitions

Table 30.3.2: Velocity Category

Category Variable
Velocity... Velocity Magnitude (bnv)
X Velocity (bnv)
Y Velocity (bnv)
Z Velocity (3d, bnv)
Swirl Velocity (2dasw, bnv)
Axial Velocity (2da or 3d)
Radial Velocity
Stream Function (2d)
Tangential Velocity
Mach Number (id)
Relative Velocity Magnitude (bnv)
Relative X Velocity (bnv)
Relative Y Velocity (bnv)
Relative Z Velocity (3d, bnv)
Relative Axial Velocity (2da)
Relative Radial Velocity (2da)
Relative Swirl Velocity (2dasw, bnv)
Relative Tangential Velocity
Relative Mach Number (id)
Grid X-Velocity (nv)
Grid Y-Velocity (nv)
Grid Z-Velocity (3d, nv)
Velocity Angle
Relative Velocity Angle
Vorticity Magnitude (v)
Helicity (v, 3d)
X-Vorticity (v, 3d)
Y-Vorticity (v, 3d)
Z-Vorticity (v, 3d)
Cell Reynolds Number (v)
Preconditioning Reference Velocity (cpl)

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 30.3 Field Variables Listed by Category

Table 30.3.3: Temperature, Radiation, and Solidification/Melting Categories

Category Variable
Temperature... Static Temperature (e, bnv, nv)
Total Temperature (e, nv)
Enthalpy (e, nv)
Relative Total Temperature (e)
Rothalpy (e, nv)
Fine Scale Temperature (edc, nv, e)
Wall Temperature (Outer Surface) (e, v)
Wall Temperature (Inner Surface) (e, v)
Total Enthalpy (e)
Total Enthalpy Deviation (e)
Entropy (e)
Total Energy (e)
Internal Energy (e)
Radiation... Absorption Coefficient (r, p1, do, or dtrm)
Scattering Coefficient (r, p1, or do)
Refractive Index (do)
Radiation Temperature (p1 or do)
Incident Radiation (p1 or do)
Incident Radiation (Band n) (do (non-gray))
Surface Cluster ID (s2s)
Solidification/ Liquid Fraction (melt)
Melting Contact Resistivity (melt)
X Pull Velocity (melt (if calculated))
Y Pull Velocity (melt (if calculated))
Z Pull Velocity (melt (if calculated), 3d)
Axial Pull Velocity (melt (if calculated), 2da)
Radial Pull Velocity (melt (if calculated), 2da)
Swirl Pull Velocity (melt (if calculated), 2dasw)

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Field Function Definitions

Table 30.3.4: Turbulence Category

Category Variable
Turbulence... Turbulent Kinetic Energy (k) (ke, kw, or rsm; bnv, nv, or emm)
UU Reynolds Stress (rsm; emm)
VV Reynolds Stress (rsm; emm)
WW Reynolds Stress (rsm; emm)
UV Reynolds Stress (rsm; emm)
UW Reynolds Stress (rsm, 3d; emm)
VW Reynolds Stress (rsm, 3d; emm)
Turbulence Intensity (ke, kw, or rsm)
Turbulent Dissipation Rate (Epsilon) (ke or rsm; bnv, nv, or emm)
Specific Dissipation Rate (Omega) (kw)
Production of k (ke, kw, or rsm; emm)
Modified Turbulent Viscosity (sa)
Turbulent Viscosity (sa, ke, kw, rsm, or des)
Effective Viscosity (sa, ke, kw, rsm, or des; emm)
Turbulent Viscosity Ratio (ke, kw, rsm, sa, or des; emm)
Subgrid Kinetic Energy (les)
Subgrid Turbulent Viscosity (les)
Subgrid Effective Viscosity (les)
Subgrid Turbulent Viscosity Ratio (les)
Subgrid Filter Length (les)
Effective Thermal Conductivity (t, e)
Effective Prandtl Number (t, e)
Wall Ystar (ke, kw, or rsm)
Wall Yplus (t)
Turbulent Reynolds Number (Re y) (ke or rsm; ewt)
Relative Length Scale (DES) (des)

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 30.3 Field Variables Listed by Category

Table 30.3.5: Species, Reactions, Pdf, and Premixed Combustion Categories

Category Variable
Species... Mass fraction of species-n (sp, pdf, or ppmx; nv)
Mole fraction of species-n (sp, pdf, or ppmx)
Molar Concentration of species-n (sp, pdf, or ppmx)
Lam Diff Coef of species-n (sp, dil)
Eff Diff Coef of species-n (t, sp, dil)
Thermal Diff Coef of species-n (sp)
Enthalpy of species-n (sp)
species-n Source Term (rc, cpl)
Surface Deposition Rate of species-n (sr)
Surface Coverage of species-n (sr)
Relative Humidity (sp, pdf, or ppmx; h2o)
Time Step Scale (sp, stcm)
Fine Scale Mass fraction of species-n (edc)
Fine Scale Transfer Rate (edc)
1-Fine Scale Volume Fraction (edc)
Reactions... Rate of Reaction-n (rc)
Arrhenius Rate of Reaction-n (rc)
Turbulent Rate of Reaction-n (rc, t)
Pdf... Mean Mixture Fraction (pdf or ppmx; nv)
Secondary Mean Mixture Fraction (pdf or ppmx; nv)
Mixture Fraction Variance (pdf or ppmx; nv)
Secondary Mixture Fraction Variance (pdf or ppmx; nv)
Fvar Prod (pdf or ppmx)
Fvar2 Prod (pdf or ppmx)
Scalar Dissipation (pdf or ppmx)
Premixed Progress Variable (pmx or ppmx; nv)
Combustion... Damkohler Number (pmx or ppmx)
Stretch Factor (pmx or ppmx)
Turbulent Flame Speed (pmx or ppmx)
Static Temperature (pmx or ppmx)
Product Formation Rate (pmx or ppmx)
Laminar Flame Speed (pmx or ppmx)
Critical Strain Rate (pmx or ppmx)
Adiabatic Flame Temperature (pmx or ppmx)
Unburnt Fuel Mass Fraction (pmx or ppmx)

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Field Function Definitions

Table 30.3.6: NOx, Soot, and Unsteady Statistics Categories

Category Variable
NOx... Mass fraction of NO (nox)
Mass fraction of HCN (nox)
Mass fraction of NH3 (nox)
Mass fraction of N2O (nox)
Mole fraction of NO (nox)
Mole fraction of HCN (nox)
Mole fraction of NH3 (nox)
Mole fraction of N2O (nox)
NO Density (nox)
HCN Density (nox)
NH3 Density (nox)
N2O Density (nox)
Variance of Temperature (nox)
Variance of Species (nox)
Variance of Species 1 (nox)
Variance of Species 2 (nox)
Rate of NO (nox)
Rate of Thermal NO (nox)
Rate of Prompt NO (nox)
Rate of Fuel NO (nox)
Rate of N2OPath NO (nox)
Rate of Reburn NO (nox)
Rate of SNCR NO (nox)
Rate of USER NO (nox)
Soot... Mass fraction of soot (soot)
Mass fraction of Nuclei (soot)
Mole fraction of soot (soot)
Soot Density (soot)
Rate of Soot (soot)
Rate of Nuclei (soot)
Unsteady Mean quantity-n (stat)
Statistics... RMS quantity-n (stat)

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 30.3 Field Variables Listed by Category

Table 30.3.7: Phases, Discrete Phase Model, Granular Pressure, and Granular
Temperature Categories

Category Variable
Phases... Volume fraction (mp)
Discrete Phase DPM Mass Source (dpm)
Model... DPM Erosion (dpm, cv)
DPM Accretion (dpm, cv)
DPM X Momentum Source (dpm)
DPM Y Momentum Source (dpm)
DPM Z Momentum Source (dpm, 3d)
DPM Swirl Momentum Source (dpm, 2dasw)
DPM Sensible Enthalpy Source (dpm, e)
DPM Enthalpy Source (dpm, e)
DPM Absorption Coefficient (dpm, rad)
DPM Emission (dpm, rad)
DPM Scattering (dpm, rad)
DPM Burnout (dpm, sp, e)
DPM Evaporation/Devolatilization (dpm, sp, e)
DPM Concentration (dpm)
DPM species-n Source (dpm, sp, e)

Granular Granular Pressure (emm, gran)

Pressure...
Granular Granular Temperature (emm, gran)
Temperature...

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Field Function Definitions

Table 30.3.8: Properties, Wall Fluxes, User Defined Scalars, and User Defined
Memory Categories

Category Variable
Properties... Molecular Viscosity (v)
Diameter (mix, emm)
Granular Conductivity (mix, emm, gran)
Thermal Conductivity (e, v)
Specific Heat (Cp) (e)
Specific Heat Ratio (gamma) (id)
Gas Constant (R) (id)
Molecular Prandtl Number (e, v)
Mean Molecular Weight (seg, pdf)
Sound Speed (id)
Wall Fluxes... Wall Shear Stress (v, cv, emm)
X-Wall Shear Stress (v, cv, emm)
Y-Wall Shear Stress (v, cv, emm)
Z-Wall Shear Stress (v, 3d, cv, emm)
Axial-Wall Shear Stress (2da, cv)
Radial-Wall Shear Stress (2da, cv)
Swirl-Wall Shear Stress (2dasw, cv)
Skin Friction Coefficient (v, cv, emm)
Total Surface Heat Flux (e, v, cv)
Radiation Heat Flux (rad, cv)
Solar Heat Flux (sol, cv)
Absorbed Radiation Flux (Band-n) (do,cv)
Absorbed Visible Solar Flux (sol, cv)
Absorbed IR Solar Flux (sol, cv)
Reflected Radiation Flux (Band-n) (do, cv)
Reflected Visible Solar Flux (sol, cv)
Reflected IR Solar Flux (sol, cv)
Transmitted Radiation Flux (Band-n) (do, cv)
Transmitted Visible Solar Flux (sol, cv)
Transmitted IR Solar Flux (sol, cv)
Beam Irradiation Flux (Band-n) (do, cv)
Surface Incident Radiation (do, dtrm, or s2s; cv)
Surface Heat Transfer Coef. (e, v, cv)
Wall Func. Heat Tran. Coef. (e, v, cv)
Surface Nusselt Number (e, v, cv)
Surface Stanton Number (e, v, cv)
User Defined Scalar-n (uds)
Scalars... Diffusion Coef. of Scalar-n (uds)

User Defined udm-n (udm)

Memory...

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 30.3 Field Variables Listed by Category

Table 30.3.9: Cell Info, Grid, and Adaption Categories

Category Variable
Cell Info... Cell Partition (np)
Active Cell Partition (p)
Stored Cell Partition (p)
Cell Id (p)
Cell Element Type
Cell Zone Type
Cell Zone Index
Partition Neighbors
Grid... X-Coordinate (nv)
Y-Coordinate (nv)
Z-Coordinate (3d, nv)
Axial Coordinate (nv)
Angular Coordinate (3d, nv)
Abs. Angular Coordinate (3d, nv)
Radial Coordinate (nv)
X Surface Area
Y Surface Area
Z Surface Area (3d)
X Face Area
Y Face Area
Z Face Area (3d)
Cell Equiangle Skew
Cell Equivolume Skew
Cell Volume
2D Cell Volume (2da)
Cell Wall Distance
Face Handedness
Face Squish Index
Cell Squish Index

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Field Function Definitions

Table 30.3.10: Grid Category (Turbomachinery-Specific Variables) and Adap-

tion Category

Category Variable
Grid... Meridional Coordinate (nv, turbo)
Abs Meridional Coordinate (nv, turbo)
Spanwise Coordinate (nv, turbo)
Abs (H-C) Spanwise Coordinate (nv, turbo)
Abs (C-H) Spanwise Coordinate (nv, turbo)
Pitchwise Coordinate (nv, turbo)
Abs Pitchwise Coordinate (nv, turbo)
Adaption... Adaption Function
Adaption Curvature
Adaption Space Gradient
Adaption Iso-Value
Existing Value
Boundary Cell Distance
Boundary Normal Distance
Boundary Volume Distance (np)
Cell Volume Change
Cell Surface Area
Cell Warpage
Cell Children
Cell Refine Level

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 30.3 Field Variables Listed by Category

Table 30.3.11: Residuals Category

Category Variable
Residuals... Mass Imbalance (seg)
Pressure Residual (cpl)
X-Velocity Residual (cpl)
Y-Velocity Residual (cpl)
Z-Velocity Residual (cpl, 3d)
Axial-Velocity Residual (cpl, 2da)
Radial-Velocity Residual (cpl, 2da)
Swirl-Velocity Residual (cpl, 2dasw)
Temperature Residual (cpl, e)
Species-n Residual (cpl, sp)
Time Step (cpl)
Pressure Correction (cpl)
X-Velocity Correction (cpl)
Y-Velocity Correction (cpl)
Z-Velocity Correction (cpl, 3d)
Axial-Velocity Correction (cpl, 2da)
Radial-Velocity Correction (cpl, 2da)
Swirl-Velocity Correction (cpl, 2dasw)
Temperature Correction (cpl, e)
Species-n Correction (cpl, sp)

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Field Function Definitions

Table 30.3.12: Derivatives Category

Category Variable
Derivatives... Strain Rate (v)
dX-Velocity/dx
dY-Velocity/dx
dZ-Velocity/dx (3d)
dAxial-Velocity/dx (2da)
dRadial-Velocity/dx (2da)
dSwirl-Velocity/dx (2dasw)
d species-n/dx (cpl, sp)
dX-Velocity/dy
dY-Velocity/dy
dZ-Velocity/dy (3d)
dAxial-Velocity/dy (2da)
dRadial-Velocity/dy (2da)
dSwirl-Velocity/dy (2dasw)
d species-n/dy (cpl, sp)
dX-Velocity/dz (3d)
dY-Velocity/dz (3d)
dZ-Velocity/dz (3d)
d species-n/dz (cpl, sp, 3d)
dOmega/dx (2dasw)
dOmega/dy (2dasw)
dp-dX (seg)
dp-dY (seg)
dp-dZ (seg, 3d)

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 30.3 Field Variables Listed by Category

Table 30.3.13: Acoustics Category

Category Variable
Acoustics... Surface dpdt RMS (fwh)
Acoustic Power Level (dB) (bns)
Acoustic Power (bns)
Jet Acoustic Power Level (dB) (bns, 2da)
Jet Acoustic Power (bns, 2da)
Surface Acoustic Power Level (dB) (bns)
Surface Acoustic Power (bns)
Lilley’s Self-Noise Source (bns)
Lilley’s Shear-Noise Source (bns)
Lilley’s Total Noise Source (bns)
LEE Self-Noise X-Source (bns)
LEE Shear-Noise X-Source (bns)
LEE Total Noise X-Source (bns)
LEE Self-Noise Y-Source (bns)
LEE Shear-Noise Y-Source (bns)
LEE Total Noise Y-Source (bns)
LEE Self-Noise Z-Source (bns, 3d)
LEE Shear-Noise Z-Source (bns, 3d)
LEE Total Noise Z-Source (bns, 3d)

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Field Function Definitions

30.4 Alphabetical Listing of Field Variables and Their Definitions

Below, the variables listed in Tables 30.3.1–30.3.13 are defined. For some variables (such
as residuals) a general definition is given under the category name, and variables in the
category are not listed individually. When appropriate, the unit quantity is included, as
it appears in the Quantities list in the Set Units panel.

Abs (C-H) Spanwise Coordinate (in the Grid... category) is the dimensional coordinate
in the spanwise direction, from casing to hub. Its unit quantity is length.

Abs (H-C) Spanwise Coordinate (in the Grid... category) is the dimensional coordinate
in the spanwise direction, from hub to casing. Its unit quantity is length.

Abs Meridional Coordinate (in the Grid... category) is the dimensional coordinate that
follows the flow path from inlet to outlet. Its unit quantity is length.

Abs Pitchwise Coordinate (in the Grid... category) is the dimensional coordinate in the
circumferential (pitchwise) direction. Its unit quantity is angle.

Absolute Pressure (in the Pressure... category) is equal to the operating pressure plus
the gauge pressure. See Section 8.14: Operating Pressure for details. Its unit
quantity is pressure.

Absorbed Radiation Flux (Band-n) (in the Wall Fluxes... category) is the amount of
radiative heat flux absorbed by a semi-transparent wall for a particular band of
radiation. Its unit quantity is heat-flux.

Absorbed Visible Solar Flux, Absorbed IR Solar Flux (in the Wall Fluxes... category) is
the amount of solar heat flux absorbed by a semi-transparent wall for a visible or
infrared (IR) radiation.

Absorption Coefficient (in the Radiation... category) is the property of a medium that
describes the amount of absorption of thermal radiation per unit path length within
the medium. It can be interpreted as the inverse of the mean free path that a photon
will travel before being absorbed (if the absorption coefficient does not vary along
the path). The unit quantity for Absorption Coefficient is length-inverse.

Acoustic Power (in the Acoustics... category) is the acoustic power per unit volume
generated by isotropic turbulence (see Equation 21.2-10). It is available only when
the Broadband Noise Sources acoustics model is being used. Its unit quantity is
power per volume.

Acoustic Power Level (dB) (in the Acoustics... category) is the acoustic power per
unit volume generated by isotropic turbulence and reported in dB (see Equa-
tion 21.2-13). It is available only when the Broadband Noise Sources acoustics
model is being used.

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 30.4 Alphabetical Listing of Field Variables and Their Definitions

Active Cell Partition (in the Cell Info... category) is an integer identifier designating
the partition to which a particular cell belongs. In problems in which the grid
is divided into multiple partitions to be solved on multiple processors using the
parallel version of FLUENT, the partition ID can be used to determine the extent
of the various groups of cells. The active cell partition is used for the current
calculation, while the stored cell partition (the last partition performed) is used
when you save a case file. See Section 31.5.4: Partitioning the Grid Manually for
more information.

Adaption... includes field variables that are commonly used for adapting the grid. For
information about solution adaption, see Chapter 26: Adapting the Grid.

Adaption Function (in the Adaption... category) can be either the Adaption Space Gra-
dient or the Adaption Curvature, depending on the settings in the Gradient Adaption
panel. For instance, the Adaption Curvature is the undivided Laplacian of the val-
ues in temporary cell storage. To display contours of the Laplacian of pressure,
for example, you first select Static Pressure, click the Compute (or Display) button,
select Adaption Function, and finally click the Display button.

Adaption Iso-Value (in the Adaption... category) is the desired field variable function.

Adaption Space Gradient (in the Adaption... category) is the first derivative of the
desired field variable.

r
|ei1 | = (Acell ) 2 |∇f | (30.4-1)

Depending on the settings in the Gradient Adaption panel, this equation will either
be scaled or normalized. Recommended for problems with shock waves (i.e., super-
sonic, inviscid flows). For more information, see Section 26.4.1: Gradient Adaption
Approach.

Adaption Curvature (in the Adaption... category) is the second derivative of the desired
field variable.

r
|ei2 | = (Acell ) 2 |∇2 f | (30.4-2)

Depending on the settings in the Gradient Adaption panel, this equation will either
be scaled or normalized. Recommended for smooth solutions (i.e., viscous, in-
compressible flows). For more information, see Section 26.4.1: Gradient Adaption
Approach.

Adiabatic Flame Temperature (in the Premixed Combustion... category) is the adia-
batic temperature of burnt products in a laminar premixed flame (Tb in Equa-
tion 16.2-24). Its unit quantity is temperature.

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Field Function Definitions

Arrhenius Rate of Reaction-n (in the Reactions... category) is given by the following
expression (see Equation 14.1-8 for definitions of the variables shown here):
 
Nr Nr
Y 0
ηj,r
Y 00
ηj,r
R̂r = Γ kf,r [Cj,r ] − kb,r [Cj,r ] 
j=1 j=1

The reported value is independent of any particular species, and has units of
kgmol/m3 -s.
To find the rate of production/destruction for a given species i due to reaction r,
00 0
multiply the reported reaction rate for reaction r by the term Mi (νi,r − νi,r ), where
00 0
Mi is the molecular weight of species i, and νi,r and νi,r are the stoichiometric
coefficients of species i in reaction r.
Angular Coordinate (in the Grid... category) is the angle between the radial vector and
the position vector. The radial vector is obtained by transforming the default radial
vector (y-axis) by the same rotation that was applied to the default axial vector (z-
axis ). This assumes that, after the transformation, the default axial vector (z-axis)
becomes the reference axis. The angle is positive in the direction of cross-product
between reference axis and radial vector.
Abs. Angular Coordinate (in the Grid... category) is the absolute value of the Angular
Coordinate defined above.
Axial Coordinate (in the Grid... category) is the distance from the origin in the axial
direction. The axis origin and (in 3D) direction is defined for each cell zone in the
Fluid or Solid panel. The axial direction for a 2D model is always the z direction,
and the axial direction for a 2D axisymmetric model is always the x direction. The
unit quantity for Axial Coordinate is length.
Axial Pull Velocity (in the Solidification/Melting... category) is the axial-direction com-
ponent of the pull velocity for the solid material in a continuous casting process.
Its unit quantity is velocity.
Axial Velocity (in the Velocity... category) is the component of velocity in the axial di-
rection. (See Section 30.2: Velocity Reporting Options for details.) For multiphase
models, this value corresponds to the selected phase in the Phase drop-down list.
Its unit quantity is velocity.
Axial-Wall Shear Stress (in the Wall Fluxes... category) is the axial component of the
force acting tangential to the surface due to friction. Its unit quantity is pressure.
Beam Irradiation Flux (Band-b) (in the Wall Fluxes... category) is specified as an inci-
dent heat flux (W/m2 ) for each wavelength band.
Boundary Cell Distance (in the Adaption... category) is an integer that indicates the
approximate number of cells from a boundary zone.

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 30.4 Alphabetical Listing of Field Variables and Their Definitions

Boundary Normal Distance (in the Adaption... category) is the distance of the cell cen-
troid from the closest boundary zone.

Boundary Volume Distance (in the Adaption... category) is the cell volume distribution
based on the Boundary Volume, Growth Factor, and normal distance from the selected
Boundary Zones defined in the Boundary Adaption panel. See Section 26.3: Boundary
Adaption for details.

Cell Children (in the Adaption... category) is a binary identifier based on whether a
cell is the product of a cell subdivision in the hanging-node adaption process (value
= 1) or not (value = 0).

Cell Element Type (in the Cell Info... category) is the integer cell element type identi-
fication number. Each cell can have one of the following element types:

triangle 1
tetrahedron 2
quadrilateral 3
hexahedron 4
pyramid 5
wedge 6

Cell Equiangle Skew (in the Grid... category) is a nondimensional parameter calculated
using the normalized angle deviation method, and is defined as
" #
qmax − qe qe − qmin
max , (30.4-3)
180 − qe qe
where
qmax = largest angle in the face or cell
qmin = smallest angle in the face or cell
qe = angle for an equiangular face or cell
(e.g., 60 for a triangle and 90 for a square)
A value of 0 indicates a best case equiangular cell, and a value of 1 indicates a com-
pletely degenerate cell. Degenerate cells (slivers) are characterized by nodes that
are nearly coplanar (collinear in 2D). Cell Equiangle Skew applies to all elements.

Cell Equivolume Skew (in the Grid... category) is a nondimensional parameter calcu-
lated using the volume deviation method, and is defined as

optimal-cell-size − cell-size
(30.4-4)
optimal-cell-size
where optimal-cell-size is the size of an equilateral cell with the same circumradius.
A value of 0 indicates a best case equilateral cell and a value of 1 indicates a

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Field Function Definitions

completely degenerate cell. Degenerate cells (slivers) are characterized by nodes

that are nearly coplanar (collinear in 2D). Cell Equivolume Skew applies only to
triangular and tetrahedral elements.

Cell Id (in the Cell Info... category) is a unique integer identifier associated with each
cell.

Cell Info... includes quantities that identify the cell and its relationship to other cells.

Cell Partition (in the Cell Info... category) is an integer identifier designating the parti-
tion to which a particular cell belongs. In problems in which the grid is divided into
multiple partitions to be solved on multiple processors using the parallel version
of FLUENT, the partition ID can be used to determine the extent of the various
groups of cells.

Cell Refine Level (in the Adaption... category) is an integer that indicates the number
of times a cell has been subdivided in the hanging node adaption process, compared
with the original grid. For example, if one quad cell is split into four quads, the
Cell Refine Level for each of the four new quads will be 1. If the resulting four quads
are split again, the Cell Refine Level for each of the resulting 16 quads will be 2.

Cell Reynolds Number (in the Velocity... category) is the value of the Reynolds number
in a cell. (Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter that is the ratio of inertia
forces to viscous forces.) Cell Reynolds Number is defined as

ρud
Re ≡ (30.4-5)
µ
where ρ is density, u is velocity magnitude, µ is the effective viscosity (laminar
plus turbulent), and d is Cell Volume1/2 for 2D cases and Cell Volume1/3 in 3D or
axisymmetric cases.

Cell Squish Index (in the Grid... category) is a measure of the quality of a mesh, and
is calculated from the dot products of each vector pointing from the centroid of a
cell toward the center of each of its faces, and the corresponding face area vector
as
 
~ i · ~rc0/xf
A i 
max 1 − (30.4-6)
i ~
|Ai ||~rc0/xf |
i

Therefore, the worst cells will have a Cell Squish Index close to 1.

Cell Surface Area (in the Adaption... category) is the total surface area of the cell, and
is computed by summing the area of the faces that compose the cell.

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 30.4 Alphabetical Listing of Field Variables and Their Definitions

Cell Volume (in the Grid... category) is the volume of a cell. In 2D the volume is
the area of the cell multiplied by the unit depth. For axisymmetric cases, the cell
volume is calculated using a reference depth of 1 radian. The unit quantity of Cell
Volume is volume.

2D Cell Volume (in the Grid... category) is the two-dimensional volume of a cell in an
axisymmetric computation. For an axisymmetric computation, the 2D cell volume
is scaled by the radius. Its unit quantity is area.

Cell Volume Change (in the Adaption... category) is the maximum volume ratio of the
current cell and its neighbors.

Cell Wall Distance (in the Grid... category) is the distribution of the normal distance
of each cell centroid from the wall boundaries. Its unit quantity is length.

Cell Warpage (in the Adaption... category) is the square root of the ratio of the distance
between the cell centroid and cell circumcenter and the circumcenter radius:
s
|~rcentroid − ~rcircumcenter |
warpage = (30.4-7)
Rcircumcenter
Cell Zone Index (in the Cell Info... category) is the integer cell zone identification num-
ber. In problems that have more than one cell zone, the cell zone ID can be used
to identify the various groups of cells.

Cell Zone Type (in the Cell Info... category) is the integer cell zone type ID. A fluid
cell has a type ID of 1, a solid cell has a type ID of 17, and an exterior cell (parallel
solver) has a type ID of 21.

Contact Resistivity (in the Solidification/Melting... category) is the additional resis-

tance at the wall due to contact resistance. It is equal to Rc (1 − β)/h, where Rc
is the contact resistance, β is the liquid fraction, and h is the cell height of the
wall-adjacent cell. The unit quantity for Contact Resistivity is thermal-resistivity.

Critical Strain Rate (in the Premixed Combustion... category) is a parameter that takes
into account the stretching and extinction of premixed flames (gcr in
Equation 16.2-16). Its unit quantity is time-inverse.

Custom Field Functions... are scalar field functions defined by you. You can create a
custom function using the Custom Field Function Calculator panel. All defined cus-
tom field functions will be listed in the lower drop-down list. See Section 30.5: Cus-
tom Field Functions for details.

Damkohler Number (in the Premixed Combustion... category) is a nondimensional pa-

rameter that is defined as the ratio of turbulent to chemical time scales.

Density... includes variables related to density.

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Field Function Definitions

Density (in the Density... category) is the mass per unit volume of the fluid. Plots or
reports of Density include only fluid cell zones. For multiphase models, this value
corresponds to the selected phase in the Phase drop-down list. The unit quantity
for Density is density.

Density All (in the Density... category) is the mass per unit volume of the fluid or solid
material. Plots or reports of Density All include both fluid and solid cell zones. The
unit quantity for Density All is density.

Derivatives... are the viscous derivatives. For example, dX-Velocity/dx is the first
derivative of the x component of velocity with respect to the x-coordinate direction.
You can compute first derivatives of velocity, angular velocity, and pressure in the
pressure-based solver, and first derivatives of velocity, angular velocity, tempera-
ture, and species in the density-based solvers.

Diameter (in the Properties... category) is the diameter of particles, droplets, or bub-
bles of the secondary phase selected in the Phase drop-down list. Its unit quantity
is length.

Diffusion Coef. of Scalar-n (in the User Defined Scalars... category) is the diffusion
coefficient for the nth user-defined scalar transport equation. See the separate
UDF manual for details about defining user-defined scalars.

Discrete Phase Model... includes quantities related to the discrete phase model. See
Chapter 22: Modeling Discrete Phase for details about this model.

DPM Absorption Coefficient (in the Discrete Phase Model... category) is the absorp-
tion coefficient for discrete-phase calculations that involve radiation (a in Equa-
tion 13.3-1). Its unit quantity is length-inverse.

DPM Accretion (in the Discrete Phase Model... category) is the accretion rate calcu-
lated at a wall boundary:

N
X ṁp
Raccretion = (30.4-8)
p=1 Aface

where ṁp is the mass flow rate of the particle stream, and Aface is the area of the
wall face where the particle strikes the boundary. This item will appear only if
the optional erosion/accretion model is enabled. See Section 22.11.5: Monitoring
Erosion/Accretion of Particles at Walls for details. The unit quantity for DPM
Accretion is mass-flux.

DPM Burnout (in the Discrete Phase Model... category) is the exchange of mass from
the discrete to the continuous phase for the combustion law (Law 5) and is pro-
portional to the solid phase reaction rate. The burnout exchange has units of
mass-flow.

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 30.4 Alphabetical Listing of Field Variables and Their Definitions

DPM Concentration (in the Discrete Phase Model... category) is the total concentration
of the discrete phase. Its unit quantity is density.

DPM Emission (in the Discrete Phase Model... category) is the amount of radiation
emitted by a discrete-phase particle per unit volume. Its unit quantity is heat-
generation-rate.

DPM Enthalpy Source (in the Discrete Phase Model... category) is the exchange of
enthalpy (sensible enthalpy plus heat of formation) from the discrete phase to the
continuous phase. The exchange is positive when the particles are a source of heat
in the continuous phase. The unit quantity for DPM Enthalpy Source is power.

DPM Erosion (in the Discrete Phase Model... category) is the erosion rate calculated
at a wall boundary face:

N
X ṁp f (α)
Rerosion = (30.4-9)
p=1 Aface

where ṁp is the mass flow rate of the particle stream, α is the impact angle of
the particle path with the wall face, f (α) is the function specified in the Wall
panel, and Aface is the area of the wall face where the particle strikes the boundary.
This item will appear only if the optional erosion/accretion model is enabled. See
Section 22.11.5: Monitoring Erosion/Accretion of Particles at Walls for details. The
unit quantity for DPM Erosion is mass-flux.

DPM Evaporation/Devolatilization (in the Discrete Phase Model... category) is the ex-
change of mass, due to droplet-particle evaporation or combusting-particle de-
volatilization, from the discrete phase to the evaporating or devolatilizing species.
If you are not using the non-premixed combustion model, the mass source for
each individual species (DPM species-n Source, below) is also available; for non-
premixed combustion, only this sum is available. The unit quantity for DPM Evap-
oration/Devolatilization is mass-flow.

DPM Mass Source (in the Discrete Phase Model... category) is the total exchange of
mass from the discrete phase to the continuous phase. The mass exchange is positive
when the particles are a source of mass in the continuous phase. If you are not
using the non-premixed combustion model, DPM Mass Source will be equal to the
sum of all species mass sources (DPM species-n Source, below); if you are using
the non-premixed combustion model, it will be equal to DPM Burnout plus DPM
Evaporation/Devolatilization. The unit quantity for DPM Mass Source is mass-flow.

DPM Scattering (in the Discrete Phase Model... category) is the scattering coefficient
for discrete-phase calculations that involve radiation (σs in Equation 13.3-1). Its
unit quantity is length-inverse.

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Field Function Definitions

DPM Sensible Enthalpy Source (in the Discrete Phase Model... category) is the ex-
change of sensible enthalpy from the discrete phase to the continuous phase. The
exchange is positive when the particles are a source of heat in the continuous phase.
Its unit quantity is power.

DPM species-n Source (in the Discrete Phase Model... category) is the exchange of
mass, due to droplet-particle evaporation or combusting-particle devolatilization,
from the discrete phase to the evaporating or devolatilizing species. (The name of
the species will replace species-n in DPM species-n Source.) These species are spec-
ified in the Set Injection Properties panel, as described in Section 22.12.4: Defining
Injection Properties. The unit quantity is mass-flow. Note that this variable will
not be available if you are using the non-premixed combustion model; use DPM
Evaporation/Devolatilization instead.

DPM Swirl Momentum Source (in the Discrete Phase Model... category) is the ex-
change of swirl momentum from the discrete phase to the continuous phase. This
value is positive when the particles are a source of momentum in the continuous
phase. The unit quantity is force.

DPM X, Y, Z Momentum Source (in the Discrete Phase Model... category) are the ex-
change of x-, y-, and z-direction momentum from the discrete phase to the continu-
ous phase. These values are positive when the particles are a source of momentum
in the continuous phase. The unit quantity is force.

Dynamic Pressure (in the Pressure... category) is defined as q ≡ 21 ρv 2 . Its unit quantity
is pressure.

Eff Diff Coef of species-n (in the Species... category) is the sum of the laminar and
turbulent diffusion coefficients of a species into the mixture:

µt
Di,m +
ρSct
(The name of the species will replace species-n in Eff Diff Coef of species-n.) The
unit quantity is mass-diffusivity.

Effective Prandtl Number (in the Turbulence... category) is the ratio µeff cp /keff , where
µeff is the effective viscosity, cp is the specific heat, and keff is the effective thermal
conductivity.

Effective Thermal Conductivity (in the Properties... category) is the sum of the laminar
and turbulent thermal conductivities, k+kt , of the fluid. A large thermal conductiv-
ity is associated with a good heat conductor and a small thermal conductivity with
a poor heat conductor (good insulator). Its unit quantity is thermal-conductivity.

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 30.4 Alphabetical Listing of Field Variables and Their Definitions

Effective Viscosity (in the Turbulence... category) is the sum of the laminar and tur-
bulent viscosities of the fluid. Viscosity, µ, is defined by the ratio of shear stress to
the rate of shear. Its unit quantity is viscosity.

Enthalpy (in the Temperature... category) is defined differently for compressible and
incompressible flows, and depending on the solver and models in use.
For compressible flows,

X
H= Yj H j (30.4-10)
j

and for incompressible flows,

X p
H= Yj H j + (30.4-11)
j ρ

where Yj and Hj are, respectively, the mass fraction and enthalpy of species j. (See
Enthalpy of species-n, below). For the pressure-based solver, the second term on
the right-hand side of Equation 30.4-11 is included only if the pressure work term
is included in the energy equation (see Section 13.2.1: Inclusion of Pressure Work
and Kinetic Energy Terms). For multiphase models, this value corresponds to the
selected phase in the Phase drop-down list. For all species models, the Enthalpy
plots consist of the thermal (or sensible) plus chemical energy. The unit quantity
for Enthalpy is specific-energy.

Enthalpy of species-n (in the Species... category) is defined differently depending on

the solver and models options in use. The quantity:
Z T
Hj = cp,j dT + h0j (Tref,j ) (30.4-12)
Tref,j

where h0j (Tref,j ) is the formation enthalpy of species j at the reference temperature
Tref,j ), is reported only for non-adiabatic PDF cases, or if the density-based solver
is selected. The quantity:
Z T
hj = cp,j dT (30.4-13)
Tref

where Tref = 298.15K, is reported in all other cases. The unit quantity for Enthalpy
of species-n is specific-energy.

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Field Function Definitions

Entropy (in the Temperature... category) is a thermodynamic property defined by the

equation Z
δQ
∆S ≡ (30.4-14)
rev T
where “rev” indicates an integration along a reversible path connecting two states,
Q is heat, and T is temperature. For compressible flows, entropy is computed using
the equation " #
p/pref
s = cv −1 (30.4-15)
(ρ/ρref )γ
where cv is computed from R/(γ − 1), and the reference pressure and density
are defined in the Reference Values panel. For incompressible flow, the entropy is
computed using the equation
T
 
s = cp −1 (30.4-16)
Tref
where cp is the specific heat at constant pressure and Tref is defined in the Reference
Values panel. The unit quantity for entropy is specific-heat.
Existing Value (in the Adaption... category) is the value that presently resides in the
temporary space reserved for cell variables (i.e., the last value that you displayed
or computed).
Face Handedness (in the Grid... category) is a parameter that is equal to one in cells
that are adjacent to left-handed faces, and zero elsewhere. It can be used to locate
mesh problems.
Face Squish Index (in the Grid... category) is a measure of the quality of a mesh, and
is calculated from the dot products of each face area vector, and the vector that
connects the centroids of the two adjacent cells as

~ i · ~rc0/c1
A
1− (30.4-17)
~ i ||~rc0/c1 |
|A
Therefore, the worst cells will have a Face Squish Index close to 1.
Fine Scale Mass Fraction of species-n (in the Species... category) is the term Yi∗ in
Equation 14.1-31.
Fine Scale Temperature (in the Temperature... category) is the temperature of the fine
scales, which is calculated from the enthalpy when the reaction proceeds over the
time scale (τ ∗ in Equation 14.1-30), governed by the Arrhenius rates of Equa-
tion 14.1-8. Its unit quantity is temperature.
Fine Scale Transfer Rate (in the Species... category) is the transfer rate of the fine
scales, which is equal to the inverse of the time scale (τ ∗ in Equation 14.1-30). Its
unit quantity is time-inverse.

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 30.4 Alphabetical Listing of Field Variables and Their Definitions

1-Fine Scale Volume Fraction (in the Species... category) is a function of the fine scale
volume fraction (ξ ∗ in Equation 14.1-29). The quantity is subtracted from unity to
make it easier to interpret.

Fvar Prod (in the Pdf... category) is the production term in the mixture fraction
variance equation solved in the non-premixed combustion model (i.e., the last two
terms in Equation 15.2-5).

Fvar2 Prod (in the Pdf... category) is the production term in the secondary mix-
ture fraction variance equation solved in the non-premixed combustion model. See
Equation 15.2-5.

Gas Constant (R) (in the Properties... category) is the gas constant of the fluid. Its
unit quantity is specific-heat.

Granular Conductivity (in the Properties... category) is equivalent to the diffusion co-
efficient in Equation 23.5-75. For more information, see Section 23.5.8: Granular
Temperature. Its unit quantity is kg/m-s.

Granular Pressure... includes quantities for reporting the solids pressure for each gran-
ular phase (ps in Equation 23.5-44). See Section 23.5.5: Solids Pressure for details.
Its unit quantity is pressure. For multiphase models, this value corresponds to the
selected phase in the Phase drop-down list.

Granular Temperature... includes quantities for reporting the granular temperature for
each granular phase (Θs in Equation 23.5-75). See Section 23.5.8: Granular Temperature
for details. Its unit quantity is m2 /s2 . For multiphase models, this value corre-
sponds to the selected phase in the Phase drop-down list.

Grid... includes variables related to the grid.

Grid X-Velocity, Grid Y-Velocity, Grid Z-Velocity (in the Velocity... category) are the
vector components of the grid velocity for moving-grid problems (rotating or multi-
ple reference frames, mixing planes, or sliding meshes). Its unit quantity is velocity.

HCN Density (in the NOx... category) is the mass per unit volume of HCN. The unit
quantity is density. The HCN Density will appear only if you are modeling fuel NOx .
See Section 20.1.5: Fuel NOx Formation for details.

Helicity (in the Velocity... category) is defined by the dot product of vorticity and the
velocity vector.
H = (∇ × V~ ) · V~ (30.4-18)
It provides insight into the vorticity aligned with the fluid stream. Vorticity is a
measure of the rotation of a fluid element as it moves in the flow field.

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Field Function Definitions

Incident Radiation (in the Radiation... category) is the total radiation energy, G, that
arrives at a location per unit time and per unit area:
Z
G= IdΩ (30.4-19)
Ω=4π

where I is the radiation intensity and Ω is the solid angle. G is the quantity that the
P-1 radiation model computes. For the DO radiation model, the incident radiation
is computed over a finite number of discrete solid angles, each associated with a
vector direction. The unit quantity for Incident Radiation is heat-flux.

Incident Radiation (Band n) (in the Radiation... category) is the radiation energy con-
tained in the wavelength band ∆λ for the non-gray DO radiation model. Its unit
quantity is heat-flux.

Internal Energy (in the Temperature... category) is the summation of the kinetic and
potential energies of the molecules of the substance per unit volume (and excludes
chemical and nuclear energies). Internal Energy is defined as e = cv T . Its unit
quantity is specific-energy.

Jet Acoustic Power (in the Acoustics... category) is the acoustic power for turbulent
axisymmetric jets (see Equation 21.2-14). It is available only when the Broadband
Noise Sources acoustics model is being used.

Jet Acoustic Power Level (dB) (in the Acoustics... category) is the acoustic power for
turbulent axisymmetric jets, reported in dB (see Equation 21.2-27). It is available
only when the Broadband Noise Sources acoustics model is being used.

Lam Diff Coef of species-n (in the Species... category) is the laminar diffusion coeffi-
cient of a species into the mixture, Di,m . Its unit quantity is mass-diffusivity.

Laminar Flame Speed (in the Premixed Combustion... category) is the propagation
speed of laminar premixed flames (Ul in Equation 16.2-4). Its unit quantity is
velocity.

LEE Self-Noise X-Source, LEE Self-Noise Y-Source, LEE Self-Noise Z-Source (in the Acous-
tics... category ) are the self-noise source terms in the linearized Euler equation for
the acoustic velocity component (see Equation 21.2-32). They are available only
when the Broadband Noise Sources acoustics model is being used.

LEE Shear-Noise X-Source, LEE Shear-Noise Y-Source, LEE Shear-Noise Z-Source (in the
Acoustics... category ) are the shear-noise source terms in the linearized Euler equa-
tion for the acoustic velocity component (see Equation 21.2-32). They are available
only when the Broadband Noise Sources acoustics model is being used.

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LEE Total Noise X-Source, LEE Total Noise Y-Source, LEE Total Noise Z-Source (in the
Acoustics... category ) are the total noise source terms in the linearized Euler equa-
tion for the acoustic velocity component (see Equation 21.2-32). The total noise
source term is the sum of the self-noise and shear-noise source terms. They are
available only when the Broadband Noise Sources acoustics model is being used.
Lilley’s Self-Noise Source (in the Acoustics... category ) is the self-noise source term
in the linearized Lilley’s equation (see Equation 21.2-36), available only when the
Broadband Noise Sources acoustics model is being used.
Lilley’s Shear-Noise Source (in the Acoustics... category ) is the shear-noise source term
in the linearized Lilley’s equation (see Equation 21.2-36), available only when the
Broadband Noise Sources acoustics model is being used.
Lilley’s Total Noise Source (in the Acoustics... category ) is the total noise source term
in the linearized Lilley’s equation (see Equation 21.2-36). The total noise source
term is the sum of the self-noise and shear-noise source terms, available only when
the Broadband Noise Sources acoustics model is being used.
Liquid Fraction (in the Solidification/Melting... category) is the liquid fraction β com-
puted by the solidification/melting model:

∆H
β= =0 if T < Tsolidus
L

∆H
β= =1 if T > Tliquidus
L

∆H T − Tsolidus
β= = if Tsolidus < T < Tliquidus (30.4-20)
L Tliquidus − Tsolidus
Mach Number (in the Velocity... category) is the ratio of velocity and speed of sound.
Mass fraction of HCN, Mass fraction of NH3, Mass fraction of NO, Mass fraction of N2O
(in the NOx... category) are the mass of HCN, the mass of NH3 , the mass of NO,
and the mass of N2 O per unit mass of the mixture (e.g., kg of HCN in 1 kg of the
mixture). The Mass fraction of HCN and the Mass fraction of NH3 will appear only
if you are modeling fuel NOx . See Section 20.1.5: Fuel NOx Formation for details.
Mass fraction of nuclei (in the Soot... category) is the number of particles per unit
mass of the mixture (in units of particles ×1015 /kg) The Mass fraction of nuclei will
appear only if you use the two-step soot model. See Section 20.3: Soot Formation
for details.
Mass fraction of soot (in the Soot... category) is the mass of soot per unit mass of the
mixture (e.g., kg of soot in 1 kg of the mixture). See Section 20.3: Soot Formation
for details.

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Field Function Definitions

Mass fraction of species-n (in the Species... category) is the mass of a species per unit
mass of the mixture (e.g., kg of species in 1 kg of the mixture).
Mean quantity-n (in the Unsteady Statistics... category) is the time-averaged value of
a solution variable (e.g., Static Pressure). See Section 25.17.4: Postprocessing for
Time-Dependent Problems for details.
Meridional Coordinate (in the Grid... category) is the normalized (dimensionless) co-
ordinate that follows the flow path from inlet to outlet. Its value varies from 0 to
1.
Mixture Fraction Variance (in the Pdf... category) is the variance of the mixture frac-
tion solved for in the non-premixed combustion model. This is the second conser-
vation equation (along with the mixture fraction equation) that the non-premixed
combustion model solves. (See Section 15.2.1: Definition of the Mixture Fraction.)
Modified Turbulent Viscosity (in the Turbulence... category) is the transported quantity
ν̃ that is solved for in the Spalart-Allmaras turbulence model (see Equation 12.3-1).
The turbulent viscosity, µt , is computed directly from this quantity using the rela-
tionship given by Equation 12.3-2. Its unit quantity is viscosity.
Molar Concentration of species-n (in the Species... category) is the moles per unit vol-
ume of a species. Its unit quantity is concentration.
Mole fraction of species-n (in the Species... category) is the number of moles of a
species in one mole of the mixture.
Mole fraction of HCN, Mole fraction of NH3, Mole fraction of NO, Mole fraction of N2O
(in the NOx... category) are the number of moles of HCN, NH3 , NO, and N2 O in
one mole of the mixture. The Mole fraction of HCN and the Mole fraction of NH3 will
appear only if you are modeling fuel NOx . See Section 20.1.5: Fuel NOx Formation
for details.
Mole fraction of soot (in the Soot... category) is the number of moles of soot in one
mole of the mixture.
Molecular Prandtl Number (in the Properties... category) is the ratio cp µlam /klam .
Molecular Viscosity (in the Properties... category) is the laminar viscosity of the fluid.
Viscosity, µ, is defined by the ratio of shear stress to the rate of shear. Its unit
quantity is viscosity. For multiphase models, this value corresponds to the selected
phase in the Phase drop-down list. For granular phases, this is equivalent to the
solids shear viscosity µs in Equation 23.5-62.
NH3 Density, NO Density, N2O Density (in the NOx... category) are the mass per unit
volume of NH3 , NO and N2 O. The unit quantity for each is density. The NH3
Density will appear only if you are modeling fuel NOx . See Section 20.1.5: Fuel
NOx Formation for details.

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NOx... contains quantities related to the NOx model. See Section 20.1: NOx Formation
for details about this model.
Partition Boundary Cell Distance (in the Grid... category) is the smallest number of
cells which must be traversed to reach the nearest partition (interface) boundary.
Partition Neighbors (in the Cell Info... category) is the number of adjacent partitions
(i.e., those that share at least one partition boundary face (interface)). It gives
a measure of the number of messages that will have to be generated for parallel
processing.
Pdf... contains quantities related to the non-premixed combustion model, which is
described in Chapter 15: Modeling Non-Premixed Combustion.
Phases... contains quantities for reporting the volume fraction of each phase. See
Chapter 23: Modeling Multiphase Flows for details.
Pitchwise Coordinate (in the Grid... category) is the normalized (dimensionless) co-
ordinate in the circumferential (pitchwise) direction. Its value varies from 0 to
1.
Preconditioning Reference Velocity (in the Velocity... category) is the reference velocity
used in the coupled solver’s preconditioning algorithm. See
Section 25.5.2: Preconditioning for details.
Premixed Combustion... contains quantities related to the premixed combustion model,
which is described in Chapter 16: Modeling Premixed Combustion.
Pressure... includes quantities related to a normal force per unit area (the impact of
the gas molecules on the surfaces of a control volume).
Pressure Coefficient (in the Pressure... category) is a dimensionless parameter defined
by the equation

(p − pref )
Cp = (30.4-21)
qref
where p is the static pressure, pref is the reference pressure, and qref is the reference
dynamic pressure defined by 12 ρref vref 2 . The reference pressure, density, and velocity
are defined in the Reference Values panel.
Product Formation Rate (in the Premixed Combustion... category) is the source term in
the progress variable transport equation (Sc in Equation 16.2-1). Its unit quantity
is time-inverse.
Production of k (in the Turbulence... category) is the rate of production of turbulence
kinetic energy (times density). Its unit quantity is turb-kinetic-energy-production.
For multiphase models, this value corresponds to the selected phase in the Phase
drop-down list.

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Field Function Definitions

Progress Variable (in the Premixed Combustion... category) is a normalized mass frac-
tion of the combustion products (c = 1) or unburnt mixture products (c = 0), as
defined by Equation 16.2-2.

Properties... includes material property quantities for fluids and solids.

Rate of NO (in the NOx... category) is the overall rate of formation of NO due to all
active NO formation pathways (e.g., thermal, prompt, etc.).

Rate of Nuclei (in the Soot... category) is the overall rate of formation of nuclei.

Rate of N2OPath NO (in the NOx... category) is the rate of formation of NO due to
the N2O pathway only (only available when N2O pathway is active).

Rate of Prompt NO (in the NOx... category) is the rate of formation of NO due to the
prompt pathway only (only available when prompt pathway is active).

Rate of Reburn NO (in the NOx... category) is the rate of formation of NO due to the
reburn pathway only (only available when reburn pathway is active).

Rate of SNCR NO (in the NOx... category) is the rate of formation of NO due to the
SNCR pathway only (only available when SNCR pathway is active).

Rate of Soot (in the Soot... category) is the overall rate of formation of soot mass.

Rate of Thermal NO (in the NOx... category) is the rate of formation of NO due to
the thermal pathway only (only available when thermal pathway is active).

Rate of Fuel NO (in the NOx... category) is the rate of formation of NO due to the
fuel pathway only (only available when fuel pathway is active).

Rate of USER NO (in the NOx... category) is the rate of formation of NO due to user
defined rates only (only available when UDF rates are added).

Radial Coordinate (in the Grid... category) is the length of the radius vector in the
polar coordinate system. The radius vector is defined by a line segment between
the node and the axis of rotation. You can define the rotational axis in the Fluid
panel. (See also Section 30.2: Velocity Reporting Options.) The unit quantity for
Radial Coordinate is length.

Radial Pull Velocity (in the Solidification/Melting... category) is the radial-direction

component of the pull velocity for the solid material in a continuous casting process.
Its unit quantity is velocity.

Radial Velocity (in the Velocity... category) is the component of velocity in the radial
direction. (See Section 30.2: Velocity Reporting Options for details.) The unit
quantity for Radial Velocity is velocity. For multiphase models, this value corre-
sponds to the selected phase in the Phase drop-down list.

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 30.4 Alphabetical Listing of Field Variables and Their Definitions

Radial-Wall Shear Stress (in the Wall Fluxes... category) is the radial component of the
force acting tangential to the surface due to friction. Its unit quantity is pressure.

Radiation... includes quantities related to radiation heat transfer. See Section 13.3: Mod-
eling Radiation for details about the radiation models available in FLUENT.

Radiation Heat Flux (in the Wall Fluxes... category) is the rate of radiation heat trans-
fer through the control surface. It is calculated by the solver according to the
specified radiation model. Heat flux out of the domain is negative, and heat flux
into the domain is positive. The unit quantity for Radiation Heat Flux is heat-flux.

Radiation Temperature (in the Radiation... category) is the quantity θR , defined by

G 1/4
θR = ( ) (30.4-22)
4σ
where G is the Incident Radiation. The unit quantity for Radiation Temperature is
temperature.

Rate of Reaction-n (in the Reactions... category) is the effective rate of progress of nth
reaction. For the finite-rate model, the value is the same as the Arrhenius Rate of
Reaction-n. For the eddy-dissipation model, the value is equivalent to the Turbulent
Rate of Reaction-n. For the finite-rate/eddy-dissipation model, it is the lesser of the
two.

Reactions... includes quantities related to finite-rate reactions. See Chapter 14: Mod-
eling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry for information about modeling
finite-rate reactions.

Reflected Radiation Flux (Band-n) (in the Wall Fluxes... category) is the amount of
radiative heat flux reflected by a semi-transparent wall for a particular band of
radiation. Its unit quantity is heat-flux.

Reflected Visible Solar Flux, Reflected IR Solar Flux (in the Wall Fluxes... category) is
the amount of solar heat flux reflected by a semi-transparent wall for a visible or
infrared (IR) radiation.

Refractive Index (in the Radiation... category) is a nondimensional parameter defined

as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to that in a material. See Sec-
tion 13.3.6: Specular Semi-Transparent Walls for details.

Relative Axial Velocity (in the Velocity... category) is the axial-direction component of
the velocity relative to the reference frame motion. See Section 30.2: Velocity Re-
porting Options for details. The unit quantity for Relative Axial Velocity is velocity.

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Field Function Definitions

Relative Humidity (in the Species... category) is the ratio of the partial pressure of
the water vapor actually present in an air-water mixture to the saturation pressure
of water vapor at the mixture temperature. FLUENT computes the saturation
pressure, p, from the following equation [302]:

8
!
p Tc
 
Fi [a (T − Tp )]i−1
X
ln = −1 × (30.4-23)
pc T i=1

where pc = 22.089 MPa

Tc = 647.286 K
F1 = −7.4192420
F2 = 2.9721000 × 10−1
F3 = −1.1552860 × 10−1
F4 = 8.6856350 × 10−3
F5 = 1.0940980 × 10−3
F6 = −4.3999300 × 10−3
F7 = 2.5206580 × 10−3
F8 = −5.2186840 × 10−4
a = 0.01
Tp = 338.15 K
Relative Length Scale (DES) (in the Turbulence... category) is defined by

Ls = Lsrans − Lsles (30.4-24)

where Lsrans is an RANS-based length scale, and Lsles is an LES-based length

scale. All of the cells inside the domain in which Ls > 0 belong to the LES region,
and all of the cells inside the domain in which Ls < 0 belong to the RANS region.

Relative Mach Number (in the Velocity... category) is the nondimensional ratio of the
relative velocity and speed of sound.

Relative Radial Velocity (in the Velocity... category) is the radial-direction component
of the velocity relative to the reference frame motion. (See Section 30.2: Velocity
Reporting Options for details.) The unit quantity for Relative Radial Velocity is
velocity.
Relative Swirl Velocity (in the Velocity... category) is the tangential-direction compo-
nent of the velocity relative to the reference frame motion, in an axisymmetric
swirling flow. (See Section 30.2: Velocity Reporting Options for details.) The unit
quantity for Relative Swirl Velocity is velocity.

Relative Tangential Velocity (in the Velocity... category) is the tangential-direction

component of the velocity relative to the reference frame motion. (See Section 30.2: Ve-
locity Reporting Options for details.) The unit quantity for Relative Tangential
Velocity is velocity.

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 30.4 Alphabetical Listing of Field Variables and Their Definitions

Relative Total Pressure (in the Pressure... category) is the stagnation pressure com-
puted using relative velocities instead of absolute velocities; i.e., for incompressible
flows the dynamic pressure would be computed using the relative velocities. (See
Section 30.2: Velocity Reporting Options for more information about relative ve-
locities.) The unit quantity for Relative Total Pressure is pressure.

Relative Total Temperature (in the Temperature... category) is the stagnation tem-
perature computed using relative velocities instead of absolute velocities. (See
Section 30.2: Velocity Reporting Options for more information about relative ve-
locities.) The unit quantity for Relative Total Temperature is temperature.

Relative Velocity Angle (in the Velocity... category) is similar to the Velocity Angle
except that it uses the relative tangential velocity, and is defined as
!
−1 relative-tangential-velocity
tan − (30.4-25)
axial-velocity

Its unit quantity is angle.

Relative Velocity Magnitude (in the Velocity... category) is the magnitude of the rela-
tive velocity vector instead of the absolute velocity vector. The relative velocity
(w)
~ is the difference between the absolute velocity (~v ) and the grid velocity. For
simple rotation, the relative velocity is defined as

w ~ × ~r
~ ≡ ~v − Ω (30.4-26)

where Ω~ is the angular velocity of a rotating reference frame about the origin and
~r is the position vector. (See also Section 30.2: Velocity Reporting Options.) The
unit quantity for Relative Velocity Magnitude is velocity.

Relative X Velocity, Relative Y Velocity, Relative Z Velocity (in the Velocity... category)
are the x-, y-, and z-direction components of the velocity relative to the reference
frame motion. (See Section 30.2: Velocity Reporting Options for details.) The unit
quantity for these variables is velocity.

Residuals... contains different quantities for the pressure-based and density-based solvers:
In the density-based solvers, this category includes the corrections to the primitive
variables pressure, velocity, temperature, and species, as well as the time rate of
change of the corrections to these primitive variables for the current iteration (i.e.,
residuals). Corrections are the changes in the variables between the current and
previous iterations and residuals are computed by dividing a cell’s correction by
its physical time step. The total residual for each variable is the summation of the
Euler, viscous, and dissipation contributions. The dissipation components are the
vector components of the flux-like, face-based dissipation operator.

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Field Function Definitions

In the pressure-based solver, only the Mass Imbalance in each cell is reported (unless
you have requested others, as described in Section 25.18.1: Postprocessing Residual
Values). At convergence, this quantity should be small compared to the average
mass flow rate.

RMS quantity-n (in the Unsteady Statistics... category) is the root mean squared value
of a solution variable (e.g., Static Pressure). See Section 25.17.4: Postprocessing for
Time-Dependent Problems for details.

Rothalpy (in the Temperature... category) is defined as

w 2 u2
I =h+ − (30.4-27)
2 2
where h is the enthalpy, w is the relative velocity magnitude, and u is the magnitude
~ × ~r.
of the rotational velocity ~u = ω

Scalar-n (in the User Defined Scalars... category) is the value of the nth scalar quantity
you have defined as a user-defined scalar. See the separate UDF manual for more
information about user-defined scalars.

Scalar Dissipation (in the Pdf... category) is one of two parameters that describes the
species mass fraction and temperature for a laminar flamelet in mixture fraction
spaces. It is defined as

χ = 2D|∇f |2 (30.4-28)

where f is the mixture fraction and D is a representative diffusion coefficient (see

Section 15.3.2: The Flamelet Concept for details). Its unit quantity is time-inverse.

Scattering Coefficient (in the Radiation... category) is the property of a medium that
describes the amount of scattering of thermal radiation per unit path length for
propagation in the medium. It can be interpreted as the inverse of the mean
free path that a photon will travel before undergoing scattering (if the scattering
coefficient does not vary along the path). The unit quantity for Scattering Coefficient
is length-inverse.

Secondary Mean Mixture Fraction (in the Pdf... category) is the mean ratio of the sec-
ondary stream mass fraction to the sum of the fuel, secondary stream, and oxidant
mass fractions. It is the secondary-stream conserved scalar that is calculated by
the non-premixed combustion model. See Section 15.2.1: Definition of the Mixture
Fraction.

Secondary Mixture Fraction Variance (in the Pdf... category) is the variance of the sec-
ondary stream mixture fraction that is solved for in the non-premixed combustion
model. See Section 15.2.1: Definition of the Mixture Fraction.

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 30.4 Alphabetical Listing of Field Variables and Their Definitions

Sensible Enthalpy (in the Temperature... category) is available when any of the species
models are active and displays only the thermal (sensible) enthalpy.

Skin Friction Coefficient (in the Wall Fluxes... category) is a nondimensional parameter
defined as the ratio of the wall shear stress and the reference dynamic pressure
τw
Cf ≡ 1 (30.4-29)
ρ v2
2 ref ref

where τw is the wall shear stress, and ρref and vref are the reference density and
velocity defined in the Reference Values panel. For multiphase models, this value
corresponds to the selected phase in the Phase drop-down list.

Solar Heat Flux (in the Wall Fluxes... category) is the rate of solar heat transfer through
the control surface. Heat flux out of the domain is negative and heat flux into the
domain is positive.

Solidification/Melting... contains quantities related to solidification and melting.

Soot... contains quantities related to the Soot model, which is described in

Section 20.3: Soot Formation.

Soot Density (in the Soot... category) is the mass per unit volume of soot. The unit
quantity is density. See Section 20.1.5: Fuel NOx Formation for details.

Sound
q Speed (in the Properties... category) is the acoustic speed. It is computed from
γp
ρ
. Its unit quantity is velocity.

Spanwise Coordinate (in the Grid... category) is the normalized (dimensionless) coor-
dinate in the spanwise direction, from hub to casing. Its value varies from 0 to
1.

species-n Source Term (in the Species... category) is the source term in each of the
species transport equations due to reactions. The unit quantity is always kg/m3 -s.

Species... includes quantities related to species transport and reactions.

Specific Dissipation Rate (Omega) (in the Turbulence... category) is the rate of dissi-
pation of turbulence kinetic energy in unit volume and time. Its unit quantity is
time-inverse.

Specific Heat (Cp) (in the Properties... category) is the thermodynamic property of
specific heat at constant pressure. It is defined as the rate of change of enthalpy
with temperature while pressure is held constant. Its unit quantity is specific-heat.

Specific Heat Ratio (gamma) (in the Properties... category) is the ratio of specific heat
at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume.

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Field Function Definitions

Stored Cell Partition (in the Cell Info... category) is an integer identifier designating
the partition to which a particular cell belongs. In problems in which the grid
is divided into multiple partitions to be solved on multiple processors using the
parallel version of FLUENT, the partition ID can be used to determine the extent
of the various groups of cells. The active cell partition is used for the current
calculation, while the stored cell partition (the last partition performed) is used
when you save a case file. See Section 31.5.4: Partitioning the Grid Manually for
more information.

Static Pressure (in the Pressure... category) is the static pressure of the fluid. It
is a gauge pressure expressed relative to the prescribed operating pressure. The
absolute pressure is the sum of the Static Pressure and the operating pressure. Its
unit quantity is pressure.

Static Temperature (in the Temperature... and Premixed Combustion... categories) is

the temperature that is measured moving with the fluid. Its unit quantity is tem-
perature.
Note that Static Temperature will appear in the Premixed Combustion... category
only for adiabatic premixed combustion calculations. See Section 16.3.7: Postpro-
cessing for Premixed Combustion Calculations.

Strain Rate (in the Derivatives... category) relates shear stress to the viscosity. Also
called the shear rate (γ̇ in Equation 8.4-17), the strain rate is related to the second
invariant of the rate-of-deformation tensor D. Its unit quantity is time-inverse. In
3D Cartesian coordinates, the strain rate, S, is defined as

" ! ! !#
2 ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂u ∂w
S = + + + + + +
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂z ∂z ∂x
" ! ! !#
∂v ∂v ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂w
+ + + + + +
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂y
" ! ! !#
∂w ∂w ∂u ∂w ∂w ∂v ∂w ∂w ∂w
+ + + + + (30.4-30)
∂x ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z

For multiphase models, this value corresponds to the selected phase in the Phase
drop-down list.

Stream Function (in the Velocity... category) is formulated as a relation between the
streamlines and the statement of conservation of mass. A streamline is a line that
is tangent to the velocity vector of the flowing fluid. For a 2D planar flow, the
stream function, ψ, is defined such that
∂ψ ∂ψ
ρu ≡ ρv ≡ − (30.4-31)
∂y ∂x

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 30.4 Alphabetical Listing of Field Variables and Their Definitions

where ψ is constant along a streamline and the difference between constant values
of stream function defining two streamlines is the mass rate of flow between the
streamlines.
The accuracy of the stream function calculation is determined by the text command
/display/set/n-stream-func.

Stretch Factor (in the Premixed Combustion... category) is a nondimensional parameter

that is defined as the probability of unquenched flamelets (G in Equation 16.2-13).

Subgrid Filter Length (in the Turbulence... category) is a mixing length for subgrid
scales of the LES turbulence model (defined as LS in Equation 12.9-16).

Subgrid Kinetic Energy (in the Turbulence... category) is the turbulence kinetic energy
per unit mass of the unresolved eddies, ks , calculated using the LES turbulence
model. It is defined as

νt2
ks = 2 (30.4-32)
Ls
Its unit quantity is turbulent-kinetic-energy.

Subgrid Turbulent Viscosity (in the Turbulence... category) is the turbulent (dynamic)
viscosity of the fluid calculated using the LES turbulence model. It expresses the
proportionality between the anisotropic part of the subgrid-scale stress tensor and
the rate-of-strain tensor. (See Equation 12.9-8.) Its unit quantity is viscosity.

Subgrid Turbulent Viscosity Ratio (in the Turbulence... category) is the ratio of the
subgrid turbulent viscosity of the fluid to the laminar viscosity, calculated using
the LES turbulence model.

Surface Acoustic Power (in the Acoustics... category) is the Acoustic Power per unit
area generated by boundary layer turbulence (see Equation 21.2-31). It is available
only when the Broadband Noise Sources acoustics model is being used. Its unit
quantity is power per area.

Surface Acoustic Power Level (dB) (in the Acoustics... category) is the Acoustic Power
per unit area generated by boundary layer turbulence, and represented in dB (see
Equation 21.2-31). It is available only when the Broadband Noise Sources acoustics
model is being used.

Surface Cluster ID (in the Radiation... category) is used to view the distribution of
surface clusters in the domain. Each cluster has a unique integer number (ID)
associated with it.

Surface Coverage of species-n (in the Species... category) is the amount of a surface
species that is deposited on the substrate at a specific point in time.

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Field Function Definitions

Surface Deposition Rate of species-n (in the Species... category) is the amount of a
surface species that is deposited on the substrate. Its unit quantity is mass-flux.

Surface dpdt RMS (in the Acoustics... category) is the RMS value of the time-derivative
of static pressure (∂p/∂t). It is available when the Ffowcs-Williams & Hawkings
acoustics model is being used.

Surface Heat Transfer Coef. (in the Wall Fluxes... category), as defined in FLUENT, is
given by the equation
q
heff = (30.4-33)
Twall − Tref
where q is the combined convective and radiative heat flux, Twall is the wall temper-
ature, and Tref is the reference temperature defined in the Reference Values panel.
Please note that Tref is a constant value that should be representative of the prob-
lem. Its unit quantity is the heat-transfer-coefficient.

Surface Incident Radiation (in the Wall Fluxes... category) is the net incoming radiation
heat flux on a surface. Its unit quantity is heat-flux.

Surface Nusselt Number (in the Wall Fluxes... category) is a local nondimensional co-
efficient of heat transfer defined by the equation

heff Lref
Nu = (30.4-34)
k
where heff is the heat transfer coefficient, Lref is the reference length defined in the
Reference Values panel, and k is the molecular thermal conductivity.

Surface Stanton Number (in the Wall Fluxes... category) is a nondimensional coefficient
of heat transfer defined by the equation

heff
St = (30.4-35)
ρref vref cp
where heff is the heat transfer coefficient, ρref and vref are reference values of density
and velocity defined in the Reference Values panel, and cp is the specific heat at
constant pressure.

Swirl Pull Velocity (in the Solidification/Melting... category) is the tangential-direction

component of the pull velocity for the solid material in a continuous casting process.
Its unit quantity is velocity.

Swirl Velocity (in the Velocity... category) is the tangential-direction component of the
velocity in an axisymmetric swirling flow. See Section 30.2: Velocity Reporting
Options for details. The unit quantity for Swirl Velocity is velocity. For multiphase
models, this value corresponds to the selected phase in the Phase drop-down list.

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 30.4 Alphabetical Listing of Field Variables and Their Definitions

Swirl-Wall Shear Stress (in the Wall Fluxes... category) is the swirl component of the
force acting tangential to the surface due to friction. Its unit quantity is pressure.

Tangential Velocity (in the Velocity... category) is the velocity component in the tan-
gential direction. (See Section 30.2: Velocity Reporting Options for details.) The
unit quantity for Tangential Velocity is velocity.

Temperature... indicates the quantities associated with the thermodynamic tempera-

ture of a material.

Thermal Conductivity (in the Properties... category) is a parameter (k) that defines
the conduction rate through a material via Fourier’s law (q = −k∇T ). A large
thermal conductivity is associated with a good heat conductor and a small thermal
conductivity with a poor heat conductor (good insulator). Its unit quantity is
thermal-conductivity.

Thermal Diff Coef of species-n (in the Species... category) is the thermal diffusion co-
efficient for the nth species (DT,i in Equations 8.9-1, 8.9-3, and 8.9-7). Its unit
quantity is viscosity.

Time Step (in the Residuals... category) is the local time step of the cell, ∆t, at the
current iteration level. Its unit quantity is time.

Time Step Scale (in the Species... category) is the factor by which the time step is
reduced for the stiff chemistry solver (available in the density-based solver only).
The time step is scaled down based on an eigenvalue and positivity analysis.

Total Energy (in the Temperature... category) is the total energy per unit mass. Its
unit quantity is specific-energy. For all species models, plots of Total Energy include
the sensible, chemical and kinetic energies. For multiphase models, this value
corresponds to the selected phase in the Phase drop-down list.

Total Enthalpy (in the Temperature... category) is defined as H + 12 v 2 where H is the

Enthalpy, as defined in Equation 13.2-7, and v is the velocity magnitude. Its unit
quantity is specific-energy. For all species models, plots of Total Enthalpy consist
of the sensible, chemical and kinetic energies. For multiphase models, this value
corresponds to the selected phase in the Phase drop-down list.

Total Enthalpy Deviation (in the Temperature... category) is the difference between To-
tal Enthalpy and the reference enthalpy, H + 12 v 2 − Href , where Href is the reference
enthalpy defined in the Reference Values panel. However, for non-premixed and
partially premixed models, Total Enthalpy Deviation is the difference between Total
Enthalpy and total adiabatic enthalpy (total enthalpy where no heat loss or gain
occurs). The unit quantity for Total Enthalpy Deviation is specific-energy. For multi-
phase models, this value corresponds to the selected phase in the Phase drop-down
list.

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Field Function Definitions

Total Pressure (in the Pressure... category) is the pressure at the thermodynamic state
that would exist if the fluid were brought to zero velocity and zero potential. For
compressible flows, the total pressure is computed using isentropic relationships.
For constant cp , this reduces to:

γ − 1 2 γ/(γ−1)
 
p0 = p 1 + M (30.4-36)
2
where p is the static pressure, γ is the ratio of specific heats, and M is the Mach
number. For incompressible flows (constant density fluid), we use Bernoulli’s equa-
tion, p0 = p + pdyn , where pdyn is the local dynamic pressure. Its unit quantity is
pressure.

Total Surface Heat Flux (in the Wall Fluxes... category) is the rate of total heat transfer
through the control surface. It is calculated by the solver according to the boundary
conditions being applied at that surface. By definition, heat flux out of the domain
is negative, and heat flux into the domain is positive. The unit quantity for Total
Surface Heat Flux is heat-flux.

Total Temperature (in the Temperature... category) is the temperature at the ther-
modynamic state that would exist if the fluid were brought to zero velocity. For
compressible flows, the total temperature is computed from the total enthalpy us-
ing the current cp method (specified in the Materials panel). For incompressible
flows, the total temperature is equal to the static temperature. The unit quantity
for Total Temperature is temperature.

Transmitted Radiation Flux (Band-n) (in the Wall Fluxes... category) is the amount of
radiative heat flux transmitted by a semi-transparent wall for a particular band of
radiation. Its unit quantity is heat-flux.

Transmitted Visible Solar Flux, Transmitted IR Solar Flux (in the Wall Fluxes... category)
is the amount of solar heat flux transmitted by a semi-transparent wall for a visible
or infrared radiation.

Turbulence... includes quantities related to turbulence. See Chapter 12: Modeling

Turbulence for information about the turbulence models available in FLUENT.

Turbulence Intensity (in the Turbulence... category) is the ratio of the magnitude of
the RMS turbulent fluctuations to the reference velocity:
q
2
3
k
I= (30.4-37)
vref
where k is the turbulence kinetic energy and vref is the reference velocity specified
in the Reference Values panel. The reference value specified should be the mean
velocity magnitude for the flow. Note that turbulence intensity can be defined in

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 30.4 Alphabetical Listing of Field Variables and Their Definitions

different ways, so you may want to use a custom field function for its definition.
See Section 30.5: Custom Field Functions for more information.

Turbulent Dissipation Rate (Epsilon) (in the Turbulence... category) is the turbulent
dissipation rate. Its unit quantity is turbulent-energy-diss-rate. For multiphase
models, this value corresponds to the selected phase in the Phase drop-down list.

Turbulent Flame Speed (in the Premixed Combustion... category) is the turbulent flame
speed computed by FLUENT using Equation 16.2-4. Its unit quantity is velocity.

Turbulent Kinetic Energy (k) (in the Turbulence... category) is the turbulence kinetic
energy per unit mass defined as

1
k = u0i u0i (30.4-38)
2
Its unit quantity is turbulent-kinetic-energy. For multiphase models, this value cor-
responds to the selected phase in the Phase drop-down list.

Turbulent Rate of Reaction-n (in the Reactions... category) is the rate of progress of the
nth reaction computed by Equation 14.1-26 or 14.1-27. For the “eddy-dissipation”
model, the value is the same as the Rate of Reaction-n. For the “finite-rate” model,
the value is zero.

Turbulent Reynolds Number (Re y) (in the Turbulence... category) is a nondimensional

quantity defined as
√
ρd k
(30.4-39)
µlam
where k is turbulence kinetic energy, d is the distance to the nearest wall, and µlam
is the laminar viscosity.

Turbulent Viscosity (in the Turbulence... category) is the turbulent viscosity of the fluid
computed using the turbulence model. Its unit quantity is viscosity. For multiphase
models, this value corresponds to the selected phase in the Phase drop-down list.

Turbulent Viscosity Ratio (in the Turbulence... category) is the ratio of turbulent vis-
cosity to the laminar viscosity.

udm-n (in the User Defined Memory... category) is the value of the quantity in the nth
user-defined memory location.

Unburnt Fuel Mass Fraction (in the Premixed Combustion... category) is the mass frac-
tion of unburnt fuel. This function is available only for non-adiabatic models.

Unsteady Statistics... includes mean and root mean square (RMS) values of solution
variables derived from transient flow calculations.

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Field Function Definitions

User Defined Memory... includes quantities that have been allocated to a user-defined
memory location. See the separate UDF Manual for details about user-defined
memory.

User-Defined Scalars... includes quantities related to user-defined scalars. See the sep-
arate UDF Manual for information about using user-defined scalars.

UU Reynolds Stress (in the Turbulence... category) is the u0 2 stress.

UV Reynolds Stress (in the Turbulence... category) is the u0 v 0 stress.

UW Reynolds Stress (in the Turbulence... category) is the u0 w0 stress.

Variance of Species (in the NOx... category) is the variance of the mass fraction of a
selected species in the flow field. It is calculated from Equation 20.1-110.

Variance of Species 1, Variance of Species 2 (in the NOx... category) are the variances
of the mass fractions of the selected species in the flow field. They are each calcu-
lated from Equation 20.1-110.

Variance of Temperature (in the NOx... category) is the variance of the normalized
temperature in the flow field. It is calculated from Equation 20.1-110.

Velocity... includes the quantities associated with the rate of change in position with
time. The instantaneous velocity of a particle is defined as the first derivative of
the position vector with respect to time, d~r/dt, termed the velocity vector, ~v .

Velocity Angle (in the Velocity... category) is defined as follows:

For a 2D model,
!
−1 y-velocity-component
tan (30.4-40)
x-velocity-component

For a 2D or axisymmetric model,

!
−1 radial-velocity-component
tan (30.4-41)
axial-velocity-component

For a 3D model,
!
−1 tangential-velocity-component
tan (30.4-42)
axial-velocity-component

Its unit quantity is angle.

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 30.4 Alphabetical Listing of Field Variables and Their Definitions

Velocity Magnitude (in the Velocity... category) is the speed of the fluid. Its unit
quantity is velocity. For multiphase models, this value corresponds to the selected
phase in the Phase drop-down list.

Volume fraction (in the Phases... category) is the volume fraction of the selected phase
in the Phase drop-down list.

Vorticity Magnitude (in the Velocity... category) is the magnitude of the vorticity vec-
tor. Vorticity is a measure of the rotation of a fluid element as it moves in the flow
field, and is defined as the curl of the velocity vector:

ξ = ∇ × V~ (30.4-43)

VV Reynolds Stress (in the Turbulence... category) is the v 0 2 stress.

VW Reynolds Stress (in the Turbulence... category) is the v 0 w0 stress.

Wall Fluxes... includes quantities related to forces and heat transfer at wall surfaces.

Wall Func. Heat Tran. Coef. is defined by the equation

ρCp Cµ1/4 kp1/2

heff = (30.4-44)
T∗
where Cp is the specific heat, kp is the turbulence kinetic energy at point P , and
T ∗ is defined in Equation 12.10-5.

Wall Shear Stress (in the Wall Fluxes... category) is the force acting tangential to the
surface due to friction. Its unit quantity is pressure. For multiphase models, this
value corresponds to the selected phase in the Phase drop-down list.

Wall Temperature (Inner Surface) (in the Temperature... category) is the temperature
on the inner surface of a wall (corresponding to the side of the wall surface away from
the adjacent fluid or solid cell zone). Note that wall thermal boundary conditions
are applied on this surface. See also Figure 7.13.2. The unit quantity for Wall
Temperature (Inner Surface) is temperature.

Wall Temperature (Outer Surface) (in the Temperature... category) is the temperature
on the outer surface of a wall (corresponding to the side of the wall surface toward
the adjacent fluid or solid cell zone). Note that wall thermal boundary conditions
are applied on the Inner Surface. See also Figure 7.13.2. The unit quantity for Wall
Temperature (Outer Surface) is temperature.

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Field Function Definitions

Wall Yplus (in the Turbulence... category) is a nondimensional parameter defined by

the equation

ρuτ yP
y+ = (30.4-45)
µ
q
where uτ = τw /ρw is the friction velocity, yP is the distance from point P to
the wall, ρ is the fluid density, and µ is the fluid viscosity at point P . See Sec-
tion 12.10: Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows for details.
For multiphase models, this value corresponds to the selected phase in the Phase
drop-down list.

Wall Ystar (in the Turbulence... category) is a nondimensional parameter defined by

the equation

1/2
∗ ρCµ1/4 kP yP
y = (30.4-46)
µ
where kP is the turbulence kinetic energy at point P , yP is the distance from point
P to the wall, ρ is the fluid density, and µ is the fluid viscosity at point P . See
Section 12.10: Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows for details.

WW Reynolds Stress (in the Turbulence... category) is the w0 2 stress.

X-Coordinate, Y-Coordinate, Z-Coordinate (in the Grid... category) are the Cartesian
coordinates in the x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis directions respectively. The unit quan-
tity for these variables is length.

X Face Area, Y Face Area, Z Face Area (in the Grid... category) are the components
of the boundary face area vectors stored in the adjacent boundary cells. The face
area calculations are done as in X Surface Area, Y Surface Area, Z Surface Area (see
below), except the area values in the cells with more than one boundary face are
not summed to obtain the cell values. Instead, the area value relative to the last
visited face of each cell is taken as the cell value.
The face area calculation can be restricted to a set of zones. Your zone selection can
be made from the Boundary Zones list contained in the Boundary Adaption panel.
The face areas will be calculated only on the zones selected, and in order to make
your selection active, you need to click the Mark button in the Boundary Adaption
panel. Note that if the Boundary Zones list is empty, all boundary zones will be
used.

X Pull Velocity, Y Pull Velocity, Z Pull Velocity (in the Solidification/Melting... category)
are the x, y, and z components of the pull velocity for the solid material in a con-
tinuous casting process. The unit quantity for each is velocity.

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 30.4 Alphabetical Listing of Field Variables and Their Definitions

X Surface Area, Y Surface Area, Z Surface Area (in the Grid... category) are the com-
ponents of the boundary face area vectors stored in the adjacent boundary cells.
The surface area is accumulated from all boundary faces adjacent to the boundary
cell. For each boundary face zone, the component of the face area in the relevant
direction (x, y, or z) is added to the cell value of the adjacent cell. For those cells
having more than one boundary face, the cell value is the sum (accumulation) of
all the boundary face area values. In most circumstances, the X Surface Area, Y
Surface Area, Z Surface Area are used for flux and surface integration. In the few
instances where area accumulation must be avoided, you can mark the zones of
interest and use X Face Area, Y Face Area, Z Face Area (see above) for flux and
integral calculations.

X Velocity, Y Velocity, Z Velocity (in the Velocity... category) are the components of
the velocity vector in the x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis directions, respectively. The
unit quantity for these variables is velocity. For multiphase models, these values
correspond to the selected phase in the Phase drop-down list.

X-Vorticity, Y-Vorticity, Z-Vorticity (in the Velocity... category) are the x, y, and z
components of the vorticity vector.

X-Wall Shear Stress, Y-Wall Shear Stress, Z-Wall Shear Stress (in the Wall Fluxes... cat-
egory) are the x, y, and z components of the force acting tangential to the surface
due to friction. The unit quantity for these variables is pressure. For multiphase
models, these values correspond to the selected phase in the Phase drop-down list.

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Field Function Definitions

30.5 Custom Field Functions

In addition to the basic field variables provided by FLUENT (and described in Sec-
tion 30.4: Alphabetical Listing of Field Variables and Their Definitions), you can also
define your own field functions to be used in conjunction with any of the commands
that use these variables (contour and vector display, XY plots, etc.). This capability is
available with the Custom Field Function Calculator panel. You can use the default field
variables, previously defined calculator functions, and calculator operators to create new
functions. (Several sample functions are described in Section 30.5.3: Sample Custom
Field Functions.)
Any field functions that you define will be saved in the case file the next time that you
save it. You can also save your custom field functions to a separate file (as described
in Section 30.5.2: Manipulating, Saving, and Loading Custom Field Functions), so that
they can be used with a different case file.

i Note that all custom field functions are evaluated and stored in SI units.
Any solver-defined flow variables that you use in your field-function defini-
tion will be automatically converted if they are not already in SI units, but
you must be careful to enter constants in the appropriate units. Note also
that explicit node values are not available for custom field functions; all
node values for these functions will be computed by averaging the values
in the surrounding cells, as described in Section 30.1.2: Node Values.

30.5.1 Creating a Custom Field Function

To create your own field function, you will use the Custom Field Function Calculator
panel (Figure 30.5.1). This panel allows you to define field functions based on existing
functions, using simple calculator operators. Any functions that you define will be added
to the list of default flow variables and other field functions provided by the solver.
Define −→Custom Field Functions...

i Recall that you must enter all constants in the function definition in SI
units.

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 30.5 Custom Field Functions

Figure 30.5.1: The Custom Field Function Calculator Panel

The steps for creating a custom field function are as follows:

1. Use the calculator buttons and the Field Functions list and Select button to specify
the function definition, as described below. (As you select each item from the Field
Functions list or click a button in the calculator keypad, its symbol will appear in
the Definition text entry box. You cannot edit the contents of this box directly; if
you want to delete part of a function, use the DEL button on the keypad.)

i The range of integers and real numbers that can be stored is as follows:

−2147483648 > integers < 2147483647

−1.79769e + 308 > real < 1.79769e + 308

Note that using a number less than 1e-39 may produce inaccurate results,
while values less than 1e-45 will produce a result of zero.
2. Specify the name of the function in the New Function Name field.

i Be sure that you do not specify a name that is already used for a
standard field function (e.g., velocity-magnitude); you can see a com-
plete list of the predefined field functions in FLUENT by selecting the
display/contours text command and viewing the available choices for
contours of.
3. Click the Define button.

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Field Function Definitions

When you click Define, the solver will create the function and add it to the list of Custom
Field Functions within the drop-down list of available field functions. The Define push
button is grayed out after you create a new function or if the Definition text entry box is
empty.
Should you decide to rename or delete the function after you have completed the defini-
tion, you can do so in the Field Function Definitions panel, which you can open by clicking
on the Manage... push button. See Section 30.5.2: Manipulating, Saving, and Loading
Custom Field Functions for details.

Using the Calculator Buttons

Your function definition can include many basic calculator operations (e.g., addition, sub-
traction, multiplication, square root). When you select a calculator button (by clicking
on it), the appropriate symbol will appear in the Definition text entry box. The meaning
of the buttons is straightforward; they are similar to the buttons you would find on any
standard calculator. You should, however, note the following:

• The CE/C button will clear the entire Definition and the New Function Name, if you
have entered one. The DEL button will delete only the last entry in the Definition
text entry box. You can use DEL to delete characters one at a time, starting with
the last one entered.

• To obtain the inverse trigonometric functions arcsin, arccos, and arctan, click the
INV button before selecting sin, cos, or tan.

• The ABS button yields the absolute value of the number that follows it. Likewise,
the ln button yields the natural logarithm of the number that follows it, and the
log10 button yields the base 10 logarithm function of the number that follows it.

i log10 and ln will be calculated for values greater than 0. For values less
than or equal to 0, the resultant value will be zero.
• The PI button represents π and the e button represents the base of the natural
logarithm system (which is approximately equal to 2.71828).

Using the Field Functions List

Your function definition can also include any of the field functions defined by the solver
(and listed in Section 30.4: Alphabetical Listing of Field Variables and Their Definitions)
or by you. To include one of these variables/functions in your function definition, select
it in the Field Functions drop-down list and then click the Select button below the list.
The symbol for the selected item will appear in the Definition text entry box (e.g., p will
appear if you select Static Pressure).

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 30.5 Custom Field Functions

30.5.2 Manipulating, Saving, and Loading Custom Field Functions

Once you have defined your field functions, you can manipulate them using the Field
Function Definitions panel (Figure 30.5.2). You can display a function definition to be
sure that it is correct, delete the function if you decide that it is incorrect and needs to
be redefined, or give the function a new name. You can also save custom field functions
to a file or read them from a file. The custom field function file allows you to transfer
your custom functions between case files.
To open the Field Function Definitions panel, click the Manage... button in the Custom
Field Function Calculator panel.

Figure 30.5.2: The Field Function Definitions Panel

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Field Function Definitions

The following actions can be performed in the Field Function Definitions panel:

• To check the definition of a function, select it in the Field Functions list. Its definition
will be displayed in the Definition field. This display is for informational purposes
only; you cannot edit it. If you want to change a function definition, you must delete
the function and define it again in the Custom Field Function Calculator panel.

• To delete a function, select it in the Field Functions list and click the Delete button.

• To rename a function, select it in the Field Functions list, enter a new name in the
Name field, and click the Rename button.

i Be sure that you do not specify a name that is already used for a
standard field function (e.g., velocity-magnitude); you can see a com-
plete list of the predefined field functions in FLUENT by selecting the
display/contours text command and viewing the available choices for
contours of.
• To save all of the functions in the Field Functions list to a file, click the Save...
button and specify the file name in the resulting Select File dialog box (see Sec-
tion 2.1.2: Select File Dialog Box (UNIX or Linux)).

• To read custom field functions from a file that you saved as described above, click
the Load... button and specify the file name in the resulting Select File dialog box.
(Custom field function files are valid Scheme functions, and can also be loaded with
the File/Read/Scheme... menu item, as described in Section 4.8: Reading Scheme
Source Files.)

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 30.5 Custom Field Functions

30.5.3 Sample Custom Field Functions

When you are checking the results of your simulation, you may find it useful to define
some of the following field functions:

• To define a function that determines the ratio of static pressure to inlet total
pressure, use the relationship

p + pop
R= (30.5-1)
pto + pop

where p is the static pressure calculated by the solver, pto is the inlet total pressure,
and pop is the operating pressure for the problem. Use the solver-defined function
Static Pressure for p, and the numerical value that you specified for Gauge Total
Pressure in the Pressure Inlet panel for pto . Specify the value of the operating
pressure to be the value that you set in the Operating Conditions panel. As discussed
in Section 8.14: Operating Pressure, all pressures in FLUENT are gauge pressures
relative to the operating pressure. If the operating pressure is zero, as is generally
the case for compressible flow calculations, the expression for the pressure ratio
reduces to

p
PR = (30.5-2)
pto
• To define a function that determines the critical velocity ratio v/a∗ , a parameter
that is sometimes used in turbomachinery calculations, use the relationship

 1/2
" ! #
v γ+1  (γ−1)/γ
= 1 − PR (30.5-3)
a∗ γ−1

In this relationship, a∗ is the critical velocity (i.e., the velocity that would occur
for the same stagnation conditions if M = 1), γ is the ratio of specific heats, and
PR is the pressure ratio defined in Equation 30.5-2 for which you created your
own function. For γ, ratio of specific heats, select Specific Heat Ratio (gamma) in
the Properties... category. To include PR, select Custom Field Functions... in the
first drop-down list under Field Functions, and then select from the second list the
function name that you assigned PR.

• Suppose you have swirling flow in a pipe, aligned with the z axis, and you want to
calculate the flow rate of angular momentum through a cross-sectional plane:
Z
~
ρrvθ~v · dA (30.5-4)

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Field Function Definitions

You can create a function for the product rvθ , where r is the Radial Coordinate and
vθ is the Tangential Velocity. Then use the Surface Integrals panel to compute the
flow rate of this quantity.

i The custom field function containing model dependent functions (like tem-
perature when the energy equation is enabled) will be computed only when
those models are still active.

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Chapter 31. Parallel Processing

The following sections describe the parallel-processing features of FLUENT.

• Section 31.1: Introduction to Parallel Processing

• Section 31.2: Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Windows System
• Section 31.3: Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX System
• Section 31.4: Checking Network Connectivity
• Section 31.5: Partitioning the Grid
• Section 31.6: Checking and Improving Parallel Performance

31.1 Introduction to Parallel Processing

The FLUENT serial solver manages file input and output, data storage, and flow field
calculations using a single solver process on a single computer. FLUENT’s parallel solver
allows you to compute a solution by using multiple processes that may be executing on
the same computer, or on different computers in a network. Figures 31.1.1 and 31.1.2
illustrate the serial and parallel FLUENT architectures.
Parallel processing in FLUENT involves an interaction between FLUENT, a host process,
and a set of compute-node processes. FLUENT interacts with the host process and the
collection of compute nodes using a utility called cortex that manages FLUENT’s user
interface and basic graphical functions.
Parallel FLUENT splits up the grid and data into multiple partitions, then assigns each
grid partition to a different compute process (or node). The number of partitions is an
integral multiple of the number of compute nodes available to you (e.g., 8 partitions for 1,
2, 4, or 8 compute nodes). The compute-node processes can be executed on a massively-
parallel computer, a multiple-CPU workstation, or a network cluster of computers.

i In general, as the number of compute nodes increases, turnaround time

for the solution will decrease. However, parallel efficiency decreases as the
ratio of communication to computation increases, so you should be careful
to choose a large enough problem for the parallel machine.
FLUENT uses a host process that does not contain any grid data. Instead, the host
process only interprets commands from FLUENT’s graphics-related interface, cortex.

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Parallel Processing

CORTEX

Solver
File Input/Output
Disk
Data:
Cell
Face
Node

Figure 31.1.1: Serial FLUENT Architecture

CORTEX

HOST File Input/Output

Disk
FLUENT
MPI

COMPUTE NODES
Compute Node 0 Compute Node 1

Data: Data:
Cell Cell
Face Face
Node FLUENT FLUENT Node
MPI MPI

Socket
MP
Data: FLUENT FLUENT Data:
MPI MPI
Cell Cell
Face Face
Node Node

Compute Node 2 Compute Node 3

Figure 31.1.2: Parallel FLUENT Architecture

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 31.1 Introduction to Parallel Processing

The host distributes those commands to the other compute nodes via a socket inter-
connect to a single designated compute node called compute-node-0. This specialized
compute node distributes the host commands to the other compute nodes. Each compute
node simultaneously executes the same program on its own data set. Communication
from the compute nodes to the host is possible only through compute-node-0 and only
when all compute nodes have synchronized with each other.
Each compute node is virtually connected to every other compute node, and relies on
inter-process communication to perform such functions as sending and receiving arrays,
synchronizing, and performing global operations (such as summations over all cells).
Inter-process communication is managed by a message-passing library. For example,
the message-passing library could be a vendor implementation of the Message Passing
Interface (MPI) standard, as depicted in Figure 31.1.2.
All of the parallel FLUENT processes (as well as the serial process) are identified by
a unique integer ID. The host collects messages from compute-node-0 and performs
operations (such as printing, displaying messages, and writing to a file) on all of the
data, in the same way as the serial solver.

Recommended Usage of Parallel FLUENT

The recommended procedure for using parallel FLUENT is as follows:

1. Start up the parallel solver. See Section 31.2: Starting Parallel FLUENT on a
Windows System and Section 31.3: Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX
System for details.

2. Read your case file and have FLUENT partition the grid automatically upon loading
it. It is best to partition after the problem is set up, since partitioning has some
model dependencies (e.g., adaption on non-conformal interfaces, sliding-mesh and
shell-conduction encapsulation).
Note that there are other approaches for partitioning, including manual partitioning
in either the serial or the parallel solver. See Section 31.5: Partitioning the Grid
for details.

3. Review the partitions and perform partitioning again, if necessary.

See Section 31.5.6: Checking the Partitions for details on checking your partitions.

4. Calculate a solution. See Section 31.6: Checking and Improving Parallel Performance
for information on checking and improving the parallel performance.

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Parallel Processing

31.2 Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Windows System

You can run FLUENT on a Windows system using either command line options or the
graphical user interface.
Information about starting FLUENT on a Windows system is provided in the following
sections:

• Section 31.2.1: Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Windows System Using Command

Line Options
• Section 31.2.2: Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Windows System Using the Graph-
ical User Interface
• Section 31.2.3: Starting Parallel FLUENT with the Fluent Launcher
• Section 31.2.4: Starting Parallel FLUENT with the Microsoft Job Scheduler (win64
Only)

i See the separate installation instructions for more information about in-
stalling parallel FLUENT for Windows. The startup instructions below
assume that you have properly set up the necessary software, based on the
appropriate installation instructions.
Additional information about installation issues can also be found in the Frequently
Asked Questions section of the Fluent Inc. User Services Center (www.fluentusers.com).

31.2.1 Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Windows System Using Command Line

Options
To start the parallel version of FLUENT using command line options, you can use the
following syntax in a Command Prompt window:
fluent version -tnprocs [-pinterconnect] [-mpi=mpi type] -cnf=hosts file
-path\\computer name\share name
where

• version must be replaced by the version of FLUENT you want to run (2d, 3d, 2ddp,
or 3ddp).
• -path\\computer name\share name specifies the computer name and the shared
network name for the Fluent.Inc directory in UNC form.
For example, if FLUENT has been installed on computer1 and shared as fluent.inc,
then you should replace share name by the UNC name for the shared directory,
\\computer1\fluent.inc.

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 31.2 Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Windows System

• -pinterconnect (optional) specifies the type of interconnect. The ethernet inter-

connect is used by default if the option is not explicitly specified. See Table 31.2.1,
Table 31.2.2, and Table 31.2.3 for more information.

• -mpi=mpi type (optional) specifies the type of MPI. If the option is not specified,
the default MPI for the given interconnect will be used (the use of the default MPI
is recommended). The available MPIs for Windows are shown in Table 31.2.2.

• -cnf=hosts file specifies the hosts file, which contains a list of the computers on
which you want to run the parallel job. If the hosts file is not located in the
directory where you are typing the startup command, you will need to supply the
full pathname to the file.
You can use a plain text editor such as Notepad to create the hosts file. The only
restriction on the filename is that there should be no spaces in it. For example,
hosts.txt is an acceptable hosts file name, but my hosts.txt is not.
Your hosts file (e.g., hosts.txt) might contain the following entries:

computer1
computer2

i The last entry must be followed by a blank line.

If a computer in the network is a multiprocessor, you can list it more than once.
For example, if computer1 has 2 CPUs, then, to take advantage of both CPUs, the
hosts.txt file should list computer1 twice:

computer1
computer1
computer2

• -tnprocs specifies the number of processes to use. When the -cnf option is present,
the hosts file argument is used to determine which computers to use for the parallel
job. For example, if there are 8 computers listed in the hosts file and you want to
run a job with 4 processes, set nprocs to 4 (i.e., -t4) and FLUENT will use the first
4 machines listed in the hosts file.

For example, the full command line to start a 3d parallel job on the first 4 computers
listed in a hosts file called hosts.txt is as follows:

fluent 3d -t4 -cnf=hosts.txt -path\\computer1\fluent.inc

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Parallel Processing

The default interconnect (ethernet) and the default communication library (mpich2)
will be used since these options are not specified.

i The first time that you try to run FLUENT in parallel, a separate Command
Prompt will open prompting you to verify the current Windows account
that you are logged into. Press the <Enter> key if the account is correct.
If you have a new account password, enter in your password and press
the <Enter> key, then verify your password and press the <Enter> key.
Once the username and password have been verified and encrypted into
the Windows Registry, then FLUENT parallel will launch.
The supported interconnects for dedicated parallel ntx86 and win64 Windows machines,
the associated MPIs for them, and the corresponding syntax are listed in Tables 31.2.1-
31.2.3:

Table 31.2.1: Supported Interconnects for the Windows Platform

Platform Processor Architecture Interconnects*

Windows 32-bit ntx86 ethernet (default)
64-bit win64 ethernet (default),
infiniband, myrinet

(*) Node processes on the same machine communicate by shared memory.

Table 31.2.2: Available MPIs for Windows Platforms

MPI Syntax Communication Notes

(flag) Library
mpich2 -mpi=mpich2 MPICH2 MPI (1), (2)
ms -mpi=ms Microsoft MPI (1), (2)
net -mpi=net socket (1), (2)

(1) Used with Shared Memory Machine (SSM) where the memory is shared between the processors on
a single machine.
(2) Used with Distributed Memory Machine (DMM) where each processor has it’s own memory associated
with it.

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 31.2 Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Windows System

Table 31.2.3: Supported MPIs for Windows Architectures (Per Interconnect)

Architecture Ethernet Myrinet Infiniband

ntx86 mpich2 (default), - -
net
win64 mpich2 (default), ms ms
ms, net

31.2.2 Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Windows System Using the Graphical

User Interface
To run parallel FLUENT using the graphical user interface, type the usual startup com-
mand without a version (i.e., fluent -t2), and then use the Select Solver panel (Fig-
ure 31.3.1) to specify the parallel architecture and version information.
File −→Run...

Figure 31.2.1: The Select Solver Panel

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Parallel Processing

Perform the following actions:

1. Under Versions, specify the 3D or 2D single- or double-precision version by turning

the 3D and Double Precision options on or off, and turn on the Parallel option.

2. Under Options, select the interconnect or system in the Interconnect drop-down list.
The Default setting is recommended, because it selects the interconnect that should
provide the best overall parallel performance for your dedicated parallel machine.
For a symmetric multi-processor (SMP) system, the Default setting uses shared
memory for communication.
If you prefer to select a specific interconnect, you can choose either Ethernet/Shared
Memory MPI, Myrinet, Infiniband, or Ethernet via sockets. For more information
about these interconnects, see Table 31.2.1, Table 31.2.2, and Table 31.2.3.

3. Set the number of CPUs in the Processes field.

4. (optional) Specify the name of a file containing a list of machines, one per line, in
the Hosts File field.

5. Click the Run button to start the parallel version. No additional setup is required
once the solver starts.

i The first time that you try to run FLUENT in parallel, a separate Command
Prompt will open prompting you to verify the current Windows account
that you are logged into. Press the <Enter> key if the account is correct.
If you have a new account password, enter in your password and press
the <Enter> key, then verify your password and press the <Enter> key.
Once the username and password have been verified and encrypted into
the Windows Registry, then FLUENT parallel will launch.

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 31.2 Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Windows System

31.2.3 Starting Parallel FLUENT with the Fluent Launcher

The Fluent Launcher (Figure 31.2.2), is a stand-alone Windows application that allows
you to launch FLUENT jobs from a computer with a Windows operating system to a
cluster of computers. Settings made in the Fluent Launcher panel (Figure 31.2.2) are
used to create a FLUENT parallel command. This command will then be distributed to
your network where typically another application may manage the session(s).
You can create a shortcut on your desktop pointing to the Fluent Launcher executable at

FLUENT_INC\fluent6.x\launcher\launcher.exe

where FLUENT INC is the root path to where FLUENT is installed, (i.e., usually the
FLUENT INC environment variable) and x indicates the release version of FLUENT).

Figure 31.2.2: The Fluent Launcher Panel

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Parallel Processing

The Fluent Launcher allows you to perform the following:

• Set options for your FLUENT executable, such as indicating a specific release or a
version number.

• Set parallel options, such as indicating the number of parallel processes (or if you
want to run a serial process), and an MPI type to use for parallel computations.

• Set additional options such as specifying the name and location of the current
working folder or a journal file.

When you are ready to launch your serial or parallel application, you can check the valid-
ity of the settings using the Check button (messages are displayed in the Log Information
window). When you are satisfied with the settings, click the Launch button to start the
parallel processes.
To return to your default settings for the Fluent Launcher, based on your current FLUENT
installation, click the Default button. The fields in the Fluent Launcher panel will return
to their original settings.
When you are finished using the Fluent Launcher, click the Close button. Any settings
that you have made in the panel are preserved when you re-open the Fluent Launcher.

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 31.2 Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Windows System

Setting the Path to FLUENT

You need to specify the location of where FLUENT is installed on your system using the
Fluent.Inc Path field, or click ... to browse through your directory structure to locate the
installation folder (trying to use the UNC path if applicable). Once set, various fields in
the Fluent Launcher (e.g., Release, MPI Types, etc.) are automatically populated with the
available options, depending on the FLUENT installations that are available.

Setting Executable Options with the Fluent Launcher

Under Executable Options, you can indicate the release number, as well as the version of
the FLUENT executable that you want to run.

Specifying a FLUENT Release

Depending on what FLUENT releases are available in the Fluent.Inc Path, you can specify
the number associated with a given release in the Release list. The list is populated with
the FLUENT release numbers that are available in the Fluent Inc. Path field.

Specifying the Version of FLUENT

You can specify the dimensionality and the precision of the FLUENT product using the
Version list. There are four possible choices: 2d, 2ddp, 3d, or 3ddp. The 2d and 3d
options provide single-precision results for two-dimensional or three-dimensional prob-
lems, respectively. The 2ddp and 3ddp options provide double-precision results for two-
dimensional or three-dimensional problems, respectively.

Setting Parallel Options with the Fluent Launcher

Under Parallel Options, you can indicate the number of FLUENT processes, the specific
computer architecture you want to run the processes on, the type of MPI, as well as a
listing of computer nodes that you want to use in the calculations.

Specifying the Number of FLUENT Processes

You can specify the number of FLUENT processes in the Number of Processes field. You
can use the drop-down list to select from pre-set values of serial, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16,
32, or 64, or you can manually enter the number into the field yourself (e.g., 3, 10, etc.).
The range of parallel processes ranges from 1 to 1024. If Number of Processes is equal to
1, you might want to consider running the FLUENT job using the serial setting.

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Parallel Processing

Specifying the Computer Architecture

You can specify the computer architecture using the Architecture drop-down list. De-
pending on the selected release, the available options are ntx86 and win64.

Specifying the MPI Type

You can specify the MPI to use for the parallel computations using the MPI Types field.
The list of MPI types varies depending on the selected release and the selected architec-
ture. There are several options, based on the operating system of the parallel cluster.
For more information about the available MPI types, see Tables 31.2.1-31.2.2.

Specifying the List of Machines to Run FLUENT

Specify the hosts file using the Machine List or File field. You can use the ... button to
browse for a hosts file, or you can enter the machine names directly into the text field.
Machine names can be separated either by a comma or a space.

Setting Additional Options with the Fluent Launcher

Under Additional Options, you can specify a working folder and/or a journal file. In
addition, you can specify whether to use the Microsoft Scheduler or whether to use
benchmarking options.

Specifying the Working Folder

You can specify the path of your current working directory using the Working Folder field
or click ... to browse through your directory structure. Note that a UNC path cannot be
set as a working folder.

Specifying a Journal File

You can specify the path and name of a journal file using the Journal File field or click
... to browse through your directory structure to locate the file. Using the journal file,
you can automatically load the case, compile any user-defined functions, iterate until the
solution converges, and write results to a output file.

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 31.2 Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Windows System

Specifying Whether or Not to Use the Microsoft Job Scheduler (win64 MS MPI Only)

For the Windows 64-bit MS MPI only, you can specify that you want to use the Mi-
crosoft Job Scheduler (see Section 31.2.4: Starting Parallel FLUENT with the Microsoft
Job Scheduler (win64 Only)) by selecting the Use Microsoft Scheduler check box. Once
selected, you can then enter a machine name in the with Head Node text field. If you
are running FLUENT on the head node, then you can keep the field empty. This op-
tion translates into the proper parallel command line syntax for using the Microsoft Job
Scheduler.

Specifying Whether or Not to Use the Fluent Launcher for Benchmarking

If you are creating benchmark cases using parallel FLUENT, you can enable the Benchmark
check box. This option involves having several benchmarking-related files available on
your machine. If you are missing any of the files, the Fluent Launcher informs you of
which files you need and how to locate them.

Fluent Launcher Example

The Fluent Launcher takes the options that you have specified and uses those settings to
create a FLUENT parallel command. This command (displayed in the Log Information
window) will then be distributed to your network where typically another application
may manage the session(s).
For example, if, in the Fluent Launcher panel, you specified your Fluent.Inc Path to be
\\my_computer\Fluent.Inc and under Executable Options, you selected 6.3.20 for the
Release, and 3d for the Version. Then, under Parallel Options, you selected 2 for the
number of Processes, win64 for the Architecture, selected mpich2 in the MPI Types field,
then entered the location of a Z:\fluent.host file in the Machine List or File field. If
you click the Check button, the command is displayed in the Log Information window.
When you click the Launch button, the Fluent Launcher would then generate the following
parallel command:
\\my_computer\Fluent.Inc\ntbin\win64\fluent.exe 3d -r6.3.20 -t2 -mpi=mpich2
-cnf=Z:\fluent.hosts -awin64

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Parallel Processing

31.2.4 Starting Parallel FLUENT with the Microsoft Job Scheduler (win64
Only)
The Microsoft Job Scheduler allows you to manage multiple jobs and tasks, allocate
computer resources, send tasks to compute nodes, and monitor jobs, tasks, and compute
nodes.
FLUENT currently supports Windows XP as well as the Windows Server operating sys-
tem (win64 only). The Windows Server operating system includes a “compute cluster
package” (CCP) that combines the Microsoft MPI type (msmpi) and Microsoft Job Sched-
uler. FLUENT provides a means of using the Microsoft Job Scheduler using the following
flag in the parallel command:
-ccp head-node-name
where -ccp indicates the use of the compute cluster package, and head-node-name indi-
cates the name of the head node of the computer cluster.
For example, if you want to use the Job Scheduler, the corresponding command syntax
would be:
fluent 3d -t2 -ccp head-node-name
Likewise, if you do not want to use the Job Scheduler, the following command syntax
can be used with msmpi:
fluent 3d -t2 -pmsmpi -cnf=host

i The first time that you try to run FLUENT in parallel, a separate Command
Prompt will open prompting you to verify the current Windows account
that you are logged into. If you have a new account password, enter in your
password and press the <Enter> key. If you want FLUENT to remember
your password on this machine, press the Y key and press the <Enter> key.
Once the username and password have been verified and encrypted into
the Windows Registry, then FLUENT parallel will launch.

i If you do not want to use the Microsoft Job Scheduler, but you still want
to use msmpi, you will need to stop the Microsoft Compute Cluster MPI
Service through the Control Panel, and you need to start your own version
of SMPD (the process manager for msmpi on Windows) using the following
command on each host on which you want to run FLUENT:
start smpd -d 0

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 31.3 Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX System

31.3 Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX System

You can run FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX system using either command line options or
the graphical user interface.
Information about starting FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX system is provided in the following
sections:

• Section 31.3.1: Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX System Using Com-

mand Line Options

• Section 31.3.2: Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX System Using the

Graphical User Interface

• Section 31.3.3: Setting Up Your Remote Shell and Secure Shell Clients

31.3.1 Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX System Using Command

Line Options
To start the parallel version of FLUENT using command line options, you can use the
following syntax in a command prompt window:
fluent version -tnprocs [-pinterconnect] [-mpi=mpi type] -cnf=hosts file
where

• version must be replaced by the version of FLUENT you want to run (2d, 3d, 2ddp,
or 3ddp).

• -pinterconnect (optional) specifies the type of interconnect. The ethernet inter-

connect is used by default if the option is not explicitly specified. See Table 31.3.1,
Table 31.3.2, and Table 31.3.3 for more information.

• -mpi=mpi type (optional) specifies the type of MPI. If the option is not specified,
the default MPI for the given interconnect will be used (the use of the default MPI
is recommended). The available MPIs for Linux/UNIX are shown in Table 31.3.2.

• -cnf=hosts file specifies the hosts file, which contains a list of the computers on
which you want to run the parallel job. If the hosts file is not located in the
directory where you are typing the startup command, you will need to supply the
full pathname to the file.
You can use a plain text editor to create the hosts file. The only restriction on
the filename is that there should be no spaces in it. For example, hosts.txt is an
acceptable hosts file name, but my hosts.txt is not.

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Your hosts file (e.g., hosts.txt) might contain the following entries:

computer1
computer2

i The last entry must be followed by a blank line.

If a computer in the network is a multiprocessor, you can list it more than once.
For example, if computer1 has 2 CPUs, then, to take advantage of both CPUs, the
hosts.txt file should list computer1 twice:

computer1
computer1
computer2

• -tnprocs specifies the number of processes to use. When the -cnf option is present,
the hosts file argument is used to determine which computers to use for the parallel
job. For example, if there are 10 computers listed in the hosts file and you want
to run a job with 5 processes, set nprocs to 5 (i.e., -t5) and FLUENT will use the
first 5 machines listed in the hosts file.

For example, to use the Myrinet interconnect, and to start the 3D solver with 4 compute
nodes on the machines defined in the text file called fluent.hosts, you can enter the
following in the command prompt:
fluent 3d -t4 -pmyrinet -cnf=fluent.hosts
Note that if the optional -cnf=hosts file is specified, a compute node will be spawned
on each machine listed in the file hosts file. (If you enter this optional argument, do not
include the square brackets.)
The supported interconnects for parallel Linux/UNIX machines are listed below (Ta-
ble 31.3.1, Table 31.3.2, and Table 31.3.3), along with their associated communication
libraries, the corresponding syntax, and the supported architectures:

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 31.3 Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX System

Table 31.3.1: Supported Interconnects for Linux/UNIX Platforms (Per Plat-

form)

Platform Processor Architecture Interconnects/Systems*

Linux 32-bit lnx86 ethernet (default), infiniband,
myrinet
64-bit lnamd64 ethernet (default), infiniband,
myrinet, crayx
64-bit Itanium lnia64 ethernet (default), infiniband,
myrinet, altix
Sun 32-bit ultra vendor** (default), ethernet
64-bit ultra 64 vendor** (default), ethernet
SGI 32-bit irix65 mips4 vendor** (default), ethernet
64-bit irix65 mips4 64 vendor** (default), ethernet
HP 32-bit hpux11 vendor** (default), ethernet
64-bit PA-RISC hpux11 64 vendor** (default), ethernet
64-bit Itanium hpux11 ia64 vendor** (default), ethernet
IBM 32-bit aix51 vendor** (default), ethernet
64-bit aix51 64 vendor** (default), ethernet

(*) Node processes on the same machine communicate by shared memory.

(**) vendor indicates a proprietary vendor interconnect. The specific proprietary interconnects that are
supported are dictated by those that the vendor’s MPI supports.

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Table 31.3.2: Available MPIs for Linux/UNIX Platforms

MPI Syntax Communication Notes

(flag) Library
hp -mpi=hp HP MPI General purpose for SMPs
and clusters
intel -mpi=intel Intel MPI General purpose for SMPs
and clusters
mpich2 -mpi=mpich2 MPICH2 MPI-2 implementation from
Argonne National
Laboratory. For both SMPs
and Ethernet clusters
mpich -mpi=mpich MPICH1 Legacy MPI from Argonne
National Laboratory
mpichmx -mpi=mpichmx MPICH-MX Only for Myrinet MX
clusters
mvapich -mpi=mvapich MVAPICH Only for Infiniband clusters
sgi -mpi=sgi SGI MPI for Altix Only for SGI Altix systems
(SMP); must start FLUENT
on a system where parallel
node processes are to run
cray -mpi=cray Cray MPI for XD1 Only for Cray XD1 systems
vendor -mpi=vendor Vendor MPI
net -mpi=net socket

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 31.3 Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX System

Table 31.3.3: Supported MPIs for Linux/UNIX Architectures (Per Intercon-

nect)

Architecture Ethernet Myrinet Infiniband Proprietary

Systems
lnx86 hp (default), hp hp -
mpich2, net
lnamd64 hp (default), hp (default), hp (default), cray [for -pcrayx]
intel, net mpich-mx intel,
mvapich
lnia64 hp (default), hp hp (default), sgi
intel, net intel [for -paltix]
aix51 64 vendor (default), - - vendor
mpich, net [for -pvendor]
hpux11 64 vendor (default), - - vendor
net [for -pvendor]
hpux11 ia64 vendor (default), - - vendor
net [for -pvendor]
irix65 mpis4 64 vendor (default), - - vendor
mpich, net [for -pvendor]
ultra 64 vendor (default), - - vendor
mpich, net [for -pvendor]
aix51 vendor (default), - - vendor
mpich, net [for -pvendor]
hpux11 vendor (default), - - vendor
mpich, net [for -pvendor]
irix65 mpis4 vendor (default), - - vendor
mpich, net [for -pvendor]
ultra vendor (default), - - vendor
mpich, net [for -pvendor]

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31.3.2 Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX System Using the Graphical

User Interface
To run parallel FLUENT using the graphical user interface, type the usual startup com-
mand without a version (i.e., fluent), and then use the Select Solver panel (Figure 31.3.1)
to specify the parallel architecture and version information.
File −→Run...

Figure 31.3.1: The Select Solver Panel

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 31.3 Starting Parallel FLUENT on a Linux/UNIX System

Perform the following steps:

1. Under Versions, specify the 3D or 2D single- or double-precision version by turning

the 3D and Double Precision options on or off, and turn on the Parallel option.

2. Under Options, select the interconnect or system in the Interconnect drop-down list.
The Default setting is recommended, because it selects the interconnect that should
provide the best overall parallel performance for your dedicated parallel machine.
For a symmetric multi-processor (SMP) system, the Default setting uses shared
memory for communication.
If you prefer to select a specific interconnect, you can choose either Ethernet/Shared
Memory MPI, Myrinet, Infiniband, Altix, Cray, or Ethernet via sockets. For more infor-
mation about these interconnects, see Table 31.3.1, Table 31.3.2, and Table 31.3.3.

3. Set the number of CPUs in the Processes field.

4. (optional) Specify the name of a file containing a list of machines, one per line, in
the Hosts File field.

5. Click the Run button to start the parallel version. No additional setup is required
once the solver starts.

31.3.3 Setting Up Your Remote Shell and Secure Shell Clients

For cluster computing on Linux or UNIX systems, most parallel versions of FLUENT will
need the user account set up such that you can connect to all nodes on the cluster (using
either the remote shell (rsh) client or the secure shell (ssh) client) without having to
enter a password each time for each machine.
Provided that the appropriate server daemons (either rshd or sshd) are running, this
section briefly describes how you can configure your system in order to use FLUENT for
parallel computing.

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Configuring the rsh Client

The remote shell client (rsh), is widely deployed and used. It is generally easy to con-
figure, and involves adding all the machine names, each on a single line, to the .rhosts
file in your home directory.
If you refer to the machine you are currently logged on as the ‘client’, and if you refer
to the remote machine to which you seek password-less login as the ‘server’, then on
the server, you can add the name of your client machine to the .rhosts file. The name
could be a local name or a fully qualified name with the domain suffix. Similarly, you can
add other clients from which you require similar access to this server. These machines
are then “trusted” and remote access is allowed without the further need for a password.
This setup assumes you have the same userid on all the machines. Otherwise, each line
in the .rhosts file would need to contain the machine name as well as the userid for the
client that you want access to. Please refer to your system documentation for further
usage options.
Note that for security purposes, the .rhosts file must be readable only by the user.

Configuring the ssh Client

The secure shell client (ssh), is a more secure alternative to rsh and is also used widely.
Depending on the specific protocol and the version deployed, configuration involves a few
steps. SSH1 and SSH2 are two current protocols. OpenSSH is an open implementation of
the SSH2 protocol and is backwards compatible with the SSH1 protocol. To add a client
machine, with respect to user configuration, the following steps are involved:

1. Generate a public-private key pair using ssh-keygen (or using a graphical user
interface client). For example:

% ssk-keygen -t dsa

where it creates a Digital Signature Authority (DSA) type key pair.

2. Place your public key on the remote host.

• For SSH1, insert the contents of the client (~/.ssh/identity.pub) into the
server (~/.ssh/authorized_keys).
• For SSH2, insert the contents of the client (~/.ssh/id_dsa.pub) into the server
(~/.ssh/authorized_keys2).

The client machine is now added to the access list and the user is no longer required to
type in a password each time. For additional information, consult your system adminis-
trator or refer to your system documentation.

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 31.4 Checking Network Connectivity

31.4 Checking Network Connectivity

For any compute node, you can print network connectivity information that includes the
hostname, architecture, process ID, and ID of the selected compute node and all machines
connected to it. The ID of the selected compute node is marked with an asterisk.
The ID for the FLUENT host process is always host. The compute nodes are numbered
sequentially starting from node-0. All compute nodes are completely connected. In
addition, compute node 0 is connected to the host process.
To obtain connectivity information for a compute node, you can use the Parallel Connec-
tivity panel (Figure 31.4.1).
Parallel −→Show Connectivity...

Figure 31.4.1: The Parallel Connectivity Panel

Indicate the compute node ID for which connectivity information is desired in the Com-
pute Node field, and then click the Print button. Sample output for compute node 0 is
shown below:

------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ID Comm. Hostname O.S. PID Mach ID HW ID Name
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
host net balin Linux-32 17272 0 7 Fluent Host
n3 hp balin Linux-32 17307 1 10 Fluent Node
n2 hp filio Linux-32 17306 0 -1 Fluent Node
n1 hp bofur Linux-32 17305 0 1 Fluent Node
n0* hp balin Linux-32 17273 2 11 Fluent Node

O.S is the architecture, Comm. is the communication library (i.e., MPI type), PID is the
process ID number, Mach ID is the compute node ID, and HW ID is an identifier specific
to the interconnect used.

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31.5 Partitioning the Grid

Information about grid partitioning is provided in the following sections:

• Section 31.5.1: Overview of Grid Partitioning

• Section 31.5.2: Preparing Hexcore Meshes for Partitioning

• Section 31.5.3: Partitioning the Grid Automatically

• Section 31.5.4: Partitioning the Grid Manually

• Section 31.5.5: Grid Partitioning Methods

• Section 31.5.6: Checking the Partitions

• Section 31.5.7: Load Distribution

31.5.1 Overview of Grid Partitioning

When you use the parallel solver in FLUENT, you need to partition or subdivide the grid
into groups of cells that can be solved on separate processors (see Figure 31.5.1). You
can either use the automatic partitioning algorithms when reading an unpartitioned grid
into the parallel solver (recommended approach, described in Section 31.5.3: Partitioning
the Grid Automatically), or perform the partitioning yourself in the serial solver or after
reading a mesh into the parallel solver (as described in Section 31.5.4: Partitioning the
Grid Manually). In either case, the available partitioning methods are those described
in Section 31.5.5: Grid Partitioning Methods. You can partition the grid before or after
you set up the problem (by defining models, boundary conditions, etc.), although it is
better to partition after the setup, due to some model dependencies (e.g., adaption on
non-conformal interfaces, sliding-mesh and shell-conduction encapsulation).

i If your case file contains sliding meshes, or non-conformal interfaces on

which you plan to perform adaption during the calculation, you will have
to partition it in the serial solver. See Sections 31.5.3 and 31.5.4 for more
information.

i If your case file contains a mesh generated by the GAMBIT Hex Core mesh-
ing scheme or the TGrid Mesh/Hexcore menu option (hexcore mesh), you
must filter the mesh using the tpoly utility or TGrid prior to partitioning
the grid. See Section 31.5.2: Preparing Hexcore Meshes for Partitioning
for more information.
Note that the relative distribution of cells among compute nodes will be maintained
during grid adaption, except if non-conformal interfaces are present, so repartitioning
after adaption is not required. See Section 31.5.7: Load Distribution for more information.

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 31.5 Partitioning the Grid

If you use the serial solver to set up the problem before partitioning, the machine on
which you perform this task must have enough memory to read in the grid. If your
grid is too large to be read into the serial solver, you can read the unpartitioned grid
directly into the parallel solver (using the memory available in all the defined hosts)
and have it automatically partitioned. In this case you will set up the problem after an
initial partition has been made. You will then be able to manually repartition the case
if necessary. See Sections 31.5.3 and 31.5.4 for additional details and limitations, and
Section 31.5.6: Checking the Partitions for details about checking the partitions.

Domain
Before Partitioning

Interface
Boundary

After Partitioning Partition 0 Partition 1

Figure 31.5.1: Partitioning the Grid

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31.5.2 Preparing Hexcore Meshes for Partitioning

If you generate meshes using the GAMBIT Hex Core meshing scheme or the TGrid Mesh/Hexcore
menu option (hexcore meshes), you often have features that can interfere with partition-
ing. Such features include hanging nodes and overlapping parent-child faces, and are
located at the transition between the core of hexahedral cells and the surrounding body-
fitted mesh. To remove these features before you partition your hexcore meshes, you
must convert the transitional hexahedral cells into polyhedra. The dimensions of each
of these transitional cells remains the same after conversion, but these transitional cells
will have more than the original 6 faces. The conversion to polyhedra must take place
prior to reading the mesh into FLUENT, and can be done using either the tpoly utility
or TGrid.
When you use the tpoly utility, you must specify an input case file that contains a
hexcore mesh. This file can either be in ASCII or Binary format, and the file should be
unzipped. If the input file does not contain a hexcore mesh, then none of the cells are
converted to polyhedra. When you use the tpoly utility, you should specify an output
case file name. Once the input file has been processed by the tpoly filter, an ASCII
output file is generated.

i The output case file resulting from a tpoly conversion only contains mesh
information. None of the solver-related data of the input file is retained.
To convert a file using the tpoly filter, before starting FLUENT, type the following:

utility tpoly input filename output filename

You can also use TGrid to convert the transitional cells to polyhedra. You must either
read in or create the hexcore mesh in TGrid, and then save the mesh as a case file with
polyhedra. To do this, use the File/Write/Case... menu option, being sure to enable the
Write As Polyhedra option in the Select File dialog box.

Limitations
Converted hexcore meshes have the following limitations:

• The following grid manipulation tools are not available on polyhedral meshes:
– extrude-face-zone under the modify-zone option
– fuse
– skewness smoothing
– swapping (will not affect polyhedral cells)
• The polyhedral cells that result from the conversion are not eligible for adaption.
For more information about adaption, see Chapter 26: Adapting the Grid.

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 31.5 Partitioning the Grid

31.5.3 Partitioning the Grid Automatically

For automatic grid partitioning, you can select the bisection method and other options for
creating the grid partitions before reading a case file into the parallel version of the solver.
For some of the methods, you can perform pretesting to ensure that the best possible
partition is performed. See Section 31.5.5: Grid Partitioning Methods for information
about the partitioning methods available in FLUENT.
Note that if your case file contains sliding meshes, or non-conformal interfaces on which
you plan to perform adaption during the calculation, you will need to partition it in the
serial solver, and then read it into the parallel solver, with the Case File option turned
on in the Auto Partition Grid panel (the default setting).
The procedure for partitioning automatically in the parallel solver is as follows:

1. (optional) Set the partitioning parameters in the Auto Partition Grid panel (Fig-
ure 31.5.2).
Parallel −→Auto Partition...

Figure 31.5.2: The Auto Partition Grid Panel

If you are reading in a mesh file or a case file for which no partition information is
available, and you keep the Case File option turned on, FLUENT will partition the
grid using the method displayed in the Method drop-down list.
If you want to specify the partitioning method and associated options yourself, the
procedure is as follows:
(a) Turn off the Case File option. The other options in the panel will become
available.
(b) Select the bisection method in the Method drop-down list. The choices are
the techniques described in Section 31.5.5: Bisection Methods.
(c) You can choose to independently apply partitioning to each cell zone, or you
can allow partitions to cross zone boundaries using the Across Zones check
button. It is recommended that you not partition cells zones independently

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Parallel Processing

(by turning off the Across Zones check button) unless cells in different zones
will require significantly different amounts of computation during the solution
phase (e.g., if the domain contains both solid and fluid zones).
(d) If you have chosen the Principal Axes or Cartesian Axes method, you can improve
the partitioning by enabling the automatic testing of the different bisection
directions before the actual partitioning occurs. To use pretesting, turn on
the Pre-Test option. Pretesting is described in Section 31.5.5: Pretesting.
(e) Click OK.
If you have a case file where you have already partitioned the grid, and the number
of partitions divides evenly into the number of compute nodes, you can keep the
default selection of Case File in the Auto Partition Grid panel. This instructs FLUENT
to use the partitions in the case file.

2. Read the case file.

File −→ Read −→Case...

Reporting During Auto Partitioning

As the grid is automatically partitioned, some information about the partitioning process
will be printed in the text (console) window. If you want additional information, you can
print a report from the Partition Grid panel after the partitioning is completed.
Parallel −→Partition...
When you click the Print Active Partitions or Print Stored Partitions button in the Partition
Grid panel, FLUENT will print the partition ID, number of cells, faces, and interfaces, and
the ratio of interfaces to faces for each active or stored partition in the console window.
In addition, it will print the minimum and maximum cell, face, interface, and face-
ratio variations. See Section 31.5.6: Interpreting Partition Statistics for details. You can
examine the partitions graphically by following the directions in Section 31.5.6: Checking
the Partitions.

31.5.4 Partitioning the Grid Manually

Automatic partitioning in the parallel solver (described in Section 31.5.3: Partitioning
the Grid Automatically) is the recommended approach to grid partitioning, but it is
also possible to partition the grid manually in either the serial solver or the parallel
solver. After automatic or manual partitioning, you will be able to inspect the partitions
created (see Section 31.5.6: Checking the Partitions) and optionally repartition the grid,
if necessary. Again, you can do so within the serial or the parallel solver, using the
Partition Grid panel. A partitioned grid may also be used in the serial solver without any
loss in performance.

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 31.5 Partitioning the Grid

Guidelines for Partitioning the Grid

The following steps are recommended for partitioning a grid manually:

1. Partition the grid using the default bisection method (Principal Axes) and optimiza-
tion (Smooth).

2. Examine the partition statistics, which are described in Section 31.5.6: Interpret-
ing Partition Statistics. Your aim is to achieve small values of Interface ratio
variation and Global interface ratio while maintaining a balanced load (Cell
variation). If the statistics are not acceptable, try one of the other bisection meth-
ods.

3. Once you determine the best bisection method for your problem, you can turn on
Pre-Test (see Section 31.5.5: Pretesting) to improve it further, if desired.

4. You can also improve the partitioning using the Merge optimization, if desired.

Instructions for manual partitioning are provided below.

Using the Partition Grid Panel

For grid partitioning, you need to select the bisection method for creating the grid par-
titions, set the number of partitions, select the zones and/or registers, and choose the
optimizations to be used. For some methods, you can also perform pretesting to ensure
that the best possible bisection is performed. Once you have set all the parameters in the
Partition Grid panel to your satisfaction, click the Partition button to subdivide the grid
into the selected number of partitions using the prescribed method and optimization(s).
See above for recommended partitioning strategies.
You can set the relevant inputs in the Partition Grid panel (Figure 31.5.3 in the parallel
solver, or Figure 31.5.4 in the serial solver) in the following manner:
Parallel −→Partition...

1. Select the bisection method in the Method drop-down list. The choices are the
techniques described in Section 31.5.5: Bisection Methods.

2. Set the desired number of grid partitions in the Number integer number field. You
can use the counter arrows to increase or decrease the value, instead of typing in
the box. The number of grid partitions must be an integral multiple of the number
of processors available for parallel computing.

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Figure 31.5.3: The Partition Grid Panel in the Parallel Solver

Figure 31.5.4: The Partition Grid Panel in the Serial Solver

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 31.5 Partitioning the Grid

3. You can choose to independently apply partitioning to each cell zone, or you can
allow partitions to cross zone boundaries using the Across Zones check button. It is
recommended that you not partition cells zones independently (by turning off the
Across Zones check button) unless cells in different zones will require significantly
different amounts of computation during the solution phase (e.g., if the domain
contains both solid and fluid zones).

4. You can select Encapsulate Grid Interfaces if you would like the cells surrounding
all non-conformal grid interfaces in your mesh to reside in a single partition at all
times during the calculation. If your case file contains non-conformal interfaces
on which you plan to perform adaption during the calculation, you will have to
partition it in the serial solver, with the Encapsulate Grid Interfaces and Encapsulate
for Adaption options turned on.

5. If you have enabled the Encapsulate Grid Interfaces option in the serial solver, the
Encapsulate for Adaption option will also be available. When you select this op-
tion, additional layers of cells are encapsulated such that transfer of cells will be
unnecessary during parallel adaption.

6. You can activate and control the desired optimization methods (described in Sec-
tion 31.5.5: Optimizations) using the items under Optimizations. You can activate
the Merge and Smooth schemes by turning on the Do check button next to each
one. For each scheme, you can also set the number of Iterations. Each optimization
scheme will be applied until appropriate criteria are met, or the maximum number
of iterations has been executed. If the Iterations counter is set to 0, the optimization
scheme will be applied until completion, without limit on the maximum number of
iterations.

7. If you have chosen the Principal Axes or Cartesian Axes method, you can improve the
partitioning by enabling the automatic testing of the different bisection directions
before the actual partitioning occurs. To use pretesting, turn on the Pre-Test option.
Pretesting is described in Section 31.5.5: Pretesting.

8. In the Zones and/or Registers lists, select the zone(s) and/or register(s) for which
you want to partition. For most cases, you will select all Zones (the default) to
partition the entire domain. See below for details.

9. You can assign selected Zones and/or Registers to a specific partition ID by entering
a value for the Set Selected Zones and Registers to Partition ID. For example, if the
Number of partitions for your grid is 2, then you can only use IDs of 0 or 1. If
you have three partitions, then you can enter IDs of 0, 1, or 2. This can be useful
in situations where the gradient at a region is known to be high. In such cases,
you can mark the region or zone and set the marked cells to one of the partition
IDs, thus preventing the partition from going through that region. This in turn
will facilitate convergence. This is also useful in cases where mesh manipulation

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Parallel Processing

tools are not available in parallel. In this case, you can assign the related cells to
a particular ID so that the grid manipulation tools are now functional.
If you are running the parallel solver, and you have marked your region and assigned
an ID to the selected Zones and/or Registers, click the Use Stored Partitions button
to make the new partitions valid.
Refer to the example described later in this section for a demonstration of how
selected registers are assigned to a partition.

10. Click the Partition button to partition the grid.

11. If you decide that the new partitions are better than the previous ones (if the grid
was already partitioned), click the Use Stored Partitions button to make the newly
stored cell partitions the active cell partitions. The active cell partition is used for
the current calculation, while the stored cell partition (the last partition performed)
is used when you save a case file.

12. When using the dynamic mesh model in your parallel simulations, the Partition
panel includes an Auto Repartition option and a Repartition Interval setting. These
parallel partitioning options are provided because FLUENT migrates cells when
local remeshing and smoothing is performed. Therefore, the partition interface be-
comes very wrinkled and the load balance may deteriorate. By default, the Auto
Repartition option is selected, where a percentage of interface faces and loads are au-
tomatically traced. When this option is selected, FLUENT automatically determines
the most appropriate repartition interval based on various simulation parameters.
Sometimes, using the Auto Repartition option provides insufficient results, therefore,
the Repartition Interval setting can be used. The Repartition Interval setting lets you
to specify the interval (in time steps or iterations respectively) when a repartition
is enforced. When repartitioning is not desired, then you can set the Repartition
Interval to zero.

i Note that when dynamic meshes and local remeshing is utilized, updated
meshes may be slightly different in parallel FLUENT (when compared to
serial FLUENT or when compared to a parallel solution created with a
different number of compute nodes), resulting in very small differences in
the solutions.

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Example of Setting Selected Registers to Specified Partition IDs

1. Start FLUENT in parallel. The case in this example was partitioned across two
nodes.

2. Read in your case.

3. Display the grid with the Partitions option enabled in the Display Grid panel (Fig-
ure 31.5.5).

Grid
FLUENT 6.3 (2d, segregated, ske)

Figure 31.5.5: The Partitioned Grid

4. Adapt your region and mark your cells (see Section 26.7.3: Performing Region
Adaption). This creates a register.

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5. Open the Partition Grid panel.

6. Keep the Set Selected Zones and Registers to Partition ID set to 0 and click the
corresponding button. This prints the following output to the FLUENT console
window:

>> 2 Active Partitions:

----------------------------------------------------------------------
Collective Partition Statistics: Minimum Maximum Total
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Cell count 459 459 918
Mean cell count deviation 0.0% 0.0%
Partition boundary cell count 11 11 22
Partition boundary cell count ratio 2.4% 2.4% 2.4%

Face count 764 1714 2461

Mean face count deviation -38.3% 38.3%
Partition boundary face count 13 13 17
Partition boundary face count ratio 0.8% 1.7% 0.7%

Partition neighbor count 1 1

----------------------------------------------------------------------
Partition Method Principal Axes
Stored Partition Count 2
Done.

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7. Click the Use Stored Partitions button to make the new partitions valid. This
migrates the partitions to the compute-nodes. The following output is then printed
to the FLUENT console window:

Migrating partitions to compute-nodes.

>> 2 Active Partitions:
P Cells I-Cells Cell Ratio Faces I-Faces Face Ratio Neighbors
0 672 24 0.036 2085 29 0.014 1
1 246 24 0.098 425 29 0.068 1

----------------------------------------------------------------------
Collective Partition Statistics: Minimum Maximum Total
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Cell count 246 672 918
Mean cell count deviation -46.4% 46.4%
Partition boundary cell count 24 24 48
Partition boundary cell count ratio 3.6% 9.8% 5.2%

Face count 425 2085 2461

Mean face count deviation -66.1% 66.1%
Partition boundary face count 29 29 49
Partition boundary face count ratio 1.4% 6.8% 2.0%

Partition neighbor count 1 1

----------------------------------------------------------------------
Partition Method Principal Axes
Stored Partition Count 2
Done.

8. Display the grid (Figure 31.5.6).

9. This time, set the Set Selected Zones and Registers to Partition ID to 1 and click the
corresponding button. This prints a report to the FLUENT console.

10. Click the Use Stored Partitions button to make the new partitions valid and to
migrate the partitions to the compute-nodes.

11. Display the grid (Figure 31.5.7). Notice now that the partition appears in a different
location as specified by your partition ID.

i Although this example demonstrates setting selected registers to specific

partition IDs in parallel, it can be similarly applied in serial.

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Grid
FLUENT 6.3 (2d, segregated, ske)

Figure 31.5.6: The Partitioned ID Set to Zero

Grid
FLUENT 6.3 (2d, segregated, ske)

Figure 31.5.7: The Partitioned ID Set to 1

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 31.5 Partitioning the Grid

Partitioning Within Zones or Registers

The ability to restrict partitioning to cell zones or registers gives you the flexibility to
apply different partitioning strategies to subregions of a domain. For example, if your
geometry consists of a cylindrical plenum connected to a rectangular duct, you may
want to partition the plenum using the Cylindrical Axes method, and the duct using the
Cartesian Axes method.
If the plenum and the duct are contained in two different cell zones, you can select one
at a time and perform the desired partitioning, as described in Section 31.5.4: Using
the Partition Grid Panel. If they are not in two different cell zones, you can create a
cell register (basically a list of cells) for each region using the functions that are used
to mark cells for adaption. These functions allow you to mark cells based on physical
location, cell volume, gradient or isovalue of a particular variable, and other parameters.
See Chapter 26: Adapting the Grid for information about marking cells for adaption.
Section 26.11.1: Manipulating Adaption Registers provides information about manipu-
lating different registers to create new ones. Once you have created a register, you can
partition within it as described above.

i Note that partitioning within zones or registers is not available when Metis
is selected as the partition Method.
For dynamic mesh applications (see item 11 above), FLUENT stores the partition method
used to partition the respective zone. Therefore, if repartitioning is done, FLUENT uses
the same method that was used to partition the mesh.

Reporting During Partitioning

As the grid is partitioned, information about the partitioning process will be printed in
the text (console) window. By default, the solver will print the number of partitions
created, the number of bisections performed, the time required for the partitioning, and
the minimum and maximum cell, face, interface, and face-ratio variations. (See Sec-
tion 31.5.6: Interpreting Partition Statistics for details.) If you increase the Verbosity to
2 from the default value of 1, the partition method used, the partition ID, number of
cells, faces, and interfaces, and the ratio of interfaces to faces for each partition will also
be printed in the console window. If you decrease the Verbosity to 0, only the number of
partitions created and the time required for the partitioning will be reported.
You can request a portion of this report to be printed again after the partitioning is
completed. When you click the Print Active Partitions or Print Stored Partitions button
in the parallel solver, FLUENT will print the partition ID, number of cells, faces, and
interfaces, and the ratio of interfaces to faces for each active or stored partition in the
console window. In addition, it will print the minimum and maximum cell, face, interface,
and face-ratio variations. In the serial solver, you will obtain the same information about
the stored partition when you click Print Partitions. See Section 31.5.6: Interpreting

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Partition Statistics for details.

i Recall that to make the stored cell partitions the active cell partitions you
must click the Use Stored Partitions button. The active cell partition is
used for the current calculation, while the stored cell partition (the last
partition performed) is used when you save a case file.

Resetting the Partition Parameters

If you change your mind about your partition parameter settings, you can easily return
to the default settings assigned by FLUENT by clicking on the Default button. When you
click the Default button, it will become the Reset button. The Reset button allows you
to return to the most recently saved settings (i.e., the values that were set before you
clicked on Default). After execution, the Reset button will become the Default button
again.

31.5.5 Grid Partitioning Methods

Partitioning the grid for parallel processing has three major goals:

• Create partitions with equal numbers of cells.

• Minimize the number of partition interfaces—i.e., decrease partition boundary sur-

face area.

• Minimize the number of partition neighbors.

Balancing the partitions (equalizing the number of cells) ensures that each processor
has an equal load and that the partitions will be ready to communicate at about the
same time. Since communication between partitions can be a relatively time-consuming
process, minimizing the number of interfaces can reduce the time associated with this
data interchange. Minimizing the number of partition neighbors reduces the chances
for network and routing contentions. In addition, minimizing partition neighbors is
important on machines where the cost of initiating message passing is expensive compared
to the cost of sending longer messages. This is especially true for workstations connected
in a network.
The partitioning schemes in FLUENT use bisection algorithms to create the partitions, but
unlike other schemes which require the number of partitions to be a factor of two, these
schemes have no limitations on the number of partitions. For each available processor,
you will create the same number of partitions (i.e., the total number of partitions will be
an integral multiple of the number of processors).

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Bisection Methods
The grid is partitioned using a bisection algorithm. The selected algorithm is applied to
the parent domain, and then recursively applied to the child subdomains. For example,
to divide the grid into four partitions, the solver will bisect the entire (parent) domain
into two child domains, and then repeat the bisection for each of the child domains,
yielding four partitions in total. To divide the grid into three partitions, the solver will
“bisect” the parent domain to create two partitions—one approximately twice as large
as the other—and then bisect the larger child domain again to create three partitions in
total.
The grid can be partitioned using one of the algorithms listed below. The most efficient
choice is problem-dependent, so you can try different methods until you find the one that
is best for your problem. See Section 31.5.4: Guidelines for Partitioning the Grid for
recommended partitioning strategies.

Cartesian Axes bisects the domain based on the Cartesian coordinates of the cells (see
Figure 31.5.8). It bisects the parent domain and all subsequent child subdomains
perpendicular to the coordinate direction with the longest extent of the active
domain. It is often referred to as coordinate bisection.

Cartesian Strip uses coordinate bisection but restricts all bisections to the Cartesian
direction of longest extent of the parent domain (see Figure 31.5.9). You can often
minimize the number of partition neighbors using this approach.

Cartesian X-, Y-, Z-Coordinate bisects the domain based on the selected Cartesian
coordinate. It bisects the parent domain and all subsequent child subdomains
perpendicular to the specified coordinate direction. (See Figure 31.5.9.)

Cartesian R Axes bisects the domain based on the shortest radial distance from the
cell centers to that Cartesian axis (x, y, or z) which produces the smallest interface
size. This method is available only in 3D.

Cartesian RX-, RY-, RZ-Coordinate bisects the domain based on the shortest ra-
dial distance from the cell centers to the selected Cartesian axis (x, y, or z). These
methods are available only in 3D.

Cylindrical Axes bisects the domain based on the cylindrical coordinates of the cells.
This method is available only in 3D.

Cylindrical R-, Theta-, Z-Coordinate bisects the domain based on the selected cylin-
drical coordinate. These methods are available only in 3D.

Metis uses the METIS software package for partitioning irregular graphs, developed by
Karypis and Kumar at the University of Minnesota and the Army HPC Research
Center. It uses a multilevel approach in which the vertices and edges on the fine

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graph are coalesced to form a coarse graph. The coarse graph is partitioned, and
then uncoarsened back to the original graph. During coarsening and uncoarsen-
ing, algorithms are applied to permit high-quality partitions. Detailed information
about METIS can be found in its manual [173].

i Note that when using the socket version (-pnet), the METIS partitioner
is not available. In this case, METIS partitioning can be obtained using
the partition filter, as described below.

i If you create non-conformal interfaces, and generate virtual polygonal faces,

your METIS partition can cross non-conformal interfaces by using the con-
nectivity of the virtual polygonal faces. This improves load balancing for
the parallel solver and minimizes communication by decreasing the number
of partition interface cells.

Polar Axes bisects the domain based on the polar coordinates of the cells (see Fig-
ure 31.5.12). This method is available only in 2D.

Polar R-Coordinate, Polar Theta-Coordinate bisects the domain based on the se-
lected polar coordinate (see Figure 31.5.12). These methods are available only in
2D.

Principal Axes bisects the domain based on a coordinate frame aligned with the prin-
cipal axes of the domain (see Figure 31.5.10). This reduces to Cartesian bisection
when the principal axes are aligned with the Cartesian axes. The algorithm is also
referred to as moment, inertial, or moment-of-inertia partitioning.
This is the default bisection method in FLUENT.

Principal Strip uses moment bisection but restricts all bisections to the principal axis
of longest extent of the parent domain (see Figure 31.5.11). You can often minimize
the number of partition neighbors using this approach.

Principal X-, Y-, Z-Coordinate bisects the domain based on the selected principal
coordinate (see Figure 31.5.11).

Spherical Axes bisects the domain based on the spherical coordinates of the cells. This
method is available only in 3D.

Spherical Rho-, Theta-, Phi-Coordinate bisects the domain based on the selected
spherical coordinate. These methods are available only in 3D.

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 31.5 Partitioning the Grid

3.00e+00

2.25e+00

1.50e+00

7.50e-01

0.00e+00

Contours of Cell Partition

Figure 31.5.8: Partitions Created with the Cartesian Axes Method

3.00e+00

2.25e+00

1.50e+00

7.50e-01

0.00e+00

Contours of Cell Partition

Figure 31.5.9: Partitions Created with the Cartesian Strip or Cartesian X-

Coordinate Method

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3.00e+00

2.25e+00

1.50e+00

7.50e-01

0.00e+00

Contours of Cell Partition

Figure 31.5.10: Partitions Created with the Principal Axes Method

3.00e+00

2.25e+00

1.50e+00

7.50e-01

0.00e+00

Contours of Cell Partition

Figure 31.5.11: Partitions Created with the Principal Strip or Principal X-

Coordinate Method

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 31.5 Partitioning the Grid

3.00e+00

2.25e+00

1.50e+00

7.50e-01

0.00e+00

Contours of Cell Partition

Figure 31.5.12: Partitions Created with the Polar Axes or Polar Theta-
Coordinate Method

Optimizations
Additional optimizations can be applied to improve the quality of the grid partitions.
The heuristic of bisecting perpendicular to the direction of longest domain extent is
not always the best choice for creating the smallest interface boundary. A “pre-testing”
operation (see Section 31.5.5: Pretesting) can be applied to automatically choose the best
direction before partitioning. In addition, the following iterative optimization schemes
exist:

Smooth attempts to minimize the number of partition interfaces by swapping cells

between partitions. The scheme traverses the partition boundary and gives cells to
the neighboring partition if the interface boundary surface area is decreased. (See
Figure 31.5.13.)

Merge attempts to eliminate orphan clusters from each partition. An orphan cluster is
a group of cells with the common feature that each cell within the group has at least
one face which coincides with an interface boundary. (See Figure 31.5.14.) Orphan
clusters can degrade multigrid performance and lead to large communication costs.

In general, the Smooth and Merge schemes are relatively inexpensive optimization tools.

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Figure 31.5.13: The Smooth Optimization Scheme

Figure 31.5.14: The Merge Optimization Scheme

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 31.5 Partitioning the Grid

Pretesting
If you choose the Principal Axes or Cartesian Axes method, you can improve the bisection
by testing different directions before performing the actual bisection. If you choose not
to use pretesting (the default), FLUENT will perform the bisection perpendicular to the
direction of longest domain extent.
If pretesting is enabled, it will occur automatically when you click the Partition button
in the Partition Grid panel, or when you read in the grid if you are using automatic
partitioning. The bisection algorithm will test all coordinate directions and choose the
one which yields the fewest partition interfaces for the final bisection.
Note that using pretesting will increase the time required for partitioning. For 2D prob-
lems partitioning will take 3 times as long as without pretesting, and for 3D problems it
will take 4 times as long.

Using the Partition Filter

As noted above, you can use the METIS partitioning method through a filter in ad-
dition to within the Auto Partition Grid and Partition Grid panels. To perform METIS
partitioning on an unpartitioned grid, use the File/Import/Partition/Metis... menu item.
File −→ Import −→ Partition −→Metis...
FLUENT will use the METIS partitioner to partition the grid, and then read the par-
titioned grid into the solver. The number of partitions will be equal to the number of
processes. You can then proceed with the model definition and solution.

i Direct import to the parallel solver through the partition filter requires
that the host machine has enough memory to run the filter for the specified
grid. If not, you will need to run the filter on a machine that does have
enough memory. You can either start the parallel solver on the machine
with enough memory and repeat the process described above, or run the
filter manually on the new machine and then read the partitioned grid into
the parallel solver on the host machine.
To manually partition a grid using the partition filter, enter the following command:

utility partition input filename partition count output filename

where input filename is the filename for the grid to be partitioned, partition count is
the number of partitions desired, and output filename is the filename for the parti-
tioned grid. You can then read the partitioned grid into the solver (using the standard
File/Read/Case... menu item) and proceed with the model definition and solution.

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When the File/Import/Partition/Metis... menu item is used to import an unpartitioned

grid into the parallel solver, the METIS partitioner partitions the entire grid. You may
also partition each cell zone individually, using the File/Import/Partition/Metis Zone...
menu item.
File −→ Import −→ Partition −→Metis Zone...
This method can be useful for balancing the work load. For example, if a case has a
fluid zone and a solid zone, the computation in the fluid zone is more expensive than in
the solid zone, so partitioning each zone individually will result in a more balanced work
load.

31.5.6 Checking the Partitions

After partitioning a grid, you should check the partition information and examine the
partitions graphically.

Interpreting Partition Statistics

You can request a report to be printed after partitioning (either automatic or manual) is
completed. In the parallel solver, click the Print Active Partitions or Print Stored Partitions
button in the Partition Grid panel. In the serial solver, click the Print Partitions button.
FLUENT distinguishes between two cell partition schemes within a parallel problem: the
active cell partition and the stored cell partition. Initially, both are set to the cell partition
that was established upon reading the case file. If you re-partition the grid using the
Partition Grid panel, the new partition will be referred to as the stored cell partition. To
make it the active cell partition, you need to click the Use Stored Partitions button in the
Partition Grid panel. The active cell partition is used for the current calculation, while the
stored cell partition (the last partition performed) is used when you save a case file. This
distinction is made mainly to allow you to partition a case on one machine or network
of machines and solve it on a different one. Thanks to the two separate partitioning
schemes, you could use the parallel solver with a certain number of compute nodes to
subdivide a grid into an arbitrary different number of partitions, suitable for a different
parallel machine, save the case file, and then load it into the designated machine.
When you click Print Partitions in the serial solver, you will obtain information about the
stored partition.
The output generated by the partitioning process includes information about the recursive
subdivision and iterative optimization processes. This is followed by information about
the final partitioned grid, including the partition ID, number of cells, number of faces,
number of interface faces, ratio of interface faces to faces for each partition, number
of neighboring partitions, and cell, face, interface, neighbor, mean cell, face ratio, and
global face ratio variations. Global face ratio variations are the minimum and maximum
values of the respective quantities in the present partitions. For example, in the sample

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 31.5 Partitioning the Grid

output below, partitions 0 and 3 have the minimum number of interface faces (10), and
partitions 1 and 2 have the maximum number of interface faces (19); hence the variation
is 10–19.
Your aim is to achieve small values of Interface ratio variation and Global interface
ratio while maintaining a balanced load (Cell variation).

>> Partitions:
P Cells I-Cells Cell Ratio Faces I-Faces Face Ratio Neighbors
0 134 10 0.075 217 10 0.046 1
1 137 19 0.139 222 19 0.086 2
2 134 19 0.142 218 19 0.087 2
3 137 10 0.073 223 10 0.045 1
------
Partition count = 4
Cell variation = (134 - 137)
Mean cell variation = ( -1.1% - 1.1%)
Intercell variation = (10 - 19)
Intercell ratio variation = ( 7.3% - 14.2%)
Global intercell ratio = 10.7%
Face variation = (217 - 223)
Interface variation = (10 - 19)
Interface ratio variation = ( 4.5% - 8.7%)
Global interface ratio = 3.4%
Neighbor variation = (1 - 2)

Computing connected regions; type ^C to interrupt.

Connected region count = 4

Note that partition IDs correspond directly to compute node IDs when a case file is read
into the parallel solver. When the number of partitions in a case file is larger than the
number of compute nodes, but is evenly divisible by the number of compute nodes, then
the distribution is such that partitions with IDs 0 to (M − 1) are mapped onto compute
node 0, partitions with IDs M to (2M − 1) onto compute node 1, etc., where M is equal
to the ratio of the number of partitions to the number of compute nodes.

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Examining Partitions Graphically

To further aid interpretation of the partition information, you can draw contours of the
grid partitions, as illustrated in Figures 31.5.8–31.5.12.
Display −→Contours...
To display the active cell partition or the stored cell partition (which are described above),
select Active Cell Partition or Stored Cell Partition in the Cell Info... category of the Contours
Of drop-down list, and turn off the display of Node Values. (See Section 28.1.2: Displaying
Contours and Profiles for information about displaying contours.)

i If you have not already done so in the setup of your problem, you will need
to perform a solution initialization in order to use the Contours panel.

31.5.7 Load Distribution

If the speeds of the processors that will be used for a parallel calculation differ signifi-
cantly, you can specify a load distribution for partitioning, using the load-distribution
text command.
parallel −→ partition −→ set −→load-distribution
For example, if you will be solving on three compute nodes, and one machine is twice as
fast as the other two, then you may want to assign twice as many cells to the first machine
as to the others (i.e., a load vector of (2 1 1)). During subsequent grid partitioning,
partition 0 will end up with twice as many cells as partitions 1 and 2.
Note that for this example, you would then need to start up FLUENT such that compute
node 0 is the fast machine, since partition 0, with twice as many cells as the others, will
be mapped onto compute node 0. Alternatively, in this situation, you could enable the
load balancing feature (described in Section 31.6.2: Load Balancing) to have FLUENT
automatically attempt to discern any difference in load among the compute nodes.

i If you adapt a grid that contains non-conformal interfaces, and you want
to rebalance the load on the compute nodes, you will have to save your case
and data files after adaption, read the case and data files into the serial
solver, repartition using the Encapsulate Grid Interfaces and Encapsulate for
Adaption options in the Partition Grid panel, and save case and data files
again. You will then be able to read the manually repartitioned case and
data files into the parallel solver, and continue the solution from where you
left it.

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31.6 Checking and Improving Parallel Performance

To determine how well the parallel solver is working, you can measure computation and
communication times, and the overall parallel efficiency, using the performance meter.
You can also control the amount of communication between compute nodes in order to
optimize the parallel solver, and take advantage of the automatic load balancing feature
of FLUENT.
Information about checking and improving parallel performance is provided in the fol-
lowing sections:

• Section 31.6.1: Checking Parallel Performance

• Section 31.6.2: Optimizing the Parallel Solver

31.6.1 Checking Parallel Performance

The performance meter allows you to report the wall clock time elapsed during a com-
putation, as well as message-passing statistics. Since the performance meter is always
activated, you can access the statistics by printing them after the computation is com-
pleted. To view the current statistics, use the Parallel/Timer/Usage menu item.
Parallel −→ Timer −→Usage
Performance statistics will be printed in the text window (console).
To clear the performance meter so that you can eliminate past statistics from the future
report, use the Parallel/Timer/Reset menu item.
Parallel −→ Timer −→Reset

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The following example demonstrates how the current parallel statistics are displayed in
the console window:

Performance Timer for 1 iterations on 4 compute nodes

Average wall-clock time per iteration: 4.901 sec
Global reductions per iteration: 408 ops
Global reductions time per iteration: 0.000 sec (0.0%)
Message count per iteration: 801 messages
Data transfer per iteration: 9.585 MB
LE solves per iteration: 12 solves
LE wall-clock time per iteration: 2.445 sec (49.9%)
LE global solves per iteration: 27 solves
LE global wall-clock time per iteration: 0.246 sec (5.0%)
AMG cycles per iteration: 64 cycles
Relaxation sweeps per iteration: 4160 sweeps
Relaxation exchanges per iteration: 920 exchanges

Total wall-clock time: 4.901 sec

Total CPU time: 17.030 sec

A description of the parallel statistics is as follows:

• Average wall-clock time per iteration describes the average real (wall clock)
time per iteration.
• Global reductions per iteration describes the number of global reduction op-
erations (such as variable summations over all processes). This requires communi-
cation among all processes.
A global reduction is a collective operation over all processes for the given job that
reduces a vector quantity (the length given by the number of processes or nodes) to
a scalar quantity (e.g., taking the sum or maximum of a particular quantity). The
number of global reductions cannot be calculated from any other readily known
quantities. The number is generally dependent on the algorithm being used and
the problem being solved.
• Global reductions time per iteration describes the time per iteration for the
global reduction operations.
• Message count per iteration describes the number of messages sent between all
processes per iteration. This is important with regard to communication latency,
especially on high-latency interconnnects.
A message is defined as a single point-to-point, send-and-receive operation between
any two processes. (This excludes global, collective operations such as global re-
ductions.) In terms of domain decomposition, a message is passed from the process

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 31.6 Checking and Improving Parallel Performance

governing one subdomain to a process governing another (usually adjacent) subdo-

main.
The message count per iteration is usually dependent on the algorithm being used
and the problem being solved. The message count and the number of messages
that are reported are totals for all processors.
The message count provides some insight into the impact of communication latency
on parallel performance. A higher message count indicates that the parallel perfor-
mance may be more adversely affected if a high-latency interconnect is being used.
Ethernet has a higher latency than Myrinet or Infiniband. Thus, a high message
count will more adversely affect performance with Ethernet than with Infiniband.

• Data transfer per iteration describes the amount of data communicated be-
tween processors per iteration. This is important with respect to interconnect
bandwidth.
Data transfer per iteration is usually dependent on the algorithm being used and the
problem being solved. This number generally increases with increases in problem
size, number of partitions, and physics complexity.
The data transfer per iteration may provide some insight into the impact of com-
munication bandwidth (speed) on parallel performance. The precise impact is often
difficult to quantify because it is dependent on many things including: ratio of data
transfer to calculations, and ratio of communication bandwidth to CPU speed. The
unit of data transfer is a byte.

• LE solves per iteration describes the number of linear systems being solved
per iteration. This number is dependent on the physics (non-reacting versus react-
ing flow) and the algorithms (pressure-based versus density-based solver), but is
independent of mesh size. For the pressure-based solver, this is usually the number
of transport equations being solved (mass, momentum, energy, etc.).

• LE wall-clock time per iteration describes the time (wall-clock) spent doing
linear equation solvers (i.e., multigrid).

• LE global solves per iteration describes the number of solutions on the coarse
level of the AMG solver where the entire linear system has been pushed to a single
processor (n0). The system is pushed to a single processor to reduce the compu-
tation time during the solution on that level. Scaling generally is not adversely
affected because the number of unknowns is small on the coarser levels.

• LE global wall-clock time per iteration describes the time (wall-clock) per
iteration for the linear equation global solutions (see above).

• AMG cycles per iteration describes the average number of multigrid cycles (V,
W, flexible, etc.) per iteration.

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Parallel Processing

• Relaxation sweeps per iteration describes the number of relaxation sweeps (or
iterative solutions) on all levels for all equations per iteration. A relaxation sweep
is usually one iteration of Gauss-Siedel or ILU.

• Relaxation exchanges per iteration describes the number of solution commu-

nications between processors during the relaxation process in AMG. This number
may be less than the number of sweeps because of shifting the linear system on
coarser levels to a single node/process.

• Time-step updates per iteration describes the number of sub-iterations on the

time step per iteration.

• Time-step wall-clock time per iteration describes the time per sub-iteration.

• Total wall-clock time describes the total wall-clock time.

• Total CPU time describes the total CPU time used by all processes. This does
not include any wait time for load imbalances or for communications (other than
packing and unpacking local buffers).

The most relevant quantity is the Total wall clock time. This quantity can be used
to gauge the parallel performance (speedup and efficiency) by comparing this quantity to
that from the serial analysis (the command line should contain -t1 in order to obtain the
statistics from a serial analysis). In lieu of a serial analysis, an approximation of parallel
speedup may be found in the ratio of Total CPU time to Total wall clock time.

31-52
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 31.6 Checking and Improving Parallel Performance

31.6.2 Optimizing the Parallel Solver

Increasing the Report Interval
In FLUENT, you can reduce communication and improve parallel performance by increas-
ing the report interval for residual printing/plotting or other solution monitoring reports.
You can modify the value for Reporting Interval in the Iterate panel.
Solve −→Iterate...

i Note that you will be unable to interrupt iterations until the end of each
report interval.

Load Balancing
A dynamic load balancing capability is available in FLUENT. The principal reason for
using parallel processing is to reduce the turnaround time of your simulation, ideally
by a factor proportional to the collective speed of the computing resources used. If, for
example, you were using four CPUs to solve your problem, then you would expect to
reduce the turnaround time by a factor of four. This is of course the ideal situation, and
assumes that there is very little communication needed among the CPUs, that the CPUs
are all of equal speed, and that the CPUs are dedicated to your job. In practice, this is
often not the case. For example, CPU speeds can vary if you are solving in parallel on
a cluster that includes nodes with different clock speeds, other jobs may be competing
for use of one or more of the CPUs, and network traffic either from within the parallel
solver or generated from external sources may delay some of the necessary communication
among the CPUs.
If you enable dynamic load balancing in FLUENT, the load across the computational and
networking resources will be monitored periodically. If the load balancer determines that
performance can be improved by redistributing the cells among the compute nodes, it
will automatically do so. There is a time penalty associated with load balancing itself,
and so it is disabled by default. If you will be using a dedicated homogeneous resource,
or if you are using a heterogeneous resource but have accounted for differences in CPU
speeds during partitioning by specifying a load distribution (see Section 31.5.7: Load
Distribution), then you may not need to use load balancing.

i Note that when the shell conduction model is used, you will not be able to
turn on load balancing.

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 31-53
Parallel Processing

To enable and control FLUENT’s automatic load balancing feature, use the Load Balance
panel (Figure 31.6.1). Load balancing will automatically detect and analyze parallel
performance, and redistribute cells between the existing compute nodes to optimize it.
Parallel −→Load Balance...

Figure 31.6.1: The Load Balance Panel

The procedure for using load balancing is as follows:

1. Turn on the Load Balancing option.

2. Select the bisection method to create new grid partitions in the Partition Method
drop-down list. The choices are the techniques described in Section 31.5.5: Bisection
Methods. As part of the automatic load balancing procedure, the grid will be
repartitioned into several small partitions using the specified method. The resulting
partitions will then be distributed among the compute nodes to achieve a more
balanced load.

3. Specify the desired Balance Interval. When a value of 0 is specified, FLUENT will
internally determine the best value to use, initially using an interval of 25 iterations.
You can override this behavior by specifying a non-zero value. FLUENT will then
attempt to perform load balancing after every N iterations, where N is the specified
Balance Interval. You should be careful to select an interval that is large enough to
outweigh the cost of performing the load balancing operations.

31-54
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 31.6 Checking and Improving Parallel Performance

Note that you can interrupt the calculation at any time, turn the load balancing feature
off (or on), and then continue the calculation.

i If problems arise in your computations due to adaption, you can turn off
the automatic load balancing, which occurs any time that mesh adaption
is performed in parallel.
To instruct the solver to skip the load balancing step, issue the following Scheme com-
mand:

(disable-load-balance-after-adaption)

To return to the default behavior use the following Scheme command:

(enable-load-balance-after-adaption)

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 31-55
Parallel Processing

31-56
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
Appendix A. FLUENT Model Compatibility

A.1 FLUENT Model Compatibility Chart

The following chart summarizes the compatibility of several FLUENT model categories:

• Multiphase Models (see Chapter 23: Modeling Multiphase Flows)

• Moving Domain Models (See Chapter 10: Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference
Frames)

• Turbulence Models (See Chapter 12: Modeling Turbulence)

• Combustion Models (See Chapters 14 – 19)

Note that a y indicates that two models are compatible with each other, while an n
indicates that two models are not compatible with each other.

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 A-1
 c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
rt
Sp ulenc ce Fr me

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els

spo
k− t−All odel e
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xed onc
m
od

ran
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Tu Refe ence

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d
od

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Mo

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esh

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e
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e

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ala
ler

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Multiphase Models

Figure A.1.1: FLUENT Model Compatibility Chart

n

Eulerian − − − − y y y y y n y n y n y y n n n n n n
VOF − − − − y y y y y y y y y y y y n n n n n n n
Mixture − − − − y y y y y y y y y n y y n n n n n n n
Discrete Phase − − − − y n y y y y y y y n y y y y y y y y y
Moving Domain Models
Sliding Mesh y y y y − − − − − y y y y y y y y y y y y y y
Mixing Plane y y y n − − − − − y y y y y n n n n n n n n n
Dynamic Mesh y y y y − − − − − y y y y y y y y y y y y y y
Multiple Reference Frame y y y y − − − − − y y y y y y y y y y y y y y
Single Reference Frame y y y y − − − − − y y y y y y y y y y y y y y
Turbulence Models
Spalart−Allmaras n y y y y y y y y − − − − − y n n n n n n n n
k−epsilon y y y y y y y y y − − − − − y y y y y y y y y
k−omega n y y y y y y y y − − − − − y y y y y y y y y
Reynolds Stress y y y y y y y y y − − − − − y y y y y y y y y
LES n y n n y y y y y − − − − − y y y y y y y y y
Combustion Models
Laminar Finite Rate y y y y y n y y y y y y y y − − − − − − − − −
Eddy Dissipation y y y y y n y y y n y y y y − − − − − − − − −
Eddy Dissipation Concept n n n y y n y y y n y y y y − − − − − − − − −
Non−Premixed n n n y y n y y y n y y y y − − − − − − − − −
FLUENT Model Compatibility

Premixed n n n y y n y y y n y y y y − − − − − − − − −
Partially Premixed n n n y y n y y y n y y y y − − − − − − − − −
Composition PDF Transport n n n y y n y y y n y y y y − − − − − − − − −
NOx n n n y y n y y y n y y y y − − − − − − − − −
Soot n n n y y n y y y n y y y y − − − − − − − − −
Key: n = not compatible y = compatible
* Includes Standard, RNG, and Realizable k−epsilon models
** Includes Standard and SST k−omega models

A-2
Appendix B. Case and Data File Formats

This Appendix describes the contents and formats of FLUENT case and data files.

• Section B.1: Guidelines

• Section B.2: Formatting Conventions in Binary and Formatted Files
• Section B.3: Grid Sections
• Section B.4: Other (Non-Grid) Case Sections
• Section B.5: Data Sections

Descriptions of the sections are grouped according to function.

• Section B.2: Formatting Conventions in Binary and Formatted Files: The differ-
ences between formatted and binary files.
• Section B.3: Grid Sections: Creating grids for FLUENT.
• Section B.4: Other (Non-Grid) Case Sections: The boundary conditions, material
properties, and solver control settings.
• Section B.3: Grid Sections and Section B.5: Data Sections: Importing solutions
into another postprocessor.

The case and data files may contain other sections that are intended for internal use only.

B.1 Guidelines
The FLUENT case and data files are broken into several sections according to the following
guidelines:

• Each section is enclosed in parentheses and begins with a decimal integer indicating
its type. This integer is different for formatted and binary files (Section B.2: For-
matting Conventions in Binary and Formatted Files).
• All groups of items are enclosed in parentheses. This makes skipping to ends of
(sub)sections and parsing them very easy. It also allows for easy and compatible
addition of new items in future releases.
• Header information for lists of items is enclosed in separate sets of parentheses
preceding the items, and the items are enclosed in their own parentheses.

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 B-1
Case and Data File Formats

B.2 Formatting Conventions in Binary and Formatted Files

For formatted files, examples of file sections are given in Sections B.3 and B.4. For
binary files, the header indices described in this section (e.g., 10 for the node section) are
preceded by 20 for single-precision binary data, or by 30 for double-precision binary data
(e.g., 2010 or 3010 instead of 10). The end of the binary data is indicated by End of
Binary Section 2010 or End of Binary Section 3010 before the closing parameters
of the section.
An example with the binary data represented by periods is as follows:

(2010 (2 1 2aad 2 3)(

.
.
.
)
End of Binary Section 2010)

B.3 Grid Sections

Grid sections are stored in the case file. A grid file is a subset of a case file, containing
only those sections pertaining to the grid. The currently defined grid sections are:

• Comment (See B.3.1)

• Header (See B.3.2)
• Dimensions (See B.3.3)
• Nodes (See B.3.4)
• Periodic Shadow Faces (See B.3.5)
• Cells (See B.3.6)
• Faces (See B.3.7)
• Face Tree (See B.3.8)
• Cell Tree (See B.3.9)
• Interface Face Parents (See B.3.10)

The section ID numbers are indicated in both symbolic and numeric forms. The symbolic
representations are available as symbols in a Scheme source file (xfile.scm), which is
available from Fluent Inc., or as macros in a C header file (xfile.h), which is located in
the following directory in your installation area:
/Fluent.Inc/fluent6.x/client/src/xfile.h

B-2
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 B.3 Grid Sections

B.3.1 Comment
Index: 0
Scheme symbol: xf-comment
C macro: XF COMMENT
Status: optional
Comment sections can appear anywhere in the file (except within other sections) as:

(0 "comment text")

It is recommended to precede each long section, or group of related sections, by a comment

section explaining what is to follow.
Example:

(0 "Variables:")
(37 (
(relax-mass-flow 1)
(default-coefficient ())
(default-method 0)
))

B.3.2 Header
Index: 1
Scheme symbol: xf-header
C macro: XF HEADER
Status: optional
Header sections can appear anywhere in the file (except within other sections). The
following is an example:

(1 "TGrid 2.1.1")

The purpose of this section is to identify the program that wrote the file. Although it
can appear anywhere, it is one of the first sections in the file. Additional header sections
indicate other programs that may have been used in generating the file. It provides a
history mechanism showing where the file came from and how it was processed.

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 B-3
Case and Data File Formats

B.3.3 Dimensions
Index: 2
Scheme symbol: xf-dimension
C macro: XF DIMENSION
Status: optional
The dimensions of the grid appear as:

(2 ND)

where ND is 2 or 3. This section is supported as a check that the grid has the appropriate
dimension.

B.3.4 Nodes
Index: 10
Scheme symbol: xf-node
C macro: XF NODE
Status: required
Format:

(10 (zone-id first-index last-index type ND)(

x1 y1 z1
x2 y2 z2
.
.
.
))

• If zone-id is zero, this provides the total number of nodes in the grid. first-index
will then be one, last-index will be the total number of nodes in hexadecimal,
type is equal to 1, ND is the dimensionality of the grid, and there are no coordinates
following (the parentheses for the coordinates are omitted as well).
For example: (10 (0 1 2d5 1 2))
• If zone-id is greater than zero, it indicates the zone to which the nodes belong.
first-index and last-index are the indices of the nodes in the zone, in hexadec-
imal. The values of last-index in each zone must be less than or equal to the
value in the declaration section. Type is always equal to 1.
ND is an optional argument that indicates the dimensionality of the node data,
where ND is 2 or 3.
If the number of dimensions in the grid is two, as specified by the node header,
then only x and y coordinates are present on each line.

B-4
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 B.3 Grid Sections

The following is an example of a 2D grid:

(10 (1 1 2d5 1 2)(

1.500000e-01 2.500000e-02
1.625000e-01 1.250000e-02
.
.
.
1.750000e-01 0.000000e+00
2.000000e-01 2.500000e-02
1.875000e-01 1.250000e-02
))

Because the grid connectivity is composed of integers representing pointers (see Cells and
Faces), using hexadecimal conserves space in the file and provides for faster file input
and output. The header indices are in hexadecimal so that they match the indices in the
bodies of the grid connectivity sections. The zone-id and type are also in hexadecimal
for consistency.

B.3.5 Periodic Shadow Faces

Index: 18
Scheme symbol: xf-periodic-face
C macro: XF PERIODIC FACE
Status: required only for grids with periodic boundaries
This section indicates the pairings of periodic faces on periodic boundaries. Grids without
periodic boundaries do not have sections of this type. The format of the section is as
follows:

(18 (first-index last-index periodic-zone shadow-zone)(

f00 f01
f10 f11
f20 f21
.
.
.
))

where
first-index = index of the first periodic face pair in the list
last-index = index of the last periodic face pair in the list
periodic-zone = zone ID of the periodic face zone
shadow-zone = zone ID of the corresponding shadow face zone

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 B-5
Case and Data File Formats

These are in hexadecimal format. The indices in the section body (f*) refer to the faces
on each of the periodic boundaries (in hexadecimal), the indices being offsets into the
list of faces for the grid.

Note: In this case, first-index and last-index do not refer to face indices. They
refer to indices in the list of periodic pairs.

Example:

(18 (1 2b a c) (
12 1f
13 21
ad 1c2
.
.
.
))

B.3.6 Cells
Index: 12
Scheme symbol: xf-cell
C macro: XF CELL
Status: required
The declaration section for cells is similar to that for nodes.

(12 (zone-id first-index last-index type element-type))

Again, zone-id is zero to indicate that it is a declaration of the total number of cells.
If last-index is zero, then there are no cells in the grid. This is useful when the file
contains only a surface mesh to alert FLUENT that it cannot be used. In a declaration
section, the type has a value of zero and the element-type is not present.
For example,

(12 (0 1 3e3 0))

It states that there are 3e3 (hexadecimal) = 995 cells in the grid. This declaration section
is required and must precede the regular cell sections.

B-6
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 B.3 Grid Sections

The element-type in a regular cell section header indicates the type of cells in the
section, as follows:

element-type description nodes/cell faces/cell

0 mixed
1 triangular 3 3
2 tetrahedral 4 4
3 quadrilateral 4 4
4 hexahedral 8 6
5 pyramid 5 5
6 wedge 6 5
7 polyhedral NN NF

where NN and NF will vary, depending on the specific polyhedral cell.

Regular cell sections have no body, but they have a header of the same format where
first-index and last-index indicate the range for the particular zone, type indicates
whether the cell zone is an active zone (solid or fluid), or inactive zone (currently only
parent cells resulting from hanging node adaption). Active zones are represented with
type=1, while inactive zones are represented with type=32.
In the earlier versions of FLUENT, a distinction was made used between solid and fluid
zones. This is now determined by properties (i.e., material type).
A type of zero indicates a dead zone and will be skipped by FLUENT. If a zone is of
mixed type (element-type=0), it will have a body that lists the element-type of each
cell. Example:

(12 (9 1 3d 0 0)(
1 1 1 3 3 1 1 3 1
.
.
.
))

Here, there are 3d (hexadecimal) = 61 cells in cell zone 9, of which the first 3 are triangles,
the next 2 are quadrilaterals, and so on.

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 B-7
Case and Data File Formats

B.3.7 Faces
Index: 13
Scheme symbol: xf-face
C macro: XF FACE
Status: required
The format for face sections is as follows:

(13 (zone-id first-index last-index bc-type face-type))

where
zone-id = zone ID of the face section
first-index = index of the first face in the list
last-index = index of the last face in the list
bc-type = ID of the boundary condition represented by the face section
face-type = ID of the type(s) of face(s) in the section
The current valid boundary condition types are defined in the following table:

bc-type description
2 interior
3 wall
4 pressure-inlet, inlet-vent, intake-fan
5 pressure-outlet, exhaust-fan, outlet-vent
7 symmetry
8 periodic-shadow
9 pressure-far-field
10 velocity-inlet
12 periodic
14 fan, porous-jump, radiator
20 mass-flow-inlet
24 interface
31 parent (hanging node)
36 outflow
37 axis

The faces resulting from the intersection of non-conformal grids are placed in a separate
face zone, where a factor of 1000 is added to the bc-type (e.g., 1003 is a wall zone).

B-8
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 B.3 Grid Sections

The current valid face types are defined in the following table:

face-type description nodes/face

0 mixed
2 linear 2
3 triangular 3
4 quadrilateral 4
5 polygonal NN

where NN will vary, depending on the specific polygonal face.

A zone-id of zero indicates a declaration section, which provides a count of the total
number of faces in the file. Such a section omits the bc-type and is not followed by a
body with further information.
A non-zero zone-id indicates a regular face section, and will be followed by a body that
contains information about the grid connectivity. Each line of the body will describe one
face and will have the following format:

n0 n1 n2 c0 c1

where,
n* = defining nodes (vertices) of the face
c* = adjacent cells
This is the format for a 3D grid with a triangular face format. The actual number of
nodes depends on the face-type. The order of the cell indices is important, and is
determined by the right-hand rule: if you curl the fingers of your right hand in the order
of the nodes, your thumb will point toward c1.
For 2D grids, n2 is omitted. c1 is determined by the cross product of two vectors, r̂ and
k̂. The r̂ vector extends from n0 to n1, whereas the k̂ vector has its origin at n0 and
points out of the grid plane toward the viewer. If you extend your right hand along r̂
and curl your fingers in the direction of the angle between r̂ and k̂, your thumb will point
along r̂ × k̂ toward c1.

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 B-9
Case and Data File Formats

If the face zone is of mixed type (face-type = 0), each line of the section body will begin
with a reference to the number of nodes that make up that particular face, and has the
following format:

x n0 n1 ... nf c0 c1

where,
x = the number of nodes (vertices) of the face
nf = the final node of the face
All cells, faces, and nodes have positive indices. If a face has a cell only on one side, then
either c0 or c1 is zero. For files containing only a surface mesh, both these values are
zero.
For information on face-node connectivity for various cell types in FLUENT, refer to
Section 6.1.2: Face-Node Connectivity in FLUENT.

B.3.8 Face Tree

Index: 59
Scheme symbol: xf-face-tree
C macro: XF FACE TREE
Status: only for grids with hanging-node adaption
This section indicates the face hierarchy of the grid containing hanging nodes. The format
of the section is as follows:

(59 (face-id0 face-id1 parent-zone-id child-zone-id)

(
number-of-kids kid-id-0 kid-id-1 ... kid-id-n
.
.
.
))

where,
face-id0 = index of the first parent face in the section
face-id1 = index of the last parent face in the section
parent-zone-id = ID of the zone containing parent faces
child-zone-id = ID of the zone containing children faces
number-of-kids = the number of children of the parent face
kid-id-n = the face IDs of the children
These are in hexadecimal format.

B-10
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 B.3 Grid Sections

B.3.9 Cell Tree

Index: 58
Scheme symbol: xf-cell-tree
C macro: XF CELL TREE
Status: only for grids with hanging-node adaption
This section indicates the cell hierarchy of the grid containing hanging nodes. The format
of the section is as follows:

(58 (cell-id0 cell-id1 parent-zone-id child-zone-id)

(
number-of-kids kid-id-0 kid-id-1 ... kid-id-n
.
.
.
))

where,
cell-id0 = index of the first parent cell in the section
cell-id1 = index of the last parent cell in the section
parent-zone-id = ID of the zone containing parent cells
child-zone-id = ID of the zone containing children cells
number-of-kids = the number of children of the parent cell
kid-id-n = the cell IDs of the children
These are in hexadecimal format.

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 B-11
Case and Data File Formats

B.3.10 Interface Face Parents

Index: 61
Scheme symbol: xf-face-parents
C macro: XF FACE PARENTS
Status: only for grids with non-conformal interfaces
This section indicates the relationship between the intersection faces and original faces.
The intersection faces (children) are produced from intersecting two non-conformal sur-
faces (parents) and are some fraction of the original face. Each child will refer to at least
one parent. The format of the section is as follows:

(61 (face-id0 face-id1)

(
parent-id-0 parent-id-1
.
.
.
))

where,
face-id0 = index of the first child face in the section
face-id1 = index of the last child face in the section
parent-id-* = index of parent faces
These are in hexadecimal format.
If you read a non-conformal grid from FLUENT into TGrid, TGrid will skip this section, so
it will not maintain all the information necessary to preserve the non-conformal interface.
When you read the grid back into FLUENT, you will need to recreate the interface.

B-12
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 B.3 Grid Sections

Example Files
Example 1

Figure B.3.1 illustrates a simple quadrilateral mesh with no periodic boundaries or hang-
ing nodes.
bn8 bf8 bn2 bf7 bn4 bf6 bn7

c1 f1 c2 f2 c3 bf10
bf9

bn5 bf3 bn1 bf4 bn3 bf5 bn6

Figure B.3.1: Quadrilateral Mesh

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 B-13
Case and Data File Formats

The following describes this mesh:

(0 "Grid:")

(0 "Dimensions:")
(2 2)

(12 (0 1 3 0))
(13 (0 1 a 0))
(10 (0 1 8 0 2))

(12 (7 1 3 1 3))

(13 (2 1 2 2 2)(
1 2 1 2
3 4 2 3))

(13 (3 3 5 3 2)(
5 1 1 0
1 3 2 0
3 6 3 0))

(13 (4 6 8 3 2)(
7 4 3 0
4 2 2 0
2 8 1 0))

(13 (5 9 9 a 2)(
8 5 1 0))

(13 (6 a a 24 2)(
6 7 3 0))

(10 (1 1 8 1 2)
(
1.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00
1.00000000e+00 1.00000000e+00
2.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00
2.00000000e+00 1.00000000e+00
0.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00
3.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00
3.00000000e+00 1.00000000e+00
0.00000000e+00 1.00000000e+00))

B-14
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 B.3 Grid Sections

Example 2

Figure B.3.2 illustrates a simple quadrilateral mesh with periodic boundaries but no
hanging nodes. In this example, bf9 and bf10 are faces on the periodic zones.
bn8 bf8 bn2 bf7 bn4 bf6 bn7

c1 f1 c2 f2 c3 bf10
bf9

bn5 bf3 bn1 bf4 bn3 bf5 bn6

Figure B.3.2: Quadrilateral Mesh with Periodic Boundaries

The following describes this mesh:

(0 "Dimensions:")
(2 2)

(0 "Grid:")

(12 (0 1 3 0))
(13 (0 1 a 0))
(10 (0 1 8 0 2))

(12 (7 1 3 1 3))

(13 (2 1 2 2 2)(
1 2 1 2
3 4 2 3))

(13 (3 3 5 3 2)(
5 1 1 0
1 3 2 0
3 6 3 0))

(13 (4 6 8 3 2)(
7 4 3 0
4 2 2 0
2 8 1 0))

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 B-15
Case and Data File Formats

(13 (5 9 9 c 2)(
8 5 1 0))

(13 (1 a a 8 2)(
6 7 3 0))

(18 (1 1 5 1)(
9 a))

(10 (1 1 8 1 2)(
1.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00
1.00000000e+00 1.00000000e+00
2.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00
2.00000000e+00 1.00000000e+00
0.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00
3.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00
3.00000000e+00 1.00000000e+00
0.00000000e+00 1.00000000e+00))

Example 3

Figure B.3.3 illustrates a simple quadrilateral mesh with hanging nodes.

bn13 bf15 bn7 bf14 bn8 bf12 bn2 bf13 bn12

f6 c6 f1 c3 bf17
c1 f5 c2 n5 f4 f2 bn3
bf16
n1
f7 c5 f3 c4 bf18

bn10 bf8 bn6 bf9 bn9 bf11 bn4 bf10 bn11

Figure B.3.3: Quadrilateral Mesh with Hanging Nodes

B-16
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 B.3 Grid Sections

The following describes this mesh:

(0 "Grid:")

(0 "Dimensions:")
(2 2)

(12 (0 1 7 0))
(13 (0 1 16 0))
(10 (0 1 d 0 2))

(12 (7 1 6 1 3))
(12 (1 7 7 20 3))

(58 (7 7 1 7)(
4 6 5 4 3))

(13 (2 1 7 2 2)(
1 2 6 3
1 3 3 4
1 4 4 5
1 5 5 6
6 7 1 2
5 8 2 6
9 5 2 5))

(13 (3 8 b 3 2)(
a 6 1 0
6 9 2 0
4 b 4 0
9 4 5 0))

(13 (4 c f 3 2)(
2 8 6 0
c 2 3 0
8 7 2 0
7 d 1 0))

(13 (5 10 10 a 2)(
d a 1 0))

(13 (6 11 12 24 2)(

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 B-17
Case and Data File Formats

3 c 3 0
b 3 4 0))

(13 (b 13 13 1f 2)(
c 8 7 0))

(13 (a 14 14 1f 2)(
b c 7 0))

(13 (9 15 15 1f 2)(
9 b 7 0))

(13 (8 16 16 1f 2)(
9 8 2 7))

(59 (13 13 b 4)(

2 d c))

(59 (14 14 a 6)(

2 12 11))

(59 (15 15 9 3)(

2 b a))

(59 (16 16 8 2)(

2 7 6))

(10 (1 1 d 1 2)
(
2.50000000e+00 5.00000000e-01
2.50000000e+00 1.00000000e+00
3.00000000e+00 5.00000000e-01
2.50000000e+00 0.00000000e+00
2.00000000e+00 5.00000000e-01
1.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00
1.00000000e+00 1.00000000e+00
2.00000000e+00 1.00000000e+00
2.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00
0.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00
3.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00
3.00000000e+00 1.00000000e+00
0.00000000e+00 1.00000000e+00))

B-18
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 B.4 Other (Non-Grid) Case Sections

B.4 Other (Non-Grid) Case Sections

The following sections store boundary conditions, material properties, and solver control
settings.

B.4.1 Zone
Index: 39 or 45
Scheme symbol: xf-rp-tv
C macro: XF RP TV
Status: required
There is typically one zone section for each zone referenced by the grid. Although some
grid zones may not have corresponding zone sections, there cannot be more than one
zone section for each zone.
A zone section has the following form:

(39 (zone-id zone-type zone-name domain-id)(

(condition1 . value1)
(condition2 . value2)
(condition3 . value3)
.
.
.
))

Grid generators and other preprocessors need only provide the section header and leave
the list of conditions empty, as in

(39 (zone-id zone-type zone-name domain-id)())

The empty parentheses at the end are required. The solver adds conditions as appro-
priate, depending on the zone type. When only zone-id, zone-type, zone-name, and
domain-id are specified, the index 45 is preferred for a zone section. However, the index
39 must be used if boundary conditions are present, because any and all remaining infor-
mation in a section of index 45 after zone-id, zone-type, zone-name, and domain-id
will be ignored.
Here the zone-id is in decimal format. This is in contrast to the use of hexadecimal in
the grid sections.

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 B-19
Case and Data File Formats

The zone-type is one of the following:

axis
exhaust fan
fan
fluid
inlet vent
intake fan
interface
interior
mass-flow-inlet
outlet vent
outflow
periodic
porous-jump
pressure-far-field
pressure-inlet
pressure-outlet
radiator
shadow
solid
symmetry
velocity-inlet
wall

The interior, fan, porous-jump, and radiator types can be assigned only to zones
of faces inside the domain. The interior type is used for the faces within a cell zone;
the others are for interior faces that form infinitely thin surfaces within the domain.
FLUENT allows the wall type to be assigned to face zones both on the inside and on
the boundaries of the domain. Some zone types are valid only for certain types of grid
components. For example, cell (element) zones can be assigned only one of the following
types:

fluid
solid

All of the other types listed above can be used only for boundary (face) zones.

B-20
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 B.4 Other (Non-Grid) Case Sections

The zone-name is a user-specified label for the zone. It must be a valid Scheme symbol1
and is written without quotes. The rules for a valid zone-name (Scheme symbol) are as
follows:

• The first character must be a lowercase letter2 or a special-initial.

• Each subsequent character must be a lowercase letter, a special-initial, a digit, or

a special-subsequent.

where a special-initial character is one of the following:

! $ % & * / : < = > ? ~ _ ^

and a special-subsequent is one of the following:

. + -

Examples of valid zone names are inlet-port/cold!, eggs/easy, and e=m*c^2.

Some examples of zone sections produced by grid generators and preprocessors are as
follows:

(39 (1 fluid fuel 1)())

(39 (8 pressure-inlet pressure-inlet-8 2)())

(39 (2 wall wing-skin 3)())

(39 (3 symmetry mid-plane 1)())

The domain-id is an integer that appears after the zone name, associating the boundary
condition with a particular phase or mixture (sometimes referred to as phase-domains
and mixture-domains).

1
See Revised(4) Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme, William Clinger and Jonathan Rees
(Editors), 2 November 1991, Section 7.1.1.
2
The Standard actually only requires that case be insignificant; the Fluent Inc. implementation
accomplishes this by converting all uppercase input to lowercase.

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 B-21
Case and Data File Formats

B.4.2 Partitions
Index: 40
Scheme symbol: xf-partition
C macro: XF PARTITION
Status: only for partitioned grids
This section indicates each cell’s partition. The format of the section is as follows:

(40 (zone-id first-index last-index partition-count)(

p1
p2
p3
.
.
.
pn
))

where,
p1 = the partition of the cell whose ID is first-index
p2 = the partition of the cell whose ID is first-index+1, etc.
pn = the partition of the cell whose ID is last-index
partition-count = the total number of partitions
Partition IDs must be between 0 and one less than partition-count.

B.5 Data Sections

The following sections store iterations, residuals, and data field values.

B.5.1 Grid Size

Index: 33
Scheme symbol: xf-grid-size
C macro: XF GRID SIZE
Status: optional
This section indicates the number of cells, faces, and nodes in the grid that corresponds
to the data in the file. This information is used to check that the data and grid match.
The format is

(33 (n-elements n-faces n-nodes))

where the integers are written in decimal.

B-22
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 B.5 Data Sections

B.5.2 Data Field

Index: 300
Scheme symbol: xf-rf-seg-data
C macro: XF RF SEG DATA
Status: required
This section lists a flow field solution variable for a cell or face zone. The data are stored
in the same order as the cells or faces in the case file. Separate sections are written out
for each variable for each face or cell zone on which the variable is stored. The format is

(300 (sub-section-id zone-id size n-time-levels

n-phases first-id last-id)
( data for cell or face with id = first-id
data-for-cell-or-face with id = first-id+1
..
data-for-cell-or-face with id = last-id
))

where sub-section-id is a (decimal) integer that identifies the variable field (e.g., 1
for pressure, 2 for velocity). The complete list of these is available in the header file
(xfile.h), which is located in the following directory in your installation area:
/Fluent.Inc/fluent6.x/client/src/xfile.h
where,
zone-id = the ID number of the cell or face zone
size = the length of the variable vector
zone-id matches the ID used in case file. size is 1 for a scalar, 2 or 3 for a vector,
equal to the number of species for variables defined for each species). n-time-levels
and n-phases currently are not used.
A sample data file section for the velocity field in a cell zone for a steady-state, single-
phase, 2D problem is shown below:

(300 (2 16 2 0 0 17 100)
(8.08462024e-01 8.11823010e-02
8.78750622e-01 3.15509699e-02
1.06139672e+00 -3.74040119e-02
...
1.33301604e+00 -5.04243895e-02
6.21703446e-01 -2.46118382e-02
4.41687912e-01 -1.27046436e-01
1.03528820e-01 -1.01711005e-01
))

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 B-23
Case and Data File Formats

The variables that are listed in the data file depend on the models active at the time
the file is written. Variables that are required by the solver based on the current model
settings but are missing from the data file are set to their default values when the data
file is read. Any extra variables that are present in the data file but are not relevant
according to current model settings are ignored.

B.5.3 Residuals
Index: 301
Scheme symbol: xf-rf-seg-residuals
C macro: XF RF SEG RESIDUALS
Status: optional
This section lists the values of the residuals for a particular data field variable at each
iteration:

(301 (n residual-section-id size)(

r1
r2
.
.
.
rn
))

where,
n = the number of residuals
size = the length of the variable vector
residual-section-id = an integer (decimal) indicating the equation
size is 1 for a scalar, 2 or 3 for a vector, equal to the number of species for variables
defined for each species. The residual-section-id indicates the equation for which
the residual is stored in the section, according to the C constants defined in a header file
(xfile.h) available in your installation area, as noted in Section B.3: Grid Sections.
The equations for which residuals are listed in the data file depend on the models active
at the time the file is written. If the residual history is missing from the data file for a
currently active equation, it is initialized with zeros.

B-24
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
Nomenclature

A Area (m2 , ft2 )

~a Acceleration (m/s2 , ft/s2 )
a Local speed of sound (m/s, ft/s)
c Concentration (mass/volume, moles/volume)
CD Drag coefficient, defined different ways (dimensionless)
cp , cv Heat capacity at constant pressure, volume (J/kg-K, Btu/lbm -◦ F)
d Diameter; dp , Dp , particle diameter (m, ft)
DH Hydraulic diameter (m, ft)
Dij , D Mass diffusion coefficient (m2 /s, ft2 /s)
E Total energy, activation energy (J, kJ, cal, Btu)
f Mixture fraction (dimensionless)
F~ Force vector (N, lbf )
FD Drag force (N, lbf )
~g Gravitational acceleration (m/s2 , ft/s2 ); standard values = 9.80665 m/s2 , 32.1740 ft/s2
Gr Grashof number ≡ ratio of buoyancy forces to viscous forces (dimensionless)
H Total enthalpy (energy/mass, energy/mole)
h Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 -K, Btu/ft2 -h-◦ F)
h Species enthalpy; h0 , standard state enthalpy of formation (energy/mass, en-
ergy/mole)
I Radiation intensity (energy per area of emitting surface per unit solid angle)
J Mass flux; diffusion flux (kg/m2 -s, lbm /ft2 -s)
K Equilibrium constant = forward rate constant/backward rate constant (units vary)
k Kinetic energy per unit mass (J/kg, Btu/lbm )
k Reaction rate constant, e.g., k1 , k−1 ,kf,r , kb,r (units vary)
k Thermal conductivity (W/m-K, Btu/ft-h-◦ F)
kB Boltzmann constant (1.38 × 10−23 J/molecule-K)
k,kc Mass transfer coefficient (units vary); also K, Kc
`, l, L Length scale (m, cm, ft, in)

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 Nom-1
Nomenclature

Le Lewis number ≡ ratio of thermal diffusivity to mass diffusivity (dimensionless)

m Mass (g, kg, lbm )
ṁ Mass flow rate (kg/s, lbm /s)
Mw Molecular weight (kg/kgmol, lbm /lbm mol)
M Mach number ≡ ratio of fluid velocity magnitude to local speed of sound (dimen-
sionless)
Nu Nusselt number ≡ dimensionless heat transfer or mass transfer coefficient (dimen-
sionless); usually a function of other dimensionless groups
p Pressure (Pa, atm, mm Hg, lbf /ft2 )
Pe Peclet number ≡ Re × Pr for heat transfer, and ≡ Re × Sc for mass transfer
(dimensionless)
Pr Prandtl number ≡ ratio of momentum diffusivity to thermal diffusivity (dimen-
sionless)
Q Flow rate of enthalpy (W, Btu/h)
q Heat flux (W/m2 , Btu/ft2 -h)
R Gas-law constant (8.31447 × 103 J/kgmol-K, 1.98588 Btu/lbm mol-◦ F)
r Radius (m, ft)
R Reaction rate (units vary)
Ra Rayleigh number ≡ Gr × Pr; measure of the strength of buoyancy-induced flow in
natural (free) convection (dimensionless)
Re Reynolds number ≡ ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces (dimensionless)
S Total entropy (J/K, J/kgmol-K, Btu/lbm mol-◦ F)
s Species entropy; s0 , standard state entropy (J/kgmol-K, Btu/lbm mol-◦ F)
Sc Schmidt number ≡ ratio of momentum diffusivity to mass diffusivity (dimension-
less)
Sij Mean rate-of-strain tensor (s−1 )
T Temperature (K, ◦ C, ◦ R, ◦ F)
t Time (s)
U Free-stream velocity (m/s, ft/s)
u, v, w Velocity magnitude (m/s, ft/s); also written with directional subscripts (e.g., vx ,
vy , vz , vr )
V Volume (m3 , ft3 )
~v Overall velocity vector (m/s, ft/s)
We Weber number ≡ ratio of aerodynamic forces to surface tension forces (dimension-
less)

Nom-2
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
 Nomenclature

X Mole fraction (dimensionless)

Y Mass fraction (dimensionless)
α Permeability (m2 , ft2 )
α Thermal diffusivity (m2 /s, ft2 /s)
α Volume fraction (dimensionless)
β Coefficient of thermal expansion (K−1 )
γ Porosity (dimensionless)
γ Ratio of specific heats, cp /cv (dimensionless)
∆ Change in variable, final − initial (e.g., ∆p, ∆t, ∆H, ∆S, ∆T )
δ Delta function (units vary)
 Emissivity (dimensionless)
 Lennard-Jones energy parameter (J/molecule)
 Turbulent dissipation rate (m2 /s3 , ft2 /s3 )
 Void fraction (dimensionless)
η Effectiveness factor (dimensionless)
η 0 , η 00 Rate exponents for reactants, products (dimensionless)
θr Radiation temperature (K)
λ Molecular mean free path (m, nm, ft)
λ Wavelength (m, nm, Å, ft)
µ Dynamic viscosity (cP, Pa-s, lbm /ft-s)
ν Kinematic viscosity (m2 /s, ft2 /s)
ν 0 , ν 00 Stoichiometric coefficients for reactants, products (dimensionless)
ρ Density (kg/m3 , lbm /ft3 )
σ Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 ×108 W/m2 -K4 )
σ Surface tension (kg/m, dyn/cm, lbf /ft)
σs Scattering coefficient (m−1 )
τ Stress tensor (Pa, lbf /ft2 )
τ Shear stress (Pa, lbf /ft2 )
τ Time scale, e.g., τc , τp , τc (s)
τ Tortuosity, characteristic of pore structure (dimensionless)
φ Equivalence ratio (dimensionless)
φ Thiele modulus (dimensionless)
Ω Angular velocity; Ωij , Mean rate of rotation tensor (s−1 )

c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 Nom-3
Nomenclature

ω Specific dissipation rate (s−1 )

Ω, Ω0 Solid angle (degrees, radians, gradians)
ΩD Diffusion collision integral (dimensionless)

Nom-4
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
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