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Design Notes Bridge Components

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Bearings Abutments| Bearings| Deck| Drainage| Footing/Foundations| Joints| Parapets| Piers| Wing Walls
Deck
Drainage
Foundations
Joints
Parapets
Piers
Wing Walls

Tutorials
Abutment Design Click onto the area of the bridge that you want details about.
Grillage Analysis If you are starting a design then click onto the 'Deck'
and read the section on 'Preliminary Design'.
HA & HB Loading
Influence Lines
Prestressed
Concrete Beams Send me an Email if you have any problems with the design codes.
Steel Beams Email: [email protected]

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Design Notes Choice of Bearings

Abutments
Bridge bearings are devices for transferring loads and movements from the deck to the substructure
Bearings
and foundations.
Deck
In highway bridge bearings movements are accommodated by the basic mechanisms of internal
Drainage deformation (elastomeric), sliding (PTFE), or rolling. A large variety of bearings have evolved using
Foundations various combinations of these mechanisms.
Joints
Parapets
Piers
Wing Walls

Elastomeric Bearing Plane Sliding Bearing Multiple Roller Bearing

Tutorials
Abutment Design Design Considerations
Grillage Analysis The functions of each bearing type are :
HA & HB Loading
Influence Lines a. Elastomeric
Prestressed The elastomeric bearing allows the deck to translate and rotate, but also resists loads in
Concrete Beams the longitudinal, transverse and vertical directions. Loads are developed, and movement is
Steel Beams accommodated by distorting the elastomeric pad.
b. Plane Sliding
Workshop Sliding bearings usually consist of a low friction polymer, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE),
sliding against a metal plate. This bearing does not accommodate rotational movement in
Welcome the longitudinal or transverse directions and only resists loads in the vertical direction.
Longitudinal or transverse loads can be accommodated by providing mechanical keys. The
Bridge Pictures keys resist movement, and loads in a direction perpendicular to the keyway.
c. Roller
Codes and Books
Large longitudinal movements can be accommodated by these bearings, but vertical loads
Excel Proformas
only can generally be resisted.

Links
The designer has to assess the maximum and minimum loads that the deck will exert on the bearing
Add to Favorites together with the anticipated movements (translation and rotation). Bearing manufacturers will
supply a suitable bearing to meet the designers requirements.
Bearings are arranged to allow the deck to
expand and contract, but retain the deck in its
correct position on the substructure. A 'Fixed'
Bearing does not allow translational movement.
'Sliding Guided' Bearings are provided to
restrain the deck in all translational directions
except in a radial direction from the fixed
bearing. This allows the deck to expand and
contract freely. 'Sliding' Bearings are provided
for vertical support to the deck only.

Design Standards | Bridge Components

DAVID CHILDS B.SC., C.ENG., MICE

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Design Notes Choice of Deck

Abutments
Making the correct choice of deck will depend on many factors. Use the links below to find out about
Bearings
each type.
Deck
Drainage
Preliminary Design - Making the correct choice of bridge deck type.
Foundations
Reinforced Concrete
Joints
Prestressed Concrete
Parapets Composite
Piers Steel Box Girder
Wing Walls Steel Truss
Cable Stayed
Tutorials Suspension
Abutment Design
Grillage Analysis
HA & HB Loading Bridge Components
Influence Lines
Prestressed
Concrete Beams
Steel Beams

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Design Notes Preliminary Design

Abutments In selecting the correct bridge type it is necessary to find a structure that will perform its required
Bearings function and present an acceptable appearance at the least cost.
Decisions taken at preliminary design stage will influence the extent to which the actual structure
Deck
approximates to the ideal, but so will decisions taken at detailed design stage. Consideration of each
Drainage
of the ideal characteristics in turn will give some indication of the importance of preliminary bridge
Foundations
design.
Joints
Parapets
a. Safety.
Piers
The ideal structure must not collapse in use. It must be capable of carrying the loading
Wing Walls
required of it with the appropriate factor of safety. This is more significant at detailed
design stage as generally any sort of preliminary design can be made safe.
Tutorials b. Serviceability.
Abutment Design The ideal structure must not suffer from local deterioration/failure, from excessive
Grillage Analysis deflection or vibration, and it must not interfere with sight lines on roads above or below it.
HA & HB Loading Detailed design cannot correct faults induced by bad preliminary design.
Influence Lines c. Economy.
Prestressed The structure must make minimal demands on labour and capital; it must cost as little as
Concrete Beams possible to build and maintain. At preliminary design stage it means choosing the right
Steel Beams types of material for the major elements of the structure, and arranging these in the right
form.
Workshop d. Appearance.
The structure must be pleasing to look at. Decisions about form and materials are made at
Welcome preliminary design stage; the sizes of individual members are finalised at detailed design
stage. The preliminary design usually settles the appearance of the bridge.
Bridge Pictures
Codes and Books Constraints
Excel Proformas The construction depth available should be evaluated. The economic implications of raising or
lowering any approach embankments should then be considered. By lowering the embankments the
Links cost of the earthworks may be reduced, but the resulting reduction in the construction depth may
cause the deck to be more expensive.
Headroom requirements have to be maintained below the deck; the minimum standards for UK
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Highway bridges are given in TD 27 of the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges.
If the bridge is to cross a road that is on a curve, then the width of the opening may have to be
increased to provide an adequate site line for vehicles on the curved road.
It is important to determine the condition of the bridge site by carrying out a comprehensive site
investigation. BS 5930: Code of Practice for Site Investigations includes such topics as:

i. Soil survey
ii. Existing services (Gas, Electricity, Water, etc)
iii. Rivers and streams (liability to flood)
iv. Existing property and rights of way
v. Access to site for construction traffic

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Selection of Bridge Type

The following table is intended to be a rough guide to the useful span ranges of various types of deck.
Span Deck Type

Insitu reinforced concrete.

Up to 20m Insitu prestressed post-tensioned concrete.
Prestressed pre-tensioned inverted T beams with insitu fill.

Insitu reinforced concrete voided slab.

Insitu prestressed post-tensioned concrete voided slab.
16m to 30m Prestressed pre-tensioned M and I beams with insitu slab.
Prestressed pre-tensioned box beams with insitu topping.
Prestressed post-tensioned beams with insitu slab.
Steel beams with insitu slab.

Prestressed pre-tensioned SY beams with insitu slab.

30m to 40m Prestressed pre-tensioned box beams with insitu topping.
Prestressed post-tensioned beams with insitu slab.
Steel beams with insitu slab.

Box girder bridges - As the span increases the construction tends to go

30m to 250m from 'all concrete' to 'steel box / concrete deck' to 'all steel'.
Truss bridges - for spans up to 50m they are generally less economic than
plate girders.

150m to 350m Cable stayed bridges.

350m to ? Suspension bridges.

Preliminary Design Considerations

1. A span to depth ratio of 20 will give a starting point for estimating construction depths.
2. Continuity over supports
i. Reduces number of expansion joints.
ii. Reduces maximum bending moments and hence construction depth or the material
used.
iii. Increases sensitivity to differential settlement.
3. Factory made units
i. Reduces the need for soffit shuttering or scaffolding; useful when headroom is
restricted or access is difficult.
ii. Reduces site work which is weather dependent.
iii. Dependent on delivery dates by specialist manufactures.
iv. Specials tend to be expensive.
v. Special permission needed to transport units of more than 29m long on the
highway.
4. Length of structure
i. The shortest structure is not always the cheapest. By increasing the length of the
structure the embankment, retaining wall and abutment costs may be reduced, but
the deck costs will increase.
5. Substructure
i. The structure should be considered as a whole, including appraisal of piers,
abutments and foundations. Alternative designs for piled foundations should be
investigated; piling can increase the cost of a structure by up to 20%.

Costing and Final Selection

The preliminary design process will produce several apparently viable schemes. The procedure from
this point is to:

i. Estimate the major quantities.

ii. Apply unit price rates - they need not be up to date but should reflect any differential
variations.
iii. Obtain prices for the schemes.

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The final selection will be based on cost and aesthetics. This method of costing assumes that the
DAVID CHILDS
scheme with the minimum volume will be the cheapest, and will be true if the structure is not
B.SC., C.ENG., MICE particularly unusual

Design Standards | Bridge Components | Choice of Deck

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Design Notes Reinforced Concrete Decks

Abutments
The three most common types of reinforced concrete bridge decks are :
Bearings
Deck
Drainage
Foundations
Solid Slab
Joints
Parapets
Piers
Wing Walls
Voided Slab
Tutorials
Abutment Design
Grillage Analysis
HA & HB Loading Beam and Slab
Influence Lines
Solid slab bridge decks are most useful for small, single or multi-span bridges and are easily
Prestressed
Concrete Beams adaptable for high skew.
Voided slab and beam and slab bridges are used for larger, single or multi-span bridges. In circular
Steel Beams
voided decks the ratio of [depth of void] / [depth of slab] should be less than 0.79; and the
maximum area of void should be less than 49% of the deck sectional area.
Workshop
Analysis of Deck
Welcome For decks with skew less than 25° a simple unit strip method of analysis is generally satisfactory.
For skews greater than 25° then a grillage or finite element method of analysis will be required.
Bridge Pictures Skew decks develop twisting moments in the slab which become more significant with higher skew
Codes and Books angles. Computer analysis will produce values for Mx, My and Mxy where Mxy represents the twisting
Excel Proformas moment in the slab. Due to the influence of this twisting moment, the most economical way of
reinforcing the slab would be to place the reinforcing steel in the direction of the principal moments.
Links However these directions vary over the slab and two directions have to be chosen in which the
reinforcing bars should lie. Wood and Armer have developed equations for the moment of resistance
to be provided in two predetermined directions in order to resist the applied moments Mx, My and
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Mxy.
Extensive tests on various steel arrangements have shown the best positions as follows

Design Standards | Bridge Components | Choice of Deck

DAVID CHILDS B.SC., C.ENG., MICE

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Design Notes Prestressed Concrete Decks

Abutments
There are two types of deck using prestressed concrete :
Bearings
Deck
i. Pre-tensioned beams with insitu concrete.
Drainage
ii. Post-tensioned concrete.
Foundations
Joints
The term pre-tensioning is used to describe a method of prestressing in which the tendons are
Parapets
tensioned before the concrete is placed, and the prestress is transferred to the concrete when a
Piers
suitable cube strength is reached.
Wing Walls
Post-tensioning is a method of prestressing in which the tendon is tensioned after the concrete has
reached a suitable strength. The tendons are anchored against the hardened concrete immediately
Tutorials
after prestressing.
Abutment Design There are three concepts involved in the design of prestressed concrete :
Grillage Analysis
HA & HB Loading
i. Prestressing transforms concrete into an elastic material.
Influence Lines By applying this concept concrete may be regarded as an elastic material, and may be
Prestressed treated as such for design at normal working loads. From this concept the criterion of no
Concrete Beams
tensile stresses in the concrete was evolved.
Steel Beams
In an economically designed simply supported beam, at the critical section, the bottom
fibre stress under dead load and prestress should ideally be the maximum allowable
Workshop
stress; and under dead load, live load and prestress the stress should be the minimum
allowable stress.
Welcome Therefore under dead load and prestress, as the dead load moment reduces towards the
support, then the prestress moment will have to reduce accordingly to avoid exceeding
Bridge Pictures the permissible stresses. In post-tensioned structures this may be achieved by curving
Codes and Books the tendons, or in pre-tensioned structures some of the prestressing strands may be
Excel Proformas deflected or de-bonded near the support.
ii. Prestressed concrete is to be considered as a combination of steel and concrete with the
Links steel taking tension and concrete compression so that the two materials form a resisting
couple against the external moment. (Analogous to reinforced concrete concepts).
Add to Favorites This concept is utilized to determine the ultimate strength of prestressed beams.
iii. Prestressing is used to achieve load balancing.
It is possible to arrange the tendons to produce an upward load which balances the
downward load due to say, dead load, in which case the concrete would be in uniform
compression.

Pre-tensioned Bridge Decks

T-Beam M-Beam Y-Beam

Types of beams in common use are inverted T-beams, M-beams and Y beams. Inverted T-beams are
generally used for spans between 7 and 16 metres and the voids between the beams are filled with
insitu concrete thus forming a solid deck. M-Beams are used for spans between 14 and 30 metres
and have a thin slab cast insitu spanning between the top flanges. The Y-beam was introduced in
1990 to replace the M-beam. This lead to the production of an SY-beam which is used for spans
between 32 and 40 metres.

Post-tensioned Bridge Decks

Post-tensioned bridge decks are generally composed of insitu concrete in which ducts have been
cast in the required positions.

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T-Beam Voided Slab Box

20m < Span < 35m 20m < Span < 35m Span >30m

When the concrete has acquired sufficient strength, the tendons are threaded through the ducts and
tensioned by hydraulic jacks acting against the ends of the member. The ends of the tendons are
then anchored.
Tendons are then bonded to the concrete by injecting grout into the ducts after the stressing has
been completed.
It is possible to use pre-cast concrete units which are post-tensioned together on site to form the
bridge deck.
Generally it is more economical to use post-tensioned construction for continuous structures rather
than insitu reinforced concrete at spans greater than 20 metres. For simply supported spans it may
be economic to use a post-tensioned deck at spans greater than 20 metres.

Design Standards | Bridge Components | Choice of Deck

DAVID CHILDS B.SC., C.ENG., MICE

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Design Notes Composite Decks

Abutments
Composite Construction in bridge decks usually refers to the interaction between insitu reinforced
Bearings
concrete and structural steel.
Deck
Three main economic advantages of composite construction are :
Drainage
Foundations
i. For a given span and loading system a smaller depth of beam can be used than for a
Joints
concrete beam solution, which leads to economies in the approach embankments.
Parapets ii. The cross-sectional area of the steel top flange can be reduced because the concrete can
Piers be considered as part of it.
Wing Walls iii. Transverse stiffening for the top compression flange of the steel beam can be reduced
because the restraint against buckling is provided by the concrete deck.
Tutorials
Abutment Design
Grillage Analysis
HA & HB Loading
Influence Lines
Prestressed Typical Composite Deck
Concrete Beams
Steel Beams Construction Methods
It is possible to influence the load carried by a composite deck section in a number of ways during
the erection of a bridge.
Workshop
By propping the steel beams while the deck slab is cast and until it has gained strength, then the
composite section can be considered to take the whole of the dead load. This method appears
Welcome
attractive but is seldom used since propping can be difficult and usually costly.
With continuous spans the concrete slab will crack in the hogging regions and only the steel
Bridge Pictures
reinforcement will be effective in the flexural resistance, unless the concrete is prestressed.
Codes and Books Generally the concrete deck is 220mm to 250mm thick with beams or plate girders between 2.5m
Excel Proformas and 3.5m spacing and depths between span/20 and span/30.
Composite action is developed by the transfer of horizontal shear forces between the concrete deck
Links and steel via shear studs which are welded to the steel girder.

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Design Standards | Bridge Components | Choice of Deck

DAVID CHILDS B.SC., C.ENG., MICE

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Design Notes Steel Box Girders

Abutments
Box girders have a clean, uninterrupted design line and require less maintenance because more than
Bearings
half of their surface area is protected from the weather. The box shape is very strong torsionally and
Deck
is consequently stable during erection and in service; unlike the plate girder which generally
Drainage requires additional bracing to achieve adequate stability.
Foundations
Joints
Parapets
Piers
Wing Walls

Tutorials
Abutment Design
Grillage Analysis
HA & HB Loading
The disadvantage is that box girders are more expensive to fabricate than plate girders of the same
Influence Lines
weight and they require more time and effort to design.
Prestressed
Concrete Beams Box girders were very popular in the late 1960's, but, following the collapse of four bridges, the
Merrison Committee published design rules in 1972 which imposed complicated design rules and
Steel Beams
onerous fabrication tolerances. The design rules have now been simplified with the publication of
BS5400 and more realistic imperfection limits have been set.
Workshop
The load analysis and stress checks include a number of effects which are generally of second order
importance in conventional plate girder design such as shear lag, distortion and warping stresses,
Welcome
and stiffened compression flanges. Special consideration is also required for the internal
intermediate cross-frames and diaphragms at supports.
Bridge Pictures
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Design Notes Steel Truss Decks

Abutments
Trusses are generally used for bridge spans between 30m and 150m where the construction depth
Bearings
(deck soffit to road level) is limited. The small construction depth reduces the length and height of
Deck
the approach embankments that would be required for other deck forms. This can have a significant
Drainage effect on the overall cost of the structure, particularly where the approach gradients cannot be steep
Foundations as for railway bridges.
Joints
Parapets
Piers
Wing Walls

Tutorials
Abutment Design
Grillage Analysis
HA & HB Loading
High fabrication and maintenance costs has made the truss type deck less popular in the UK; labour
Influence Lines
costs being relatively high compared to material costs. Where material costs are relatively high then
Prestressed
Concrete Beams the truss is still an economical solution. The form of construction also allows the bridge to be
Steel Beams fabricated in small sections off site which also makes transportation easier, particularly in remote
areas.

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The underslung truss is the most economical as the deck provides support for the live load and also
braces the compression chord. There is however the problem of the headroom clearance required
under the deck which generally renders this truss only suitable for unnavigable rivers or over flood
planes.
Where underslung trusses are not possible, and the span is short, it may be economical to use a
half-through truss. Restraint to the compression flange is achieved by U frame action.
When the span is large, and the underslung truss cannot be used, then the through girder provides
the most economic solution. Restraint to the compression flange is provided by bracing between the
two top chords; this is more efficient than U frame support. The bracing therefore has to be above
the headroom requirement for traffic on the deck.

Design Standards | Bridge Components | Choice of Deck

DAVID CHILDS B.SC., C.ENG., MICE

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Design Notes Cable Stayed Decks

Abutments
Cable stayed bridges are generally used for bridge spans between 150m and 350m. They are often
Bearings
chosen for their aesthetics, but are generally economical for spans in excess of 250m.
Deck
Drainage
Foundations
Joints
Parapets
Piers
Wing Walls Cable stayed girders were developed in Germany during the reconstruction period after the last war
and attributed largely to the works of Fritz Leonhardt. Straight cables are connected directly to the
Tutorials deck and induce significant axial forces into the deck. The structure is consequently self anchoring
Abutment Design and depends less on the foundation conditions than the suspension bridge.
Grillage Analysis The cables and the deck are erected at the same time which speeds up the construction time and
reduces the amount of temporary works required. The cable lengths are adjusted during construction
HA & HB Loading
to counteract the dead load deflections of the deck due to extension in the cable
Influence Lines
Decks are usually of orthortropic steel plate construction however composite slabs can be used for
Prestressed
Concrete Beams spans up to about 250m. Either box girders or plate girders can be used in the deck, however if a
Steel Beams single plane of cables is used then it is essential to use the box girder construction to achieve
torsional stability.

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Design Notes Suspension Bridges

Abutments
Suspension bridges are used for bridge spans in excess of 350m.
Bearings
Deck
Drainage
Foundations
Joints
Parapets
Piers Some of the world's longest bridge main spans are:
Wing Walls Bridge Name (Country) Main Span

Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge (Japan) 1990m

Tutorials
Abutment Design Great Belt Bridge (Denmark) 1624m
Grillage Analysis Runyang Bridge (China) 1490m
HA & HB Loading
Humber Bridge (UK) 1410m
Influence Lines
Prestressed Jiangyin Suspension Bridge (China) 1385m
Concrete Beams
Tsing Ma (Hong Kong) 1377m
Steel Beams
Verrazano Narrows (USA) 1298m
Workshop Golden Gate (USA) 1280m

Mackinac (USA) 1158m

Welcome
Bosporus (Turkey) 1074m
Bridge Pictures
George Washington (USA) 1067m
Codes and Books
Excel Proformas Salazar (Portugal) 1013m

Forth (UK) 1006m

Links
Severn (UK) 988m

Add to Favorites Tacoma Narrows (USA) 853m

Plans had been approved to build a 3300m span suspension bridge across the Strait of Messina, but
the scheme was mothballed. However the new Government, under Silvio Berlusconi, have indicated
that they want to resurrect the project.

A number of early suspension bridges were designed without the appreciation of wind effects. Large
deflections were developed in the flexible decks and wind loading created unstable oscillations. The
problem was largely solved by using inclined hangers.
The suspension bridge is essentially a catenary cable prestressed by dead weight. The cables are
guided over the support towers to ground anchors. The stiffened deck is supported mainly by vertical
or inclined hangers.

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Design Notes Drainage Systems

Abutments
The Design Manual for Roads and Bridges BD 30/87 requires surface water to be drained away from
Bearings
earth retaining structures or backfill.
Deck
Any water percolating through the fill is collected in a perforated drainpipe, not less than 150mm
Drainage diameter, which is located at the rear of the vertical stem of the wall at the level of the top of the
Foundations footing. Access to the pipe should be provided for rodding purposes from inspection manholes
Joints positioned at the foot of the wall. Weep holes are often provided as a safeguard in the event that the
Parapets drainpipe is blocked; they also provide a visual check that the system is working.
Piers Unless the backfill to the wall is highly permeable then a vertical drainage layer is provided at the
Wing Walls rear of the wall and is connected with the perforated drainpipe.
The vertical permeable layer may take the form of any of the following:
Tutorials
Abutment Design a. Precast hollow concrete blocks.
Grillage Analysis b. Cast insitu porous no fines concrete.
HA & HB Loading c. Granular drainage layer.
Influence Lines
Prestressed Special consideration to the drainage layer is required when the backfill contains materials
Concrete Beams susceptible to piping such as silt, chalk or PFA. Under these conditions then a granular drainage
Steel Beams layer only is recommended; hollow blocks or no fines concrete are unsuitable.

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Design Notes Choice of Foundation

Abutments
Foundation types depend primarily on the depth and safe bearing pressures of the bearing stratum,
Bearings
also restrictions placed on differential settlement due to the type of bridge deck. Generally in the
Deck
case of simply supported bridge decks differential settlements of about 20 to 25 mm can be
Drainage tolerated, whereas multi-span continuous decks 10 mm is usually considered as a maximum.
Foundations Bridge foundations generally fall into two categories:
Joints
Parapets i. Strip footings, one for each pier and abutment. However, it is sometimes convenient to
Piers split the deck into two halves longitudinally along the centre line, this is then continued to
Wing Walls the footing.
ii. Piled foundations.
Tutorials
Abutment Design It is possible to have a combination of both (i.e. piers being piled with abutments on strip footings).
Grillage Analysis
HA & HB Loading Design Considerations
Influence Lines The design of foundations comprise of the following stages :

Prestressed
Concrete Beams i. From the site investigation report decide upon which stratum to impose the structure load
Steel Beams and its safe bearing pressure.
ii. Select the type of foundation, possibly comparing the suitability of several types.
Workshop iii. Design the foundation to transfer and distribute the loads from the structure to the
ground. Ensure that the factor of safety against shear failure in the soil is not reached and
Welcome settlement is within the allowable limits.

Bridge Pictures Strip Footings

Codes and Books The overall size of strip footings is determined by considering the effects of vertical and rotational
Excel Proformas loads. The combination of these two must neither exceed the safe bearing capacity of the stratum or
produce uplift. The thickness of the footings is generally about 0.8 to 1.0 m but must be capable of
Links withstanding moments and shears produced by piers or abutments.
The critical shearing stress may be assumed to occur on a plane at a distance equal to the effective
Add to Favorites depth of the base from the face of the column.
Cover to reinforcement should never be less than values given in BS 5400: Part 4: Table 13, and
crack control calculation must be carried out to ensure the crack width is less than 0.25mm (Table
1).

Piled Foundations
The type of piles generally used for bridge foundations are :

a. Driven Piles; preformed piles of concrete or steel driven by blows of a power hammer or
jacked into the ground.
b. Preformed Driven Cast In-Situ Piles; formed by driving a hollow steel tube with a closed
end and filling the tube with concrete.
c. Driven Cast In-Situ Piles; formed by driving a hollow steel tube with a closed end and
filling the tube with concrete, simultaneously withdrawing the tube.
d. Bored and Cast In-Situ Piles; formed by boring a hole and filling it with concrete.

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a. to c. are known as displacement piles, and the problems of calculating the load carrying capacity
and settlement require a different approach to that for bored piles.
Driven type piles can, depending on the strata, be either end bearing or friction piles; sometimes a
combination of both.
Bored piles are generally end bearing and are often of large diameter. To increase their bearing
capacity the bottom can be under-reamed to produce a greater bearing area. However, additional
safety precautions are required with larger diameter piles.
A specialist form of pile consisting of stone aggregate consolidated by water or air using the
'Vibroflotation' technique is suitable in some granular soils.
Choice of pile type depends largely on the strata which they pass through, none of them however
give the most economic and satisfactory solution under all conditions.
The art of selecting the right sort of pile lies in rejecting all those types which are obviously unsuited
to the particular set of circumstances and then choosing from those which remain, the one which
produces the most economical solution.
Concurrently with the choice of pile type must go the choice of the strata which will carry the main
loads from the structure, because this very often influences the choice. In most all cases the
rejection of conventional pad or strip foundations arises because the computed settlement is more
than the structure can safely withstand and hence the main purpose of the piled foundation will be
to reduce this settlement. It follows, therefore, that if more compressible strata exists within
reasonable distance of the surface, it is very desirable that a high proportion of the foundation load
should be carried by this more stable strata; the ideal solution is where piles support the load wholly
in end bearing on hard rock where the settlement will be negligible. It follows that piles wholly
embedded in the same soil that would under-lie a conventional foundation has very little effect in
reducing settlement. With soft normally consolidated alluvial clays, the remoulding effect of driven
piles may well increase the settlement of the soil under its own dead weight and thus increase the
settlement of the foundation itself.

Aspects of design of piled foundations which influence choice of pile type

All foundations must satisfy two criteria, no shear failure in the soil and no excessive settlement;
piled foundations also have to meet this criteria. There are well established methods for ensuring
that the first criteria is met, but the second presents more of a problem. The working load of an
individual pile is based on providing an adequate factor of safety against the soil under the toe
failing in shear and the adhesion between the shaft and the soil surrounding it passing its ultimate
value and the whole pile sinking further into the ground. There are basically four methods for
assessing this effect :

i. Through soil parameters i.e. summing shaft friction and bearing capacity. The ultimate
bearing capacity is usually modified to compensate for the driving effect of the pile.
ii. By means of test piles.
iii. By means of dynamic formulae i.e. Hiley formulae which equates the energy required to
drive the pile with its ultimate bearing capacity.
iv. Piling contractors 'know how'.

Design Standards | Bridge Components

DAVID CHILDS B.SC., C.ENG., MICE

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Design Notes Choice of Deck Joint

Abutments
Current practice is to make decks integral with the abutments. The objective is to avoid the use of joints
Bearings
over abutments and piers. Expansion joints are prone to leak and allow the ingress of de-icing salts into
Deck
the bridge deck and substructure. In general all bridges are made continuous over intermediate supports
Drainage and decks under 60 metres long with skews not exceeding 30° are made integral with their abutments.
Foundations Where it is intended not to use road salts, or the deck and substructure have been designed to
Joints incorporate deck joints then the following guidance is given in BD 33/94 for the range of movements
Parapets that can be accommodated by the various joint types:
Piers
Wing Walls TOTAL ACCEPTABLE MAXIMUM ACCEPTABLE
LONGITUDINAL VERTICAL MOVEMENT
Tutorials JOINT TYPE MOVEMENT BETWEEN TWO SIDES
Abutment Design Min Max OF JOINT (mm)
Grillage Analysis (mm) (mm)
HA & HB Loading 1. Buried joint under 5 20 1.3
Influence Lines continuous surfacing.
Prestressed 2. Asphaltic Plug joint. 5 40 3
Concrete Beams
3. Nosing joint with 5 12 3
Steel Beams
poured sealant.
4. Nosing with preformed 5 40 3
Workshop
compression seal.
5. Reinforced Elastomeric. 5 * 3
Welcome
6. Elastomeric in metal 5 * 3
Bridge Pictures runners.

Codes and Books 7. Cantilever comb or 25 * 3

Excel Proformas tooth joint.
The minimum of the range is given to indicate when the type of joint may not be economical.
Links * Maximum value varies according to manufacturer or type.

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Thermal Movements
DAVID CHILDS
BS 5400 Part 2 Chapter 5.4 specifies maximum and minimum effective bridge temperatures which
B.SC., C.ENG., MICE have to be accommodated in the bridge structure.
The width of joint between the end of the deck and the abutment is set during construction of the
bridge; usually when the concrete curtain wall is cast. The maximum expansion of the deck is
therefore determined from the minimum effective temperature at which the curtain wall is allowed to
to be cast; usually 2°C. Hence if a maximum effective temperature of 40°C is calculated from BS
5400 Part 2 then a joint width will have to be provided at the end of the deck to allow for an
expansion caused by a temperature increase of (40-2)=38°C.
The maximum contraction of the deck is determined in a similar manner, but using a nominal
effective temperature at which the joint is set.
Having determined the range of movement at the joint then the type of joint can be specified. The
nominal effective temperature used in the calculations will also have to be specified to enable the
correct adjustments to be made on site when the joints are set.

Design Standards | Bridge Components

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Design Notes Choice of Parapet

Abutments
BS EN 1317-1:1998 describes a Vehicle Parapet as a safety barrier that is installed on the edge of a
Bearings
bridge or on a retaining wall or similar structure where there is a vertical drop, and which may contain
Deck
additional protection and restraint for pedestrians and other road users.
Drainage
Foundations
Joints
Parapets
Piers
Wing Walls

Tutorials
Abutment Design
Grillage Analysis
HA & HB Loading Manufacturers have developed and tested parapets to meet the containment standards specified in the
Influence Lines codes. Much of the earlier testing work was involved with achieving a parapet which would absorb the
Prestressed impact load and not deflect the vehicle back into the line of adjacent traffic. The weight of vehicle, speed
Concrete Beams of impact and angle of impact influence the behaviour of the parapet. Consequently a level of
Steel Beams containment has been adopted to minimise the risk to traffic using the bridge (above and below the
deck).
Workshop BS EN 1317-2 1998 specifies criteria for vehicle impact tests on parapets for various containment levels.
The containment levels adopted by TD 19/06 (Design Manual for Roads and Bridges Volume 2, Section
Welcome 2, Part 8) require testing to be carried out for various vehicles impacting the parapet at an angle of 20o.
The vehicle impact test criteria for various containment levels as follows :
Bridge Pictures
Codes and Books Parapet Containment Level Test Vehicle Impact Speed

Excel Proformas N1 1.5t car 80 km/h

Normal Containment (Formerly P2{80})
Links
N2 1.5t car 110 km/h
Normal Containment Level (Formerly P1, P2{113} & P5)
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H2 13t bus 70 km/h
Higher Containment Level

H4a 30t Rigid HGV 65 km/h

Very High Containment Level (Formerly P6)

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Metal Parapets are designed and tested by manufactures who apply to the Highways Agency to be
included on an Approved List. A copy of the "Highways Agency's Approved Road Restraint System List"
can be obtained from their website http://www.highways.gov.uk/business/8720.aspx
TD19/06 is the current design standard which requires carrying out a risk assessment to identify the
hazards and minimise the risks to the road users.
The risk assessment is documented by using an Excel spreadsheet, a copy of which can be obtained
from the Highways Agency's website http://www.highways.gov.uk/business/12081.aspx
A user-guide is also available on the same web-page.

TD 19/06 also directs the designer to use BS 6779 and BS 7818 for the design of specific elements of
parapets.
BS 6779: 1998 - Highway Parapets for Bridges and Other Structures.
Part 1: Metal Parapets for the provision of infill to parapets (see TD 19/06 clause 4.29, 4.39, 4.40)
Part 2: Concrete Parapets for the design of reinforced concrete parapets with some amendments (see TD
19/06 clauses 4.56 to 4.60)
Part 4: Reinforced and Unreinforced Masonry Parapets to assess the containment capacity of existing
masonry parapets (see TD 19/06 clause 4.62)
BS 7818: 1995: Pedestrian Metal Parapets
This Standard is required for the manufacture and installation of pedestrian restraint systems until such
times as the drafting of prEN 1317-6 is completed (see TD 19/06 clause 9.3).

Design Considerations

Information required to be supplied to metal parapet manufacturers is listed in TD19/06, namely:

Containment Level (N1, N2, H2, H4a);

Impact Severity Level (ISL) (Normally Class B);
Working Width Class (W1 to W5);
The height;
The length;

Concrete parapets are ideal for very high containment parapets due to their significant mass.
Steel parapets are generally the cheapest solution for the normal containment. This is significant if the
site is prone to accidents and parapet maintenance is likely to be regular. The steelwork does however
require painting and is usually pretreated with hot-dip galvanising.
Aluminium parapets do not require surface protection and maintenance costs will be reduced if the
parapet does not require replacing through damage. The initial cost is however high and special
attention to fixing bolts is required to prevent the parapets from being stolen for their high scrap value.
Aluminium also provides a significant weight saving over the steel parapet. This is sometimes important
for parapets on moving bridges.

Design Standards | Bridge Components

DAVID CHILDS B.SC., C.ENG., MICE

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Design Notes Choice of Pier

Abutments
Wherever possible slender piers should be used so that there is sufficient flexibility to allow
Bearings
temperature, shrinkage and creep effects to be transmitted to the abutments without the need for
Deck
bearings at the piers, or intermediate joints in the deck.
Drainage A slender bridge deck will usually look best when supported by slender piers without the need for a
Foundations downstand crosshead beam. It is the proportions and form of the bridge as a whole which are vitally
Joints important rather than the size of an individual element viewed in isolation.
Parapets
Piers
Wing Walls
Different Pier Shapes
Tutorials
Abutment Design Design Considerations
Grillage Analysis Loads transmitted by the bridge deck onto the pier are :
HA & HB Loading
Influence Lines i. Vertical loads from self weight of deck
Prestressed ii. Vertical loads from live loading conditions
Concrete Beams iii. Horizontal loads from temperature, creep movements etc and wind
Steel Beams iv. Rotations due to deflection of the bridge deck.

Workshop The overall configuration of the bridge will determine the combination of loads and movements that
have to be designed for. For example if the pier has a bearing at its top, corresponding to a
Welcome structural pin joint, then the horizontal movements will impose moments at the base, their
magnitude will depend on the pier flexibility.
Bridge Pictures Sometimes special requirements are imposed by rail or river authorities if piers are positioned within
Codes and Books their jurisdiction. In the case of river authorities a 'cut water' may be required to assist the river
Excel Proformas flow, or independent fenders to protect the pier from impact from boats or floating debris. A similar
arrangement is often required by the rail authorities to prevent minor derailments striking the pier.
Links Whereas the pier has to be designed to resist major derailments. Also if the pier should be
completely demolished by a train derailment then the deck should not collapse.

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Design Standards | Bridge Components

DAVID CHILDS B.SC., C.ENG., MICE

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Home Home | Design Notes | Wing Walls

Design Notes Choice of Wing Wall

Abutments
Wing walls are essentially retaining walls adjacent to the abutment. The walls can be independent or
Bearings
integral with the abutment wall.
Deck
Drainage
Foundations
Joints
Parapets
Piers
Wing Walls

Tutorials
Abutment Design
Grillage Analysis
HA & HB Loading
Influence Lines
Prestressed
Concrete Beams Providing the bridge skew angle is small (less than 20°), and the cutting/embankment slopes are
Steel Beams reasonably steep (about 1 in 2), then the wing wall cantilevering from the abutment wall is likely to
give the most economical solution.
Workshop

Welcome

Bridge Pictures
Codes and Books
Excel Proformas

Links Splayed wing walls provide even more of an economy in material costs but the detailing and fixing
of the steel reinforcement is more complicated than the conventional wall.
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Design Considerations
Loads effects to be considered on the rear of the wall are:

i. Earth pressures from the backfill material.

ii. Surcharge from live loading or compacting plant.
iii. Hydraulic loads from saturated soil conditions.

The stability of the wall is generally designed to resist 'active' earth pressures (Ka); whilst the
structural elements are designed to resist 'at rest' earth pressures (Ko). The concept is that 'at rest'
pressures are developed initially and the structural elements should be designed to accommodate
these loads without failure. The loads will however reduce to 'active' pressure when the wall moves,
either by rotating or sliding. Consequently the wall will stabilise if it moves under 'at rest' pressures
providing it is designed to resist 'active' earth pressures.

Geometry for splayed wing walls

X = slope to road under bridge
Y = slope from road over bridge
L = length of sloping wall
K = length of horizontal wall
V = verge width to end of wall
L1 = level at bottom of embankment
L2 = level at back of verge on road over bridge
Lw = ground level at end of wall
q = angle of wall to road under bridge
Plan on Wing Wall f = skew angle ( -ve if < 90°)

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DAVID CHILDS Lw = L1 + 1/ x [(L+K)Sinq]

Lw = L2 - [ (L+K) Cosq + (L+K) SinqTanf - V/Cos f ] Cos f / Y
B.SC., C.ENG., MICE L + K = [ X Y (L2 - L1) + V X ] / [ X Cos (q ‐ f ) + Y Sinq] ..................eqn.(1)
For minimum length of wall dL/dq = 0 ie. Tanq = Tanf + Y / X Cos f
For known lengths of wall (L+K) two values of q can be obtained from eqn.(1).
From eqn.(1) -(A+B)Tan2(q/ 2) + 2(C+Y)Tan(q/2) + (B-A) = 0
==================================
Where A = [XY(L2 - L1) + VX] / [L + K] , B = X Cosf , and C = X Sinf
Example
Level Max
Wall L1 L2 V X Y φ at (L+ & θ Lw Kmax
top K) Min
of θ
wall
68.1
N/E 56.6 63.6 2.2 2.0 2.0 10.5 63.0 11.0 to 32.5 59.6 4.1
32.4
S/E 56.9 64.2 2.0 2.0 2.0 -27.0 63.6 15.9 31.5 31.5 61.1 10.8
89.3
S/W 57.2 64.4 0.8 2.6 2.0 27.7 63.8 12.2 to 30.0 59.6 3.8
18.5
Minimum Lengths :- N/E Wall : L+K = 10.437 @ q = 50.25°
S/E Wall : L+K = 15.889 @ q = 31.5°
S/W Wall : L+K = 9.996 @ q = 54.37°

Design Standards | Bridge Components

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