INTRODUCTION

The aim of this lecture is to introduce engineers to various types of transmission

line supports. The lecture is divided in two parts viz. Part A for pole supports & Part B
for transmission tower support.

PART A :

I) POLE SUPPORTS :
Under this category following supports are included.
1. Wooden Poles
2. Reinforced concrete Poles ( PSC poles)
3. Tubular poles
4. Latticed poles
5. Girders
6. Rails
7. Wide based tubular hollow PSC Poles

The above poles are detailed one by one as follows.

1. WOODEN POLES :
These are poles ranging from 100mm to 200mm in diameter. In
Gujarat they are very rarely used except in the places where there is too
much of oceanic pollution & steel support are not able to stand. But, they
are widely used in places where forest is very wide & wood is available at
very cheaper rate for example Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pardesh,
Karnataka, Kerala, etc. The main drawback of these poles is their
uncertain life, the tendency to get eroded from within the soil.

2. REINFORCED CONCRETE POLES ( PSC POLES) :

These are pre cast in factories having length from 8 meters &
breaking capacity of 140 Kg to 210 Kg. They are mainly used to support
11 KV, 22KV & 33 KV feeders.

3. TUBULAR POLES :
These can be used for voltage up to 33 KV but they are not being
used in GEB for the simple reason of high cost of fabrication & transport.

4. LATTICED POLES
These are single, tapered poles fabricated from angles which in use
in the pre independence era. Now they are not used. They can be used in
33 KV transmission lines.
 5 & 6. GIRDERS & RAILS
Girders at size 150 x 150 mm & rails of 90 pounds can be used for
the transmission of 66 KV by making H frame. The tower size of girders
& rails can be utilized for the transmission line of the 33 KV & 22 KV.

7. WIDE BASED TUBLAR HOLLOW PSC POLES

These are tubular type structures which are pre stressed & pre
fabricated section by section are erected at site as a single structure on
which cross arms can be laid & a wire stung. These type of pole have been
manufactured on trial basis & are likely to be in market soon but are not
presently used in GEB.

II DESIGN ASPECTS:
Out of the single poles structures described above, the tubular hollow PSC
poles can withstand transverse, longitudinal, vertical stresses whereas other type
of single poles can withstand only vertical load and transverse load (to some
extent only) and as such for these type of poles wind guys have to be provided on
every 5th/ 6th locations. Also at the angle points and cut points where the tension
and deviation loads are coming, special guys are required to be provided.

Fig a1 – sag in equal supports

Fig a2 - sag in unequal supports

 The design of these poles mainly based on the sag & tension of the
conductor which is to be used as shown in the Fig.a1 & a2 above. The sag in case
of fig. a1 will be (WL2/ 8T) where T is the tension of the conductor in the Kg. and
W weight of metre of the conductor and L is the span. In fig. a2 where unequal
supports are used, the sag D1 & D2 will be worked out by formula

D1 = ( W x 12/27),
D2=(W x 22/27)
where, x1 = (1/2)+(Th/W1)
x2 = (1/2) (Th/w1)

where h= difference in height of supports.

The tension of the conductor as to be worked out depending upon average
span, temperature, size of the conductor and factor of safety under various conditions
which is again a separate topic all together and not discussed here.
The height of the two towers thus will totally depend upon the sag and the
requirement of the clearance. The number of guys to be provided will depend upon the
maximum tension of conductor under worse condition and has to be evaluated separately
in each case. The angle of the guys will also depend on which type of wire is to be used.

III) (a) DESIGN OF SINGLE INTERMIDIATE WOOD SUPPORTS:

Single wood poles at intermediate positions are subjected to single
bending due to the windage on the conductors and on the pole. In determining the
diameter of the wood pole for any overhead line, two sets of loading must be
considered.

(1) The total windage on the ice-loaded conductors in lb, adding at a

particular height above the ground, knows as the centre of the
gravity of the conductor loading; exerts the bending moments on
the poles of the ground level.
(2) Windage acting on the pole for its whole lengths above the ground
and exerting a bending moment on the pole at ground level.

Considering windage is acting on bare conductors only & the windage of

the pole is ignored.
H= Height of poles above ground level in ft.
h= Height of center of gravity of conductor loading in ft. above the ground level.
P= Total horizontal conductor in loading in lb, acting at height h ft. above the
ground level.
Dg= Diameter of pole at ground level in inches.
Da= Average diameter of pole in inches.
W= Total windage on pole in lb. assumed to be acting at H/2 ft. above ground
level.

Total bending moment of pole at ground level

BM = ( P x h + w x H/2 ) lb. ft.

Max. fibre stress for red fir. = 7800 lb./sq.in.

Thus, max. Allowable fibre stress = 7800/F.ofs. lb/sq.inch.
Moment of intertia for circular pole I = 7IDg4/64 in4.
Section modulus Z = I/(Dg /2) in3 = (II dg3) / 32 in3.
Allowable stress = ( BMx12)/z lb./sq in.
= (BM lb.ft. x 12 x 32) / 3.14 Dg3 lb./ sq in.
Pole diameter Dg = √(BM x 122.3/f) in.

(b) DESIGN OF STAYED WOOD SUPOORTS :

At angle and terminal positions the supports are stayed to take the pull of
the conductors, & consequently the support acts as a strut, due to the
vertical loading imposed by stay tension.

Calculating angle between stay & support.

z Let P= Horizontal conductor pull on

θ
stay

pole in lb.
θ= Angle between stay and pole in degree.
S= Tension in stay in lb.
Tension in stays S= P/Sinθ ib.
Vertical load on support = S cosθ lb.
(c) CIRPPLING LOAD ON STRUTS:
In determining the crippling load of struts.
Following formula used.

1) P = π² EI/L² 1b. for struts with ends pinned.

2) P = 4 π² EI / L² 1b. for struts with ends fixed.

Where
P = Buckling of failing load in 1b.
L = Length of strut in inches.
I = Moment of intertia of cross section about the neutral axis.

a) Centre of gravity of the conductor loading is in the region of 2 ft. from the
pole top. This is normally the stay position.
b) In case of foundation strengths, the fulcrum point of the pole is taken as
approximately 2/3 of the depth of planting.

C = Crippling load of strut in lb.

L = Length of strut in ft.
C = π²EI LB
L²
The moment of intertia I for a Circular section
= D4 in4
64

C = π² E 2 X π D4 Lb.
 (Lx12) 64

Safe working load = C Lb

F.S.

IV) DESIGN OF ‘H’ POLES :

(A) Two types of design for ‘II’ poles.

i. ‘H’ pole (umbraced).

ii. ‘H’ pole (braced)

i. ‘H’ POLE (UNBRACED) :

H = Height of pole in ft. above ground level.

h = Height of centre of gravity of conductor
load in ft. above ground level.
P = Total horizontal conductor loading in lb
Acting at height h ft. above ground level.
Dg = Dimm. Of pole in inch. At ground level.
Da. = Average diam. Of pole in inch.

H
h

W = Total wind load H

in lb
= on poles.above ground level in ft. at which
Height
2 windage on pole acts.

It should be noted that the windage is taken 1.5 time the windage on one leg.

Total bending moment on pole = (Pxh + W H/2) lb. ft.

At ground level

Max. stress for red fir. = 7800 lb/sq.in.

Max. alloable fibre stress = 7800 lb/sq. inch

F. of. S

Moment of incertia for a single = I = π D4 in4.

64

Section module = I
Dg/2 in3 .

Substituting value of I.

Z = π D4 x 2 = πDg³ in³
64 Dg. 32

Allowable fibre stress = { = BM x 12 lb/sq.in

2

= BMX12X32 lb/sq.in.
Dg3

Assuming that each leg of the { = BM x 12x32 lb/sq.in

Pole tales half the load, then 2 π Dg3

Dg = 3√(BM in lb ft. x 61.15) / f in

ii) ‘H’ POLE (BRACEL)

X bracing is generally used because it may be assumed that the two poles will defect
identically and that half the total loads will be carried by each pole.
The wind load on conductor is F, which is carried as F/2 on each pole at the
appropriate level.
The wind on two poles (due to the sheltering effect) can be taken as 1.5% mean
diameter x height ; and this is allocated to the various “ pane points.”

1 Level of conductors.
2 Top of brace.
3 Bottom of brace.
4 Ground level.
This gives the forces.

1) P (which includes F & the wind on half of panel A).

2) O (the wind on half panel A + half of panel B)
3) R (the wind on half panel B + half panel C + D).

P/2

Q/2
B
R/2

x
x

Force in each cross-brace.

= + [ p (A+B+C) + Q (B+C) K R (C) ] E

2xB

Position of point of contraflexure

D = (C+D) (3d2 – d1)

(3d2 + d1)

where d1 = diameter of pole at bottom of cross-brace.

d2 = diameter of pole at ground level.
 D = height above ground level of point of contraflexure.

PART ‘B’ :

(1) INTRODUCTORY :
The aim of this Lecture is to introduce engineers to the transmission line
tower, salient features of design, with a particular reference to loading.

Towers in general means a multi storied skeletal structure. The material to be used in
construction depends upon the use to which they are put. Usually towers are made out of
timber, cement, concrete, steel and aluminium.

(2) USE OF TOWERS :

1) Monumental features of town (like EIFFEL tower of paris.)

2) To support micro-wave antennas, transmission line cables.
3) To give signals in geodetic survey.

(3) TOWER MATERIALS :

(a) Timber:
Temporary purpose when the tower to be erected, timber is the best
material. The durability of timber is largely affected by many natural factors and hence
usage of timber as construction material is out dated.

(b) Concrete :
Comparatively durable cost of construction is less.

Disadvantages :

(1) Height is restricted.

(2) Large height
(3) Concrete cannot withstand tensile stress which are developed due
to the pulling of cables.
 (4) Reinforced & pre-stressed towers can not be transported
conveniently.

(c) Steel :
Looking to the disadvantages of concrete steel can be used as the
tower construction material. It can be erected as high as upto 200metres
with comparative others. The member can be assembled at site and has
less dead weight which facilitate the erection.

(4) TYPE OF STEEL TOWERS

(1) Steel pole ( tubular type)
(2) Self supporting fabricated steel pole
(3) Flexible towers
(4) Self supporting widebase towers
(5) Guyed towers ( Portal and V Types)
(6) Narrow based towers.
Transmission line towers are self supporting (broad) wide base type.

(5) CLASSIFICATION OF TOWERS:

(1) By IS : 802 (Part – II).
(2) By circuit.
(3) By configuration of cable ( Horizontal & Vertical).

Configuration depends upon the following factors:

(1) Insulator assembly.

(2) Minimum clearance from ground & conductor to the tower.
(3) Minimum clearance under dynamic conductors.
(4) Geometric distance between the conductors.
(5) Economic use of the materials.

(6) NEED FOR DESIGNS:

Electric power is an important part of the Industrial Development & its

economy. Before world war – II, 115 KV was considered as high voltage. This
high voltage was generated near the industrial area itself, unlike today, the
distance between the generating station & the industrial area where it is put to use
was farely less. For this voltage to be transmitted was solely a problem of
electrical engineering side which they have overcome by providing timber poles
or simple poles. The recent development in electrical field had given rise up to
1100KV. In 1969, 1100KV voltage test was carried out in WALTSHILLE’S
PENNESYLVANIA in U.S.A. by EDISON Research council. The level &
distance between industrial area & generation station grew faster. With this EHV
 several hundreds Amp. Current is also accommodated & hence necessary
clearance & insulation become a vital part for electrical engineers. The necessity
of high multi-storied structures to support these EHV cables becomes a problem
for structural engineers. The supporting structures are designed after
consideration of economy, durability & fluency of voltage transmission. The
stability & safety of such multi-stored structures are checked theoretically & by
proto type testing.

(7) TRANSMISSION TOWER :

The transmission towers are used to support power lines of 66KV and
above.
Towers are used to reduce the number of locations from maintenance
point of view (longer span) to get proper ground clearance & to have strong
support to withstand wind load etc.
The tower is a balanced structure with four legs. The spans of 250 meter
and above can be adopted for tower line. Towers are generally fabricated from
galvanized steel sections to avoid shutdown for painting & maintenance and for
costal area. They are pre-fabricated in the workshop & subsequently assembled &
erected at site. Hence, degree of accuracy in design & fabrication should be very
high. Entire structure is bolted (no welding or riveting is allowed).

(8) TYPES OF TOWERS:

The towers are divided into the following categories.

a) Tangent tower. : Used on straight runs or with a line deviation upto 2º
b) Small Angle : Used on line deviations upto 15º
Tension Tower.
c) Medium Angle : Used on line deviations upto 30º
Tension Tower.
d) Large Angle or : Used on line deviations upto 60º and for dead end and
Dead End Tower. Anchor tower on River crossing sections of the line.
e) Special Tower. : Used mainly for River crossing span.

(9) BROKEN WIRE CONDITION OF TOWERS:

The following broken wire conditions may be assumed in the design of
towers.
a) Single Circuit : Any one power conductor broken or one ground wire
broken, whichever is more stringent for a particular
member.
b) Double Circuit
Towers :
i) Tangent tower : Any one power conductor broken or one ground wire
 broken, whichever is more stringent for a particular
member.
ii) Small angle : Any two of the power conductors broken on the same
Tension tower side and on the same span or any one of the power
(upto 15º) conductor and any one ground wire broken on the same
iii) Medium angle : span whichever combination more stringent for
Tension tower a particular member.
(upto 30º)
iv) Large Angle : Three power conductors broken on the same side on the
Tension tower same span or any two of the power conductors & any
(upto 60º) one ground, wire broken on the same span, whichever
combination constitutes the most stringent condition
for a particular member.
v) Cross Arms. : In all types of towers the power conductor supports and
ground wire supports shall be designed for the broken
wire conductor also.

(10) LOADING :
Load on towers are worked out with two conditions.

a) Normal condition.
b) Broken wire condition.

10.1 NORMAL CONDITION :

10.2
This is the condition in which all the conductors and ground wire/wires are
in their position.

In this condition, the tower has three loading.

a) Transverse load.
b) Vertical load.
c) Wind on tower frame.

10.2.1 TRANSVERSE LOAD :

This will be on the tower during normal as well as broken wire

conditions. :

a) Load due to wind on wire.

b) Load due to wind on insulator.
c) Load due to wind on tower frame.
d) Deviation component of load.

a) Load due to wind on wire is calculated by p x d x l,

Where
P = wind pressure (Kg/m²).
 d = conductor or ground wire diameter.
l = normal span.

b) Load due to wind on insulator is calculated by 50% of the area of the

cylinder formed by the insulator string, i.e. (1/2) x D x n x h x p :

Where,
D = diameter of insulator disc.
n = No. of insulators.
h = height of one insulator.
P = wind pressure.

c) load due to wind pressure on tower frame is calculated by taking the area
of the fabrication material (angles) facing the wind and multiplying it by
wind pressure.

d) Deviation load :
The tower is erected in such a way that it bisects the angle of line
deviation say (D) if the conductor or ground wire tension is T, the
deviation load due to horizontal component shall be 2T sin θ/2.
10.2.2 VERTICAL LOAD :

This will be worked out as under :

1) load due to conductor & eartwire. (i.e. weight span x weight).

2) Load due to insulators hardware & accessories.
3) Man with Tools (150 kg.).

LOAD DUE TO WIND PRESSURE ON TOWER FRAME:

The frame of the tower faces wind pressure ‘p’. The total force is worked
out by taking the area of windward face of each & every angle member. For
rough estimate 15 % to 20 % of the projected area (known as shadow area) is
 considered at designing stage and figures are checked with actual ones after
the designing is over.
The wind force on tower frame at various parts of tower is generally added
to the transverse loads of conductors or groundwire.
In case of special towers having height above 40 meters, the wind forces
are resolved sectionswise.

10.3 BROKEN WIRE CONDITION :

- In this condition, one or two power conductors or groundwire are

presumed to be broken.
- Single circuit & Double circuit tower different “Broken wire
condition” are specified in IS: 802 (part – I) 1973.
- Under this condition, an additional load known as “longitudinal
load” is added to the tower loading.

LONGITUDINAL LOAD:

When a wire is broken the tension ‘T’ of the wire tries to pull the tower on
the other side and hence the structure has to offer a balancing force equivalent
to T x Cos (θ/2) here θ is the line deviation angle.
In case of suspension towers, however, the tension under broken wire is
taken on as 50 % of normal tension ‘T’.

10.4 DEAD END TOWER

In case of dead end tower the longitudinal loads of all the wires are
considered in “Normal Conditon” & the same are absent under broken wire
conditions.

10.5 DESIGN STRESS :

a) Tensile stresses :
The elastic limit of mild steel is 6500 kg per m² stresses in the member
under normal condition should not exceed 2600 kg per m² factor of safety
2.5 is to be maintained.

b) Bending Stresses :
A member subjected to bending should return to it’s original condition
after a load equal to 2.5 time the maximum working load has been applied.

Safe working bending stress = Elastic limit of the material

Factor of safety.

c) Shear stress:
Shear stresses on gross area of bolts should not exceed 2220 kg/cm² under
maximum condition.
or
 5550 kg/cm² when factor of safety of 2.5 is applied.

d) Bearing Stress:
Bearing stress on the gross diameter of bolts should not exceed twice the
shear stress i.e. 2220 x 2 = 4440 Kg/cm².

e) Compressive Stress :
Ultimate compressive stress is depend upon it’s slenderness ratio i.e.
(L/r) Where
L = Length (unsupported).
r = Radius of gyration.

If the compressive stress increase, the slenderness ratio decrease, and in

the case of low ratio the ultimate compressive stress approaches the elastic
limit.

The limiting values of (L/r) values shall be as follows:

1) Leg members : 150

2) Member carrying : 200
computed stress.
3) Redundant members : 250
and those carrying
nominal stresses.
4) Member carrying axial : 500
tension only shall not
be exceed.

10.6 DESIGN SPAN LENGTHS :

(1) Normal Span :

The normal span length is the distance between standard towers on
level ground so that the required ground clearance is obtained at the
maximum specified temperature. It is necessary to initially fix a normal
span, in order to determine the height of the bottom conductors’ support
position for the standard towers.

(2) Wind Span :

The wind span length used in calculating the load on tower due to
conductor. Wind loading is taken as one half the sum of the two spans
adjacent to the support.
In order to take the full advantage of towers located on elevated
ground, it is usual to allow a wind span of 10 % to 15 % in excess of the
normal span and this additional strength can be used in taking a small
 angle of deviation on an intermediate tower, where the actual wind span is
less than the actual designed wind span.

(3) Weight span :

The weight span is the horizontal distance between the lowest
point of the conductors on the two spans adjacent to the tower.
The effect of weight span allowance on the cost of a transmission
line tower is not excessive. Generally an allowance of last times that of the
normal span is made to cover the conductor weight at hill top positions.
For design of uplift foundations, the calculation of the tensile
stresses in corner legs, and also in some members of the structure, the
critical condition for design is that of corresponding to the minimum
weight span.

10.6.1 a) ELECTRICAL CLEARANCES :

The tower height must be such that the clearance between the
lowest conductor and the Ground level in still airmeets the requirements of
IS.
The lines will operate in a such a way that the clearance must be
allowed between live metal & tower steel work.
The special attention is given to jumpers at section positions, as
allowance must be made for the swing of the conductor due to wind.
Swing of the Suspension = Wind span
Insulator weight span

It is usual to allow for a swing of 45º for both conductor and

jumpers.

b) MECHANICAL STRENGTH :
The mechanical design of supports must be such that under adverse
conditions of wind load i.e. or under conditions of conductor tension, or line
deviation, the support clearance should not be reduced.

11) SPECIFICATIONS :
Basic Data for preparing specification is derived from IS : 802 (PART –
I) 1973. However, keeping in view the importance and locations of various
transmission lines are made, generally to increase the safety and to reduce the
cost.
 12) BASIC TECHNICAL PARTICULARS :

12.1 Technical particulars for 66kv D/C towers :

a) Climate – 1. Maximum Temperature - 67º C.
2. Minimum Temperature - 0 º C.
3. Everyday Temperature – 32 º C.

a1) Wind Pressure i) For conductor – 75 kg/m² acting and ground wire on full
and groundwire projected area.
ii) For tower - 150 Kg/ m² acting on 1.5 times the
projected area of wind ward face.

b) Conductor : 1) Material : ACSR

2)Size and stranding : 64.52 mm² cu.equ. “DOG”.
6/4.72mm Aluminium 7/1.52mm
steel.
3) Ultimate tensile : 3310 kg.
Strength
4) Weight : 394 kg/km.
5) Overall diameter : 14.15 mm.
6) Area of cross : 118.00 m²
section
7) Maximum working
tension at
i) 32º C. with : 1505 kg.
full wind
ii) Minimum temperature : 1550 kg
with 2/3 full wind –
8) Maximum sag under : 5310kg.
maximum temperature
and still wind -

c) Earthwire: 1) Material : Galvanised stranded steel wire.

2)Size and stranding : 7/3.15mm (70 kg/mm²quality)
3) Weight : 427 kg/km.
4) Overall diameter : 9.45 mm.
5) Area of cross : 54.53 m²
section
6) Maximum working
tension at
ii) 32º C. with : 1490 kg.
full wind
ii) 0º C with 2/3 full wind : 1545 kg
7) Maximum sag with : 3970kg.
maximum temperature
and still wind -
d) Insulation and Insulator strings :
1) Size of Discx. – 255 x 146 mm
2) Number of Disc. – Maximum Minimum
i) Suspension string 6 5
ii) Tension string 7 6
3) Insulator string :
i) Electro : kg for single susp.
Mechanical : kg for Double susp
Strength : kg for single tension.
Kg for Double tension
ii) Length : 1170mm for single suspension.
1470mm for double suspension.
1310mm for single tension.
1450mm for double tension.
iii) Weight 75 kg for single suspension.
150 kg for double suspension.
85 kg for single tension.
170 kg for double tension.
e) Towers :
1) Number of circuit : D/C
2) Configuration : Barrel type
3) Normal span : 260 mt.
4) Weight span : Maximum – 390 meter.
Minimum – 195 meter
5) Wind span : 290 meter.
6) Shield angle : 30º

Clearances :
i) Minimum ground clearance : 6000mm
ii) Clearance of suspension : 915mm
string deflection upto 20º
iii) Clearance of Suspension : 800mm
string deflected upto 35º
iv) Clearance of jumper : 915mm
deflected upto 20º
v) Clearance of jumper deflected : 800mm
upto 30º
 Factor of Safety

Normal Condition : 2.00

Broken wire condition : 1.5

f) Strength of steel & bolts :

Steel (Axial Strength)
In Tension : 2600 kg/m²
In compression : 2600 – (K L/r) ²
12
Where KL < 120 and
r
2 x 10 7 Where KL > 120
(K L/r) ² r

Where K is constant depending upon the type of connection (specified in

IS – 802).

Where: L is unsupported length

r is radius of gyration.

Bolts : i) Shear on gross area of bolt : 2220 kg/cm²

ii) Bearing stress on gross : 4440 kg/cm²
diameter of bolt
iii) Axial tension stress on the : 1980 kg/cm²
root area of the Threaded
bolt.

g) Foundation (Normal Type) :

1. Weight of earth : 1440 kg/m²
2. Weight of concrete : 2300 kg/m²
3. Safe bearing pressure of soil : 11.00 MT /m²
4. Factor of safety : Normal condition – 2.2
Broken wire – 1.65
5. Minimum Chmney size : 300mm
6. Angle of internal friction : 30°

13) Calculation of Tower Loadings :

The loading worked out on the basis of technical date given in 12.0 and
method of calculation indicated in for 30°, 66kv D/C tower are as follows,
considering tension t 32°C and full wind.
Load type Ground wire condition

Normal Broken Normal condition Broken wire condition

condition wire
condition
TC MC BC TC MC BC
Trans-verse 1056 589 124 124 147 707 713 938
0 6 1
Vertical (Max) 332 282 644 644 644 597 597 597
Vertical (Min) 98 98 247 247 247 247 247 247
Longitudinal - 1439 -- -- -- 1531 1531 1531

14) DESIGN

14.1 Tower Components :

The tower structure consists of
i) Leg members,
ii) Lattices
iii) Cross arms
iv) Ground wire peak
v) Redundands
vi) Members are joined by lap joint, butt joint or gussets.

14.2 Design of Leg Member :

Refer sketch ‘A’. If, we want to design the leg member marked ‘j’, we have to
take the moment’s of all the transverse load on the towers at the centre of lattice
connecting these sections which is 4.287 meters in width.

Normal condition Broken wire condition

G.W. 1056 x 17.974 = 18981 (589 + 1439) x 17.974 = 36451
T.C. 2 x 1240 x 13.974 = 34655 (707+1240+1531)x13.974 = 48602
M.C. 2 x 1246 x 11.274 = 28095 (2 x 1246 x 11.274) = 28095
B.C 2 x 1471 x 8.74 = 25225 (2 x 1471 x 8.574) = 25225
------------ --
Total … …. 106956 Total … …. 138373

Stress (T & L) = 106956 138373

2 x 4.287 2 x 4.287
(width)
= 12474 = 16139
Unbalance Vertical load. (644-597) x 2.3 = 13
2 x 4.287

Vertical load. 644 x 6 + 332 = 1049 597 x 6 + 282 = 1025

4 4

Tower Weight. = 600 = 600

Total Comp. 12474 + 1049 + 600 = 14123 17777

Total Tension 12474-1049-600 = 10825 17777-1025-600 = 14514

Section proposed 90 x 90 x 8

Properties of Section Y = 1.75 cm.

Gross Area. = 13.79 cm².

Net area after deducting = 11.0 cm².

Hole for bolt.

The unsupported length of this leg member

Is 122.9 cm. L = 122.9 = 70

r 1.75

This is less than 120 hence ultimate compressive strength can be worked out from

2600 – (K L/r)²/12 x Gross area.

= 2600 – (70)²/12 x 13.79

KL/r = L/r for leg member as per IS (802).

= 30228 kg.
Ultimate tensile strength = 2600 x 11 = 28600 kg.

Check for factor of safety :

N.C B.W.C
Compression 30228 = 2.14 30228 = 1.7
14123 17777

Tension 28600 = 2.64 28600 = 1.97

10825 14514

It is seen that F.S is more than required i.e. 2 in N.C. and 1.5 in B.W.C.
Hence, the section is safe.

14.3 Design of Lattice :

Under stressed conditions, the forces in lattice form

a couple which is counter balanced by reaction of the member. Tension & Compressions
are equal.

For example in case of lattice a (Ref. sketch ‘A’) the total force due to ground
wire shall be resisted by members of the lattice.

c Ac = √ ab² + bc²

= √ 0.5² + .65²
650 = 0.820
820
cosά = 500 = 0.6097
α 820

a b 4 x W X cosά = 4 x 1 x 0.6097 ( width)

500 = 2.44

N.C B.W.C

(a) Force = T.R load x width = T.R load x width

 4W cosά 4W cosά
= 1056 x 1 = 589 x 1
2.44 2.44
= 433 = 241

(b) Longitudinal Force = 1545 x cos 30o/2 x width

4W cosά
= 1545 x 0.9659 x 1
2.44
= 613

The proposed section is 40x30x5.

14.4 Design of cross-arms :

Top cross arm design is worked out for illustration as under :-
L = √ ((2.3-0.5)2 + (0.5)2) = 1.868
L = √ ((1.868)2 + (0.65)2) = 1.977

DESIGN :
1) Lower Member: N.C B.W.C
Transverse stress 1240x1.868 = 643 707 x1.860 = 367
2x1.8 2x1.8
Stress Longitudinal _____ 1531x1.868 = 2059
2x0.5
Stress Vertical 644x1.868 = 925 597x1.868 = 858
2x0.5 2x0.5
_________ ________
Total 1568 4084

2) Upper Member:
Stress Vertical 644x1.977 = 979 597x1.977= 908
2x0.65 2x0.65

14.5 DESIGN OF FOUNDATION:

(a) Normal Soil:
Foundation of a tower leg with frustum earth condition G.W. & T.C. Broken.
(a) Effect of transverse load :
N.C B.W.C
G.W. 1058 x 26.41 = 27942 ( 1.39+589) x 26.41 = 53559
T.C. 2x1240x22.41 = 55577 ( 1240+707+1531)x22.41 = 77942
M.C. 2x1246x19.71 = 49117 2492 x 19.71 = 49117
B.C. 2x1471x17.01 = 50043 2942 x 17.01 = 50043

Wind load at 760x6 = 4560 760x6 = 4560

3mt. Ext.

Wind load at 447x3 = 4560 447x3 = 4560

6mt. Ext. ______ _______
Total 188580 236562

Stress = Load/2W Stress = Load/2W

= 188530/2x7.023 = 236562/2x7.023
= 13422 = 16842

(b) Vertical load N.C B.W.C

= 644 x 6+ 332 = 644 x 5 + 597 + 282
4 4
= 1049 = 1025

Min : 247 x 6+98

 4
= 395

(c) Self weight of tower N.C B.W.C

800 800

(d) Overload due to concrete ( taking place of soil ).

( 2300 – 1440 )
(wt. of concrete) – ( wt. of each) x {Total concrete volume (of pad, pyramid,
chimney)} = 700 kg.

Total Thrust N.C. B.W.C

Transverse load 13422 16842

Vertical load. 1049 (395) 1025(395)
Self wt. of tower. 800 800
Overload due to concrete 700 700
________ _________
15971 19387

Total uplift. 13422-800-395 16842-800-395

= 12227 = 15647

a) Thurst Bearing Area (M²) :

1.35² = 1.825m²

Bearing Strength = Bearing pressure x area

= 11000 x 1.825
= 20075 Kg.

Ultimate Load (Kg.)

Bearing strength x F.S. (N.C.)

= (11000 x 1.825) x 2.2

= 44104 Kg.

Factor of Safety
N.C. B.W.C.

= Ultimate Load = 44104 44104

 Total thrust 15971 19367

= 2.76 2.20

b) Uplift :

Weight of earth frustrum (Kg.).

B= 2.45 tan 30
A= 2xB + 1.350
= 4.179 meter.

Earth Volume = H ( a² + b² + ab)

= 2.45 [ (1.35)² + (4.179)² + 1.35 x 4.179]
= 20.358

Weight of Earth frustrum = Earth volume x Wt. of earth

= 20.358 x 1440

= 29315 Kg.

Additional Wt. of concrete = 700 Kg.

Total Anchorage = 29315 + 700

= 30015 Kg.

Factor of Safety :
N.C. B.W.C.

= Total Anchorage = 30015 30015

 Total uplift 12227 15347

= 2.45 1.92

15) Type of Soil :

1) Cohisive
2) Non Cohisive

16) Genearl Classification : Angle of repose

1) Normal Soil 30º

2) Submerges soil 15º
3) Black Cotton soil 0º
4) Hard rock soil --
5) Soft rock soil ---

17) Type of Foundation :

1) Normal soil foundation

2) Hard rock & soft rock foundation.
3) Black Cotton soil foundation.
4) Wet foundation.
5) Pile foundation.
6) Special tower foundation.

18) Foundation Cost :

Cost of foundation usually 40% of total transmission project cost.
19) Other type of foundations

The route of the transmission line is usually encountered with different

types of soil. Where normal yellow soil is encountered the design
indicated in the 14.5 is sufficient to keep the tower in position. However,
if the soils like black cotton, soft rock, hard rock or wet are encountered
the foundation designs have to be different the description in short is given
below.

1) Black Cotton Soil :

This is soil which has bearing for direct pressure and direct thrust
equal to 40% of the normal soil but in the uplift the angle of repose is
taken zero and hence the foundation volume increases or otherwise
reinforcement has to be provided.
 2) Soft Rock and Hard Rock :

This type of soil is having very high bearing capacity/ and hence the
foundation depth is restricted some times to 1.5 meters only against the
normal depth of 3 meters. Besides to take care of the uplift mass concrete
is adopted i.e., excavation concrete volumes are equal. In this case since
the foundation is shallow, the stub is required to be cut to suit the
foundation depth. Figure 8.8 give an idea of such foundation.
(4 to 8 times that of normal soil)

3) Wet Foundation :
 This type of foundation is adopted whenever wet or submerged
locations are encountered or otherwise at the locations which are likely to be
submerged along River or along ponds and irrigation projects. In this type of
soil R.C.C. foundations are used and they are generally in the form of steps of
250 to 300mm. Needless to emphasis that foundations have to be self
supporting under worst condition to take care off all the moments of the tower
due to all types of loads.

20) DESIGNH OF 400KV TOWER :

20.1 The outline diagram of 400kv tower is

given in sketch. 20-A.
Since this tower is not symmetrical above waist level, the stress analysis
by analytical method becomes extremely difficult and hence to analysis
stresses on tower members, two separate methods are adopted. From ground
wire peak to waist level the analysis is done by graphical method and from
waist level to ground level analysis is done by the usual method indicated in
14.0 above.

20.2 Graphical Method :

In this method the load diagram draw separately for each type of load
under each condition.

20.3 Load Diagram for Normal Condition :

Under the normal condition 3 separated load diagram for vertical load,
transverse load and wind load are required to be drawn.

20.4 Load Diagram for Broken wire condition :

Under this category, the vertical, transverse and longitudinal loads under
broken wire condition are indicated on load diagrams. The wind diagram
indicated in 20.3 above holds good for this condition.

20.5 Specimen load diagram :

The figure 20 indicates vertical loads on the tower and the reactions under
normal condition. Figure 20d indicate the transverse load on the tower left
conductor broken condition including the reactions.
 20.6 Stress Diagram:

Corresponding to Figures 20b and 20d are the two stress diagram given in
figure 20b and 20d.

20.7 Working out stresses :

Once all the stress diagrams are drawn i.e., stress diagram for vertical,
transverse and longitudinal loads under normal condition and under broken
wire condition (i.e. ground wire broken) or each and individual member under
normal condition and broken wire condition are tabulated and totaled
separately and whichever combination makes highest stress for a particular
member are adopted.
It is needless to mention that stresses of member due to different stress
diagrams is nothing but the stress diagram corresponding to each member,
multiplied by scale of the stress diagram.

20.8 Once the total stress for a member is worked out the remaining design work
is carried out as indicated in 14.2 i.e., selecting angle section and No. of bolts that will
stand to the total stress.

20.9 Design of Cross-Arms :

This also can be done by analytical method, if required, as indicated in
14.4 However, the method indicated in 20.8 above will also help in evaluating
the member stresses for cross-arm.

20.10 Design of boom :

The elevation members of boom in elevation are covered in 20.8
However, the top plan and bottom plan of boom is to be designed keeping in
view various loads acting on them. Hence load diagram for the top plan and
bottom plan of the boom are also separately prepared and stress diagram for
them also prepared to evaluate stresses on members. Figure 20f & 20g
indicate the bottom plan of boom and corresponding stress diagram under
left wire broken condition.

20.11 Design of members below waist level :

As already indicated earlier the members below waist level i.e., leg
members and lattices are evaluated as indicated in 14.2 & 14.3.

20.12 Design of foundation :

Design of foundation is also identically evaluated as discussed in
14.5 and 19.

21) TESTING OF TOWER :

21.1 General :
 The tower to be tested is erected in test bed with adjustable jaws
substituting for stubs. The tower is surrounded by tower mast on three sides
& on the front side there is elevated observation cabin.
The arrangement for testing is as per the rigging arrangement shown
in sketch.
Transverse and longitudinal loads are applied by means of wires
supported by tower masts and pulled by electric motors installed in the
winch house. The motors are controlled from the observation cabin.
Load cells are fastened in the stretching wires for measuring the
applied load.
The vertical loads are applied by 20 kg. dead weight in crates
attached to cross arms by wire.
The applicable loads for each case are worked out depending upon
the rigging arrangement.
21.2 Design load Testing :
The design loads multiplied by the relevant factor of safety (2.0 in
11.c. and 1.5 in B.W.C.) are applied to each loading point and it is
seen whether tower stands or not. In case of failure, the critical
member is replaced by higher section.

21.3 Destruction Test :

This test is carried out taking the H.O. loading starting with loads
corresponding to F.S. 2.0. The loads are gradually increased in
steps of F.S. of 0-.25 (i.e., F.S. 2.0, 2.25, 2.5) till the tower fails.
This tests helps in knowing the maximum strength of the tower.

21.4 Test Beds :

Testing beds with the modern testing facilities are situated at
(a) Jaipur and Bombay owned by M/s. Kamani Engg. Corpn.
Ltd.
(b) Bangalore owned by C.P.R.I.
(c) Jabalpur owned by S.A.E.

22) CONCLUSION :

The entire chapter discussed above gives detailed account of

transmission line supports in general & elaborate details of transmission
towers including that of the highest voltage viz. 400 KV which is being taken
up by G.E.B. and will therefore give an idea to Engineers regarding the
loadings, testing & capacities of the transmission towers being utilized by
G.E.B.