Part 2:

Wireless Communication
•! Section 1: Wireless Transmission

•! Section 2: Digital modulation Digital Modulation

•! Section 3: Multiplexing/Medium Access
Control

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Why Modulate? Digital vs Analog Modulation

•! Modulation is the process of encoding information from a •! Analog modulation uses mainly AM (Amplitude) and FM
message source in a manner suitable for transmission (Frequency Modulations)
•! In general it involves translating a baseband signal (source
signal) to a modulated signal signal at a higher frequency
(the carrier frequency, fc) •! Modern mobile communication systems use digital
modulation techniques
energy –! e.g. sophisticated and efficient schemes such as Phase
fc
modulation...
without mod. frequency after modulation •! Digital modulation offers many advantages:
0 0 –! greater noise immunity and robustness to channel impairments
–! easier multiplexing
•! Motivations: –! greater security (encryption)
–! Reduce antenna size: the size of an antenna is proportional to the –! more flexibility
signal wavelength. By increasing the carrier frequency, the
wavelength decreases.
–! Allow to share the spectrum: see frequency-division multiplexing
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Factors that influence the Factors that influence the

choice of Digital Modulation choice of Digital Modulation (2)
The performance of a modulation scheme is often measured
in terms of its power and bandwidth efficiencies. •! Bandwidth efficiency:

•! Power efficiency: –! Problem: increasing the data rate implies decreasing the pulse
width of the digital symbol, which increases the bandwidth of the
signal.
–! Problem: in order to increase noise immunity, it is necessary to –! Bandwidth efficiency describes how efficiently the allocated
increase the signal power. The amount by which the signal power bandwidth is used
should be increased to maintain a certain BER depends on the –! Defined as the ratio of the throughput data rate per Hertz (bps/
modulation scheme. Hz)
–! Power efficiency describes the ability to preserve the fidelity of a –! Fundamental upper bound:
digital message at low power levels. C/B = log2(1+S/N)
–! The power efficiency expresses the "signal energy over the noise where C is the channel capacity (bps), B the bandwidth (Hz) and S/
energy" ratio (Eb/No) required at the receiver to guaranty a N the signal-to-noise ratio.
certain BER

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 Factors that influence the Digital Modulation techniques
choice of Digital Modulation (3) •! Digital modulation is the process by which a sequence of
pulses (message) of duration T is transformed into a
sequence of sinusoidal waveforms, s(t) of duration T.
•! Very often there is a tradeoff:
–! adding error control coding reduces the bandwidth efficiency
•! The general form of the modulated signal is:
(redundancy is transmitted too) but increases the power efficiency
(there remain fewer errors) s(t) = A(t).cos[2.!.(fc + fm(t)).t + "(t)]
–! M-ary schemes increase the bandwidth efficiency but require
higher transmission power to keep the same BER
•! Digital modulation can then be defined as the process
whereby the amplitude, frequency, phase or a
•! Other factors are important combination of them is varied in accordance with the
–! cost and the complexity of the receiver information to be transmitted
–! for wireless networks, the robustness under various types of •! A scheme that uses:
channel impairments such as Rayleigh fading and multipath –! amplitude is called ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying)
dispersion is important –! frequency is called FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)
–! phase is called PSK (Phase Shift Keying)

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Digital Modulation techniques: Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Illustration Si(t) = [(2.Ei(t))/T]1/2 cos[2.!.fc.t + "] 0 <= t <= T
1 0 1
i = 1, ...., M
A(t).cos[2.!.(fc t)] –! where the amplitude may have M discrete values
ASK t
•! If M =2, the amplitude is either 0 or 1. The scheme is
1 0 1 called Binary ASK.
1 0 1
FSK cos[2.!.(fc+fm(t)).t]
•! If M > 2, each waveform carry log2(M) bits. This scheme
t is therefore more bandwidth efficient. It is called M-ary
ASK.
PSK
t
1 0 1 –! Exp: M = 4; log2(4)=2 bits/waveform
cos[2.!.fc.t + "(t)] »! A1 = 0; 00 3
t
»! A2 = 1; 01 2
»! A3 = 2; 10 1
ASK/PSK 1 0 1
»! A4 = 3; 11 t
(APK) t
A(t)cos[2.!.fc.t + "(t)]
01 00 10 11

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Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) (2)

Si(t) = (2E/T)1/2 cos[2.!.(fc + i.fm ).t + "] 0 <= t <= T Si(t) = (2E/T)1/2 cos[2.!.(fc + i.fm ).t + "]0 <= t <= T
i = 1, ...., M i = 1, ...., M
–! where i.fm may have M discrete value, E is the symbol energy and
T the symbol time duration.
•! If M > 2, each waveform carry log2(M) bits. This scheme
is therefore more bandwidth efficient. It is called M-ary
•! If M =2, the scheme is called Binary FSK and the carrier FSK.
frequency switches between 2 values, fh and fl: –! Exp: M = 4; log2(4)=2 bits/waveform
–! fh = fc + fm corresponding to binary 1 »! f1 = fc+fm; 00
–! fl = fc - fm corresponding to binary 0 »! f2 = fc-fm; 01
»! f3 = fc+2.fm; 10
1 0 1 »! f4 = fc-2.fm; 11
01 11 00 10

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 Phase Shift Keying (PSK) Phase Shift Keying (PSK) (2)
Si(t) = (2E/T)1/2 cos[2.!.fc .t + "i(t)] 0 <= t <= T Si(t) = (2E/T)1/2 cos[2.!.fc .t + "i(t)] 0 <= t <= T
i = 1, ...., M i = 1, ...., M
–! where the phase term "i(t) will have M discrete values, typically –! where the phase term "i(t) will have M discrete values, typically
given by: "i(t) = 2.!.i/M given by: "i(t) = 2.!.i/M
–! M-ary PSK can displayed as constellation diagrams •! If M > 2, the scheme is called M-ary PSK and can carry
•! If M =2, the scheme is called Binary PSK and the phase log2 (M) bits/waveform.
switches between 2 values, 0 and !. –! If M=8, 3 bits/waveform
–! Binary 1 = (2/T)1/2 cos[2.!.fc .t] »! s0(t) = (2E/T)1/2 cos[2.!.fc .t]
»! s1(t) = (2E/T)1/2 cos[2.!.fc .t + !/4 ] Q
–! Binary 0 = (2/T)1/2 cos[2.!.fc .t + !] 010
»! s2(t) = (2E/T)1/2 cos[2.!.fc .t + !/2 ] 011
001
Q »! ...
1 0 1 000
»! s7(t) = (2E/T)1/2 cos[2.!.fc .t + 7.!/4 ] 100
I
I
t 1 0 101
111
110
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Phase Shift Keying (PSK) (3) Quadrature PSK (QPSK)

•! Obviously the bandwidth efficiency of a M-ary PSK scheme
increases as M increases because more bits per symbol can •! If M=4 then the scheme is called Quadrature PSK
be sent Si(t) = (2E/T)1/2 cos[2.!.fc .t + #.!/2] i =1,..4 Q
•! ...however the distance between 2 points in the constellation (1,-1)
is reduced and therefore the error rate gets larger. (1,1)

•! As M increases, the bandwidth efficiency increases but the

waveform energy (Eb) must be increased to keep the BER at
I

10-6. •! using trigonometry: (-1,1)

(-1,-1)
Si(t) = (E/T)1/2.[di(t).cos(2!fct+!/4) + dq(t).sin(2!fct+!/4)]

M 2 4 8 16 32 64 –! where di(t) = d0, d2, d4, … (even bits of the input signal)
dq(t) = d1, d3, d5, … (odd bits of the input signal)
R/Bw in bits/Hz 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 –! note that di(t) and dq(t) have half bit rate of dk(t)
(bandwith efficiency)
–! this last formula is an efficient way to generate the QPSK
Eb/No 10.5 10.5 14 18.5 23.4 28.5 waveform...
(power efficiency)
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1 1 QPSK (2) OQPSK

-1 -1 -1
dk(t) d0 d1 d5 d6 d7 •! In QPSK, due to the coincident alignment of dI(t) and
t dq(t), the carrier can change only once every 2T.
d2 d3 d4 1 1
–! If both dI(t) and dq(t) change, the phase shift is 180o.
dI(t) 1 1 –! If dI(t) or dq(t) changes sign, the phase shift is +/-90o.
-1 -1
d0 . cos(2!fct + !/4)
+0.7 d6
t •! 180o phase shift will cause the envelope to go to
-0.7 d2 d4 zero creating interference
dQ(t)
. sin(2!fct + !/4)
•! In OQPSK (Offset QPSK), dI(t) and dq(t) bit stream
d1 d5 d7 are offset by one bit period (half symbol period).
t
d3
•! In OQPSK, bit transition and therefore carrier
11 00 01 11 dI(t)+ dQ(t)
+1.4 modulation can occur more frequently (every T) but with
a smaller phase shift (+/-90°).
s(t) t –! The envelope never goes to zero
-1.4 17 18
 OQPSK Amplitude and Phase modulation
-1 -1 -1
dk(t) d0 d1 d5 d6 d7
t
d2 d3 d4 1 1
•! With M-ary QAM, the amplitude and phase of the signal are
both changed
dI(t) 1
-1 -1
1
•! If M=16, it is called 16QAM, or 16-Phase Quadrature
d0 d6 . cos(2.!.fc .t+!./4) Amplitude Modulation
t
d2 d4 –! M = 16; log2(16)=4 bits/waveform
–! Si(t) = (2E/T)1/2 .[ai.cos(2.!.fc .t) + bi.sin(2.!.fc .t)]
dQ(t) –! Higher transmission rate but less robust
d1 d5 d7 . sin(2.!.fc .t+!./4)
t –! NB: there isn’t a constant energy per symbol Q
d3 # some symbols are detected with a higher
probability than others!
11 dI(t)+ dQ(t)
s(t) I
t

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