FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODS:

SOME ISSUES AND NEW MOVES

Fernando Cerezal Sierra

Universidad de Alcalá

Summary

In this artide, I have considered the main FLT methods still in use at schools and
presented the theory of language and leaming underiying them, their main features,
activities and techniques, their foundation and decline, as well as a general
assessment of ai! of them. The following methods have been analysed: the
Grammar-Translation Method, the Structuralist Methods, and the Communicative
Approach. After paying some attention to innovations in education, the Task-Based
and Process models are offered as an alternative. Finally, a relationship is
established between curriculum innovation and change and teacher development.

11NTRODUCTION

The main purpose of this artide is to provide a critical assessment of the role
played by methods in the educational process, though there is also an account of
the main different methods of foreign language teaching (FLT) that are in use today.
A knowledge of the different methods gives foreign language teachers a good
background reference to their own stand on pedagogical matters and classroom
practice, and in addition helps them understand the process that FLT has
undergone, particularly through this century. To consider FLT as a process means
that teaching is not static but changing to respond to new needs and demands as
teachers, applied linguists and educationists can prove.

110
 This article deals with the differences between approaches, methods
and techniques, as well as the three major issues which are recurren! in FLT.
Then, the main characteristics, the psychological bases and the pedagogical
features of the principal FLT methods are considered chronologically,
presenting the contributions and iimitations of the different approaches and
methods. Finally, as a conclusión, a connection is established between FLT
methods, innovation and classroom research, as a way of teacher
development and of leaming improvement.

2 THE CONCEPTS OF APPROACH, METHOD AND TECHNIQUE

AND THE THREE MAJOR GENERAL PROBLEMS IN MODERN FLT

Its seems worthwhile, first of all, to clarify briefly the concepts of approach
or principies, method and technique, which are mutually and hierarchically
related. They represent, in fact, three levéis of analysis and teacher's decisión
making for teaching and leaming English in the classroom. An approach or
strategy is the most abstract of all three concepts and refers to the linguistic,
psycho- and sociolinguistic principies underiying methods and techniques.
Actually, every teacher has some kind of theoretical principies which function
as a frame for their ideas of methods and techniques. A technique is, on the
other hand, the narrowest of all three; it is just one single procedure to use in
the classroom. Methods are between approaches and techniques, just the
mediator between theory (the approach) and classroom practico. Some
methods can share a number of techniques and, though some techniques
have developed autonomously, the most important ones start from the main
methods (Hubbard et al. 1983: 31).

Now it seems oppropriate to mention the three major language leaming

issues that language pedagogy and ELT have deait with through this century
and that always concern researchers and the teaching profession. Stern
(1983: 401-5) labels them as follows:
1. The L1-L2 connection, that is, the disparity in the learner's mind
between the inevitable dominance of the mother tongue and the
weaknesses of the second language knowledge.
2. The explicit-implicit option, that is, the cholee between more conscious
ways of leaming a foreign language and more subconscious or automatic
ways of leaming it. This issue remains to a great extent unresolved and has
very often posed a dilemma to the FLT profession and research, as, for
exampie, during the debate between cognitivism and audiolingual approaches

111
in the 60s, and later on with Krashen's Monitor Theory, which makes a
distinction between language leaming (explicit and conscious) and language
acquisition (implicit and subconscious).
3. The code-communication dilemma has become a major issue recentiy. It
refers to the problems that learners have to cope with when learning a new
language, as they have to pay attention on the one hand to linguistic forms
(the code) and on the other to real communication.

3 M E T H O D S AS D E V E L O P M E N T OF A C O M M U N I T Y OF
LiNGUISTS, RESEARCHERS AND TEACHERS

In this section we will take a look, first, at methods as part of a paradigm or

model of FLT, second, at the main methods still in use in this century as
archetypes and, third, at other proposals of foreign language teaching.

3.1. Methods as part of a paradigm

Each of the nnain FLT methods that we present here was not superseded
by a subsequent one as soon as it appeared but, rather, it went on living, the
new one superimposing on the former. We can even say that the appearance
of a new method corresponds with a loss of expectation of the former one
along with the progressions of theory, research and the experience of school
practice. There is not, broadly speaking, a marked line between different
methods, but often an eclectic mixture between methods is present.

In this sense methods are considered representations of language

knowledge for pedagogical purposes and are part of a paradigm (a unit of
theory, research and practice), which means a predominant way of building
up theories, doing research and carrying out classroom activities. In fact,
FLT methods have appeared as a result of the application of the new
theoretical findings. Methods are also conditioned by educational
philosophy, approaches about language nature and how it can be taught
and learnt, and conceptions about classroom interaction. All this pervaded
by those valúes concerning society and human relationships. When these
aspects start to change it can be said that a shift of model is taking place
(Alcaraz 1990: 10-14).

3.2. The Traditional or Grammar-Translation Method

This method applied the study of Latín and Greek grammars to the
study of foreign languages from the XVIIth to the XXth centuries. In the

112
19th century this method was rather widespread for learning foreign
languages, though by the end of the century moves towards the Direct
Method were noticed. Even today, in spite of its obsolescence, it has not
entirely died out as some textbooks still in use and the practice of some
classes are there to prove.

a) The principies of the Grammar-Transiation lUlethod.

The most relevant principies of this method can be summarised as follows
(based on Larsen-Freeman 1986, and Richards and Rodgers 1986):
1) It emphasises the study and translation of the written language, as it is
considered superior to spoken language.
2) Successful learners are those who transíate each language into the
other, though they cannot communicate orally.
3) Reading and writing are the main language skills.
4) Teachers play an authoritarian role in the classroom and the
predominant interaction is between teacher-student.
5) Students must learn grammatical rules overtly and deduce their
applications to exercises.
6) Students have to know verb conjugations and other grammatical
paradigms.
7) The basic unit of teaching is the sentence.
8) The student's native language is the médium of instruction and used
as well to compare with the language studied.

b) The main techniques used by the Grammar-Transiation iVIethod.

The Grammar-Transiation Method focuses on the teaching of the
foreign language grammar through the presentation of rules together with
some exceptions and lists of vocabulary translated into the mother
tongue. Translation is considered its most important classroom activity.
The main procedure of an ordinary lesson followed this plan: a
presentation of a grammatical rule, followed by a list of vocabulary and,
finally, translation exercises from selected texts (Stern 1983: 453).

Other activities and procedures can be the following:

-reading comprehension questions about the text;
-students find antonyms and synonyms from words in the text;
-vocabulary is selected from the reading texts and it is memorised;
sentences are formed with the new words;
-students recognise and memorise cognates and false cognates;
-fill-in-the-blank exercises;
-writing compositions from a given topic.

113
c) The major dísadvantages of the Grammar-Translation Method.
Retrospectively, there are some very obvious disadvantages of this
method, which are summarised next (see Roulet 1975):

1 No account of present-day language usage is presented. Norms are

imposed from the great literaiy authors.
2 Secondary grammatical points, lists of forms and examples receive a lot of
attention; some definitions and explanations are often incoherent because of
their heterogeneous críteria. As a result facts about the language are
confusing for the students.
3 It gives a predominant place to morphology but neglects syntax. Therefore,
rules enabling the leamers to c»nstruct systematically correct complex
sentences are not presented.
4 It gives an exaggerated importance to faults to be avoided by the leamer and
to exceptions, emphasising the prescriptive and mechanical aspect of
language.
5 Translations are often unsatisfactory as they are done word by word.
6 Students have to leam a lot of grammatical tenns and too much weight falls
on their memories. Frustration on the part of students and lack of demands
on teachers are effects of this method.

Fig. 1 Disadvantages of the grammar method

3.3. The structuralist methods

The different methods analysed in this section share a common
conception of how to learn a foreign language as a process of acquiring
the structures or patterns of it through habit formation. We will examine
the approach as well as the origins and the subsequent development of
these methods: the Oral or Situational Approach and the Audiolingual
Method.

a) Approach: theory of language and learning

The theory of language underiying these methods is structural linguistics,
and though there are some differences between British and American
structuralism, both movements saw language as "a system of structurally
related elements for the encoding of meaning, the elements being phonemes,

114
morphemes, words, structures, and sentence types" (Richards and Rodgers
1986: 49). Grammar no longer consists of a collection of rules, but a list of
structures. Consequently, learning a language means mastering all these
building blocks of the language and the rules to combine them.

One of its main features is the importance given to the oral aspects of
language, breaking wíth the relevance of the written language. In fact,
these conceptions appeared to offer a scientific basis for FLT, which
claimed to have transformed teaching from an art into a science. They are
summarised in the following five ideas (quoted in Stern 1983: 158):

1. Language is speech.
2. A language is what its native speakers say, not what someone thinks they
ought to say.
3. Languages are different.
4. A language is a set of habits.
5. Teach the language, not about the language.

Both schoois based their theory of learning in behaviouristic habit-forming

conceptions. Behaviourism, an American school of psychology represented by
Skinner, had an antimentalist and empirical approach to aspects of social life,
like structuralism with regard to language. Behaviour can be conditioned by
three elements: a stimulus -which elicits a behaviour-, a consequent response
and a final reinforcement.

b) The Oral Approach.

The Oral Approach was the first move in what can be called structuralist
direction and has its origin in the British applied linguistics of the 1920s and
1930s, represented by Palmer and Hornby. It was the first attempt to apply a
scientific foundation to FLT and was dominant from the 1930s to the 1960$. In the
1960s this approach was referred to as the Situationa! Approach, due to a bigger
emphasis on the presentation and practice of language situationally. The main
difference with the American structuralism lies in the British notion of "situation"
and purpose (rooted in Firth and Halliday's notions of meaning, context and
situation), clarified by Pittman (cited by Richards and Rodgers 1986:35):

Our principal classroom activity in the teaching of English structure will be

the oral practice of structures. This oral practice of controlled sentence
patterns should be given in situations designed to give the greatest
amount of practice in English speech to the pupil.

115
 Situations that always have an underiying purpose from the part of the
speaker and give more attention to meaning.

The characteristics of the Oral Approach are the following:

a) its syllabus is organised structurally ín sentence patterns, gradually
sequenced;
b) vocabulary is considered a very important aspect of FLT;
c) the teacher is the model, creates the situation and teaches through
questioning and eliciting the learners' answers;
d) students are expected to deduce word meaning from context, without
translations or explanations in the mother tongue;
e) grammatical structures are learnt with oral procedures: repetitions,
substitutions, drllls, reading aloud...;
f) grammar is learnt by an inductive process, as in the Direct Method,
graded from>simple to more complex forms;
g) correct pronunciation and grammar are considered crucial, so students
must avoid errors;
h) oral language comes first, then wrítten language:
i) the textbook and the visual materials are very important.

The teaching units of a situational textbook could be the following:

My new school
My friends like playing football
At Bill's birthday
Christmas presents
New year's resolutions

c) The Audiolingual Method

The Audiolingual Method corresponds with the USA structuralist tradition of
FLT, which became the dominant orthodoxy after World War II. Its origin can
go back to the seminal work of Bloomfield, who set up the bases of structural
linguistics segmenting and classifying utterances into their phonological and
grammatical constituents. Fries, Brooks, Rivers, and Lado went on appiying
these principies up to the 1970s with a cióse relationship with behaviourism.
Bloomfield (1942) became a basic source for the Army Method, which was a
response to the need of army personnel after the USA entry into the Second
World War. Its main procedure was imitation and repetition.

116
 The most important assumptions about FLT in the Audiolingual
Method are the following (see Ellis 1990: 21-25):

T h e m a i n c o n c e p t s of A u d i o l i n g u a l i s m

1. Foreign language is the same as any other kind of learning and

can be explained by the same laws and principies.
2. Learning is the result of experience and is evident in changes in
behaviour.
3. Foreign language learning is different from first language learning.
4. Foreign language learning is a process of habit formation.
5. Language learning proceeds by means of analogy (habit-formation
involving discrimination and generalization) rather than analysis
(deductive learning of rule, as the Grammar-Translation Method).
6. Errors are the result of L1 interference and are to be avoided.

Fig. 2 Main concepts or audiolingualism.

As a consecuence from the approach and assumptions considered

above, the main procedures put into practice by Audiolingualism give a
primary emphasis to an oral approach to FLT and focus on an accurate
speech, but grammatical explanations do not have an important role.
Teaching units are organised following these three methodological points:

Nothing will be spoken before it has been heard.

Nothing will be read before it has been spoken.
Nothing will be written before it has been read.

A typical lesson would have the following procedures (adapted from

Richards and Rodgers 1986: 58-9):

1. Students first hear a dialogue with the key structures of the lesson,
repeat and memorise them. The teacher pays attention to pronunciation
and fluency. Correction is immediate.

117
2. The dialogue is adapted to the students' interest or sítuation.

3. Certain key structures from the dialogue are selected and used as the
basis for repetition and pattern drills, fírst practiced in chorus and then
individually. An example of a pattern drill could be this:

To elícit: There's (a man watching TV)

Teacher: There's a policeman. He's standing near a car.
Student: There's a policeman standing near a car.
Teacher: There's a girl. He's knocking at our door.
Student: There's a girl knocking at our door.

4. Students may refer to their textbook, and follow-up reading, writing, or

vocabulary activities based on the dialogue may be introduced.

5. Follow-up activities may take place in the language laboratory, where

further dialogue and drill work is carried on.

The central unit of the lessons are, therefore, language structures,

which are graded and sequenced. An example of how lessons may be
organised around structures is this partial Index from a very known
textbook (Alexander 1967):
-Is this your...?
-What make is it?
-What's your job?
-Look at...
-Whose is this/that...? This is my/your/his/her...
-What colour's your...?

d) Decline and assessment of structuralist methods

In the 1960S the structuralist methods were wídespread, but those
years saw as well the beginning of criticism from different sides: first, their
ideas about language and learníng theories were questíoned; secondly,
teachers did not fill their expectations, and, finally, students had a lot of
difficulties to communicate outside the classroom and sometimes found
the learning experience boring and discouraging.

118
 The main criticisms may be the next (see Roulet 1972):

Criticisms of Structuralist Methods

1. Its description of the grammatical system is rather incomplete. It does not
provide the rules needed to construct an infinite range of grammatical
sentences.
2. It gives excessive weight to grammatical facts of secondary importance, and
thus neglects important generalizations.
3 Slight treatment is given to syntactic relations.
4. It does not provide the teacher with criteria to determine grammaticality of
utterances, and thus it does not provide appropriate criteria for error treatment.
5. The exclusión of the treatment of meaning by American structuralists
prevents the necessary infomnation for the systematic teaching of texis and of
oral and written comprehension.
6. The accent placed on formal criteria at the expense of situational and
semantic aspects and on habit-fonnation teaching leads teachers and students
to manipúlate structures as an end in themselves while neglecting their
application in real life.
7. It leads teachers to consider language as the only variable and to neglect the
problems of language teaching and leaming.
8. It leaves teachers and learners without a creative approach towards the
language study.

Fig. 3 Criticisms of the structuralist mettiods

There are, anyway, some positive aspects contributed by the

structuralist methods (see Widdowson 1978):

1. They were the first methods to recommend FLT based on linguistic and
psychological theories.
2. They tried to extend language learning to a great deal of people but
with a small intellectual abstraction.
3. They emphasised syntactic progression, while the preceding methods
were more concerned with vocabulary and morphology.
4. There was a development of the different skills.
5. They prometed the use of simple techniques.

119
3.4. The Communicative Approach or Communicative Language Teaching
This approach is usually called communicative, though other labels -particularly
functional or notional at its early stages- have also been used as synonyms. The
term communicative, in relation with language teaching, denotes a marked concern
wíth semantic aspects of language (see Wiikins 1978). '

a) Some background
The crisis of the structuralist methods had begun with Chomsky's criticisms,
particularly in his book Syntactic Stnictures (1957), where he dearly explained the
incapability of structuralism to tal<e into account the fundamental characterístics of
language. The Situational Method was criticised by the British applied linguists
because it lacked the functional and communicative potential of language. Applied
linguists made use of the British functional linguistics (Firth, Halliday...), American
sociolinguistics (Hymes, Gumperz, Labov), as well as philosophy (Austin and
Searle).

This wave of criticism and new conceptions was parallel to a growing

dissatisfaction among the FLT profession with the emphasis laid on the mastery of
language structures and the manipulation of grammatical forms. FLT along these
lines tended to produce structurally competent but communicatively incompetent
students, unable to transfer outside the classroom the amount of classroom work on
repetitive habit-fomriing exercises. Dissatisfaction showed as well from the new
educational realities created by the development of the European Union and a great
mobility.

The Coundl of Europe decided to face the new reality and asked some experts to
study the needs of the European students. A valuable contribution came from a
document by Wiikins which "takes the desired communicative capacity as the
starting-point... We are able to organize language teaching in tenns of the content
rather than on the fomi of the language. For this reason the resulting syilabus is
called a notionai syllabué' (1976:18). Instead of starting from the grammatical forms
or the language structures as the preceding methods did, Wiikins developed an
analysis of the functional meaning which underlies the communicative uses of
language. He described two types of meaning: one referred to notional categories
(concepts such as time, quantity, iocation, frequency...) and the other to categories of
communicative functions (approval, prediction...).

This work culminated in the document called Threshold Leve! of the Ckjuncil of
Europe. This document includes lists of situations, functions, topics, general and
specific notions and adequate language forms, as well as some methodological

120
impiications. The Threshold Level, together with the contributions of some applied
linguists (among others Widdowson, Brumfit, Johnson, Trim, Richterich y Chancerel),
text-book wríters, educationists, etc., led to the consolidation of the new approach
known as Communicative.

However, this process does not imply a coherent community based on the
Communicative Approach, as there is no single text, ñor any single model. The
understanding of the approach differs from some authors to others and several
models for syllabus design with different central elements have developed (see
Richards and Rodgers 1986:64-75):

Type Reference
1. structures plus functions Wilkins(1976)
2. functional spiral around Brumfit (1980)
a structural core
3. functional Jupp and Hodlin (1975)
4. notional Wilkins(1976)
5. interactional Widdowson (1979)
6. task-based Prabhu(1983)
7. learner generated Candlin(1976)

The differences between the models are so important that some authors (Breen
1987) consider that a new FLT paradigm is emerging -the procedural (process and
task-based) approaches-, as an altemative to propositional (fomnal and functional)
approaches. We will refer to this aspect further on. There are, however, some
distinctive features of the Communicative Approach that distinguish it from
Audiolingualism and give a better understanding of it, as Finnochiaro and Brumfit
suggest (see Fig. 4, based from quotation in Richards and Rodgers 1986:67-8).

b) Approach: theory of language and leaming

The Communicative Approach draws upon some changes and innovations
coming mainly from applied linguistics, so I am going to give a summary of changes
about language nature and its knowledge. Language is considered a social
phenomenon by this approach, as it is a means of communicatbn and interaction
between members of a community. The goal, then, of FLT is to develop students'
communicative competence (Hymes 1972), term coined in opposition to the
Chomskian concept of competence that refers to the abstract grammatical
knowledge speakers have for producing con'ect sentences in a language.

121
 Communicative competence, on the other hand, extends Chomsky's concept to
the ability to understand and produce messages appropriate to a
socjo/psycho/cultural situatíon, so that language users can relate their linguistic
knowledge to evetyday conventtons. Later on this knowledge of language use was
extended to the capacity to particípate in discourse and to the knowledge of
pragmatic conventions governing that participation. It was also added the
conipetence to be creative with these rules and conventions, and to negotlate them
during communication. This is then a set of language knowledge competencies
which interact during real communicatton.

Audiolingual Communicative Approach

1. Attends to structure and form more than Meaning is paramount.

meaning.
2. Demands memorization of structure based Dialogs, if used, center around
dialogs. communicative functions and are not normally
3. Language ítems are not contextualized. memorized.
4. Leaming language is leaming stnjctures, Contextualization is a basic premise.
soundsorwords. Language leaming is leaming to
5. Mastery is sought. communicate.
6. Driliing is a central technique Communication is sought.
7. Native-speaker-like pronunciation is sought. Driliing may occur, but perípherally.
8. Grammatical explanatton is avoided. Corrprehensible pronunciation is sought.
9. Communicative activities only come after a Any device that helps the leamer is accepted.
long driliing. Communication may be encouraged from the
10. Use of L1 is fortjidden. beginning.
Judicious use of L1 is accepted.
11. Translation is fort>idden at early levéis.
12. Reading and writing till speech is Translation may be used.
mastered. Reading and writing can start from first day.
13. Linguistic competence is the desired goal.
14. The squence of units is determined solely Communicative competence is the desired goal.
by principies of complexity. Sequencing is determined by any
consideration of content, function or meaning
15. "Language is habif so errors must be that maintain interest.
prevented. Language created through trial and error.
16. Accuracy, in terms of formal corredness,
is a prímary goal. Fluency and acceptable language is the
prímary goal: accuracy is judged not in the
17. Students are expected to interact with the abstract but in context.
language system. Students are expected to interact with other
people.

Fig. 4 Features of audiolingualism and the communicative approacti

122
 Canale and Swain (1980) describe communicative competence as
integrated by four parts:
-linguistic competence -the grammatical, lexical, semantic and phonological
competence;
-discourse competence -the linguistic and meaning relationships within the
discourse (cohesión, coherence, gesture...);
-socio-linguistic competence or the understanding of the functional aspects
of communication (including role relationships, personal factors, social and
cultural context...);
-strategic competence, referred to the coping strategies developed to solve
the learning problems and to be autonomous.

The Communicative Approach can be considered rich and eclectic at the

level of language theory, because it advocates the following main features
(Richards and Rodgers 1986: 71):

1. Language is a system for the expression of meaning.

2. The primary function of language is for interaction and communication.
3. The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative
uses.
4. The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and
structural features, but categories of functional and communicative
meaning as exemplified in discourse.

Fig. 5 Main features of the communicative approact)

The learning theory underiying this Approach is not very much developed,
though some main elements emerge from its practice. Learning improves when
these forceful ideas are applied to classroom activities (see Johnson 1982):
-Relationship of activities to real communication.
-Activities use language for meaningful tasks.
-Language used is meaningful to the learner.
-Language is used communicatively, rather than practicing language skills.

c) Activities and techniques of the Communicative Approaclies

Communicative approaches make use of a variety of materials which are
selected and viewed as a way of improving classroom interaction and a
communicative use of the language. Some críteria in which these materials are
based -and some activities and techniques deríved from them- are the folbwing
(see Jonhson 1982 and Larsen-Freennan 1986):

123
 -The Information transfer principie which refers to the ability to understand
and produce language making transferences from one médium of the
language to another. Activities based on the Information transfer can be: write
some purposeful notes from a listening comprehension, write sentences from
diagrams, give a personal opinión about some pictures...
-The Information gap principie takes account of the different levéis of
Information between people when communicatíng, which allows to do a good
number of exercises: students have different pieces of Information and have to
exchange them through questions and answers; students can choose different
answers, which means negotiation when taiking...
-The correction for content principie means more emphasls on the
communicative content expressed than on grammatical accuracy. Errors and
mistakes, therefore, receive a very different treatment than in the preceding methods.
- The use of authentic materials exposes the students to real uncontrived
language, so that the learner is faced with language as it is.
-Join scrambled sentences (or a conversation, a picture story...) into their
original order, a good way of dealing with cohesión and coherence and other
aspects of discourse.
-Language games are communicative as they have three features of
communication: Information gap, cholee, and feedback.
-Role-plays allow students to be aware of the different social contexts and
roles, attitudes, mood...
-Problem-solving activities.
-Pair and group work are a procedure very much used.

Some textbooks claiming to be communicative combine functions,

situations and topics. Many others have their units organised into a functional
basis -as the example in the table below:

Taiking about yourself

Identifying people
Describing my town
Gíving directions

d) Some assessment of the Communicative Approach

It is difficult to assess the Communicative Approach as it is not a totally
defined method and has been subject to several interpretations -as we have
seen above-, specially at the levéis of design and classroom procedures. It has
had a strong impact on language teaching and the importance of its
contribution is shown ín this summary (see McDonough and Shaw 1993):

124
1. Increasing concern with the meaning potential of language.
2. The relationship between language form and function is of a rather complex
character.
3. The concept of communication goes beyond the sentence to texts and
conversations.
4. Appropriacy of language use is considerad alongside accuracy, which has
implications for error correction, matehals and activities.
5. It provides realistic and motivating language practice.
6. The concept communicative is applied to all four language skills.
7. It can use learner's knowledge and experience with their mother tongue.
8. It has introduced a better level of language reflection and awareness in its
later times.

But, on the other hand, it is evident that there are still some unresolved
problems with the Communicative Approach:

a) Too much emphasis has been given -particularly in its early stages- to
speaking and listening, to the detriment of reading and writing.
b) There has been a lack of reflection on language aspects.
c) It is not clear the criteria for seiecting and grading the chosen functions and
grammatical exponents to be taught.
d) Critics have pointed out that it is not appropriate to foreign language
situations, so advócate more emphasis to language awareness.
e) Again, not all the teachers whose mother tongue is not English are confident
enough to work with this approach.
f) In fact, some of the proposals imply a new selection of language through
functions, as the structuralists did with structures.
g) Its advocacy of a meaningful use of the language is not always clear, as the
activities or tasks to be undertaken are not always really meaningful.

3.6. New moves: the procedural approaches

In the last decade there have been important innovations in theory, research
and classroom experience, which are introducing sound changes in FLT and
represent a challenge to the dominant model. We can say that at the moment two
major paradigms coexist: the propositionai (structural and functional approaches)
and the procedural (task-based and process approaches). We have considered
the propositionai models above as ways of teaching and learning through fomnal
and systematic statements (expressed as structures, rules, functions...), though
they differ in the main element they focus on and in how they sequence the
content (Breen 1987).

125
 The most important changes and innovations in education refer to (see
Breen 1987:157-60):

1) views of language (considered above when dealing with the

communicative approach);
2) views of teaching methodology, which recognise the necessary
balance between planning objectives and content with cióse attention to
the development of classroom implementation;
3) views of learners' contributions, which consider the process of
classroom interaction and context the basis for learning, not the content of
a lesson;
4) views of planning, which assume that the teaching-learning process,
activities and roles are the significant substance of lessons for those who
particípate in them, instead of the content of lessons.

Fig. 6 Changes in ELT

These innovations mean a change of emphasis from the subject to be
learnt to the learning process and imply interesting consequences of
negotiation, evaluation and retrospective planning. If we contrast some
aspects of the alternative models, we can have the following list (Gray 1990:
262):
What is to be learnt? How is it to be learnt?

Subject emphasis Process emphasis

External to the learner Infernal to the learner
Determined by authority Negotiated between learners and
teachers
Teacher as decision-maker Learners and teachers as decision-
makers
Content= what subject is to the expert Content= what the subject is to the
learner
Objectives defined in advance Objectives described aften/vards

Assessment by achievement or mastery Achievement in relation to learner's

criteria of succes
Doing things to the learner Doing things for or with the learner

126
 Procedural models exemplify this altemative drawn on these innovations and
represent how something is done. They consider linguistic forms and functions as
partial aspects of what is to be leamt and regard the task as the central element of
leaming. The use of tasks tríes to achieve some objectives in the target language
through a procesa which will give a result or will solve a probiem, as it is usually
done in real life. These models have a flexible way of curriculum design, as they
take account of a set of goals and plan content and tasks simultaneously, so that
content can suggest tasks and vice versa; the results of the evaluation are
introduced back into the planning process.

Contrary to propositional models, procedural ones find rather dífficult to establish

a long term planning for content and results. Therefore, their planning is more
retrospective than prospective, emphasising evaluation and the classroom process.
Retrospection is presented as reports referring to learning objectives, nature of
content and way of wori<, explanations required and given and by whom, kind of
interaction, time planned and spent... All this is based on classroom research -
observation, diaríes, etc-, which is a reflection on all the process, advantages and
disadvantages for the participants, difficulties... This model of planning and
evaluating promotes not only teacher development and leaming but curriculum
development (Candiin 1984).

Task-Based models, on the one hand, organise leaming in terms of how a

leamer applies his or her communicative competence to undertake a selection of
tasks. A Task-Based syllabus may be organised in terms of two syllabuses:
communication tasks (the actual tasks a person undertakes when communicating)
and related enabling tasks that facilítate a leamer's participation in the former (tasks
which explicitly focus upon the rules and conventions of the language system, the
interpersonal knowledge and meaning). Tasks are cyclic and sequenced from those
which are familiar in terms of leamers' competence to the less familiar and more
complex ones.

The roots of Task-Based models can be found in several sources: the

Situational Approach, the use of project-based materíals, and the use of problem-
solving activities. Practical contributions come specially from the Bangatore Project,
developed by Prabhu (1987) and his coleagues in India. There has also been an
increase of project work, which involves the achievement of a range of tasks, and a
great concem with the development of tasks for ESP.

Process models go further than Task-Based ones and focus on three

processes: communicating, leaming and the classroom social activity. How things

127
are done in the clasroom are the means through which communicating and
leaming can be achieved. The Prcx^ss model is a plan for classroom work which
provides 1) the major decisions that teacher and leamers need to make jointly in an
on-going and negotiated way, and 2) a bank of classroom activities and tasks, as a
Task-Based plan but not sequenced.

Classroom decisions appear in the plan as related questions referring to three

important aspects of classroom work:
* participation ("Who works with whom?": individual, pair, group or whole class work
and the teacher's role);
* procedure ("Which particular activity or task will be undertaken?", "How will it be
worked upon and for how long?", "What resources should be used?", "How shall we
share and evalúate the outcomes of the activity?"...;
* subject-matter ("What shall be the focus of the work?" and "For what leaming
purposes?" (see Breen 1987:166-7).

The roots of the Process plans are found in educational thought and practice
coming from humanistic approaches (Dewey 1974, Holt 1976, Freiré 1970), the
importance given to leaming in groups, leamer reinterpretation of new knowledge,
as well as arguments against the need to plan a syllabus of content. These plans
are variously impiemented, though the main known are Allwright's (1982)
programme with adult leamers and in-service training by Breen et al. (1989). Finally,
we can say that procedural approaches represent a good response to the new
trames of reference within the teaching profession and an interesting means of
developing classroom research by teachers.

4. SOME CONCLUSIONS

We have considered the main approaches and methods of FLT as models or

paradigms of theory, research and school practice. Some of them may be
considered obsolete from a scientific point of view, some others seem to be more
current, but in fact all of them have introduced innovations at a given moment,
superimposing on the fomier ones in an eclectic way. However, all methods have at
least two things in common: 1) thier belief to be the best one, and 2) a set of
prescriptions that teachers have to follow necessarily.

I do not suggest then -from the assumptions in this article- that teaching should
be approached following a particular method as a set of prescriptions, but on the
contrary as a dynamic and reflective process, which means a pemnanent interaction

128
among the curriculum, teachers, students, activities, methcxJology, and instructional
materials. What actually happens in the classrcwm, alongside careful planning and
evaluation, becomes the most important thing teachers have to reflect on and then
relate to theory or to other experíencies. I propose, therefore, an active role for
teachers, who design her or his own content and tasks, classroom interaction,
materials, methodology, evaluation, etc., instead of a passive role which means
dependence on other people's designs and methods. The expression classroom
researcher cieariy represents the new role considered above. Then, instead of an
uncritical and eclectic way of teaching, teachers should introduce a constant
analysis and interpretation of what is happening in the classroom. Certainly it is the
best way of curriculum, teacher and leamer development (see Nunan: 1986).

COMMENTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

RICHARDS, J.C. and T.S. RODGERS. 1986. Approaches and Methods in

Language Teaching. A description and analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. This is the best analysis of the major FLT methods. They
follow the same criteria of analysis throughout the book, as they place
each method within its historical context and describe them according to
approach or the underiying theories of language and language learning,
design (learning objectives, the syllabus model used, roles of teachers,
learners and materials), and the classroom procedures and techniques of
each method.

LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. 1986. Teaching and Principies in Language

Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. This book analyses the major
current methods from a rather practical point of view. The authoress
examines each method from the real activities and procedures practiced
in classrooms which follow a given method. Principies and techniques are
revised from these model classrooms.

ESTAIRE, S. and J. ZANÓN. 1994. Planning Classwork. A Task-Based

Approach. Oxford: Heinemann. A very good application of the task-based
approach, which provides teachers with a clear frame for lesson planning
and useful ideas for evaluation of the learning and teaching process.

NUNAN, D. 1989. Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom.

129
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. This book relates tlieory to
practice of communicative task design. Nunan defines and describes
tasks and relates them to communicative language teaching and to
teacher and learner roles. The book helps teachers to design and
implement their own communicative tasks and to develop professionally
through task design.

PRABHU, N. 1987. Second Language Pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford

University Press. This is an interesting account of a rather known task-
based plan -the Bangalore Communicational Teaching Project. It is based
on research carried out during a five-year classroom experiment, a good
example of collaborative teacher research in which theory and practice
help to develop each other.

130
BIBLIOGRAFÍA

ALCARAZ VARÓ, E. 1990. Tres Paradigmas de la Investigador! Lingüística.

Alcoy: Marfil.

ALEXANDER, L.G. 1967. First Things First. London: Longman.

ALLWRIGHT, R.L. 1982. "Perceiving and pursuing learners' needs", in M.

Geddes and G. Sturtridge (eds.), Individualisation. Oxford: Modern English
Publications.

BLOOMFIELD, L. 1942. Outline guide for the Practical Study of Foreign

Languages. Baltimore: Linguistic Society of America.

BREEN, M.P. 1987. "Contemporary Paradigms in Syllabus Design". Language

Teaching, XX, 3 and 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

GÁNALE, M. and SWAIN, M. 1980. "Theoretical basis of communicative

approacfies to second language teaching and testing". Applied Linguistics, 1,1.

CANDLIN, C.N. 1984. "Syllabus desigñ as a critical process", in C.J. Brumfit

(ed.), General English Syllabus Design. ELT Documents, 118.

CHOMSKY, N. 1957. Syntactic Stmctures. The Hague: Mouton.

DEWEY, J. 1974. Experíence in Education. New York: Colller.

ELLIS, R. 1985. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

FREIRÉ, P. 1970. Cultural Action forFreedom. Hamiondsworth: Penguin.

GRAY, K. 1990. "Syllabus design for the general class: what happens to theory
when you apply it". FLT Journal, 44/4.

HOLT, J. 1976.1nstead of Education. Hamiondsworth: Penguin.

HUBBARD, P. et al. 1983. A Training Course for TEFL. Oxford: Oxford University
Press

131
HYMES, D, 1972. "On communicative competence", in J.B. Pride and J. Holmes
(eds.), Sociolinguistics. Harmondworth: Penguin.
JOHNSON, K. 1982. Communicative Syllabus Design and Methodology.
Oxford: Pergamon.

MCDONOUGH, J. and SHAW, C. 1993. Materials and Methods in Language

Teacfiing.A Teaclier's Guide. Oxford: Blackweil.

NUNAN, D. 1989. Designing Tas/fs for the Communicative Classroom.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

ROULET, E. 1972. Linguistic Theory, Linguistic Description and Language

Teactiing. London: Longman.

STERN, H.H. 1983. Fundamental Concepts of Language Teactiing. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

WIDDOWSON, H.G. 1978. Teactiing Language as Communication. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

WILKINS, D. 1978. Functional Materials and ttie Classroom Teacher: some

Backgroung Issues. University of Reading: Centre for Applied Language
Series.

132